英语四级议论文写作格式及范文【实用19篇】

Love,It would have to be to you

[爱，它只属于你]

Softhearted is sick, but you are life.

心软是病，可你是命.

island is the scar of the sea

[岛是海的疤痕]

You ever far is my fixed lattice

(你永远是我的定格.)

The time that you are my most fatal.

时光深知你是我最致命的爱

Learn to sorrow blind eye.

[学会熟视无睹对于悲伤]

You dont laugh tears away.

[你别笑了眼泪都掉了]

I want to be your bride .

【 我想成为你的新娘 】

Lets make thing better.

(让我们做得更好)

Does not belong to me,I will let go

不属于我的 我会离开.

I am not greed but I envy.

我没有贪婪 我羡慕海枯石烂.

Let the time tell the truth.

任由时间说真话

Promises are often like the dust

承诺像尘埃

Everybody wants to be loved

谁都想被疼爱

I will always be, even if love pale.

我会一直在,纵使爱变苍白

The time that you are my most fatal

时光深知你是我最致命的爱人

Let me make you whole life youth

[愿我许你一生青涩年华]

You are my most adventure youth dream

[你是我年少时最冒险的梦]

If through time, through love

[倘若看透时光看透爱]

Who gives us meet but not concurrently give us forever.

是谁赐我们遇见 却不一并赠我们永远。

I think I will love you for a long time

我想我会爱你很久

Laugh Until You Cry; Cry Until You Laugh

笑到终于哭出来;哭到终于笑出来。

You were never mine to lose.

你从来就不属于我，谈不上什么失去

在考研英语的小作文部分，历年考试大纲中都会列出多种应用文类型，投诉信、建议信、申请信、求职信、辞职信、求助信、感谢信、号召信、邀请信、道歉信等等，但是考生们回到具体的实践写作中，翻阅近几年考研英语真题试卷，常常发现这些归为一大类，终究是书信形式。既然书信写作如此重要，下面就为各位考生带来书信写作的攻克大招，让写作变得无比简单。

一、书信写作总体概述

1.首段

1)问候收信人

例：Dear Sir/Madam

2)解释来信原因

例：I’m writing for ……

2.中间段落

1)阅读题干要求，从中寻找名词或动词

例：Write a letter of application according to the following situation. You saw an advertisement in this morning’s newspaper .A company need’s a secretary and you are interested. Write an application letter to that company.

2)注意题目文字暗示，把名词具体化，把动词近义词化。

例：I am pleased to discover from Beijing Youth that your company is calling for a secretary……

3.结尾段落

例：I would appreciate your assistance in this matter. If you have any question , please don’t hesitate to contact me. I can be reached at...Look forward to your reply.

4.署名

在文章右下角署名，一般格式为：Yours sincerely……

二、书信写作分类讲解(写作脉络)

1.投诉信

投诉信通常包括：说明投诉原因并表示遗憾，实事求是阐述问题发生的经过，指出问题引起的后果，提出批评及处理意见，督促对方采取措施，提出所希望的赔偿及补救方式。

2.建议信

建议信即写给某个组织或机构，就改进其服务质量提出建议忠告;或写给个人，就某一重大事件提出自己的看法、建议及观点。

3.道歉信

投诉信通常包括：表示歉意、阐明表示歉意的具体原因，提出补救办法，再次表示致歉，并希望得到谅解，提供合适的补救办法。(要注意语言的诚挚)

4.感谢信

感谢信中通常带有浓厚的感情色彩，是所有书信中最带有“人情味”的，该书信内容通常包括：表达感谢之情并说明原因--提及自己曾受到对方的帮助--再次感谢并表达回报愿望。

在2018考研的战场上，一分意味着上线与下线，一分意味着录取与非录取，所以，拼尽全力才有可能取得最终的胜利。预祝大家金榜题名，取得理想佳绩!

[考研英语书信写作方法

谈及写作训练,学生认为就是勤练笔,其实不然。英语的听、说、读、写四种能力是密切相关、相互渗透的。听和读是领会理解别人表达的思想,说和写是用言语表达思想。写的能力要在听、说、读的基础上进行培养和提高,而写的训练又能进一步提高听、说、读的能力。因此,写作训练应该贯穿于英语教学的全过程,才能真正提高学生的写作能力。

一、多读

“读是写的前提,写是读的升华”。一般而言,听和读的量必须数十倍地多于说和写的量,才能较自如地在口头上或书面上表达自己的思想。一方面,大量阅读可以提高阅读能力,扩大词汇量,另一方面,它还可以增强英语语感,对英语写作起着潜移默化的作用。只有当阅读量达到一定程度时,才能找到写好文章的语感。我们可以选择适合学生的读物,如英文报纸(《英语周报》、《21世纪报》)、杂志(《中学生英语园地》)、科普文章、书虫等(水平较高的学生可读小说原著)。大量阅读是学生接触英语语言材料、接受信息、活跃思维、增强记忆力的一种有效途径,同时也是培养学生英语思维能力、提高理解力、增强语感、巩固和扩大词汇量的一种有效方法,非常有利于写作。实践证明,学生平时课外阅读面越广,阅读量越大,运用英语表达的能力就越强。

二、多背

英语和汉语存在很大差异,语法规则和句子结构是不同的,很多学生在写作过程中难免会受到母语的影响,出现一些Chinglish(中式英语),而且有些语法规则也把握不准,谓语动词常出现“be+do”的错误形式或缺少谓语的现象。所以,背诵模仿是行之有效的手段之一。

(一)背课文

在多年的教学实践中,我坚持让学生背诵部分课文,较长的文章选背一两段,下节课抽查背诵,或进行默写。《新概念英语2》中很多英语短文通俗有趣,我给学生挑选其中一部分让他们背诵、默写,对培养学生的语感很有效。

(二)背范文

英语写作一般包括记叙文、说明文、议论文、应用文及开放性作文写作。我经过筛选,找出每种文体各五篇文章,同时,我也注重搜集一些好的范文和习作要求学生背诵。通过熟背精彩段落,使学生逐步掌握英语基本的表达方法,有助于模仿。而且,通过这些范文,学生可熟练掌握各种体裁的写作技巧,这是学生写好作文的一条捷径。经过一段时间的训练,学生就会有内容可写、写得出来。

三、多写

除了以上对学生进行读、背训练,还要对学生进行动手训练。学生只有通过写才能知道自己的不足与缺陷,毕竟说和写是两回事。

(一)改写课文

教师可要求学生把Reading缩写成一篇一百字左右的短文,也可让学生把对话改写成记叙文(如项链),这也是进一步理解课文的手段。一般在学完一个单元,学生熟练掌握课文之后,再做这一步,让学生尽量使用本单元的短语句型,同时,也要学着套用背诵的句子。

(二)写英语周记

让学生写英语周记,这是很多老师训练学生写作的方法。有些英语写作不好的学生,往往不坚持写或应付了事。对这样的学生,教师要严格要求,督促检查。对学生的每篇周记,教师都要认真批改。周记不必拘泥于形式,学生可以自由发挥。开始可以写简单的几句话,要求学生多用学过的词组、句型,多套用和模仿。逐渐地,学生会写多些,也会越写越流利,错误也会越来越少。

(三)每周练习写一篇作文

教师挑选一至两篇习作打在投影仪上,师生共同修改,然后让学生将改写过的文章抄写在作文积累本上。这样日积月累,学生考前只要翻翻自己的“作文本”,即可胸有成竹,这个习惯一定要养成,对学生会有很大帮助。

(四)限时写作训练

近年高考试题包容量大,知识覆盖面广,这就要求学生在做题时必须注意速度和节奏,而高考书面表达从时间分配上看,最多也只能是30分钟左右的时间,学生必须在有限时间内完成作文,并且要意思连贯,无严重语法错误。为达到这一要求,每届学生从高一开始,就应定期做限时写作训练。

四、多积累

(一)积累词汇

词汇是说话写作的必需材料,掌握词汇量的多少,是衡量一个学生英语水平高低的“标尺”。《教学大纲》规定的词汇是最基本的词汇,必须熟记。我在多年的教学中,每堂课都坚持让学生默写或听写单词,要求学生根据中文意思,写出单词的拼写形式、词类和词形变化。这就使学生积累了大量的词汇,为高考书面表达打下坚实的拼写基础,避免了因单词拼写错误而丢分。

(二)积累句型

我在平时授课过程中,让学生把重点句型记录在作文积累本上,随时翻看和背诵。如写观点类文章常用的Some share the view that...,Others hold the opposite opinion that...,The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages,As far as I’m concerned,以及常用到的定语从句、倒装句、非限、非谓、同位语、强调句型等。

(三)积累文章

学生背过的篇章、写过的作文,尤其是各种体裁的范文习作,要分类整理粘贴在作文积累本上,经常拿出来朗读背诵。我教过的学生,都积累了大量的范文习作,考试时可做到有备无患。

通过长期的写作训练,我狠抓学生基本功,学生的写作水平明显提高。我所教班级在每次考试中书面表达平均分都在同类班级之上。总之,英语写作训练是综合能力训练之一,写作能力的提高需要通过循序渐进的训练才能达到。听、说、读、写几方面的训练是相辅相成的,它们互相促进、互相制约,在平时教学中教师要合理安排,有机穿插,这样才能让学生“下笔如有神”。

1. To cherish the enviroment is to love ourselves.

爱护环境就是爱护我们自己。

2.Water is the source of ourlives

水是生命之源。

3.I make an urgent appeal that measures should be taken to cope with the situation

我急切呼吁应该采取措施改变现状。

4.Our government is doing its best to take measures to fight against pollution.

我们政府正努力制定措施与污染作斗争。

5.We are sure that well win the battle.

我们坚信我们能赢得战斗。

6.Its high time that we should protect our enviroment from being polluted.

是时候我们应该防止环境污染了。

7. Keep our mountains green，the wate clean，and the sky blue.

使我们山更绿，水更清，天更蓝。

8.However，natural resources are not inexhaustible.some reserves are already on the brink of exhaustion.

然而自然资源并不是无穷无尽的，一些储量已经到了穷尽的边缘。

9.If we do something with no thought for the furture . The later generation would be in danger.

如果我们不为将来考虑，后代就会受到威胁。

10.Our earths days are numbered without urgent help.

没有及时的帮助我们的地球就屈指可数了。

11(Sth.)are bound to generate severe consequences if we keep turning a blink eye to them.

如果我们继续睁一只眼闭一只眼的话，……一定会有恶劣的后果。

A good laugh is sunshine in a house.令人愉快的欢笑是房间里的阳光。(英国小说家萨克雷。W.M.)

A man who is never satisfied with himself and whom therefore nobody can please.人要是从来不满意自己，就不会有人能够使他满意。(德国诗人歌德.J.W.)

A smile is ever the most bright and beautiful with a tear upon it. What is the dawn without its dew? The tear, by the smile is made precious above the smile itself.笑容带上泪珠总是最鲜艳、最娇美的。正如没有露水，还算什么清晨?而泪珠带上了笑容，就变得甚至比笑容还珍贵。(美国哲学家、教育家兰格。S.K)

All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. 只工作不娱乐使人愚钝。(英国作家贺维尔.)

Anticipating pleasure is also a pleasure.预期快乐本身也是一种快乐。(德国剧作家、诗人席勒.F.)

Better by far you should forget and smile than that you should remem-ber and be sad.笑一笑而忘掉，比愁眉苦脸地记住要好得多。(英国女诗人罗塞蒂.C.G. )

But headlong joy is ever on the wing. 轻率的快乐总是瞬息即逝。(英国诗人 弥尔顿.)

Energy is eternal delight.精力充沛是永恒的快乐。(美国诗人、艺术家布莱克.W.)

Everything considered, work is less boring than amusing oneself.不管怎样，娱乐比工作更令人乏味。(法国诗人 查尔斯.B.)

Human felicity is produced not so much by great pieces ofgoodfortune that seldom happen , as by little advantages thatoccurevery day.(Benjamin Franklin ,American president).与其说人类的幸福来自偶尔发生的鸿运，不如说来自每天都有的小实惠。(美国总统 富兰克林.B.)

Most folks are about as happy as they make up their mindstobe.(Abraham Lincoln ,American president)对于大多数人来说，他们认定自己有多幸福，就有多幸福。(美国总统 林肯.A.)

The secret of being miserable is to have leisure to botheraboutwhether you are happy or not.(George Bernard Shaw ,Britishdramatist)痛苦的秘密在于有闲功夫担心自己是否幸福。(英国剧作家 肖伯纳.G.)

The supreme happiness of life is the conviction that weareloved.(Victor Hugo , French novelist)生活中最大的幸福是坚信有人爱我们。(法国小说家 雨果.V.)

There is no dise on earth equal to the union of loveandinnocence.(Jean Jacques Rousseau, French thinker)人间最大的幸福莫如既有爱情又清白无暇。(法国思想家 卢梭.J.J.)

To really understand a man we must judge himinmisfortune.(Bonaparte Napoleon , French emperor)要真正了解一个人，需在不幸中考察他。(法国皇帝 拿破仑.B.)

We have no more center to consume happiness without producingitthan to consume wealth without producing it.(George Bernard Shaw,British dramatist)正像我们无权只享受财富而不创造财富一样，我们也无权只享受幸福而不创造幸福。(英国剧作家 肖伯纳.G.)

A lifetime of happiness ! No man alive could bear it ; it wouldbehell on earth.(G.Bernard Shaw ,British dramatist)终身幸福!这是任何活着的人都无法忍受的，那将是人间地狱。 (英国剧作家 肖伯纳.G.)

Happiness is form courage.(H.Jackson , British writer)幸福是勇气的一种形式。(英国作家 杰克逊.H.)

Happy is the man who is living by his hobby.(G.Bernard Shaw,British dramatist)醉心于某种癖好的人是幸福的。(英国剧作家 肖伯纳.G.)

Happiness lies not in the mere possession of money ; it liesinthe joy of achievement , in the thrill of creativeeffort.(FranklinRoosevelt , American president)幸福不在于拥有金钱，而在于获得成就时的喜悦以及产生创造力的激情。(美国总统 罗斯福.F.)

He laughs best who laughs last.远行者见闻多。(英国科学家雷伊.J.)

He who can conceal his joys is greater than he who can hide his griefs.能隐藏欢乐的人比能隐藏悲痛的人更了不起。(瑞士作家 拉瓦特)

I like the laughter that opens the lips and the heart, that shows at the same time pearls and the soul.我喜欢能不开启双唇和心扉的笑声，喜欢能展示皓齿和灵魂的笑声。(法国作家雨果)

I never condider ease and joyfulness as the purpose of life itself.我从来不认为安逸和欢乐就是生活本身的目的。(美国科学家爱因斯坦)

I wish to preach, not the doctrine of ignoble ease, but the doctrine of the strenuous life.我愿宣扬的信条是艰苦奋发的生活，而不是卑微低下的安逸。(美国政治家罗斯福.T.)

It is a curious fact that in bad days we can very vividly recall the good time that is now no more; but that in good days we have only a very cold and imperfect memory of the bad.奇怪得很，人们在倒楣的时候，总会清晰地回忆已经逝去 快乐时光，但是在得意的时候，对恶运时光只保有一种淡漠而不完全的记忆。(德国哲学家叔本华)

It is a poor heart that never rejoices.永远不快乐的心很可悲。(英国小说家马里亚特)

Joys are our wings, sorrows are our spurs.欢乐是人们的双翼，哀愁是人们发愤的动力。(法国作家里克特.J.P)

Labor is often the father of pleasure.劳动常常是快乐之父。(法国哲学家、历史学家伏尔泰)

One of the greatest pleasure in life is conversation.生活中最大的乐趣之一是交谈。(美国作家史密斯L.P.)

Perfect understanding will sometimes almost extinguish pleasure.完全的理解有时几乎会使乐趣消失。(英国学者、诗人豪斯曼.A.E.)

Never less idle than when wholly idle, nor less alone than when wholly alone.要清闲就完全清闲，要清静就完全清静。(英国诗人克莱尔J.)

People who cannot find time for recreation are obliged sooner or later to find time for illness.腾不出时间娱乐的人，早晚会被迫腾出时间生病。(美国商人 霍梅克.J.)

Pleasure is nothing else but the intermission of pain, the enjoying of something I am in great trouble for till I have it.快乐不过是痛苦的间歇，享受之前要进行艰苦的努力。(英国法学家 塞尔登.J.)

Praise is ilde sunlight to the human spirit, we cannot flower and grow without it.对于人的精神来说，赞扬就像阳光一样，没有它我们便不能开花生长。(英国作家 格林.G.)

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

导语：任何时候都不要看轻了自己。下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的作文素材，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

战后受经济危机的影响，日本失业人数陡增，工厂效益也很不景气。一家濒临倒闭的食品公司为了起死回生，决定裁员1/3。有三种人名列其中：一种是清洁工，一种是司机，一种是无任何技术的仓管人员。这三种人加起来有三十多名。经理找他们谈话，说明了裁员意图。清洁工说：“我们很重要，如果没有我们打扫卫生，没有清洁优美、健康有序的工作环境，你们怎么能全身心投入工作?”司机说：“我们很重要，这么多产品没有司机怎么能迅速销往市场?”仓管人员说：“我们很重要，战争刚刚过去，许多人挣扎在饥饿线上，如果没有我们，这些食品岂不要被流浪街头的乞丐偷光?”经理觉得他们说的话都很有道理，权衡再三决定不裁员，重新制定了管理策略。最后经理在厂门口悬挂了一块大匾，上面写着：“我很重要!”从此，每天当职工们来上班，第一眼看到的便是“我很重要”这四个字。不管一线职工还是白领阶层，都认为领导很重视他们，因此工作都很卖命。这句话调动了全体职工的积极性，几年后公司迅速崛起，成为日本有名的公司之一。

【温馨提示】这个故事冲击我们眼球、触动我们心灵的就是“我很重要”这四个字。是啊，任何时候都不要看轻了自己。在关键时刻，你敢说“我很重要”吗?试着说出来，你的人生也许会由此揭开新的一页。简单的四个字，却蕴含着丰富的内涵，有自信、有勇气、有意志，这些都可以成为你作文的话题或主题。

良好的开端等于成功的一半，下面是小编整理的高考英语写作基础知识，欢迎阅读。

一. 开头用语：

良好的开端等于成功的一半.在写作文时，通常以最简单也最常用的方式---开门见山法。也就是说, 直截了当地提出你对这个问题的看法或要求，点出文章的中心思想。

1.议论文：

A. Just as every coin has two sides, cars have both advantages and disadvantages.

B. Compared to/ In comparison with letters, e-mails are more convenient.

C. When it comes to computers, some people think they have brought us a lot of convenience. However,...

D. Opinions are divided on(关于) the advantages and disadvantages of living in the city and in the countryside.

E. As is known to all/ As we all know, computers have played an important role/part in our daily life.

F. Why do you go to university? Different people have different points of view.

2. 书信：

A. I am writing to you to apply for admission to your university as a visiting scholar.

B. I read an advertisement in today’s China Daily and I apply for the job...

C. Thank you for your letter of May 5.

D. How happy I am to receive your letter of January 9.

E. How nice to hear from you again!

3. 口头通知或介绍情况：

A. Ladies and gentlemen, May I have your attention, please? I have an announcement to make.

(词典例子：Can I have your attention please?请注意听我讲话好吗?)

B. Attention, please. I have something important to tell you.

C. Mr. Green, Welcome to our school. To begin with, let me introduce Mr. Wang to you.

4. 演讲稿：

A. Ladies and gentlemen, I feel very much honored to have a chance here to make a speech on the subject -- A Balanced Diet and Health.

(词典解释：be/feel honoured to do sth=feel proud and happy做某事感到荣幸

例子：I was honoured to have been mentioned in his speech. 他在讲话中提到了我，真是荣幸。)

B. Good morning everyone! Allow me, first of all, on behalf of all present here, to extend our warm welcome and cordial greeting to our distinguished guest.

(词典解释：extend=to offer or give sth to sb 提供;给予

例子：I’m sure you will join me in extending a very warm welcome to our visitors. 我肯定你们会同我一起向来访者表示热烈的欢迎。)

(词典解释：allow me=used to offer help politely (礼貌地表示主动帮忙)让我来

二.并列用语：

as well as, not only…but (also), including,

A. Not only do computers play an important part in science and technology, but also play an informative role in our daily life.

B. All of us, including the teachers / the teachers included, will attend the lecture.

C. He speaks French as well as English.=He speaks English, and French as well.=He speaks not only English but also French.

D. E-mail, as well as telephones, is playing an important part in daily communication.

三.对比用语：

on the one hand---, on the other hand---, on the contrary/contrary to ..., though, for one thing, for another; nevertheless

A. I know the Internet can only be used at home or in the office, but on the other hand, it is becoming more and more popular for much information as well as clear and vivid pictures.

B. It is hard work; I enjoy it, though.

C. Contrary to what I had originally thought, the trip turned out to be fun.

(词典：contray to sth 与之相异的，相对的，相反的

Contrary to popular belief, many cats dislike milk. 与普通的想法相反，许多猫并不喜欢牛奶。)

四. 递进用语：

even, besides, what’s more, as for, so…that…, worse still, moreover, furthermore; but for, in addition, to make matters worse

A. The house is too small for a family of four, and furthermore/besides/what’s more/moreover /in addition/worse still , it is in a bad location.

一个句子必须按照一定的模式来组织，这个模式称为句式。下面是语文迷为大家提供的高考英语写作优秀句式，供大家参考。

1) on the other hand, the contribution of day schools cant be ignored.

2) due to high tuition fee, most of ordinary families cannot afford to send their children to boarding schools.

3) since it is unnecessary to consider students routinelife, day school can lay stress on teaching instead of other aspects, such as management of dormitory and cafeteria.

4) furthermore, students living in their own home would have access to a comfortable life and have more opportunities to communicate with their parents, which have beneficial impact on development of their personal character.

5) from what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that both of day schools and boarding schools are important to train young students for our society.

6) there is much discussion over science and technology. one of the questions under debate is whether traditional technology and methods are bound to die out when a country begins to develop modern science and technology.

7) According to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.

8) The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.

9) No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.

10) People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.

11) An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.

12) When it comes to education, the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.

13) Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.

14) Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful

15) An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However, this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents, who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.

16) Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus, which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.

17) There is no denying the fact that air pollution is an extremely serious problem: the city authorities should take strong measures to deal with it.

18) An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward retirement.

19) A proper part-time job does not occupy students too much time. In fact, it is unhealthy for them to spend all of time on their study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

20) Any government, which is blind to this point, may pay a heavy price.

21) Nowadays, many students always go into raptures at the mere mention of the coming life of high school or college they will begin. Unfortunately, for most young people, it is not pleasant experience on their first day on campus.

22) In view of the seriousness of this problem, effective measures should be taken before things get worse.

23) The majority of students believe that part-time job will provide them with more opportunities to develop their interpersonal skills, which may put them in a favorable position in the future job markets.

24) It is indisputable that there are millions of people who still have a miserable life and have to face the dangers of starvation and exposure.

25) Although this view is wildly held, this is little evidence that education can be obtained at any age and at any place.

26) No one can deny the fact that a persons education is the most important aspect of his life.

27) People equate success in life with the ability of operating computer.

28) In the last decades, advances in medical technology have made it possible for people to live longer than in the past.

29) In fact, we have to admit the fact that the quality of life is as important as life itself.

30) We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

31) People believe that computer skills will enhance their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

32) The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that this knowledge may be less useful than most people think.

33) Now, it is generally accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduation.

34) This is a matter of life and death--a matter no country can afford to ignore.

35) For my part, I agree with the latter opinion for the following reasons:

36) Before giving my opinion, I think it is important to look at the arguments on both sides.

37) This view is now being questioned by more and more people.

38) Although many people claim that, along with the rapidly economic development, the number of people who use bicycle are decreasing and bicycle is bound to die out. The information Ive collected over the recent years leads me to believe that bicycle will continue to play extremely important roles in modern society.

39) Environmental experts point out that increasing pollution not only causes serious problems such as global warming but also could threaten to end human life on our planet.

40) In view of such serious situation, environmental tools of transportation like bicycle are more important than any time before.

41) Using bicycle contributes greatly to peoples physical fitness as well as easing traffic jams.

42) Despite many obvious advantages of bicycle, it is not without its problem.

43) Bicycle cant be compared with other means of transportation like car and train for speed and comfort.

44) From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that advantages of bicycle far outweigh its disadvantages and it will still play essential roles in modern society.

45) There is a general discussion these days over education in many colleges and institutes. One of the questions under debate is whether education is a lifetime study.

46) This issue has caused wide public concern.

47) It must be noted that learning must be done by a person himself.

48) A large number of people tend to live under the illusion that they had completed their education when they finished their schooling. Obviously, they seem to fail to take into account the basic fact that a persons education is a most important aspect of his life.

49) As for me, Im in favor of the opinion that education is not complete with graduation, for the following reasons:

50) It is commonly accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduate.

51) Even the best possible graduate needs to continue learning before she or he becomes an educated person.

52) It is commonly thought that our society had dramatically changed by modern science and technology, and human had made extraordinary progress in knowledge and technology over the recent decades.

53) For lack of distinct culture, some places will not attract tourists any more. Consequently, the fast rise in number of foreign tourists may eventually lead to the decline of local tourism.

54) There is a growing tendency for parents to ask their children to accept extra educational programs over the recent years.

55) This phenomenon has caused wide public concern in many places of world.

56) Many parents believe that additional educational activities enjoy obvious advantage. By extra studies, they maintain, their children are able to obtain many kinds of practical skills and useful knowledge, which will put them in a beneficial position in the future job markets when they grow up.

57) In the first place, extra studies bring about unhealthy impacts on physical growth of children. Educational experts point out that, it is equally important to take some sport activities instead of extra studies when children have spent the whole day in a boring classroom.

58) Children are undergoing fast physical development; lack of physical exercise may produce disastrous influence on their later life.

59) In the second place, from psychological aspect, the majority of children seem to tend to have an unfavorable attitude toward additional educational activities.

60) It is hard to imagine a student focusing their energy on textbook while other children are playing.

61) Moreover, children will have less time to play and communicate with their peers due to extra studies, consequently, it is difficult to develop and cultivate their character and interpersonal skills. They may become more solitary and even suffer from certain mental illness.

62) From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that, although extra studies indeed enjoy many obvious advantages, its disadvantages shouldnt be ignored and far outweigh its advantages. It is absurd to force children to take extra studies after school.

63) Any parents should place considerable emphasis on their children to keep the balance between play and study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

64) There is a growing tendency for parent these days to stay at home to look after their children instead of returning to work earlier.

65) Parents are firmly convinced that, to send their child to kindergartens or nursery schools will have an unfavorable influence on the growth of children.

66) However, this idea is now being questioned by more and more experts, who point out that it is unhealthy for children who always stay with their parents at home.

67) Although parent would be able to devote much more time and energy to their children, it must be admitted that, parent has less experience and knowledge about how to educate and supervise children, when compared with professional teachers working in kindergartens or nursery schools.

68) From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw a conclusion that, although the parents desire to look after children by themselves is understandable, its disadvantages far outweigh the advantages.

69) Parents should be encouraged to send their children to nursery schools, which will bring about profound impacts on children and families, and even the society as a whole.

70) Many leaders of government always go into raptures at the mere mention of artistic and cultural projects. They are forever talking about the nice parks, the smart sculptures in central city and the art galleries with various valuable rarities. Nothing, they maintain, is more essential than such projects in the economic growth.

71) But is it really the case? The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that artistic and cultural projects may be less useful than many governments think. In fact, basic infrastructure projects are playing extremely important role and should be given priority.

72) Those who are in favor of artistic and cultural projects advocate that cultural environment will attract more tourists, which will bring huge profits to local residents. Some people even equate the build of such projects with the improving of economic construction.

73) Unfortunately, there is very few evidence that big companies are willing to invest a huge sums of money in a place without sufficient basic projects, such as supplies of electricity and water.

74) From what has been discussed above, it would be reasonable to believe that basic projects play far more important role than artistic and cultural projects in peoples life and economic growth.

75) Those urban planners who are blind to this point will pay a heavy price, which they cannot afford it.

76) There is a growing tendency these days for many people who live in rural areas to come into and work in city. This problem has caused wide public concern in most cities all over the world.

77) An investigation shows that many emigrants think that working at city provide them with not only a higher salary but also the opportunity of learning new skills.

78) It must be noted that improvement in agriculture seems to not be able to catch up with the increase in population of rural areas and there are millions of peasants who still live a miserable life and have to face the dangers of exposure and starvation.

79) Although rural emigrants contribute greatly to the economic growth of the cities, they may inevitably bring about many negative impacts.

80) Many sociologists point out that rural emigrants are putting pressure on population control and social order; that they are threatening to take already scarce city jobs; and that they have worsened traffic and public health problems.

81) Now people in growing numbers are beginning to believe that learning new skills and knowledge contributes directly to enhancing their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

82) An investigation shows that many older people express a strong desire to continue studying in university or college.

83) For the majority of people, reading or learning a new skill has become the focus of their lives and the source of their happiness and contentment after their retirement.

84) For people who want to adopt a healthy and meaningful life style, it is important to find time to learn certain new knowledge. Just as an old saying goes: it is never too late to learn.

85) There is a general debate on the campus today over the phenomenon of college or high school students doing a part-time job.

86) By taking a major-related part-job, students can not only improve their academic studies, but gain much experience, experience they will never be able to get from the textbooks.

87) Although peoples lives have been dramatically changed over the last decades, it must be admitted that, shortage of funds is still the one of the biggest questions that students nowadays have to face because that tuition fees and prices of books are soaring by the day

88) Consequently, the extra money obtained from part-time job will strongly support students to continue to their study life.

89) From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw a conclusion that part-time job can produce a far-reaching impact on students and they should be encouraged to take part-time job, which will benefit students and their family, even the society as a whole.

90) These days, people in growing numbers are beginning to complain that work is more stressful and less leisurely than in past. Many experts point out that, along with the development of modern society, it is an inevitable result and there is no way to avoid it.

一、LETTER(书信)

书信通常由信头、信内地址、称呼、正文、谦称和签名六个部分构成。

1.从信纸中偏右处向右写发信人的地址和写信日期。由小到大，分数行书写，同一行的两部分之间用逗号隔开。顺序为：门牌号→楼号→街名→城镇名→省名→邮政编码→国名(在寄往国外时)。美国人常采用左边开头式;英国人常采取每行逐渐向右缩进式。注意要把地址写在上面，日期写在下面，每个词的首字母要大写。日期的写法与日记中日期写法相同。

2.从信纸的左上方比信头(发信人的地址和写信日期)低1—2行处顶格写收信人姓名、地址，常采用齐头式，姓名在上，地址在下，写法同发信人地址。若是私人信函，这一部分可省略不写。

3.称呼要从信纸左边顶格写起，其位置低于信头和信内地址。对不熟悉的女性用Dear Madam，Dear Ladies，作称呼语;对不熟悉的男性用Dear Sir，Dear Sirs，作称呼语;对所熟悉的人用Dear Tom，Dear Mary，即：在Dear后直写其名作称呼语;对有地位头衔的人用“Dear+ 头衔+姓”作为称呼语，如：Dear Editor Kang，Dear Doctor Li，Dear Professor Zhao，对一般人用Dear Mr Lin，Dear Ms Li，Dear Miss Liu。即：在Dear后加尊称加姓氏作为称呼语。美国人在称呼语后用冒号，英国人用逗号。

4.正文是信的主体。一般在称呼下一行顶格写起，从第二段起，在起首处空4—6个字母的距离。书信可根据表达的需要，灵活选用时态。起首语常用：(1)Your letter came to me this afternoon.(2)Im very glad to receive your letter.(3)Your letter reached me yest erday.(4)I have the pleasure to tell you that…(5)Im glad to tell you that…(6) I was shocked to learn that…(7)Thank you for writing to me.(8)Thanks for your lett er .It was lovely to hear from you.结束语常用：(1)Please remember me to…(2)With be st wishes to your family.(3)I wish to inform you that…(4)Please write soon.(5)I m ust stop writing now，as I have rather a lot of work to do.(6)Wish you the best of s uccess.(7)Wish you the best of health.(8)Give my best wishes to …

5.结尾的谦称是在正文下面，信纸中间偏右所写的客套语。第一个字母要大写，末尾用逗号。北美洲的国家常把yours放在后边，欧洲国家常把yours放在前边。写给上级、长者、位尊者常用：Yours respectfully，Respectfully yours，Yours，Very respectfully，Yours sincerely，Sincerely yours;写给不认识的人时常用：Yours truly，Yours faithfully;写给朋友时常用：Yours lovely;Yours，Yours ever;写给亲属和挚友时常用：Your loving daughter，Your loving son，Yours，Yours affectionately.

6.签名一般写在谦称下一行偏右，使尾字母与谦称尾字母对齐。

7.范文请参阅：NMET1995书面表达;JEFCⅡ-Unit 16;SEFC1A-Unit 1。

8.书信除按以上格式书写之外，现在英美人士常把书信的六个部分，按照顺序一律从信纸左边顶格写完六个部分，且用的人越来越多。

二、DIARY(日记)

日记是用来记述一天生活中发生的重要事情及感受的文体。

1.在纸的左上角顶格写星期和日期。星期在左，常用Sunday，Monday，Tuesday，Wednesday，T hursday，Friday，Saturday。日期在右，美国人习惯上先写月，再写日，最后写年。如：October 20，1998。英国人习惯上先写日，再写月，最后写年;如：20 June 1998。

2.在纸的右上角写天气。表示天气情况时常用Bright，Clear，Sunny，Fine(晴);Cloudy(多云);Rainy(雨);Overcast(阴);Foggy(雾);Windy(风);Hot(热);Haily(冰雹);Sh ower(阵雨);Warm(暖和);Thundering(雷雨);Snowy(雪);Fog(雾)。

3.日记的小标题写在第二行，也可省略。

4.正文第一段常顶格书写，也可不顶格写。日记记述的是当天或前一天发生过的事情，所以，日记常用一般过去时写。

5.若要表达自己的感受、想法，针对某件事发表议论，进行说理，或者为了抒情、描景写人生动，则用一般现在时。

6.范文请参阅：JEFCⅡ-Unit 27;SEFC1A-Unit 14;SEFC1A《同步听力》p.49;NMET1992和N MET1998书面表达;JEFCⅢ-Unit 23。

三、CARDS OF CONGRATULATION(贺卡)

贺卡是逢年过节，向亲朋好友表示祝贺的最方便的方式。贺卡可分为圣诞卡、贺年卡、教师节贺卡及纪念日卡等等，写法格式通常有两种。一种由称呼、贺词、祝贺人签名三部分构成 ，另一种用短信代替卡片。

1.称呼是指祝贺人对受贺人的称呼，一般从卡片的左上方写起。常用：To dear+受贺人称谓，To+受贺人称谓，也可以省略前边的to，称呼后用逗号。如：To dear teacher，Mr and Mrs Mike

2.贺词是向受贺人表达良好祝愿的话。一般写在称呼下一行，句首可与称呼语齐头，也可以向右空出4—6个字母。写贺年片时常用：(1)May the New Year be a happy one for you all!(2)Best wishes to the four of you for a prosperous and Happy New Year!(3)Happy New Year to you!(4)A Happy New Year!(5)Wish to see more of you next year!(6)Best wishes for a bright New Year!(7)Youll have a very Happy New Year!(8)Let me wish you and your family a Happy and Healthy New Year!(9)I do hope this finds you well with a Happy New Year ahead!(10)I wish you the Happiest Possible New Year!写教师节贺卡时常用：(1)Happy Teachers Day!(2)Good Luck!(3)Best wishes!(4)We hope youll have a very happy year in our class.(5)Thank you for teaching us so well.(6)With our best wishes for TeachersDay.(7)Hope you are having a very Pleasant Day.(8)Hope it will bring you Good Health and Happiness.(9)I am thinking of you often.(10)All my family joins me in wishing you health and happiness.写圣诞卡时常用：(1)A Merry Christmas!(2)I wish you a Merry Christmas!(3)Hope you have a very Good Christmas!( 4)May this Christmas be your Merriest!(5)We send our love to all of you and the hope that youll have a Merry Christmas!(6)Hope youll have a very merry Christmas!( 7) Merry Christmas!(8)A merry Christmas to you.(9)A Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year!(10)Best wishes to you for a Prosperous and Merry Christmas!写生日贺卡时常用：(1)Happy birthday to you!(2)Happy birthday!(3)With Best Wishes for a Happy Brithday!

3.祝贺人签名一般写在贺卡的右下方，把from常常加在姓名前，也可以省略from。如：From your student Liu Zhong，From Mr and Mrs White，Your loving son Lei，Your students，

4.贺卡也可以用短信形式书写，在逢年过节或者特别纪念日，把贺词连同你的近况等写成短信，寄给亲朋好友。

范文请参阅：JEFCⅠ-99;JEFCⅢ-Unit 1;JEFCⅢp.97。

四、NOTICE(通知)

通知又称通告或布告，是上级对下级、组织对成员部署工作、传达事情、召开会议所使用的一种文体。

1.通知的第一行正中写发出通知的单位名称，发出通知的单位名称还可以写在正文下方的右侧，也可以把单位省略不写。

2.把NOTICE写在正文上方正中的位置。

3.正文是通知的内容，是通知的主体。要简明扼要地把通知的对象、事由、时间、地点及内容写清楚，语言应简洁明了，条理清晰，要求明确，常用一般现在时和一般将来时写。

4.在正文下方的左侧写出通知的日期，日期也可省略不写。

5.广播通知和口头通知，在开头要用称呼语，常用的称呼语有：(1)Boys and Girls，(2)De ar friends，(3)Ladies，(4)Dear ladies，(5)Gentlmen，(6)Ladies and gentlmen，(7)Comrades，常把称呼语从左侧顶格书写，在后面用逗号或冒号。

6.常用的正文开头用语有：(1)May I have your attention，please?(2)Attention，please !I have something to tell you.(3)Attention，please!I have an announcement to make.(4)Attention，please!I have good news for you all.(5)Attention please，everyone!

7.常用的正文结尾用语有：(1)Thats all!Thank you!(2)Please be there on time.(3)E ver yone is welcome.(4)Dont be late，will you?(5)Thank you for your attention.(6)Don t be late!(7)Dont forget，will you?(8)We must get there on time.(9)I hope all of you will have a good time.

8.在正文中常用的句式有：(1)It has been decided that well visit…(2)We have dec ided that well pay a visit to…(3)Well have a talk from…to…(4)Professor Liu will give us a talk on…(5)The football star will give us a lecture on…(6)You are r equired to come on time.(7)A lecture will be given by….(8)There will be a visit to …(9)A talk will be given by…(10)I’m sure well learn a lot of things from it. (11)It will be given in…(12)Youd better take your valuables with you.

9.范文请参阅：SEFC1A-Unit 6;NMET1989高考书面表达答案;NMET1994高考书面表达答案。

五、MESSAGE(留言条)

留言条是转达事情所使用的一种便条。

1.若拿起电话听筒，对方要找的人未在场时，你可以签写一张留言条。正中上方写TELEPHONE MESSAGE，在左边的“From”：后签对方的姓名，在右边的“To”：后签要找的人的姓名，在左边的 “Date”：后写接电话的日期，在右边的“Time”：后写接电话的时间。在“Message”：后写所要通知的事情，这部分是主体，写清人物、时间、地点和事由。在右下边的Signature：后签写留言条人的姓名。

2.留言条也可以把“FROM：”、“TO：”、“DATE：”、“MESSAGE：”按顺序从上到下顶格齐头排列，把“TIME：”写在“DATE：”的后边，省略“SIGNATURE：”。

3.在MESSAGE：后常写的句式有：(1)He wants to see you as soon as possible.(2)He w ould like to meet you…(3)Be sure to call…(4)She wants to meet…

4.若要找某人安排工作、通知会议等，当要找的人不在时，写一张内容简短的书信，右上边写日期，第二行从左边顶格写称呼，第三行从左边起写正文，在正文右下方签名。

5.范文请参阅：JEFCⅢ-Unit 10。

六、WRITTEN REQUEST FOR LEAVE(请假条)

请假条是日常生活和工作中，临时遇到一些事情或因生病等需要请假，给主管部门的负责人所写的简便字据。格式与书信格式大致相同，在纸的第一行右边写请假日期，在第二行左边顶格写称呼语，称呼语后用逗号。在第三行左边起首处空4—6个字母的距离，开始写正文。内容、事由、时间写清就行。在正文下偏右处写谦称，在谦称下写姓名。

1.写请假条时常用语有：(1)Im sorry I cant come to school because…(2)My grandm ot her is seriously ill. There is no one at home…(3)I have got a high fever and cough badly…(4)Im writing to ask for sick leave of one day.(5)I cant go to school be cause I have got a cold.(6)Please give an extension of leave for two days.(7)I have to go to Xian tomorrow because…(8)I have got things to do this afternoon.Im writing to ask for leave…(9)I want to ask for…leave.

2.若请病假，常在假条后附医生建议书。

七、POSTAL TELEGRAM(电报)

电报是与外地进行紧急通讯交流的有效手段，是准确传递信息的有效途径，是一种对文字力求精炼、准确与简明的文体。

1.正上方的空白栏由邮局营业员填写。如：报费、流水号码、记账号码、原来号码、发出时间、营业员、值机员、报类、字数、发出局名和日期时间。

2.电文第一行在左边顶格写称呼，常直呼其名，一般要大写，不要标点符号。

3.电文第二行和第三行写收报人的地址。

4.从第四行左边顶格写正文，正文全文都用大写字母，有时也可以把各词的第一个字母大写。一般只写实词，虚词常常省略。电文控制在10个字以内最为节约。

5.电文中常用动词不定式表示要求对方行动，用现在分词表示自己的行为。

6.常用电文有：(1)Send Money Soon〈速汇款〉(2)Arriving Home Safely(3)Best Wishes on Your Birthday〈谨贺生日愉快〉(4)Mother Illness Critical Return Soonest〈母病危速归〉(5)Unable Return Sunday Giving Date Later(6)Urgent Business Return Immediately(7)Send if Found Bag(8)Why Unmoney(9)Arriving 9∶00 Morning Can You Meet(10)Express Sorrow For Your Mothers Death〈惊闻令堂仙逝不胜悲痛〉

7.在正文右下方署名。

八、CERTIFICATE OF MERIT(奖状)

奖状是给获胜者及取得显著成绩的工作者所颁发的荣誉证明。

1.在奖状正中上方用大写字母写CERTIFICATE OF MERIT。

2.在奖状左上方顶格写To及获奖者姓名，姓名后用逗号。

3.在姓名下右边空4—6个字母处开始写获奖原由。

4.把发奖单位写在原由下左边，注意要顶格写，各单词首字母要大写。

5.把发奖日期写在发奖单位下边，注意要从左边顶格写起。

6.范文：

CERTIFICATE OF MERIT

To Zhao Xin，

In the English competition of this year，you have won remarkable success. For enc ouragement this certificate is hereby given.

Guanshan Middle School

November 10，1999

九、WELCOMING SPEECH(欢迎词)

欢迎词是在接待客人等正式场合中使用的一种文体。一般由称呼语、正文和结束语构成。正文中对客人的来访表示欢迎，简介客人情况并向客人作自我介绍，概括叙述所要从事的活动。主题要写明确，感情真挚;条理要清;语言力求通俗、简洁、准确。

1.称呼语写在第一行左边，顶格书写。客人是人时常用：(1)Dear Miss…(2)Dear Mr…(3) Dea r Mrs…(4)Dear sir，(5)Dear Madame，(6)Dear…客人是多人时常用：(1)Dear comrades，( 2)Dear friends，(3)Dear ladies，(4)Dear gentlemen，(5)Ladies and gentlemen，(6)Boys and girls，(7)Dear comrades and friends，

2.写正文时常用句式有：(1)We thank you for your accepting our invitation to come here.(2)You are warmly welcome to our…(3)First of all，Ill introduce our…to you. (4)Now our friend is going to give us a talk on…(5)We hope you will have a nice time during your stay here.(6)I hope you will enjoy yourself.(7)Id like to express our thanks for your coming…(8)Now let me invite our friends to speak to us.(9) We feel very much honoured to have a chance to get together with…(10)First of all ， on behalf of all present here，allow me to give our warm welcome to our distingui shed guest.

3.结束语写在正文下，从左边空4—6个字母的距离处写起。常用语有：“Thank you!”“Le ts welcome…to speak to us.”;“I wish you have a good time.”;“Let us invite …to speak to us.”

十、FOUND(招领启事)

招领启事是一种公告性的应用文。由日期、启事正文、拾物人姓名构成。

1.在纸正上方中间写FOUND。

2.在右上方写日期。

3.在左边空4—6个字母的距离处起首写正文。常用句式有：(1)A wallet was left in the … (2)Will the owner pleasering…(3)I happened to find…(4)Loser is expect to come to…(5)I found…on…

4.拾物人姓名署在右下角。

5.范文请参阅：SEFC1B-Unit 18。

十一、LOST(寻物启事)

寻物启事一般由标题、正文、结束语及署名构成，是一种公告性的文体。

1.在纸的正中上方写标题LOST。

2.正文从左边写起，写清丢失物名、丢失时间、丢失地点，描述物品特征及联系方式。写正文时常用的句式有：(1)A bag with a wallet， left in…(2)I lost…(3)Will the finder please come to…(4)On…，I lost…with…(5)At…I left my…in…

3.在正文右下方用感谢语作结束语。

4.寻物人姓名署在左下角。

5.范文请参阅：SEFC1B-Unit 18。

十二、BILL(单据)

单据包括借条、收条和领条。是日常生活中向别人因手续上的需要而写的简短凭证。单据应写明事情和与事情相关的原因、人称、地点、时间和数量。

1.在单据左上方写日期。

2.在单据右顶格写“To+所借物主姓名”，另起一格写“I owe you+物品名称only”，常用 “I.O.U”代替“I owe you.”。

3.在左下角写借物人姓名。

4.领条和收条常在日期下一格右边空4—6个字母的距离处起首写Received from+姓名…。在右下方写收件人姓名及单位，在单位前常加For。

5.范文：

(1)借条

November 20，1999

To Zhang Ping

I.O.U.one hundred yuan(￥100)only.

Chang Ming

(2)收条

November 10，1999

Received from Li Hua 500 yuan for tuition.

Qiao Hongsheng

十三、INTRODUCTION OF CHARACTERS(人物介绍)

人物介绍是把某人的性格特征、工作业绩及爱憎感情通过报刊杂志进行宣传的文件。

1.把标题写在纸上方正中位置。

2.介绍人物的生平和事迹按照事情发生的先后顺序描写。一般按出生、童年、事业与兴趣、成绩等安排材料。

3.介绍人物时的常用句式有：(1)Charle Chaplin is considered one of the greatest and funniest actors in the history of the cinema.(2)He was born in London in 1889.(3)At the age of eight， he joined a group of child dancers.(4)As early as his second film， Chaplin had developed his own manner of acting， the one that was to become world?famous.(5)Mart in Luther King，Jr.， who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964，was an important political leader in the USA.(6)He had fair hair and blue eyes.(7)Joe Hill was a tall，thin，good?looking man.(8)She was a young woman who was studying art.(9)He became famous for his new theory.(10)We regard Ding Ding as our model.(11)People spoke highly of her and all respeced her.(12)She is fond of art. (13)He was interested in the theory.(14)One of the pioneers of farming was Jia Sixie.(15)When he was a child he was always trying out new ideas.

4.范文请参阅：JEFCⅢ-Unit 11;SEFC1A-Unit 13;SEFC1B-Unit 24;SEFC2A-Unit 5;SEFC2B -Unit 13;SEFC2B-Unit 19。

十四、INSTRUCTION(须知)或(说明)

须知是日常生活中，安排工作时要求工作人员应明确的事项及应注意的问题所应用的一种文体。

1.把标题一般写在纸的上方正中，每个字母均要大写，也可以把标题从上方左边顶格书写，字母大字。

2.正文常用数词标明，逐条写明应明确的事项和应注意的问题，条理要清楚，内容要准确，解释要科学、客观。

3.正文还可以从左边顶格起首分层次叙述。

4.正文常用句式是祈使句和简单句。

5.范文请参阅：JEFCⅢ-Unit 18;SEFC1B-Unit 16。

十五、RÉSUMÉ(履历表)

履历表是个人对自己的姓名、身份、学历和经历等情况作自我介绍时所填写的表格。

1.表格上方正中写有RÉSUMÉ。

2.表中项目从左边顶格依次向下排列。在“Name in Full：”后填姓名，在“Date of Birt h：”后填出生年月日，在“Place of Birth：”后填出生地点，在“Education：”后填学历，分时段填明，在“Permanent Address：”后填永久通讯地址，在“Health：”后填健康状况，在“Sex：”后填性别，在“Marital Status：”后填婚姻状况，在“Honours and Awards： ”后填受奖情况，在“Working Experience：”后填工作简历。

3.填写原则是客观、准确。

4.范文请参阅NMET1996书面表达答案。

十六、FAREWELL SPEECH(欢送词)

欢送词是欢送客人时的致辞。一般由称呼语、正文和结束语构成。

1.称呼语从纸上方第一行左边顶格起首。若欢送的是一个人，常用“Dear Mr…，”;“Dear Miss…，”;“Dear Doctor…，”;“Dear Mrs…”等等。若欢送的人多，常用“Dear friends，”;“Dear ladies and gentlemen，”;“Dear comrades and friends，”;“Dear boys and girls”等等。

2.正文在称呼语下，从左边空出4—6个字母的距离处起首。常用句式有(1)Today we gather here to have a send?off meeting.(2)Dr.Ge is going to leave his post and return to Xian.(3)He is loved and respected by us all.(4)We thank him very much for his wo nderful work.(5)We hope youll have a nice time.(6)Miss Di will leave for Beijing.(7)We wish her a pleasant journey and good health.(8)May the friendship between our two cities last for ever.(9)Well take this chance to ask Mr White to convey our friendship to the British people.(10)We are happily gathered here to give Professor Kang a warm send?off.(11)To our great joy， we are gathered here to give Mr Smith a warm seeing?off.(12)We will give a warm send?off to Miss Li going to visit Xian.(13)Dr Zhang is going to leave for home today.(14)Professor Lius visit to Xian is short but very successful.(15)In saying good?bye to him，we sincerely hope that hell have a good health.

3.结束语常另起一行，在正文下用“Thank you!”等表示谢意。

十七、POSTER(海报)

海报是向公众作广告宣传的文体。内容包括节目表、影讯、报告会、联欢会、球讯等。

1.节目表常在正上方用大写名称，在左边写Items， Items下方逐一列出节目名称，右边写P erformed by，并在下方逐一列出表演者。

2.节目表常用语有：(1)Solo：(独唱)(2)Chorus：(合唱)(3)Folk song：(民歌)(4)Comic dialogue：(相声)(5)Skit：(短剧)(6)Folk dance：(民间舞蹈)(7)Ballet：(芭蕾)(8)Peacock Dance：(孔雀舞)。

3.影讯常在正上方中间写Film Show;从左边写Name of the film：冒号右边写上上映的片名，如：Laugh Laugh Laugh;在左边另起一行写“Time”：冒号右边写映出时间，如：October 10，10∶00 PM;从左边另起一格写“Place：”冒号右边写上映地点，如：Peoples Cinema.在“Face：”后写票价;在“Ticket Office：”后写售票地点。

4.球讯常在正上方中间写“Basketball Match”;“Football Match”;“Friendly Basket ball Match”等，有时在上边写有“POSTER”。在第二行中间写比赛队名称，如：ClassⅡ vs .ClassⅢ(注：vs.=versus对);在第三行左边顶格写“Time：”，在后写比赛时间，如：6∶00 PM.Monday;在第四行左边写“Place：”在后写比赛地点。球讯也可以在醒目的标题下 ，用简炼文字叙述清比赛队名、时间、地点等，在右下方写明举办单位，在左下方顶格写出海报的日期。

5.报告会常在海报正上方中间写“Talk”，从第二行左边顶格起首写“Speaker：”在后边写报告人姓名;第三行顶格写“Subject：”在后边写报告的专题名称;第四行顶格写“Time ：”后边写清具体时间，第五行顶格写“Place：”后边写报告会地点。

6.联欢会、报告会、音乐会主持人常用语有：(1)The program is about to begin.(2)Att ention，please?(3)Ladies and gentlemen，may I have your attention，please?(4)Have your seat，everyone.(5)We heartly welcome…to join in our party.(6)We are very much honoured to have many teachers as our guests.Among them are…(7)Now the concert begins.(8)Now the talk begins.Take your seat，everyone.(9)No more talking，please.

十八、INVITATIONS(请柬)

请柬是正式社交场合采用的简短邀请信函。

1.第一行正中是邀请人的姓名;第二行常写request the pleasure of(恭请…光临);第三行写被邀请人姓名;第四行写活动内容;第五行写日期;第六行写时间;第七行写地点，第八行在左边顶格写R.S.V.P(请赐回音;请答复)在右下边可以写上电话号码。

2.请柬还可以用文字叙述清楚内容。复函时常在上方正中写“Accepting the above Invit ation”，在第二行右边写复函日期;在第三行左边顶格起首写称呼语，从第四行起写正文，格式与书信相同，右下角为谦称。

十九、PLACE OF INTRODUCTION(地点介绍)

地点介绍是对某一地方的自然环境、现在、过去及未来的情况进行描述，向大众展示该地区风貌的文体。

1.写地点介绍时，把标题写在正上方。

2.描写常按照空间位置，由近及远依次描写，也可以先总体描述后局部描述，描写时要抓住中心点和特色。叙述不同时间发生的事情要用不同的时态，用好被动语态和there be 句型。

3.地点介绍常用的句式有(1)Its to the north of England.(2)Its in the east of Shaanxi.(3)Its on the west of Shaanxi.(4)It lies south of France.(5)The city is separated by the river.(6)It is made up of four buildings.(7)It is famous for its beautiful countryside.(8)The city lies on the river.(9)It is divided into two parts.(10)The weather here is neither too cold in winter nor too hot in summer.(11)They lived mainly on potatoes.(12)The library was set up in 1997.(13)Our school has a library with books，newspapers and magazines.(14)The house used to be a temple.(15)Mountain Li is famous for its beauty.(16)It is a place where the famous men can spend their spare time.(17)In front of it is a garden.(18) In the middle of the city stands a bell tower.(19)It covers a n area 2578 square kilometers with a population of 1.26 million.(20)There are three famous parks in and around the city.

4.范文请参阅：SEFC1A-Unit 22，MET1990高考书面表达参考答案。

二十、SAFETY IN THE HOME(家庭安全公约)

家庭安全公约是家庭每个成员必须去做的成文规定。

1.在正中或从左边顶格写SAFETY IN THE HOME。

2.从第2行左边顶格起首向下依次写“POISONS：”、“FIRES：”、“ELECTRICITY：”、“GAS FIRES：”、“COOKING：”、“LADDERS：”、“WATER：”、“THINGS IN MOUTH： ”，在各栏目后用 祈使句写清务必要做到的事项。

3.范文请参阅：SEFC2A-Unit 8。

一、认真审题，切中题意

《中考考试说明》指出，书面表达要切中题意。看到考题后，先不要急于动笔，要仔细看清题目要求的内容，在自己的头脑中构思出一个框架或画面，确定短文的中心思想，不要匆匆下笔，看懂题意，审清格式、体裁、人物关系、故事情节、主体时态、活动时间、地点等。

二、围绕中心，拟定提纲

书面表达评分原则有四条：(1)内容要点;

(2)运用词汇和结构的数量;

(3)运用语法结构和词汇的准确性;(4)上下文的连贯性。

由此可见，要点是给分的一个重要因素。为了防止写作过程中遗漏要点，同学们要充分发挥自己的观察力，把情景中给出的各个要点逐条列出。注意短文字数不要低于或超过规定的字数太多。

三、语言通顺，表达准确

(1)避免使用汉语式英语，尽量使用

自己熟悉的句型。几种句型可交替使用，以避免重复和呆板。

(2)多用简单句型，记事、写人一般都不需要复杂的句型。可适当地使用陈述句、一般疑问句、祈使句和感叹句。不用或少用非谓语或情态动词等较复杂的句型。

(3)注意语法、句法知识的灵活运用。(4)描写人物时，要生动具体，例如：①外表特征：tall，short，fat，thin，strong，weak，ordinary-looking等;②内心境界：

glad，happy，sad，excited，anxious，interested等;③感情描写：love，like，hate，feel，laugh，cry，smile，shout等;④动作描写：come，go，get，have，take，bring，fetch等。

(5)上下文要连贯。上下文的连贯性也是评分的一条原则，同学们应注意下面过渡的用法：①表示并列关系的过渡词：and，aswellas，or等;②表示转折关系的过渡词：but，yet，however等;③表示时间关系的过渡词：first，andthen，

finally，after，before，atlast，atthattime，later，inthepast，immediately，inthe

meanwhile等;④表示空间关系的过渡词：near(to)，far(from)，inthefrontof，beside等;⑤表示比较关系的过渡词：inthesameway，justlike，justas等;⑥表示对照关系的过渡词：but，still，yet，however，ontheotherhand等;⑦表示递进关系的过渡词：also，and，then，too，inaddition，moreover，again等;⑧表示因果关系的过渡词：because，since，then，thus，otherwise，so，therefore，asaresult等;⑨表示解释说明的过渡词：forexample，infact，inthiscase，for，actually等。

四、不会表达，另辟蹊径

中考作文给分是以要点和语言准确度而定，不以文采打分。造句越简单准确越好，造复合句容易出错，容易被扣分，阅卷场上有句话：“错误面前人人平等，文采好不加分。”如遇到个别要点表达不出来或难以表达，可采用变通的办法，化难为易，化繁为简。总之，所造句子要正确、得体、符合英语表达习惯。

五、锦上添花，量力而行

如果你还有时间和精力，想把书面表达写得更好，那么，请注意以下几点：(1)句型多样化，不要i(we)……到底，使人觉得乏味;(2)适当使用一些并列句或主从复合句;(3)进一步描绘人或事物时，适当使用定语从句;(4)适当使用分词或分词短语，烘托谓语动词;(5)偶尔使用一下倒装句，增加新鲜感;(6)适当调换一下状语在句子中的位置，使句子不雷同;(7)上下句子紧接时，其中完全相同的成分可以省略，以节省篇幅。

六、书写工整，卷面整洁

字迹要清晰，让阅卷人看得清楚，不可字迹潦草，难以辨认，要保持卷面的整洁。

七、检查错误

检查错误应从以下几个方面入手：(1)格式是否有错;(2)拼写有无错误;(3)语言是否用错;(4)时态、语态错误;(5)标点错误;(6)人称是否用错。

总之，只要平时同学们多练习写作并有意运用上述方法和技巧，合理分配时间，在中考时一定能写出高质量的作文，得到令人满意的考分。

1、线形结构模式

所谓“线形结构的记叙文”就是全文只写一件事情的记叙文形式。就是将一件事情从开端、发展、高潮到结局一条线写下来。这种形式的记叙文从小学写到初中，又写到高考考场。这种形式的记叙文内容很单纯，不容易出彩，在高考考场很难得高分。要想写出代表高三水平、符合高考作文评分标准“发展等级”要求的优秀的“线形结构的记叙文”必须至少做好以下三个方面的工作：符合记叙文文体特征——善于描写，有意识使用各种修辞手法——使语言生动有表现力，适当的环境描写——渲染气氛增加文学意蕴。

下面我们就以高考“心灵的选择”话题优秀作文山西考生的《大米饭的洗礼》来谈谈这篇“线形结构的记叙文”得高分的原因。

大米饭的洗礼

(高考“心灵的选择”话题优秀作文)

幸福如一抹浅浅的雾，淡淡地飘在天涯，飘在村东的路口，与那个破旧的屋子里的大米饭的香味融合，弥漫在我的心窝。为了它，我曾等了一个夏天，等老了一个童年。而此刻，它竟像一笛箫音，轻轻回响在我心灵的深处……

小时候，家里很穷。穷人的天空在记忆中是灰白色的，而穷人总是有一双哀伤的眼睛，那是在他的孩子们咕噜咕噜地喝稀饭的时候。

那年，外婆害病了，为了外婆，母亲借了一升大米，细粮在当时是很奢侈的东西。每天早晨，母亲蒸一碗白稠稠的大米饭，然后一口一口给外婆喂下。每到此时，我就蹲在墙角咽口水。孝敬的定义就是把好东西留给外婆吃吗?那时，我常常这样想，直到有一天……

那天，天气晴朗得可爱。早上，照例是一碗大米饭和我们的稀饭，而外婆因身体不舒服没有起来吃饭，母亲急着去地里，临走时叮嘱我喂外婆。望着端过饭碗的瘦瘦的我，外婆说：“乖囡，外婆不想吃，你去吃了吧，啊?”外婆和蔼地抚着我的头。“哎!”我满心欢喜，忙不迭地端走了那碗我梦寐以求的大米饭。但就在这时候，一种莫名的感觉涌上心头，简单的思维告诉我：“这是外婆的饭，我不能吃!”就这样，我痴痴地盯着那碗大米饭，窗外的阳光，小鸟的鸣啾，全都变成了一碗碗的大米饭，在我眼前晃动。有好几次，我都差点忍不住了，一碗大米饭的诱惑力当时真是不亚于吸引一根针的那块大磁铁，而它又仿佛一个女妖，美丽地谄媚地笑着，想要一口把我吸进去似的。而我就端坐在那儿，在吃与不吃之间徘徊，耳边不断地响着一句话：外婆的饭，我不能吃……

门“吱”地被母亲推开了，我扭过头去，看着母亲：“娘，外婆的大米饭我没吃。”我的嘴一撇，想哭。母亲怔怔地看着，突然像明白了什么，紧紧地抱着我，大滴大滴的泪水滴在我的脖子上。那一刻，我知道，我做对了，那一刻，我好像突然长大了，因为我终于可以承载母亲的眼泪了。窗外的阳光斜射进来，暖暖地照在我和母亲的脸上，屋里一片淡淡的红色，在这静谧中，我尽情地分享着母亲的泪光……

那一年，我8岁。小小的我，像是经受了一次灵魂的洗礼，没错，就是这样的。我清楚地记得，外婆世的那天晚上，我梦见外婆就站在我面前，手里捧着一碗香喷喷的大米饭……

点评：

文中划线三句分别使用了比喻的修辞手法，使语言生动形象有表现力;文中的斜体红字部分使用了语言描写和表情描写，斜体蓝字部分使用了幻觉式的心理描写，斜体绿色部分是语言描写和表情描写，生动形象富于文采;文中的黑体字部分使用了环境描写更渲染了气氛，增加了文学意蕴。正是这些优点使得这篇内容单纯的“线形结构的记叙文”形象感人，给阅卷者留下了深刻的印象，成为一篇成功的考场作文。

2.块状结构的记叙文

所谓块状结构的记叙文就是指一篇记叙文可以分割成几个相对独立的单位，有明显的层次结构，是学生在特定场合——高考考场——易于结构的作文形式，也是易于被特殊读者——阅卷老师——在极短的阅卷时间里理解并产生好感的记叙文作文形式。块状结构的记叙文又可以分成以下两种：

(1)无标志块状结构记叙文

这种形式的记叙文一般又称为复杂的记叙文，每篇文章由多件事或多个人物组成，用来塑造同一人物和表达同一主题。这组成一篇文章的多件事中的每一件事和多个人物中的每一个人物片断就构成一篇记叙文块状结构中的一个板块，自然形成清晰的结构层次，让读者一目了然。这种形式的记叙文和线形结构的记叙文相比，其优势在于它容量大，内容复杂。在形式和内容两方面都给同学们提供了巨大的创造空间，易写出代表高三水平的复杂的记叙文来。当然它首先是记叙文，要求突出记叙文的文体特征——善于描写。这一点同上线形结构记叙文的要求，不再赘述。举例说明：

母 爱

(“答案是丰富多彩”话题作文)

二十年前父亲家很穷，只好娶了邻村的一个哑女为妻，这个哑女后来便成了我的母亲。

小的时候，同村的小伙伴在一起玩耍时，只要一见到我，便一哄而散，还丢下一句“他妈是哑巴，咱不跟他玩”。每当这时我只有哭着跑回家，将满肚子委屈全撒向无辜的母亲。她总是听完我的哭诉后默默地走开。从那时起我就开始埋怨老天对我的不公，也渐渐对我的哑母产生了一种厌恶。

调皮大概是所有顽童的天性吧。孤独的我惟一的爱好，便是“筑长城”：排满一长串的砖头，然后一推，便顺次倒下去，只有听见那轰轰烈烈的砖声时，我才能得到短暂的欢乐。有一次，我将邻居家的新砖砸断了好几块，邻居怒气冲冲地揪起我的耳朵将我拎到母亲的面前。她见到我在邻居手下揪得通红的耳朵，顿时眼泪像断了线的珠子直往下掉，用他公鸭般的嗓子训斥母亲：“不会说话，当然不会教导孩子。”只见母亲在他的训斥下，变得更加手足无措，最后“扑通”一下跪在地上。邻居见这架式，只好放开我，讪讪地离去了。当时我只觉得母亲的软弱对我是一种耻辱。

为了证明我这哑巴的儿子也能有出息，我一直发奋地读书。当我收到县重点中学录取通知书时，母亲的举动让我惊异：一直很沉默的她，拿着我的录取通知书横颠竖倒看了一遍又一遍：每看到一个村里人就拿出它兴奋地“嗷嗷”直叫，还手舞足蹈。我想她真的挺高兴，也许她只是想证明她哑巴的儿子不比别人差，她儿子的成功弥补了她的缺憾。看到她那副手舞足蹈的样子，我第一次觉得母亲其实也挺可爱的。

在县中念书挺不容易，为了不给原本就不富裕的家庭造成负担，我很少回家，只有父亲偶尔送些鸡蛋和自家的咸菜给我加加菜。那是一个数九天气的夜晚，上完晚自习往宿舍去，发现路边蜷着一个人。本来倒没注意，但当眼光触及那双破棉鞋时，我定住了脚步，是母亲!她抬起头抖了抖身上的雪，用笨重的步伐走到我身边，冻得伸不直的指头还死死扣住一个包。我打开包一看，一双新棉鞋和一些鸡蛋。我用手一摸，鸡蛋上还留有余温。她开心地拿出一个鸡蛋，剥开送到我的嘴边，看着她请求的目光，我含着泪咬下了一口。当知道她在雪地里等了我近两个小时后，我心疼地怒斥她：“为什么不到班级里来找我?”她委屈地低下头，用手语告诉我：“我不想让人知道你母亲是哑巴，他们会笑话你。”这时我再也不能抑制自己的感情，一把搂住了现在只及我肩高的母亲。她的表情更让我惭愧，她先是惊恐，后又转为高兴，最后试探性地搂住我。

世界上母爱的方式何止千万种，但我独爱母亲对我的爱，因为它是默默地。

点评：

这就是一篇典型的无标志块状结构的记叙文。全文由四件事情组成。每件事前后没有明显的结构上的标志。但四件事有一条感情线索串联：“也渐渐对我的哑母产生了一种厌恶”，“当时我只觉得母亲的软弱对我是一种耻辱”，“我第一次觉得母亲其实也挺可爱的”，“这时我再也不能抑制自己的感情，一把搂住了现在只及我肩高的母亲”。由“厌恶”“耻辱”到理解、感激形成一条感情线索。还有一个统一的主题：“世界上母爱的方式何止千万种，但我独爱母亲对我的爱，因为它是默默地”——歌颂母爱。这样这篇文章虽然“形散”但“神聚”。四件事自然形成块状结构，层次清晰，一目了然。当然，这篇记叙文也突出了记叙文的文体特征——善于描写，从而让读者充分体会到作者要传达的深挚感情并留下了深刻的印象。这是一篇成功的考场作文。

(2)有标志块状结构记叙文

这类记叙文每篇文章不仅由几件事或几个人物构成一个个板块，组成一篇完整的文章，而且有这样那样的明显的标志，使得原本自然、原始、界线模糊的几个板块，层次更加清晰，形式更加美观，考场作文的特点表现得更加鲜明，更易被阅卷老师接受和青睐。

按“标志”的不同可将有标志块状结构记叙文再分成四种形式，下面分别举例说明。

①数字小标题标志 如下文：

06年湖北作文题：

阅读下面的文字，根据要求作文。(60分)

在汉语里，“三”是个有意味的数词，构成了很多词语。比如：“三思而行”，“三省吾身”，“举一反三”,“三人行，必有我师”，“三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮”等等。这些词语既是社会生活现象或人生经验的概括，又隐含着一定的文化意蕴和人生哲理。

请根据你对上述词语或你所熟悉的其他带“三”词语(注意“三”在词语中的含义)的联想与感悟，写一篇文章，可以就某一个词语联想思考，也可以把几个词语联系起来思考。

要求：自定立意，自拟标题，自选文体，不少于800字。

三岔口

三个我分别守在三个不同的岔道口，前两个渐渐绝望，只能选择逃避，一起逃向第三个岔口，三个我同时汇合，去作出郑重的抉择。 ─题记

一

“快考试了吧?”老妈坐在沙发上询问我。

“明白!”我起身回到自己的房间，重重关上门，背靠着门，深呼吸。

为什么我可以不做自己喜欢的事，而偏偏学习是个例外呢?

我总对自己说，既然不喜欢，难道就不能选择放弃?时间上的距离，使我除了彷徨，还是彷徨。我变得固执偏激，抉择着前行的路口。我喜欢文学和音乐，夜深人静的时候，戴上随身听，伏在我一个人的书桌前，放飞心情，让灵魂徜徉，享受自由的我的快乐;但这并不能长久，岔路口上的“我”总被现实中的我拉了回来，走向比我还高的作业。我只好祈求幸运之神，可是在学习上，一直是被动、消沉的我，总是抱有能够侥幸过关的心理，但哪能每次都那么幸运啊!

我变得莫名的恐慌，来自无形的压力。

我开始选择逃避，逃窜出第一个岔口，我变得不像是本我了……

二

“很久没见了吧……现在怎么样了?”渐渐我害怕听到从前的老友的这句话，总是觉得彼此的距离越来越远了。我恨透了那个叫作距离的抽象的东西，它让我们彼此变得陌生，变得不再像从前的我们自己。

“改天一起出去玩吧?”

“嗯。”

没过几天又是一个短信，“对不起，那天我们不休息了，去不了”。“呵──没事。”其实长大后，越来越觉得约定有时候不太需要遵守，不再像小时候一样，两个小拇指勾在一起，就允诺一百年不许变，现在想想的确可笑。

落寂的心情没人理解，我黯然地离开第二个岔口，漫无目的，就那样游走。

三

一个人的时候，变得出奇的安静，害怕吵闹，觉得吵闹后隐藏着的都是一个个空虚的灵魂。

我游走到三岔口，看着三个失落的自己，一样的感伤，一齐的抱怨，与平时每一个守在不同岔口的自己似乎总有差距。我面向三岔路口，尽量让三个我归于平静。

如果要真正走出那个彷徨、绝望的三岔口，必需先认清不同的自己。我再次来到三岔口的中心，审视着其他的岔口，我不再让那两个我游走，我似乎看到用书籍铺就的道路上，长满了知识之树，盛开着睿智之花，哦，那才是我的抉择，闻着书香，伴着动听的音乐，我迈步前行……

点评：

文章有三个片断，每个片断上标有一个数字作标志。层次非常清晰，形式非常美观。这是文章结构上的特点。当然，它首先是一篇记叙文，突出了记叙文的文体特征——善于描写。每个片断都有生动细致的语言描写和心理描写，这是另一个关键所在。

②文字小标题标志

这类记叙文在组成记叙文的每个片断前都有一个文字小标题作标志，使得文章层次更加清晰，形式更加美观。对文字小标题的要求：语言简洁，结构一致。对组成记叙文的每个片断的要求：夹叙夹议。“叙”要用描写的表达方式，力求描写生动具体、语言形象优美;“议”要承担两个任务：一方面要揭示所叙片断的中心意思，另一方面要用简洁的语言，议论或抒情的表达方式，把“叙”的内容和话题恰当挂钩。这类文章的结尾要有总评，将几个片断所写的分散的内容统一到一个主题上来，并再次巧妙照应话题或命题，既做到形散神聚，又做到符合话题或命题。举例说明。

爱是什么

(“答案是丰富多彩”话题优秀作文)

也许，当亚当和夏娃从伊甸园中走出的那一天起，爱就与人类结下了不解之缘。人从诞生的那一天起，他的成长，死亡、与爱都如影相随。爱是人类永恒的话题，但是这一个简简单单的字，却很难给它一个准确的定义。因为，不同的人会见有不同的理解。

公园里

草地上，一个小宝宝正在学走路。他蹒跚地向不远处正伸开双臂的妈妈走去。一不小心。宝宝跌倒了，妈妈飞快地跑过去，将宝宝紧紧地抱在怀中，轻轻地揉着他的痛处。轻轻地安慰着他。不久，宝宝用挂着泪珠的小脸冲着妈妈乐了。妈妈将他抱得更紧了……

也许，在妈妈看来，爱是一种无私的给予，全心的奉献。

捐款处

1998年的洪水来势迅猛。前方的人民抗洪抢险，后方的人们用捐款捐物来尽自己一份绵薄的力量。一大早我就来到捐款处，谁知门口已经排起了长长的队伍。这其中有白发苍苍的老者，也有天真活泼的孩子;有衣着鲜艳的青年，也有衣着朴素的中年;有“大款”，也有下岗职工。大家为了共同的愿望，走到一起。只愿我们的心意能够快快送到远方受灾的亲人手里。

也许，捐款的人们认为，爱是一种及时，无私的援助。

深夜里

灯下，妻子正不停地织着毛衣。她的眼睛里布满了血丝，她已经连续几天几夜了。丈夫明天就要出差了，她想赶在丈夫走之前为他织好御寒的衣服。丈夫心疼她，让她不要织了，旧的还能穿。可妻子却依旧坚持，她要把无尽的关怀和浓浓的思念织进衣服里，伴他远行，盼他早归。

也许，妻子觉得，爱是一种不尽的关怀和无悔的付出。

爱，是一个具体而又抽象的概念。一千个会对它有一种不同的解释。但，我们没有必要为它下一个固定的定义，因为不同的心灵对爱的体会也不是相同的。

点评：

这篇块状结构的记叙文有文字小标题作标志，三个小标题“公园里”、“捐款处”、“深夜里”，语言非常简洁，结构保持一致，使得文章层次更加清晰，形式更加美观;夹叙夹议，三个片断中的斜体红字部分的“叙”是生动具体的描写，三个片断中与正文字体相同部分的“议”能够揭示片断中心，照应话题;总评，最后一自然段将三个材料母子之爱、友爱、夫妻之爱——“形”统一到本文主题“爱的答案是丰富多彩的”“神”上来了，做到了形散神聚。这是一篇内容丰富充实，又符合题意的成功的考场记叙文。

③空格标志

给块状结构的记叙文加数字标题或文字标题也许考场功利色彩太浓，有时也让有的阅卷老师反感。怎样做到既让记叙文层次结构清晰，读者一目了然，易于接受，又不让读者因文章结构的功利色彩太浓形式主义色彩太重而产生反感呢?有办法：既让记叙文的块状结构有标志，又不那么明显，不那么功利。片断与片断之间有内在的、相似的、大致同一的结构形式，又以“空格”将各片断自然分开，形成相对清晰的块状结构层次。从标志的角度讲，显得含蓄，有分寸感，度拿捏得好。适合更多不同个性和年龄特点的人的欣赏口味。

八·十八·二十八

(福建漫画材料优秀作文)

啪!”一巴掌猛地打在屁股上。我大哭起来。“老师怎么教你的，小草是绿的，太阳是红的。看看你，怎么画的?”我透过泪眼，看着那张被撕掉的画：小草是黄的，太阳也是黄的。为什么非要把小草画成绿的，把太阳画成红的?我戴爸爸那个太阳镜，看到的小草和太阳就是黄的。我不解。

“还有你的作文，”老师的喊声把我拉回现实，“让你写爸爸、妈妈，你怎么写的?妈妈是书童，爸爸是车夫。”“本来就是嘛，妈妈陪我读书，爸爸背我上学，不是书童、车夫，是什么?”我不服，和老师顶嘴。(语言描写和心理描写)

那年我八岁，还是一个不规则的多边形，新颖、多变，极富想象力。周长长，面积小，人生阅历浅。(议论)

“太过份了。”我回到家，把书包一扔，坐在沙发上生闷气。“怎么了?”爸爸关切地问。“今天考试，居然有人作弊，老师也没看到。”“他有没有抄你的?你有没有受影响?”说到作弊，父母如临大敌，紧张地问。“那倒没有。只是这样对努力学习的同学太不公平了。我要去举报。”“别傻了，没影响到你不就行了。举报，万一人家报复怎么办?再说了，那么多作弊的，你举报得过来吗?”听听父母的话，有道理，于是打消了举报的念头。

回到房间，我想起刚刚被老师读过的作文.写友情的.只是我所描述的友情与我遇到的相差甚远。文中用了很华丽的辞藻，而我拥有的友情都是简简单单，平平淡淡，却又很温馨的。“文章很唯美，但很违心。”我苦笑着对自己说。(语言描写和心理描写)

那年我十八岁，已经被渐渐改造成规则的图形，只是棱角还在，不新颖也不规范，不多变也不稳定。周长不长，面积也不小。(议论)

“我的这件衣服怎么样?”女伴向我展示她新买的衣服.“很不错，和你很配，你穿上它年轻了十岁.”我赞不绝口，其实那件衣服很难看，但我在‘赞美’的时候，竟没有任何感觉。全然没有第一次说违心话时的慌张.老板刚刚批评了我，说我工作的方法不对，并告诉我另一种工作方法。于是我很听话地按老板介绍的方法去工作，尽管方法更不对。但管他那么多，这是老板交待的工作方法，出了问题不关我的事。再说了，和老板顶嘴没好下场.多年的经历，已经让我有经验了。(语言描写和心理描写)

这年我二十八岁，已经被打磨成了一个圆了，我稳定，我周长短，我面积大。我的人生阅历丰富了，我变得世故圆滑了……(议论)

一天，去幼儿园接女儿，女儿哭着扑过来。“老师说太阳是红的，小草是绿的。可我戴爸爸那个黄黄的眼镜看到的太阳和小草就是黄的，老师说不行，还打我。”女儿哭哭啼啼地讲完。这些话猛地击中我的心，尘封已久的记忆大门猛地打开。我想起了那黄的草，黄的太阳，妈妈是书童，爸爸是车夫，想起那个未经世俗打磨的不规则的多边形。我的泪水悄然滑落，为不再拥有的那个不规则的多边形……

点评：

这篇块状结构的记叙文的结构标志体现在三个方面：一方面是题目的提示“八、十八、二十八”，提示主体内容有三块构成;另一方面是夹叙夹议，各片断内在的、相似的结构提示;再一方面是作者有意识在各片段之间设置的“空格”提示。当然，这篇文章首先是记叙文，有鲜明的记叙文的文体特征，描写生动具体，议论简洁精当，照应话题巧妙活泼细致贴切。(注：文中括号部分是点评老师加的)

④过渡句标志

这种块状结构的记叙文的标志形式是最美的记叙文结构形文。过渡句或领起句的标志有一石三鸟的作用：既在文章内容上有过渡作用或领起下文的作用，又在结构上有标明层次、美观形式的作用，还有统一主题、增加文学意蕴的作用，再次就是有娱人耳目，悦人身心的美妙的艺术效果。举例说明。

人与路

小时候，路是一条羊肠小道，你在这头，我在那头。

还记得么?那时的我，小小的，瘦瘦的，你从我妈手中接过我说：“这孩子，瘦成这样难养啊!”于是，你省吃俭用，把攒下来的钱给我买奶粉，买糖葫芦。渐渐地，我胖了，会走路了，一张小嘴甚是乖巧，一有空就跟在你后面，一个劲地叫“奶奶，奶奶”。而你却瘦了，村上人见了说：“老太婆怎么这么瘦啊?”你笑呵呵地抚摸着我的脑袋说：“千金难买老来瘦啊!”每到周末，你牵着我的手，走过那条羊肠小道来到村口等我妈来接，把我“归还”后你折身就走;奈不住我一再对你的呼唤，在小道的尽头，你转身再朝我挥挥手。我模糊地看到，你用袖子使劲地擦着自己的脸。

那条羊肠小道，如今已铺上水泥了罢?那些你踩过的脚印，早已不在了，可是，却深深地刻在我的心里。

再大些，路是一根电话线，你在家里，我在远方。

就像鹰要成为翱翔苍穹的使者，就必须离开母亲的怀抱，用双翅开拓出属于自己的蓝天，我离开了家，去远方念书，独自一人。背着沉甸甸的书包和你早就准备好的大袋水果，还有更沉的，是你的千叮咛万嘱咐。身处异地，成绩的不理想，以及同学关系的难处，让我屡次垂泪。于是打电话给你，向你倾诉，你的话语如涓涓细流，洗涤着我浮躁的、不安的心灵。慢慢的，我适应了环境，也很少想起你。偶尔打电话给你，听你用高兴而微颤的声音，叫我注意身体云云。我呢，总是用不在乎的口气应和着，老忘了提醒你不要吃热过几遍的菜。我知道，你一直在攒钱，为我。我听到你对隔壁的李婶说过：“俺孙女聪明着，俺现在多攒点钱，供她上大学!”

那根电话线，也许是天下最“窄”的路吧，可它却承载着天下最阔大的爱。

后来啊，路是一张张冥币，你在天上，我在地上。

你说，你要等我回来再走，可是你忍了三天三夜，念叨了一个礼拜，我还是没回来。看到你时，你那双在田间耕作了半个世纪的手凉了。我问自己，上哪找你?唯有借着这些冥币，让它们为我铺一条“心路”，寄托我的深情，问候天堂里的你……

点评：

这篇块状结构记叙文用三个过渡句“小时候，路是一条羊肠小道，你在这头，我在那头”、“ 再大些，路是一根电话线，你在家里，我在远方”、“ 后来啊，路是一张张冥币，你在天上，我在地上”串联起文章的三个片断，既提示结构层次，又丰富文章韵味。对过渡句或领起句的要求：尽量做到结构一致，尽量做到与上下文实际内容切合无际，逻辑上有并列关系或层递关系。结构构成一致，内容前后呼应本身就有内在地含蓄地提醒和标明层次的作用。妙就妙在这里，有提醒但很含蓄，有标志但很内在，很中国化，受众易理解，乐接受，老少皆宜。

1、重视增加阅读量是提高英语写作的途径之一

目前，考生在进行大量阅读的同时，应注重所读材料的文章结构以及连接词的运用(ontheotherhand，however，furthermore)、作者的表达方式(词汇、习惯用语和典型句子的使用)、作者是如何进行叙述和议论的。

2、在教师的指导下，平时应勤写多练

练习写作应从基本功抓起。在中译英翻译训练过程中，加强积累适量的词汇、词组和增加各种类型句子的运用。把握好各种句型和词汇的搭配，并从各类题材和体裁着手，多阅读好的范文。然后模仿写作，作文写好之后，一般都要修改。

第一遍收笔后，先看一看结构，然后从字词上推敲，使文章“充实”起来。更重要的是经老师修改过的作文一定要仔细地看一至两遍，然后再认真地抄写一遍，收获将会很大。

3、英文写作“四步走”

由于时间限制，考试时必须在所限定的时间内完成英语作文。英语作文步骤如下：

（1)作文动笔之前一般都要先打腹稿。在确立中心上、运用材料上、篇章结构上，充分酝酿。

（2)考虑好想写多少句子，该用哪些动词和词组等。

（3)边写边思考内容的连贯性，语言和句子的准确性。

（4)写完后一定要再细看一遍。

铭仁园高三话题类作文常用短语与句型荟萃(一)----旅游&交通

本话题主要包括：1.旅游；2.描述一次旅程；

针对本话题，高考命题人员可能会从以下角度来命题。

1.描述个人旅游经历 2. 谈旅行中的不文明现象 3 .太空旅游、生态旅游 4.度假方式的变化及其原因5.旅游计划的拟订、准备及注意事项 一、话题常用单词

1. travel/journey/trip/tour n.旅游，旅行 16. a group/organized tour n. 团体游

2. travel agency n. 旅行社 17. a self-driving tripn. 自驾游

3. guiden. 向导，导游 18. destinationn. 目的地

4. flight ticketn. 机票 19. sceneryn. 风景，景色

5. passport n. 护照 20. disadvantage n. 不利条件

6. visan.签证 21. insurancen. 保险

7. identity card(ID) 身份证 22. interesting/ funny/ exciting adj 有趣的

8. tent n. 帐篷 23. enjoyable令人愉快的

9. camp n&vi. 露营 24. memorable 令人难忘的

10. hoteln. 旅馆 25. attractive/fascinatingadj 迷人的

11. necessity n. 必需品 26. boring/dull/tiringadj.无聊的

12. schedule n. 计划表，日程表 27. well-organized adj 组织有序的

13. tourist attractions/places of interest 28. convenient adj 方便的，便利的 /scenic spots/sights旅游景点 29. crowded adj 拥挤的

14. DIY tour n. 自助游 30. severe/seriousadj 严重的 15. space tourism n. 太空旅游

二、话题常用短语

1. go on a wildlife tour/a hiking trip

参加野生动物之旅/去远足

2. be on holiday/a trip to sp 去某地度假/旅行

3. see sb off 送行

4. pay a visit to sp/sb 参观某地/拜访某人

5. show sb around 带领某人参观

6. set out/off 出发，启程

7. check in 登记住宿

8. check out 结账退房

9. have a good time/enjoy oneself/have fun 玩的开心

10. broaden one’s horizon/mind 开拓视野

11. eich one’s knowledge丰富知识

11. experience foreign culture 体验国外的文化

12. join a tour group参加旅游团 三、话题常用句型

1. He who travels far knows much. 远行者见闻多。

2. Travelling can eich our knowledge.旅游可以丰富我们的知识。

3. Travelling enables us to learn a lot that we cannot get from books 旅游可以使我们学到很多在书本上学不到的东西。

4. It’s my pleasure to tell you how to get to the Great Wall. 我很乐意告诉你如何到达长城。

5. Welcome to Sichuan. I feel it an honor to be your guide. 欢迎来到四川。我很荣幸能够担任你的导游。

6. I will keep you company to visit numerous places of interest.我将陪你去参加许多的名胜古迹

7. A visit to Sichuan will be an unforgettable experience. 到四川旅行将会令人难忘。

8. There are many places of interest in Sichuan, such as…四川有很多名胜古迹，比如…

9. Sichuan is rich in tourist attractions and enjoys many world-famous places of interest.

四川有很多景点，并且享有很有世界著名的名胜古迹。

10. However, travelling may cause some problems. 然而，旅行可能会造成一些问题。

11. Great changes have taken place in the ways that people spend their holidays in the past decades. 在近几十年内，人们的度假方式已经发生了巨大的变化。

四、佳作欣赏

nick,将于八月来四川旅游，特来询问，有关旅游景点的情况，请根据，提供的要求写封回信，表示盼望他的到来

要点：1.旅游资源：许多世界著名的风景名胜，如九寨沟（海子：清澈见底，色彩斑斓）；都

江堰水利工程（2000年的历史，仍发挥作用） 2.相关信息： 气侯适宜，交通方便。

Dear Nick,

Im glad to hear that youre coming to Sichuan in August. Youve made the wise choice to travel here. Sichuan Province is rich in tourist attractions and enjoys many world-famous places of interest, such as Jiuzhaigou and Dujiangyan Irrigation Projcet.

Jiuzhaigou is well known for its beautiful lakes, of which the water is clear and looks colorful. It can excite visitors imagination. Another attraction is Dujiangyan Irrigation Project. It was built over 2,000 years ago and is still playing an important part in irrigation today. Besides, the nice weather and convenient transportation here can make your trip more enjoyable. Im sure youll have a good time. Im looking forward to your coming.

假设你是李华，父母答应你今年高三毕业后去美国进行为期10天的观光旅游。请你给美国网友Lucy 写一封电子邮件，咨询以下事情：1. 不随团旅游的食宿、交通等问题。2. 必看景点与时间安排 3. 邀请她到中国观光。

Dear Lucy

How are you doingMy parents have just promised me to make a 10-day tour of America after my graduation from senior high school this summer, which will be a good chance for me to experience American culture and practice my oral English.

As I don’t like to join a tour group, could you please offer me some advice on where to stay, what to eat and how to travel in such a short timeI would appreciate it if you could tell the must-see attractions and the time arrangement. Your advice will surely make my visit enjoyable and worthwhile.

Welcome to China at your convenience. Looking forward to your early reply.

范文二：文明旅游

有些旅游景点的文物景观遭到了严重的破坏，致使最近文明旅游的倡议越来越受重视，因此就“游客可付费在仿造长城上涂写留言”发表看法。

内容包括：(1)谈谈对某些人喜欢在旅游景点随便涂鸦留言的看法;

(2)对专门修一段仿造城墙让游客付高价留言的做法你是赞成还是反对，并简要陈述你的理由。

It is reported that tourists to China’s Great Wall can now leave their mark on a fake(伪造的) wall recently built near the real wall in Badaling if they pay 999 yuan.

In China, many visitors have the hobby of carving graffiti on places of interest, especially on some famous cultural relics. Last year I went to the Great Wall and found many people had left names and ugly words on the Wall, which destroys many historic bricks. In my opinion, such people should feel ashamed of leaving their marks on the great relics which were created by our ancestors.

So personally, I quite agree with this brilliant project though it has caused criticism from some people. The Great Wall would be ruined one day if we didn’t take any steps to protect it. The fake wall is a really good idea because it will protect our relics as well as making profits from the project

英语四级成绩在500分及以上可以报考口语; 六级成绩在425分及以上可以报考口语。

大学英语四级考试425分可以报考大学英语六级考试。

◆英语四级多少分算过?及格线是多少?

全国英语四级改革之后，报道成绩满分为710分，凡考试成绩在220分以上的考生，由国家教育部高教司委托“全国大学英语四六级考试委员会”发给成绩单，不设及格线。但全国英语四六级规定“英语四级成绩达到425分以上(含425分)者，可以报考英语六级”。一般认为英语四级的及格线是425分。对于招聘企业来说，分数越高自然更受青睐。

◆英语四级多少分属于优秀呢?

四级考多少分算高分?每个人的看法不同,满分是710，肯定分越高，越优秀， 有网友也说道：起码要550，550可以参加口试。但是小编这里建议是目标要按照自己水平定，别给自己太大压力。将目标定得比实际水平略高，这样比较好。

◆四级要考多少分才能参加口试?

2005年6月及以后的纸笔或网考四级成绩为500分以上(含500分)。

议论文的写作，总体上来讲，可能它的难度显得要比记叙文大一点。上句下句之间有一种什么逻辑联系呀?材料跟观点之间是不是有个严密的因果关系呀?好多同学这一方面好像水平不太高，注意得不够。议论文很需要语言的连贯，一句接一句，一句接一句，语气很流畅地下去，把一个理讲了，才能服人，但是不少同学那个语言疙疙瘩瘩的，不是很好。

议论文要以理服人，那么以理服人，人家怎么服你呀?觉得你这个理对他才服你，没理搅理谁服你?怎么才能让人觉得你的理对?你要用材料证明你的观点，你的材料跟你的观点之间必须有一种很严密的因果关系。你在用每一个材料甚至于你在写每一句话的时候，你都要考虑：这个是不是能得出那个果来呀?因为什么什么所以什么啊，要考虑这个;我写的这个跟因果关系能搭得上吗?你要琢磨这个。打个简单的比方，证明两个三角形全等，或者两边加一角，或者两角加一边，角A等于角AP，角B等于角BP，AB等于AB，所以两个三角形全等。你写了这个，对证明这个结论就管用。我发现有的同学写作文，我仍然用这个比方，角A36度，角BP71度，这玩意跟三角形全等有什么关系?没关系，没关系你写它干嘛?咱们这个注意得不够。议论文里面，这是一个问题。

咱们许多同学写作文有一个习惯，给我一个观点我立刻一个例子、两个例子、三个例子，还有什么理吗?没了。有的同学再多，四个例子五个例子，只是写成了证明文，没有写成议论文。论证论证，要论要证，你不论哪行?当然事实论证是一种方法，但是，仅仅是一种啊，你只用这个，不大容易使人服。我们有的同学一到写艰苦朴素，张三艰苦朴素，李四艰苦朴素，王五艰苦朴素，所以我们要艰苦朴素。为什么所以我们要啊?你这个文章能让人服吗?要学会讲理就是要变单纯举例为就例说理。就例说理，就是结合着这个例子，就着这个例子我来讲一点理。咱们要学会掌握这种方法，例子举完了，然后马上我紧接着这个例子我来讲一点理，使得这个例子更好地为证明观点服务。而我讲这个分析这个例子说的话，也是更好地为观点服务，把这个例和理拴得紧紧的。要做到这一点，或者，我换句话来说，你们不是以例代理吗?用例子代替道理吗?怎样就例说理。第一种方法，叫做假言因果法。就是说，用假设性的语言，把事物之间的因果关系讲出来，使得人们服你。先说一个例子，你听一听。欧立西为了发明一种新药，坚持进行实验，失败了，总结教训再干，一直实验了606次，才获得了成功，制出了以实验次数命名的新药606。我们有的同学写到这儿可能底下就来，“由此看来，坚持到底就是胜利”。应当说这个例子是能说，证明这个道理，但是觉得不够。你为什么不对这个例子再进行一点分析呢?好，大家接着往下听。“新药的问世是坚持的结果。假如欧立西仅仅实验一次，失败后就撒手不干了，新药当然不会问世。就是他实验了605次，失败了以后不再坚持，也绝不可能有新药的制成;正是因为他坚持到了最后，才获得了最后的胜利。所以，可以说，坚持到底就是胜利。”

你看看假如他仅仅实验一次就停下来了，是不是假设，进行假设性的分析?那么，进行假设性的分析，它当然有一个最基本的要求，大家要注意：进行假设性的分析，就是你举的例子是正面的，那么你就从反面来假设分析;你举的例子是反面例子，你就从正面来进行假设。基本要求，因为它是假设性的，所以叫做假言因果法。是吧，用假设性的语言，这是第一个办法。

第二个办法叫做论据引申法。你举了一个例子，是吧?这个例子是不是论据呀?由这个论据里面你可能看到了一定的苗头，看到了某种苗头，然后你就就着这个苗头你给它引申出去，这是看出苗头来了。而你由这个事例里面，你可以设想出某种结果，你就往那个方向引申一下。那么它跟假言因果有什么不同呢，或者说区别在哪儿呢?就是这个例子里面，它已经有某种苗头可以看出来了，刚才那个是不是完全假设，是不是?人家没有停过，第一次没停，到605次人家也没停。下面要讲的就是这个例子里面它有一种苗头，好，现在先把这个例子说一说。

缪贤心胸开阔，他发现蔺相如的才德，并不因为他出生卑贱而瞧不起他，而是不怕群臣嘲笑，把蔺相如推荐给赵王，得以出使秦国。蔺相如此去吉凶难料，虽然他有勇有才，但未必能旗开得胜，若是此去非但没有换回秦国的城池，连“天下所共传宝”的和氏璧也被秦国夺走了，辱没了赵国的威名，那么赵王一怒之下，恐怕不只是杀了蔺相如一个了事，连缪贤也将因推荐庸才之过而受到牵连。但缪贤并不惧怕这些，他识才敢用，非常信任蔺相如，置个人安危于不顾，毅然把蔺相如推荐到赵王面前。若非出于对国事的关心，是难以做到的。

好了，这个例子，请看从这儿开始，“若是此去非但没有换回秦国的城池，连天下所共传宝的和氏璧也被秦王夺走”，这个是不是出现苗头了?这个璧丢了就不是假设吧?差一点丢，苗头出现了，就此我来引申。假如这个璧丢了，倒霉的恐怕不只是蔺相如了，是不是?你这个缪贤怎么把这个大草包推荐给我呀?必然除了蔺相如要被杀，缪贤也要倒霉。缪贤没有顾虑，是吧?推荐人才要出于公心，从国家利益出发，不要考虑个人，一引申把这个道理是不是讲得很清楚了?更能服人了，是吧?所以，第二种方法我把它叫做论据引申，就是它是有这个苗头的，有这种可能性。

第三个方法，叫做例后解说法。这个例后解说法，怎么用?用在哪儿?要提醒大家。你举了一个例子，当这个例子比较长的时候，可能你有一个担心：对于这个事例的中心，别人认识会不会和我不一样呢?你把它解说一下;二，同样你举的那个例子比较长了，可能你会有一个考虑，我这个例子跟观点是个什么关系，别人会不会跟我认识不太一样?或者觉得我这个例子跟我要讲的观点关系不那么密切。这个时候你来把这个例子解说一下，这个例子或者解说它的中心是什么，或者解说这个例子跟中心有什么关系，在这个范围内你解说一下。同样用一个事例来说话。

从前有一种病，这种病使人食欲不振，最后导致人死亡，在当时几乎是不治之症。有一位化学家，也得了这种病。有一天他路过一个村子，村里的人听说他有这个病，于是乎告诉他，我们这个村里面有一种神水，一口井里的水，能治你的病。化学家听了，照办了，就去喝那个水，结果病好了。病好了以后，化学家就想：为什么这个水能救我啊?结果就是这么一个村子里的人们从来不曾想过的问题，促使化学家去研究，最后化学家发现水里含有芒硝，芒硝救了他，因此他发现了芒硝的药用作用。

大家听到这个故事了，这故事的中心是什么，你清楚吗?也许你想到一点。用这个想证明哪个观点呢?好，下面往下听，正所谓“于不疑处有疑，方是进矣”(宋代张载语)古人的话，在别人没有产生疑问的地方，你产生疑问了，你这就是比别人前进了一步了。村里的人就知道能治病，想了没有，从来不想;化学家想了，发现芒硝了，说什么，正所谓“于不疑处有疑，方是进矣”(宋代张载语)。“疑”是发现矛盾的钥匙，“思”与“学”是解决矛盾的方法，发现矛盾是解决矛盾的开端，“疑”便是“思”与“学”的“端”和“始”了。

一个人要善于质疑，善于质疑你才会去学，才会去思，最终可能才能解决问题。这儿讲什么，善于质疑和学、思的关系，因为你善于质疑了，你才会去学，才会去思，还暗含着一个才可能得出一个最终结果。解说一下目的是为了说明这个。好了，这样子这个例子就能很好地为中心服务了。

第四个方法，我把它叫做正反对比法。这个正反对比可不像学生那个作文里面，一个正面的例子，一个反面的例子，还是两例子往这放在一块。当然，免不了要举例，因为我这说了正反对比，两种情况。一种情况是我可能一个正面的例子，一个反面的例子搁在这里。但是，并不是搁在这儿就算数了，要对这个例子还要进一步进行分析。或者，举一个例子，这个例子里面含有正反两种因素，这个例子举完了，从正反两个方面来加以对照性分析，重在分析，不是例子。跟你们说举一个例子、举两个例子一对比就完了不是一回事。好，用一段文章来告诉你们。

孙膑与庞涓同出于鬼谷子门下。他们二人可说是精于谋略，都是不可多得的人才。但是当孙膑来到庞涓任职的魏国时，庞涓嫉妒他的才能，表面恭敬，内心狠毒，多次向魏王进谗言，以致使孙膑被挖去膝盖骨，不得展其才志。而，转到另外一个方面。而齐王听说孙膑之才，不惜费尽心力，将孙膑请到齐国，委以重任。齐军终于有了马陵道之胜。例子是不是完了?想说什么，想说“好集体不会埋没人才”?但是人家没有就此而止，下面做对比性分析。要害在这儿呢。

同是孙膑，为何落得两种境遇呢?就是因为他效劳于优劣不同的两个统治集团。在魏国，庞涓只为私利，妒贤嫉能，魏王昏庸，偏听偏信，而且缺乏识别千里马的伯乐眼光。试想孙膑在这么一个集体中，如何施展大志呢?而齐王任贤用能，身边的臣子也不像庞涓那样谋私，因而上下齐心，孙膑在此，可说计出即行，正得以充分发挥作用。可见，好集体不会埋没人才。你看看，如果仅仅是刚才这个例子，跟多了这个对于事例的对比性分析，你觉得效果怎么样?是不是多了分析，说服力就更强了?议论文，议论文，你要议论，这就是议论。

顺便再介绍另一种方法，这个不叫事例分析。同学们写作文，还有一个习惯，喜欢引用名言名句。某某某说得好，说什么什么，说的正是这个意思，就完了。某某某这么这么说，他的这个说法不是证明了这个道理吗，这就证明道理了。那么你要不要对某某某的话分析一下呢?要分析，不能简单地引一下就完。简单地引一下就完效果不好。给大家举个例子说说。这个例子干嘛?告诉你，这个方法叫做披文示意。披露一段文字解释它的含义。披露文字解释含义在解释含义过程当中，使得这一段话更有说服力，更能证明观点。当然解释意思本身也是在证明观点，我给大家读一个你听一听。

“常见有这种人，遇事总是自惭形秽。我认为，做人还是不要妄自菲薄。”观点出来了没有?出来了。“俄国作家契诃夫曾经说过：“有大狗，有小狗，但小狗无需因大狗的存在而惶惑”。我们有的同学写作文，到了这儿，契诃夫说的就是这个意思啊，完了。你能有说服力吗?不行。好，你听下面，人家有一句话过渡了一下，“天下人也是如此这般。“有大狗，有小狗”就如人世间存在有能力、有风度、有才华的人们，也存在各方面略有些不足的人。天下事纷繁复杂，天下人更是多种多样，这是自然选择的结果。“但小狗无需因大狗的存在而惶惑”。是的，小狗的存在自有其价值，自有其自然选择的位置，何必因为“小”就在“大”者面前惶惑不安呢?大狗是小狗长成的，如果小狗们自轻自贱，纵使长成大狗，也会在自卑的压迫下碌碌无为。何况，小狗的娇媚，表演技能的高超，也是大狗们望尘莫及的。”

大家听出来了，是不是还是沿着契诃夫那个比喻的意思继续延伸比喻下去的，是不是?下面再告诉你一个例子，就这一段话引用完了，有的同学用比较直白的语言就说，不是用比喻了，把这个道理也说出来了。

契诃夫曾经说过：“有小狗，有大狗，但小狗无需因大狗的存在而惶惑”。小狗，比喻那些初出茅庐的青年人，大狗则比喻那些有名望的老前辈。青年人应该尊重老前辈，虚心向他们学习，但也不能妄自菲薄。正像契诃夫所说的：“小狗无需因大狗的存在而惶惑”。有些青年人把老前辈历年言语作为金科玉律，哪怕是错误的言论，也不敢加以评论。这种做法只能使他们的思想凝滞，缺乏创造性活力。这种现象在自然科学界和社会科学界尤其明显。老前辈的理论被奉为金科玉律，无人敢提出异议，而真正有作为的青年人向来是自信的，他们敢向科学权威挑战，在事业上取得了成就。因此，劝君不要妄自菲薄，应该有自己的主见。

你看这段是不是用比较直白的话，把道理说出来了，是吧?“不要自惭形秽，不要妄自菲薄，要有主见。”人家不只是说把名人的话一引就完。这种方法也该学一学，这会增加议论文的说服力。

第二个大题，变换一下思路求变求新。也就是说，改变一下习惯性思维。有的同学一看到这个试卷上给了一个材料，马上就想起了一个什么东西。但是呢，缺乏创新，习惯性思维起作用了。我们是不是能够改变改变思维的方向，一个材料一个话题，你是不是要想到许多相关的方面?

比方说这个成语，滥竽充数。你们是不是脑子里边马上反应到那个南郭先生不怎么样，凑数呢，不学无术，不求上进。但是仅仅想到这个行吗?还有新的方面可以想。齐王能不能想到，比方讲，齐王是不是冒充内行?他假如真正地懂音乐，一个乐队里面那个叽哩哇啦的声音他发现不了，他的听觉不敏锐，并不是很懂音乐，还是外行。好了，话题出来了，担任领导工作的人要尽量使自己成为内行，不要仅仅靠权力去领导，要靠学识去领导。这个话题是不是出来了?好了，上百人的乐队大家想一想看，是不是得有一个队长吧?这个队长为什么没有发现南郭先生那个声音吹得那么难听?好了，用人不当，这个话题是不是又找出来了?领导干部要把人放到适合他的位置上去，让他充分发挥作用，尤其不要让那种不大负责任的人去负责某项工作。这个话题是不是又出来了?用人不当，不是说用南郭先生。你这个队长不行，又有新话题了，比方说，从乐队的其他竽手那儿能不能找到话题?也能找到，他南郭先生身边的人是不是能听出南郭先生吹得不怎么样?好了，为什么不揭发?“报告队长，这位南郭同志不怎么样，混事呢。”不揭发，混下去了，好了，老好人要不得，是吧?又有话题来了。我们需要的就是这个，要向多向去想去，去联想。这个材料里边能看出这个来，能看出那个来，你能看出来，看到一个新的，你这个作文绝对有新意了。但是同学们有的时候缺乏这个，从新角度去考虑。

第三个问题叫做不要端着金饭碗讨饭。有好多同学手里端着金饭碗，这个金饭碗多值钱，但是他却讨饭：“老爷爷给点吧，太太给点吧。”你那么富有。这里说的富有是什么?许多同学手里有理，没有自觉地想到用。“老师，怎么说理呀?我不会，我哪来那么多理?”其实你手中理有的是。因此，怎么改变端着金饭碗讨饭的现象?建议你把你手头掌握的理，梳梳辫子，整理整理看看你有哪些方面的理，到考场上根据需要你来用。下面，举几个例子来说说，你手头有哪些理。

比方量变和质变的理，内因和外因的理，原因和结果的理，现象和本质的理，目的和手段的理……你们手头掌握这么多理，梳理梳理，把它梳成辫子。到考场上，讲这个事的时候，要说个什么理，讲那个事的时候我要讲个什么理，哪几种理可以用上。

下面是语文迷网整理提供的35个初中英语写作会用到的句型，大家一起来看看吧。

一、~~~ the + ~ est + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + haveever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

~~~ the most + 形容词 + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

例句：

Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

海伦是我所看过最美丽的女孩。

Mr. Chang is the kindest teacher that I have ever had.

张老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。

二、Nothing is + ~~~ er than to + V Nothing is + more + 形容词 + than to + V

例句：

Nothing is more important than to receive education.

没有比接受教育更重要的事。

三、~~~ cannot emphasize the importance of ~~~ too much.(再怎么强调...的重要性也不为过。)

例句：

We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。

四、There is no denying that + S + V ...(不可否认的...)

例句：

There is no denying that the qualities of our living have gone from bad to worse.

不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。

五、It is universally acknowledged that + 句子~~ (全世界都知道...)

例句：

It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable to us.

全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。

六、There is no doubt that + 句子~~ (毫无疑问的...)

例句：

There is no doubt that our educational system leaves something to be desired.

毫无疑问的我们的教育制度令人不满意。

七、An advantage of ~~~ is that + 句子 (...的优点是...)

例句：

An advantage of using the solar energy is that it wont create (produce) any pollution.

使用太阳能的优点是它不会制造任何污染。

八、The reason why + 句子 ~~~ is that + 句子 (...的原因是...)

例句：

The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air./ The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can supply fresh air for us.

我们必须种树的原因是它们能供应我们新鲜的空气。

九、So + 形容词 + be + 主词 + that + 句子 (如此...以致于...)

例句：

So precious is time t

that we cant afford to waste it.

时间是如此珍贵，我们经不起浪费它。

十、Adj + as + Subject(主词)+ be, S + V~~~ (虽然...)

例句：

Rich as our country is, the qualities of our living are by no means satisfactory. {by no means = in no way = on no account 一点也不}

虽然我们的国家富有，我们的生活品质绝对令人不满意。

十一、The + ~er + S + V, ~~~ the + ~er + S + V ~~~

The + more + Adj + S + V, ~~~ the + more+ Adj + S + V ~~~(愈...愈...)

例句：The harder you work, the more progress you make.

你愈努力，你愈进步。

The more books we read, the more learned we become.

我们书读愈多，我们愈有学问。

十二、By +Ving, ~~ can ~~ (借着...，..能够..)

例句：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy.

借着做运动，我们能够始终保持健康。

十三、~~~ enable + Object(受词)+ to + V (..使..能够..)

例句：Listening to music enable us to feel relaxed.

听音乐使我们能够感觉轻松。

十四、On no account can we + V ~~~ (我们绝对不能...)

例句：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge.

我们绝对不能忽略知识的价值。

十五、It is time + S + 过去式 (该是...的时候了)

例句：It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems.

该是有关当局采取适当的措施来解决交通问题的时候了。

十六、Those who ~~~ (...的人...)

例句：Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished.

违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。

十七、There is no one but ~~~ (没有人不...)

例句：There is no one but longs to go to college.

没有人不渴望上大学。

十八、be + forced/compelled/obliged + to + V (不得不...)

例句：Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports.

既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃做运动。

十九、It is conceivable that + 句子 (可想而知的)

It is obvious that + 句子 (明显的)

It is apparent that + 句子 (显然的)

例句：It is conceivable that knowledge plays an important role in our life.

可想而知，知识在我们的一生中扮演一个重要的角色。

二十、That is the reason why ~~~ (那就是...的原因)

例句：Summer is sultry. That is the reason why I dont like it.

夏天很燠热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。

二十一、For the past + 时间，S + 现在完成式.(过去...年来，...一直...)

例句：For the past two years, I have been busy preparing for the examination.

过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。

二十二、Since + S + 过去式，S + 现在完成式。

例句：Since he went to senior high school, he has worked very hard.

自从他上高中，他一直很用功。

二十三、It pays to + V ~~~ (...是值得的。)

例句：It pays to help others.

帮助别人是值得的。

二十四、be based on (以...为基础)

例句：The progress of thee society is based on harmony.

社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。

二十五、Spare no effort to + V (不遗余力的)

例句：We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

我们应该不遗余力的美化我们的环境。

二十六、bring home to + 人 + 事 (让...明白...事)

例句：We should bring home to people the valueof working hard.

我们应该让人们明白努力的价值。

二十七、be closely related to ~~ (与...息息相关)

例句：Taking exercise is closely related to health.

做运动与健康息息相关。

二十八、Get into the habit of + Ving= make it a rule to + V (养成...的习惯)

We should get into the habit of keeping good hours.

我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。

二十九、Due to/Owing to/Thanks to + N/Ving, ~~~(因为...)

例句：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream.

因为他的鼓励，我终于实现我的梦想。

三十、What a + Adj + N + S + V!= How + Adj + a + N + V!(多么...!)

例句：What an important thing it is to keep our promise!

How important a thing it is to keep our promise!

遵守诺言是多么重要的事!

三十一、Leave much to be desired (令人不满意)

例句：The condition of our traffic leaves much to be desired.

我们的交通状况令人不满意。

三十二、Have a great influence on ~~~ (对...有很大的影响)

例句：Smoking has a great influence on our health.

抽烟对我们的健康有很大的影响。

三十三、do good to (对...有益)，do harm to (对...有害)

例句：Reading does good to our mind.读书对心灵有益。

Overwork does harm to health.工作过度对健康有害。

三十四、Pose a great threat to ~~ (对...造成一大威胁)

例句：Pollution poses a great threat to our existence.

污染对我们的生存造成一大威胁。

三十五、do ones utmost to + V = do ones best (尽全力去...)

例句：We should do our utmost to achieve our goal in life.

我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标。

同学们写议论文时，有的文章却脉络不明，似断似连，甚至出现裂痕，缺乏过渡这个段与段、层与层之间的桥梁纽带。不妨回顾一下，我们读过的许多文章，学过的不少课文，之所以如行云流水般通畅自然，没有人工斧凿的痕迹，是与恰当安排过渡分不开的。那么议论文中的 过渡主要包括哪些方面呢?

一、材料与观点的过渡，常用的表述方式：

(1)这则材料告诉我们这样一个道理……(得到了这样的启示……)

(2)这虽是一则寓言，但却形象地说明了……(这则材料的寓意是……)

(3)由此观之……

(4)为什么会这样呢?

(5)由此，我明白了一个深刻而又平凡的道理……

【例1】

我曾读过一本书，是说美国人的消费，美国人都是花未来的钱，而享受现在，‘举债度日’，我想一旦出现无赖不肯还钱，怎么办?原来美国有个信用局，若某君出现信用违规，即通知各大银行，封杀他的所有借款，此招足以使其无立身之地。这让我想起了中国的诚信，诚信是国人引以为傲的美德，‘人无信而不立’。”

二、论点与论述之间的过渡

话题作文，学生从话题包含的内容，生发开去，阐述见解。一部分学生写议论文，提出中心论点，然后结合生活和社会现象对论点进行论证，但缺乏必要的语言过渡，使观点与材料分离。写作中，由提出论点到联系现实进行分析论证，学生常常使用“现实生活也有同类者”“我不禁想到现实生活中的同类现象”等句子进行过渡，形成观点与论述之间的自然转换，文气贯通。

1、由此，我联想到我们人类社会……

2、物性如此，我们人类何尝不是这样……

3、……这给我们一个深刻的启示……

4、物犹如此，人亦然。

【例2】

马卡连柯的话令人深思。对花赞赏之余，为什么要手里拿起铁铲、剪刀和巴黎绿呢?为什么不考虑花是否愿意接受呢?这是因为花虽美，但美中也会有不足之处，美中会有隐患。如果不及时清除那些杂枝、病枝、虫害，再美的鲜花也会衰败、凋零。物性如此，人类何尝不是这样，我们的师长在表扬肯定我们的优点和成绩的同时，更要指出我们存在的缺点和不足，也就是说，要想“爱之深”，就得“责之切”。

三、理论论证与事实论证之间的过渡。

论辩时理论论证为使论述变得深刻，事实论证为使论证显得具体，分析说理时联系生活实际，避免泛泛而谈，内容空洞，两者结合使用就应注意由此及彼的恰当过渡。

(一)事实到理论

1、“就拿……来说吧”或“例如……”来过渡;

2、纵观古今，凡是……无不是……

3、古往今来，无数成功者的业绩都……

4、纵观古今中外名人学者的成功历程，不难发现，他们的成功的秘诀在于……

5、放眼寰球，纵观古今，大凡有……无不是……

【例3】

古往今来，情感高于理性的事情屡见不鲜，而理性控制情感的例子也不少。

【例4】

历览古来圣贤人，无不对事物做出客观公正的评价，在处理事情上力求做到公正不偏私。

【例5】

举目四望，古今中外，有多少英雄豪杰因内心之好恶而惨遭滑铁卢?古代如此，今天亦如此，或许，将来也如此。

【例6】

历史上的教训，足以使我们对此有更为清醒的认识!

【例7】

其实，古往今来，不少人都调准了自己感情的"焦距"，为自己展现出了清晰的世界。

(二)理论到事实

若先事实论证再理论论证，过渡文字一般则是对事实包含道理的分析、总括。

1、有位哲人曾这样说过：“……”

“这正如……所说……”等词语或句子进行过渡。

2、在生活中广为传颂着这样一句名言：“……”它告诉我们这样一个深刻而又平凡的道理……

3、“……”，不正是……精神的真实写照吗?可见……

4、“……”这妇孺皆知的俗语告诉我们一个平凡而又深刻的道理：……

5、“……”这句话曾鼓舞了多少仁人志士，然而今天……

四、正面论证与反面论证之间的过渡。

1、正面分析与反面分析之间的过渡，一般借助“反之”“相反”“否则”“如果不这样”等关联性词语完成;

2、正面举例与反面举例之间的过渡则一般采用“也有与此相反的情况”“相反的事例如……”等句式过渡。

而现实生活中我们又是如何呢?

而现实生活中总有那么一小部分人……

【例8】

古人尚能如此理性面对问题，可如今的世界却有很多人，无法理性地面对自己的实际和考虑别人的情况。如果"非典"在发现初期就被重视而不隐报，也午今天的"非典"就不会如此猖撅。如果美国理性面对伊拉克的核危机，试着用卜交手段解决，也许美伊战争就不会爆发，也就不会有那么多人死伤了。

五、层与层的过渡。

为了使论述充分、深入，写议论文必须讲究说理的层次性。说理时各层次之间的关系，以并列关系和递进关系为主，具有并列关系的层次之间的过渡一般借助“同时”“还要”等关联词语过渡衔接;具有递进关系的层次之间的过渡则往往借助“不仅如此……而且”“更进一步说”以及“当然”等词句进行过渡衔接。

1、无独有偶

2、前事不忘，后事之师

3、个人如此，国家民族又何尝不是这样?

4、那么我们该怎样做呢?

【例9】

不论是故去的古人，还是现存的今人，只有做到公正无私，才能在对事物的认识上得到真理，才能在对事物的处理上得到赞美。

【例10】

在现代，有没有韩非子笔下的"富人"呢?有!譬如在干部的任用问题上就出现了"任人唯亲"的弊端，一些领导在任用下属时，不是视其是否有才能，而是看其与自己远近、使一一些无德无能的人混人干部队伍，正所谓"一人得道，鸡犬升天"。而真正有志有才之士被拒之门外。

六、辩证过渡

(一)欲进先退

在对某问题阐述自己观点见解时，先要承认与此相反的观点见解存在的合理性，然后指出其道理存在的不足之处，接着语意一转，话题转入对此观点见解的主要论述。“退”是通过承认反面的观点见解以防论证疏漏，“进”是论证文章论点的主体。

【例11】

的确，外在环境的感染作用是不可忽视的。尤其青少年思想单纯，阅历浅，经验少，辨别是非的能力还不强，世界观还未形成，触于墨者即黑，染于朱者即赤。多少青少年受坏人拉拢，看黄色书刊、录像，赌博、酗酒、偷盗、抢劫，逐渐走向犯罪的深渊。难怪昔有“孟母三迁”之举，这是促进孟子成为一代儒圣不可否认的外因条件。甚至多少知识名人、革命志士、人民功臣、劳动模范，也经受不了环境的熏染，荣华富贵的诱惑，最终沦为历史的罪人。

然而(转入论题)，事物不可一概而论，不可以事物的一般规律抹杀事物的特殊性存在。

【例12】

诚然，正是由于有了人类之间曼妙的情感，全社会乃至全世界才不至于陷入一种盲目的、机械性的单调之中就如同电影《摩登时代》和《城市之光》中描绘的那样，人的言行似乎在工业革命的浪潮中变得毫无生气，如同机器人一般。缺乏感情的社会是僵硬的，是脆弱的。然而这并不意味着仅仅凭借情感就可以主导全世界，就可以来评判事物认知的正误深浅这还需要客观的评价标准，诸如法律、法规等等而这些则又需要认知与进一步的探索。否则，理性的天平就难以使得整个世界在一种相对稳定的状态之下继续发展。

3、理性固然在认识事物中不可缺少，但我们能因此完全排除了感情因素吗?难道感情在认知过程中永远起着反面的作用吗?

其它如：诚然、固然、毋庸置疑

(二)主论先行，后堵偏漏。

当然 ; ……不是……而是;然而，凡事都有度，过犹不及

1、当然，在历史上尽管也有“近墨而不黑”、昭著史册的人物，如出污泥而不染的屈原、陶渊明;执法惩恶，廉洁自律的包拯、海瑞;屡触权贵洁身自好的郑板桥、刘镛;但毕竟凤毛麟角，为数不多。这些事物特殊现象怎能掩盖外因能促进事物量变向质变转化的一般规律呢。怎能忽视“白沙在涅，与之俱黑;蓬生麻中，不扶自直”、“近朱者赤，近墨者黑”的哲理名言呢?

2、当然，不要轻易说“不”，并不是不能说“不”。如果你面对一潭死水的生活，波澜不起，生命的冲劲早已缺席，人生的斗志也了无踪影，你应该对这样的生存现状勇敢地说“不”。1999年，高燃以一个中专毕业生的身份只身来到广州打工，又毅然抛弃月薪5000多元稳定工作，多方联系进入一家高考补习班，次年以优异的成绩考入清华大学，后来创办市值上亿元的MYSEE公司。央视记者李小萌采访他，他说，我不想过那种一眼就可以望到头的人生。高燃勇敢地跟平庸的生存状态说“不”，高燃超越了自己，他成功了。

3、我们不要轻易说“不”，并不是去做一个逆来顺受毫无原则的人，面对沉沦的陷阱和惰性的挑衅，我们要勇敢地说“不”;面对厄运的打击、失败的考验和种种执著人生的坚守，我们不要轻易说“不”。改变能改变的，接受不能改变的，坚守早就认定了的。人生的过程是一个超越自己的过程，人生的过程也是一个坚守的过程。

议论文中的过渡衔接没有固定的格式或词句，可有常用的方法。

一、议论文的概念：

以议论为主要表达方式，运用准确严密的语言分析事理、阐明作者观点的文体。

二、议论文的分类：

从内容上来看，一般可分为政治论文和学术论文。通常所说的议论文，主要指的是政治论文。从论证方式来看，议论文又分为立论和驳论两种。①立论：在论证中逐步树立自己的论点。②驳论：在论证中以反驳对方观点来树立自己的论点。

三、议论文的特点：

内容具有理论性，结构具有逻辑性，语言具有概括性、准确严密。以理服人、以情动人。

(一)、议论文三要素：论点、论据和论证。

1.论点：是作者对所论述问题的见解和主张，是议论文的灵魂。议论文一般只有一个中心论点，有的议论文还围绕中心论点提出几个分论点。要区别中心论点和分论点。论点应该是一个明确的判断，是作者观点的完整陈述。是一个概括力很强的句子。它可能在文章的开端，也可能在文章的中间或末尾，许多时候文章的标题正是一个中心论点。如果文章当中没有一个适合做中心论点的句子，那么，就要由我们自己来归纳了。

另外，可以通过“认为”、“必须”、“由此可见”、“要”、“是”、“不是”等表示肯定或否定的关键词来寻找论点。

2.论据：是证明论点的材料，是支撑论点的材料，是作者用来证明论点正确的理由和依据。它被论点统率，为论点服务的。

任何论点，只有被充分的根据作证明后，才会有说明力;没有根据的论点，既使正确，即使深刻，也不能说服人。所以作者在表明自己观点态度的同时，，也必须提出充足有力的根据，比如赞成什么，为什么赞成，认为某个现象不好，根据是什么，这样才能做到有根有据，以理服人。

论据的两种类型：事实论据和道理论据。

事实论据：包括有代表性的事例、确凿的数据、可靠的史实等。所用的事例可以是具体的，也可以是概括的。如果运用了事实论据证明论点，同时就是使用了举例论证方法。如《谈骨气》中文天祥宁死不投降、齐人饿者不食嗟来之食、闻一多面对国民党特务的手枪拍案而起，就是三件事实。

作为事实论据的材料必须真实、确凿、并且有代表性，所选的事例和观点要统一，否则就失去了事实论据的说服力，影响了议论效果。

道理论据：指经过人们的实践检验的、为社会所公认的正确理论，包括社会科学理论，如哲学理论;也包括自然科学的原理、定律、公式及广为流传的谚语、名言、譬句等。

注意，有的时候道理论据也指作者的推理。描述性的话，即便是领袖和名人说的也不能算作道理论据。如《俭以养德》中所用的鲁迅和高尔基的话都是描述性的话，鲁迅的话展示了他节俭的生活作风;高尔基的话展示了列宁节俭的生活作风，二者都是事实论据。

论据的作用：无论是事实论据还是道理论据，作用都是证明作者的观点，只是我们在阅读时，要分析直接和间接证明作者的哪个观点。答题时往往要求答出直接证明的那个观点，这个观点未必是全文的中心论点。

3.论证：指运用论据证明论点的过程和方法。是论点与论据之间逻辑联系的纽带。论点解决“需要证明什么”的问题，论据解决“用什么来证明”的问题，论证解决“怎样证明”的问题。

(二)、议论文的论证方法。常见的有以下四种：举例论证、道理论证、对比论证、比喻论证。

1. 举例论证：列举确凿、充分、有代表性的事例证明论点;

例如：《发问的精神》一文举出了下列事例：牛顿对苹果落地要问出个所以然，从而创立了“万有引力”说;瓦特把壶水滚沸当做问题研究，发明了蒸汽机;释迦牟尼对极普通的人生现象寻根究底，创立了佛教;孔子在太庙里看见每样事物都要问，向老子问礼，成为万世景仰的圣人。通过列举四位名人的事例，论证了发问精神的可贵。

又如，《谈骨气》一文列举了三个事例：南宋丞相文天祥率众坚决抵抗元军，被俘后誓不投降，慷慨就义;古代一个穷人宁肯饿死，也不吃嗟来之食，;民主战士闻一多面对国民党特务的暗杀，愤怒痛斥国民党特务。三个事例从不同角度证明了“我们中国人是有骨气的”。这一中心论点

2. 道理论证：用马列主义经典著作中的精辟见解、古今中外名人的名言譬句以及人们公认的定理公式等来证明论点。

例如《论求知》第十段列举“读史使人明智，读诗使人聪慧，演算使人思维精密，哲理使人思想深刻，伦理学使人有思想，逻辑修辞使人善辨”这六门科学知识的作用进行论证，归纳出“知识能塑造人的性格”的结论。列举的内容丰富翔实，得出的论断令人信服。由于道理论证所引用的材料都是被客观实际所证实的科学结论，或是被人们所公认的道理，具有理论的权威性和思想的深刻性，因而具有不可辩驳的力量和说服力。

例如：《“偃旗息鼓”和“圆满结束”》一文，文章引用《辞源》中关于“偃旗息鼓”的两个出处，《辞源》作为具有权威性的古汉语工具书，作为理论论据有一定的权威性，而这两个出处有力地论证了“偃旗息鼓”与“圆满结束”不是一回事，中间不能画等号，指出滥用成语的不良文风的危害，有力地论证了自己观点的正确。

3. 对比论证：拿正反两方面的论点或论据作对比，在对比中证明论点。

例如：《纪念白求恩》一文用白求恩“对工作的极端的负责任，对同志对人民的极端的热忱”与不少人对工作不负责任，“对同志对人民”“冷冷清清，漠不关心，麻木不仁”进行对比;用白求恩“以医疗为职业，对技术精益求精”与“一班鄙薄技术工作以为不足道、以为无出路的人”进行对比，具体论证了学习白求恩的共产主义精神。

又如：《想和做》一文将“有些人只会空想，不会做事”与“也有些人只顾做事，不动脑筋”进行对比，指出其危害，论证了“想和做是分不开的，一定要联结起来”。这样运用正反对比，使正确与错误分明，让人们摒弃错误的，接受正确的，增强了论证的效果。对比论证是一种综合的论证方法，可以包括事实的对比、道理的对比以及有相反效果的比喻句的对比。有时一段文字中不止一种论证方法，一定要找全

4. 比喻论证：用人们熟知的事物作比喻采证明论点。

又如《论求知》的第四段用“人的天性犹如野生的花草，求知学习好比修剪移栽”这一组比喻来论证“求知可以改进人的天性”的论点。这样写，使论述的道理通俗易懂。

论证方法都有其作用，

举例论证，用典型事例论证中心论点，可以增强文章的说服力，令人信服。

道理论证，引用名人名言，古代典籍，可以提高文章说理的权威性和可信度。

(三)、议论文的结构。

关于议论文的结构有两种说法：

第一种分法：议论文最基本的结构是，提出问题(也叫引论)、分析问题(也叫本论)、解决问题(也叫结论)。又可以分两大类：一是逐层深入的论述结构，叫“纵式”;一是并列展开的论述结构，叫“横式”。(这种分法作为了解)

第二种分法(考试常考)：议论文的论证结构大体分为三种形式：

1.“总—分”式，反映作者演绎推理的思维形式。它先提出论题或论点，然后从几个方面进行论证。

2.“分—总”式，反映作者归纳推理的思维形式。它先对所要论述的问题分几个方面剖析，再顺理成章地归纳总结出结论。

3.“总—分—总”式，它反映作者综合运用演绎推理和归纳推理的思维形式。先总出论点，然后从几个方面论述，最后总结全文，形成结论。相对于前两种结构形式来说，这种结构形式的引论、本论、结论都较齐全，比较常见。

(四)、议论文的语言——准确性、概括性,生动性, 鲜明性. 理解重点词语的含意，评析文章语言的风格。通过语境即上下文，联系文章的论述内容和论证特色来理解词语的含意，并分析语言，评析语言风格。

议论文的语言风格与作者的生活、个性和阅历有关。有的简洁平实，有的含蓄幽默，有的典雅华丽，有的清新自然. 议论文运用判断推理的逻辑推理，它要求议论语言周到，没有疏漏，无懈可击。否则议论文所提出的论点就立不起来，从而失去了文章的战斗力。所以严密性是议论文语言的第一要素。此外，议论文是说理文，要求文章应有明确的概念，严密的推理。若要达到这样的效果，必须注意语言的准确性。是非明确才能以理服人，色彩鲜明才能以情动人。无论是立论还是驳论，目的都是要树立自己的观点;为了达到这个目的，优秀的议论文的语言都具有是非明确、色彩鲜明的特点，否则就不能以理服人、以情动人。

(五)、议论文的论证方式：

议论文的论证方式有以下两种：

①立论：直接提出并阐明论点的论证方式叫立论。用这种方式写作的议论文被称为“立论文。” 《继续保持艰苦奋斗的作风》就是一篇立论文。

②驳论：通过反驳对立的论点来阐明自己的论点的议论方式叫驳论。这类议论文常称为“驳论文” 。

阅读“驳论文”，首先要弄清文章反驳的观点，如《中国人失掉自信力了吗?》一文针对当时有些人散布中国人对抗日前途失去信心的悲观论调进行批驳。

其次，弄清反驳的方法，一般有三种方法：驳论点;驳论据;驳论证。由于议论文是由论点、论据、论证三部分有机构成的，因此驳倒了论据或论证，也就否定了论点，与直接反驳论点具有同样的效果。一篇驳论文可以把几种反驳方式结合起来使用以加强反驳力量和说服力。

A.反驳论点：即对对方的论点进行批驳，指出它是荒谬的、虚伪的，这是驳论中最常用的方法，又分为直接反驳和间接反驳。

直接反驳即直接指出对方的荒谬。这种方法有的是引用确凿的不可辩驳的事实，有的是从理论上进行透彻的解剖和分析。

间接反驳又分为两种方法：一种是对一些对方的论点进行合乎逻辑的引申，使敌论点露出马脚，以此驳倒对方，即归缪法。另一种是证明与对方相对立的论点是正确的，那么相反也就证实了对方的论点是错误的，即反证法。

B.反驳论据：即揭示对方论据错误，以达到驳倒对方论点的目的。因为论点是由论据来支撑的，驳到了论据，就使论点站不住脚。

C.反驳论证：即揭露对方在议论过程中的逻辑错误，如大前提、小前提与结论的矛盾，对方各论点之间的矛盾，论点与论据之间的矛盾等。

在议论中，虽然有立论、驳论两种议论方式，但并不是完全分割开来的，因为破的目的也是为了立，所以在运用时，立论和驳论常常是相互联系，交替使用的。

一. 心理

古人云，不战而屈人之兵，很大程度上取决于心理因素。随着四六级考试改革的深入，会有，更新，更难的题目，包括作文题目出现，这样就要求我们有处惊不变的能力。即使是出现某种没有预料到的题型，考生也应该及时调整心态、从容不迫地应答。事实上，历史经验证明：题目要求越是高，难度越是大，考生的发挥余地也就越大。挑战和机遇是成正相关的。

二. 评分

知己知彼，百战不怠。熟悉老师的评分习惯，对于考生正常、甚至是超常发挥自身水平也十分有益。正常情况下，阅卷老师要领会贯彻考试规定的评分原则，依照文章的结构和语言水平进行评分。然而，除此以外，有“两个基本点”我们也需要给予足够的重视——闪光点和语法点。在一篇出类拔萃的范文中，我们往往可以看到像提问法、谚语总结法、从句、并列句、理由段公式、理由词汇、路线句型、插入语、名词化、和被动语态等等闪光点;而在一篇低分例文中，基本的语言错误则多得数不胜数。

三. 休息

考试迫在眉睫时，同学们往往容易进入一种临考状态。这种状态比较突出的表现是夜不能寐。尤其是在专业课和全国四六级考试纷至沓来的时候，很多同学更是发扬连续作战的精神，通宵达旦，头悬梁、锥刺骨。其实这对于像四六级考试这样的高强度考试而言是有百害而无一益的。道理很简单，四六级考试对于一个学生来说，不仅是一次英语水平的综合测试，也是一种意志力、甚至是体力的考验。没有良好的休息作为后盾，考生很难笑到最后。所以，保证充足的睡眠是最基本也是首要的应试技巧。

四. 营养

无庸置疑，营养的摄入在最后关头也是异常重要的一环。在保证充分睡眠的同时，食物是另一个“工夫在诗外”的客观因素。尤其是参加四级考试的同学，早餐一定要定时定量，不可或缺。一般来说，类似奶酪苏这样的奶制品外加一杯热牛奶或者热巧克力已经足以提供整个半天考试所需的热量，当然，这也因人而异。有些体质虚弱的同学也可以考虑服用一些如西洋参、鸡精这样的营养品。不过，安眠药等有副作用的药物一定要慎用，否则过犹不及。

五. 审题

磨刀不误砍柴工。在落笔前花两三分钟时间进行构思，既有利于理清行文思路、也避免了差之毫厘、失之千里的遗憾。尤其是在应对图表类作文时，我们更是要看清图表，牢牢把握各个数据的变化和相互关系，才能够下笔。否则张冠李戴，即使文章本身再不同凡响、语惊四座，也只会竹篮打水、甚至起到适得其反的效果。

六. 卷面

对于像作文这样的主观题而言，考生与阅卷老师从来就犹如搏弈，无形中彼此互动、相互影响。一个考生可以做的，首先是通过卷面给阅卷老师下意识地传达个人信息。用笔的颜色(深蓝色使人心情放松愉快)、粗细(粗线条给人以安全感)，整齐划一的格式(段首或一律顶格或一律空两格)，明了的段落感(每段空一行)，清晰的字数感(一行以十字为宜)，工整的字迹都会给任何阅读者留下深刻的正面印象，从而使考生先发制人、取得先机。

七. 结构

有始有终、首尾照应，是任何一篇好文章的基本标准之一，也是两大评分原则之一。如果说广大考生已经给第一段以足够重视的话，那么是不是大多数考生都意识到了理由段的条理和最后一段的呼应在全文中所具有的不可忽视的地位了呢?其实，要写好理由段，我们只需要注意表示启承转合的衔接词即可。而要写好结尾，最好的方法莫过于温故而知新，回顾第一段的大致内容了。

八. 表达

言之无文，行而不远。语言作为评分原则中的基本要素之一，在四六级作文评分的整个过程中具有决定性作用。有评分老师甚至断言：“It is not what you say, it is the way that you say it.”(重要的并不在于考生写了些什么，而在于考生是怎么表达的。)虽然这种说法本身似乎有失偏颇，可是参加过国际标准化英语考试的同学应该也听说过那么一句话，叫做：“Give the monkey exactly what he wants.”(给阅卷老师最想要的。)，不是吗?譬如同样是描述数据，一些同学拘泥于图表本身，动辄按部就班地引用图表上现成的数字和年代，其实这都是图表作文的忌讳。聪明的同学引而不用，他们常喜欢用倍数、分数、小数、百分比、或者一些动词(double / triple / quadruple)来表现极端数据，动态数据以及他们的相异之处。

九. 检查

行百里者半九十。一篇成功的作文少不了反复推敲、一再修改。然而，由于考试时间和条件等诸多因素的限制，考生绝对需要慎重对待作文的检查和修改。这里，我不得不提考生检查作文时的三大“通病”，即，数字数、孤芳自赏、和做结构与内容上的修改。我们必须明确：考试作文的润色和修改只需要达到三个目的即可：1. 拼写正确，看文章中是否有汉字、多余符号、糊乱涂改、划线、和错别字;2. 搭配正确;和3. 语法正确，特别是人称、时态、和单复数的三一致。

鲁迅先生说过，世界上本没有路，走的人多了也就成了路。我们要善于在学习实践中发现、总结和运用规律，这样才能够在复习迎考的过程中事半功倍，百尺竿头、更进一步。路漫漫其修远兮，愿以此文抛砖引玉。