2015年英语六年级写作基础知识精选8篇 作文【精品20篇】

Today s Sunday, stadyed up late yesterday, got up at : th s morn ng. fter breakfast. y mother and me take a truck to the farm.Because e must helped my uncle to p ck the apples.The apple trees are too tall, helped them to crry the apples to the truck.Somet me had an apple, t as very.The ather people talked about the apples happ ly,somet mes they laughed loudly. e enthome at f ve n the aftermoon. asvery t red,but as very happy. 快来看咯！

高考英语作文需要将有自己的想法，并且掌握好写作的方法，这样英语才能得到高分。

1、审题：审题是做到切题的第一步。所谓审题就是要看清题意，确定文章的中心思想、主题，并围绕中心思想组织材料。

2、进行构思，列出简单的提纲，打造文章之骨架：审好题、立好意后，就要写提纲，打造文章的骨架。文章布局要做好几件事：安排好层次段落，铺设好过渡，处理好开头和结尾。

3、扩展成文：根据字数多少扩展成篇。扩展的内容一定要紧扣主题，千万不要写那些与主题不相关的内容。展开的方式包括：顺序法、举例法、比较法、对比法、说明法、因果法、推导法、归纳法和下定义等。可以根据需要任选一种或几种方式。

在这一步骤中还需注意三方面问题：

1)确保提纲中段落结构的思路与各段主题句的一致性。只有这样，才能保证所写段落不偏题、不跑题。

2)要综合考虑各个段落的内容安排，避免段落内容的交叉。

3)用好连接词，注意段落间、句子间的连贯性。要做到所写文章层次分明，思路清晰，文字连贯，就需要在句与句之间、段与段之间架起一座座桥梁，而连接词起的正是桥梁作用。

在扩展的过程中也有些窍门，以下几点可供参考：

1)在整篇文章中，避免只是用一两个句式或重复用同一词语。英语中存在着极为丰富的同义词，准确地使用同义词可以给读者清新的感觉。同时要灵活运用各种句式，如倒装句、强调句、省略句、主从复合句、对比句、分词短语、介词短语等，从而增加文章的可读性。

2)使用不同长度的句子。如果一个意思用一句话写不清楚的话，通过分句和合句或用两句、三句来表达，增强句子的连贯性和表现力。

3)改变句子的开头方式，不要总是以主、谓、宾、状的次序。可以把状语至于句首，或用分词等。

4)学会使用过渡词。

(1) 递进furthermore，moreover，besides，in addition，then，etc

(2) 转折however，but，nevertheless，afterwards，etc

(3) 总结finally，at last，in brief，to conclude，etc

(4) 强调really，indeed，certainly，surely，above a11，etc

(5) 对比in the same way，just as，on the other hand，etc

5)确定文章用第几人称写，基本时态是什么。使用人称时人物不能张冠李戴或指代不明。

时态要尽量保持一致。

4、检查修改：要检查复核，不要写完了事。

要留时间通读全文，修改可能出现的错误。检查上下文是否连贯，句子衔接是否自然流畅。检验的标准主要是句子是否通畅，该用连词的地方用了没有，所用的连词是否合适，是否有语法错误，主谓是否一致，动词的时态、语态、语气的使用是否正确，词组的搭配是否合乎习惯，是否有大小写、拼写、标点错误等，还有就是注意卷面整洁。

可归纳为：中心突出，主题明确;层次清楚，条理清晰; 表达力强，传情达意;语句通顺，句型多变;过渡自然，衔接紧凑;标点正确，大小无误;字迹清楚，卷面整洁。

高中英语写作常用开头句型

1.As far as …is concerned 就……而言

2.It goes without saying that… 不言而喻，…

3.It can be said with certainty that… 可以肯定地说……

4.As the proverb says， 正如谚语所说的，

5.It has to be noticed that… 它必须注意到，…

6.Its generally recognized that… 它普遍认为…

7.Its likely that … 这可能是因为…

8.Its hardly that… 这是很难的……

9.Its hardly too much to say that… 它几乎没有太多的说…

10.What calls for special attention is that…需要特别注意的是

11.Theres no denying the fact that…毫无疑问，无可否认

12.Nothing is more important than the fact that… 没有什么比这更重要的是…

13.whats far more important is that… 更重要的是…

1. 审清题意：“五审”：

(1)审清体裁(记叙文、应用文、说明文)。

(2)审清题材(人、物、事、景)。

(3)审清范围(时间、地点、人称、事件、对象具体限制)。

(4)审清主题(中心思想)。

(5)审清其他要求(附加要求)。

2. 确定主题：“四要”：

(1)主题要正确(反应生活实际)。

(2)主题要集中(一个文章不能多个主题)。

(3)主题要鲜明(明确表达自己对事物的态度和立场)。

(4)主题要深刻(深挖内涵思想)。

3. 选择材料：“四要”：

(1)围绕主题选择材料(多写与主题相关的内容)。

(2)选择真实的材料(真实可信，具有代表性和典型性)。

(3)选择新颖的材料(新人新事)。

(4)选择独有的材料(具有创新性)。

4. 编写提纲“五点”：

(1)拟好题目。

(2)确定主题。

(3)段落安排。

(4)每段的主要意思。

(5)重点段落的层次安排和内容。

5. 修改文章“五看”：

(1)是否切题。

(2)主题、思想是否明确、突出。

(3)看材料是否符合主题、内容是否具体、完整。

(4)看语言是否通顺、用词是否准确，有无错别字。

(5)看标点是否正确。

英语写作少不了积累句型。以下是小编带来的2017英语写作必背经典句型【集锦】，希望对你有帮助。

the + 形容词最高级 + n. + (that) + S(主语) + have ever seen / known / heard / had / read, etc

例句：Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

(海伦是我见过的最美丽的女孩。)

Nothing is + 形容词比较级 + than to + V(谓语)

例句：Nothing is more important than to receive education.

(没有比接受教育更重要的事。)

S cannot emphasize the importance of sth. too much：再怎么强调……的重要性也不为过。

例句：We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

(我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。)

There is no doubt + that + 句子：毫无疑问，……

例句：There is no doubt that the economy is recovering.

(毫无疑问，经济已经逐渐复苏。)

It pays to + V + O(宾语)：……是值得的。

例句：It pays to help others.

(帮助别人是值得的。)

An advantage of + 名词结构+ is that + 句子：……的优点是……

例句：An advantage of using solar energy is that it wont create any pollution.

(使用太阳能的优点是它不会产生任何污染。)

There is no denying that + 句子：不可否认……

例句：There is no denying that the quality of our life has gone from good to better.

(不可否认，我们的生活质量日益改善。)

On no account can we + V：我们绝对不能……

例句：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge.

(我们绝不能无视知识的价值。)

It is universally acknowledged that + 句子：全世界都知道……

例句：It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable[不可或缺的] to us.

(全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。)

The reason why + 句子 + is that + 句子：……的原因是……

例句：The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air.

(我们必须种树的原因是它们能给我们提供新鲜空气。)

be closely related to sth.：与……息息相关

例句：Taking exercise is closely related to health.

(做运动与健康息息相关。)

So + 形容词 + be + S + that + 句子：如此……以致于……

例句：So precious is time that we cant afford to waste it.

(时间是如此珍贵，它经不起我们浪费。)

It is time + S + 动词过去式：该是……的时候了。

例句：It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems.

(有关当局是时候采取适当措施解决交通问题了。)

S + enable + O + to + V：……使……能够……

例句：Listening to music enables us to feel relaxed.

(听音乐使我们获得放松。)

be + forced / obliged / compelled + to + V：不得不……

例句：Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports.

(既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃做运动。)

a. + as + S + be, S + V + O：虽然……， 但是……

例句：Rich as our country is, the quality of our life is by no means satisfactory.

(虽然我们的国家富有，但我们的生活质量仍差强人意。)

It is conceivable / obvious / apparent that + 句子：可想而知/明显/显然……

例句：It is apparent that knowledge plays an important role in our life.

(显然，知识在我们人生中扮演着重要角色。)

The + 形容词比较级 + S + V, the + 形容词比较级 + S + V：……愈……，……愈……

例句：The harder you work, the more progress you make.

(愈努力，愈进步。)

Since + S + 动词过去式，S + 现在完成式： 自从……，……一直……

例句：Since he went to senior high school, he has worked very hard.

(自从上了高中，他一直很用功。)

By + V-ing, S can V：通过……，……能够……

例句：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy.

(通过做运动，我们能够保持健康。)

be based on sth.：以.……为基础

例句：Progress in society is based on harmony.

(社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。)

That is the reason why +句子：那就是……的原因

例句：Summer is sultry[闷热的]. That is the reason why I dont like it.

(夏天很闷热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。)

There is no one but + V + O：没有人不……

例句：There is no one but longs to go to college.

(没有人不渴望上大学。)

Due to / Owing to / Thanks to + sth. / V-ing：因为/ 多亏……

例句：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream.

(因为他的鼓励，我终于实现了梦想。)

For the past + 时间, S + 现在完成式： 过去的……来，……一直……

例句：For the past two years, I have been busy preparing for the examination.

(过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。)

What a + a. + n. + S + V!= How + a. + a + n. + V!：多么……!

例句：What an important thing it is to keep our promise! / How important a thing it is to keep our promise! (遵守诺言是多么重要的事!)

get into the habit of + V-ing = make it a rule to + V：养成……的习惯

例句：We should get into the habit of keeping good hours.

(我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。)

leave much to be desired：令人不满意

例句：The condition of our traffic leaves much to be desired.

(我们的交通状况令人不太满意。)

Those who + V + O：那些……的人

例句：Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished.

(违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。)

have a great influence on sth.：对……有很大影响

例句：Smoking has a great influence on our health.

(抽烟对我们的健康有很大影响。)

spare no effort to + V：不遗余力地……

例句：We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

(我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。)

do good / harm to sth.：对……有益/有害

例句：Reading does good to our mind.

(读书对心灵有益。)

pose a great threat to sth.：对……造成很大威胁

例句：Pollution poses a great threat to our existence.

(污染对我们的生存造成很大威胁。)

bring home to + S + O：让……明白……

例句：We should bring home to people the value of working hard.

(我们应该让人们明白努力的价值。)

do ones utmost to + V = do ones best to + V：尽全力去……

例句：We should do our utmost to achieve our goal in life.

(我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标。)

一、了解高分作文的特点

要想作文获得高分，必须了解高分作文具有的特点，才有助于我们朝之而努力。高分作文一般具有以下特点：

1、书写工整，书面整洁，很少有涂改痕迹。

2、分段合理。全文分段一般不止一个自然段，让阅卷老师很容易就能找到作文所要求写的要点和重要句子。

3、要点齐全，不缺要点。

4、首尾呼应，自然成一体。

5、使用了大量的高级词汇和句型。阅卷老师一看就知道这个同学的功底非不一般，自然就给打高分了。

6、开头言简意赅，不啰嗦，不偏题，迅速引入主题。

7、段与段之间，自然过渡。有合适的连接词。

8、句与句之间，有恰当的连接词，使之自然成一体。

9、全文中同一个意思，基本没有重复使用某一个词、短语或者句型等，说明这个同学的词汇量不同寻常。老师自然就对该作文有好感了。

10、能够恰当使用谚语、格言等给文章添彩。

二、勤积累，巧准备

要想作文得高分，除了了解以上的特点外，还要在平时的学习中注意一下方面：

1、牢记课标词汇是基础

一篇作文多数是由积极词汇写出来的，这些词汇主要来源于课标。因此，牢记课标词汇是写好作文的基础。

2、掌握课标词汇和短语的用法

要想作文不扣分或者少扣分，有个要求是作文的语病少。怎么能够减少语病呢?这就要求我们在平时的学习过程中反复通过练习，掌握课标词汇和短语等的用法。例如，对于assoonas、stopsomebodyfromdoingsomething、other、another等的用法很多学生就经常出错。

3、高度重视同一个意思的多种表达方式

高分作文有个特点是：让老师发现你拥有丰富的词汇量，你的水平高人一筹。这由何而来?靠我们在平时学习过程中，逐步积累起来的。比如：今年的中考作文，谈的就是帮助他人的问题。同一个意思“帮助”，假如你就用一个动词“help”，岂不显得你词汇贫乏?假如你在作文中不断地变换方式，用help、givesomebodyahand、giveahandtosomebody、beinneedof等以表达“帮助”同一个意思，岂不更好呢?

像这样的例子很多，比如：大家都觉得很简单又很基础的“表示姓名的方式”就有：MynameisJim.I’mJim.I’mcalled/namedJim.I’maboycalled/named/withthenameofJim.等等。

表达年龄的方式有：Sheis12.Sheis12yearsold.Sheisaged12.Sheisagirlof12(yearsold)。Sheisagirlaged12.等等。

很显然，使用高级一点的更好。

4、加强练习，积累经验

学习语言最好的方法是运用，作文也不例外。我们要想作文得高分，必须经常练习，才能提高水平。

5、充分利用作文范文

很多资料书上都有作文范文。诚然，他们有很多值得借鉴的地方。

我们怎么利用它们呢?首先，我们先不要看文章，自己先思考一下：假如你来写，你会怎么去写，会用到哪些词或者句子等。然后去比较，勾出其中的好词佳句，并且把它摘录在专门的作文册子上。供写作时选用。

另外，背一些范文也是很有必要的。

6、背诵一些谚语和警句

作文中如果出现恰当的谚语和警句，会有锦上添花的效果。

三、精心审题，沉着写初稿

很多同学看到作文后，下笔就写。这是不对的。一则很容易写偏题、写出病句，涂改后书面又不整洁，影响得分。

其实，会写作文的同学都知道，审题非常的重要，可以防止很多毛病，提高得分。那么我们审题要做些什么呢?

审题主要要做一下事情：

1、审人称、时态、体裁等

审题时，要求我们要弄清楚这篇文章主要使用的人称是第几人称，什么时态、什么体裁。这些问题解决后至少不会犯很严重的错误：全文皆错。例如，如果一篇文章，本来应该一般过去时，你的每句话却用了一般现在时态。你想想，那还能得高分吗?

2、明确必须表达的要点

高分作文有个特点是要点齐全。如果漏掉一个要点，则要扣分。因此我们必须认真细读其要求，把必须表达的要点勾出来。保证不漏掉任何一个要点。

3、罗列出可能会用到的短语、句型，确定好使用哪个?

4、确定好如何分段

怎样写出一篇好的作文呢？以下，小编为大家介绍语文写作基础：写作基本思路，供大家参考借鉴，欢迎浏览！

1、审题。

审题就是分析文章的题目，弄清题目的意思。审题包括三方面内容（1）找出重点词，有些题目，有一个关键词，也叫“题眼”，题眼就是写作的重点。如《一件难忘的事》中的“难忘”之类。（2）搞清写作的范围和要求，即时间、地点、人称、数量、内容等限制范围。（3）弄明白是写人的，是记事的，还是状物、写景的。

2、确定中心。

记叙文总要表达一个思想，说明一个道理或表现某一方面的思想感情，这就是文章的中心。文章的中心要正确，对社会上正确的现象加以歌颂，错误的现象给予批评。中心正确，健康是文章的根本，对此必须首先要注意。中心还要求集中，一篇文章一般只能有一个中心，各方面内容都要紧紧围绕中心写。

3、选择材料。

作文的内容就是材料。写作文要紧扣中心选择材料，与中心关系不大的或无关的，要少选或不选。所选的材料还要真实、具体，真实就是不凭空编造，不夸大也不缩小。同时，还要注意材料的新颖、典型，不落俗套，要能够清楚地反映人或事的特点。

4、安排结构。

所谓安排文章的结构，指的是文章的材料的组织安排。如先写什么，再写什么，最后写什么，以及怎样开头，结尾，过渡等。文章的材料，常用以下这些方法安排：（1）按事情发展的顺序；（2）按时间顺序；（3）按空间的顺序；（4）按事物的几个方面。

5、列提纲。

提纲，是结文章的总体设计，具体包括：（1）文章的题目；（2）中心思想；（3）写作的顺序；（4）详写，略写的提示。提纲不能太详细，也不能太简单。

6、文章的开头和结尾、过渡和照应。

常见的开头有：（1）开门见山，直入正题；（2）概括全文，揭示中心；（3）提出问题，引起注意；（4）环境描写，渲染气氛；（5）说明情况，介绍背景；（6）先说结果，倒叙开头。结尾的方法有：（1）自然方式结尾；（2）总结式结尾；（3）含蓄式结尾；（4）启发式结尾。文章的过渡，应力求自然。照应，指的是文章中前后内容的关照呼应。最常见的是文章的首尾照应。

写事的文章要注意以下几点：

1、要把事情发生的时间、地点、人物，事情的起因、经过、结果交代清楚；

2、一般可以按事情的发展顺序写，写清楚事情的来龙去脉，前因后果；

3、要突出重点，不要平铺直叙，重点的场面或过程要详写，写具体；

4、环境描写对反映文章的中心很有作用，所以在叙事时，有时也要注意写清楚环境。

写人文章应请注意以下几点：

1、要抓住人物的特点写，并把人物所做的事具体地写出来，用最能反映人物精神风貌的典型事例去刻画人物；

2、注意写好人物的外貌（包括容貌、衣着、神情等），语言，动作，特别是能反映人物特点的语言和行动，更要准确、细致的描写；

3、心理活动是指一个人的思想活动。恰当的心理、活动，可以更好地表现人物的思想品质，突出中心思想；

4、如果是通过几件事写人的，可以采用详写一件事，略写另几件事的写法，几件事需并列写的，则可按时间先后顺序来写。

写景、状物的文章要注意以下几点：

1、要抓住景和物的特征写。所谓特征就是同其他物体有区别的地方，抓住特征描写，才能给读者留下深刻的印象；

2、写景、状物要言之有序，如从上到下，从左到右，从外到内，从中间到两边等。不能一下子说这，一下子说那，东拉西扯，没有顺序；

3、写景、状物过程中要进行合理的联想，抒发自己的真情实感，还要恰当运用比喻、拟人等修辞手法，把描写的景物写生动，写形象；

4、状物要描写物体的大小，形状，颜色，质地，做到写什么，像什么。写活动的文章要注意以下几点：

写活动一般是命题作文。

1、可以按活动的过程写，但也可先写结果，再写活动过程，总之要有顺序；

2、要突出重点，有详有略，特别要注意把活动的过程写清楚；

3、注意写好活动中人物的感受。

中华名族历史悠久，有极为丰富的文化遗产。这些文化遗产都是古代人民辛勤创造的宝贵财富，是祖先们的聪明和智慧的结晶。对联就是其中独具风格的一种艺术，是祖国文化艺术园中的一朵奇葩。它源远流长，丰富多彩，素为人们喜闻乐见。

一、对联的起源

对联的起源可追溯到唐以后的五代时期。后蜀主孟昶于归宋前之岁除日，题桃符于寝门云：“新年纳余庆，嘉节号长春。”此为传世第一联。到了宋代，春联还是叫桃符；直到明朝开国之初，人们才开始用红纸写春联，称之为春联。

二、对联的特点

对联

雅称「楹联」，俗称对子。对联必须具备以下特点：

1、要字数相等，断句一致。除有意空出某字的位置以达到某种效果外，上下联字数必须相同，不多不少。

2、要平仄相合，音调和谐。传统习惯是「仄起平落」，即上联末句尾字用仄声，下联末句尾字用平声。

3、要词性相对，位置相同。一般称为「虚对虚，实对实」，就是名词对名词，动词对动词，形容词对形容词，数量词对数量词，副词对副词，而且相对的词必须在相同的位置上。

4、要内容相关，上下衔接。上下联的含义必须相互衔接，但又不能重覆。

此外，张挂的对联，传统作法还必须直写竖贴，自右而左，由上而下，不能颠倒。

与对联紧密相关的横批，可以说是对联的题目，也是对联的中心。好的横批在对联中可以起到画龙点睛、相互补充的作用。

根据对联特点分析对联一则：

万里山河添异彩

千年历史写新篇

这副对联，上下联都是七字；上下联的词性排列都是数词、名词、名词、动词、形容词、名词；上联的平仄分布是“仄仄平平平仄仄”，下联是“平平仄仄仄平平”；上联末字仄声，下联末字平声；上下联讲的是新的历史时期呈现出万紫千红的景象，内容紧密相关；上下联的结构都是“定——主——谓——宾”式；其节奏都是前四（字）后三（字）。

三、对联的种类和形式

对联的种类约分为春联、喜联、寿联、挽联、装饰联、行业联、交际联和杂联（包括谐趣联....）等。

对联文字长短不一，短的仅一、两个字；长的可达几百字。对联形式多样，有正对、反对、流水对、联球对、集句对等。我们仅谈常用的正对、反对和串对。

1、正对。上下联内容相似或者相关（即只有一面性）的对联。如：

松竹梅岁寒三友

桃李杏春风一家（上下联内容相似）

爆竹声声喜庆丰收岁

梅花朵朵笑迎跃进年（上下联内容相关）

2、反对。所谓反对，顾名思义，就是上下联意思相反。因为内容相反，就形成了上

下联的鲜明对比，引人注目，能收到更好的艺术效果。如：

破千年旧俗

立一代新风

红日消残雪，反动派同悲末路

曙光照征途，无产者共向未来

3、串对。串对又叫流水对。它的特点是一个意思分成两句来说，其实两句是一个整体

上下联独立起来都没有意义，至少是意义不全。串对的上下联一般都有因果、连贯、递进，条件假设等关系。如：

莫愁前路无知己

西出阳关多故人（因果关系）

除夕刚饮祝捷酒

新年又看报春花（连贯关系）

正对、反对和串对，什么时候该用哪一种，要根据内容的需要与可能去选择。

三、练习

1、海内存知己，。

2、，领异标新二月花。

3、桃李满天下；。

4、英雄肝胆男儿血，。

5、春夏秋冬，四季服装皆溢彩；，。

答案：1、天涯若比邻

2、删繁就简三秋树

3、教化遍中华

4、祖国疆土母亲心

5、东南西北，八方顾客尽开颜。

[2017最新对联基础知识摭谈

With numerous technological advances,various kinds of media have been well developed. as a result,an increasing number of people are fond of purchasing goods with the help of media,such as newspapers,radio stations,Tv stations and the internet.

As we know, every coin has two sides and shopping via media is no exception. on the one hand,it saves much time,money and effort to purchase goods through media since you do not have to go to the shops in person.

Besides,you can choose what you want from an enormous variety of goods on display.On the other hand,you may be cheated sometimes by the false information and suffer a considerable loss.

As far as I am concerned, shopping via media brings great benefit to our life and our economy on the whole.At the same time, we need strengthened supervision over the information released via media.In this way,we can reap more benefits from shopping via media and reduce the possible harm to a minimum.

如何写好高中作文，对于学生作文的写作基础也要好好的训练,实际效果又发现学生完全没有一般思想认识的基础，真正可见现在所谓合格教育的成效，和高中教学要求的“架空作业”。

一、文章立意的升华——深入浅出

叙完笼统归结是初中模式作文的又一通病，常常文章的结尾具有宽泛的普适性，而缺乏对文章应有之义作具体针对性的挖掘阐发，常常文章的“穿鞋戴帽”大到可以套在无数篇文章上，却没什么真正的思考。高中作文倘使还用夹叙夹议，也要对叙的材料反复推敲，找出几例可以统一在一个观点里的材料，就材料的不同侧面来评析议论，最后上升归结出恰当切题、言之有物的中心。

二、文章形式的革命——夹叙夹议

尽快脱离初中只重记叙，笼统归结的写法。高中的作文记叙只向最高水平开一条缝，你得复杂记叙，融情思与哲理于一炉，有最动人的细节和最精美的表达，巧妙蕴含深刻的思辨和无穷的回味，这不是一般人能做到的，更不是学不会议论抒情的同学的避难所。所以，比自己多练议论，远比固守初中记叙的窠臼要有前途。高中的记叙必须简约，只提炼能说明自己观点的内核，而尽量舍弃叙述的完整过程与细节。叙，惜墨如金;而起始学写议，应力求具体多点分析阐述。

三、文章表达的提高——点睛生花

好的文笔追求更高效率、更多意蕴。描述中就渗透情思与评析，这是较高水平的表达。一般的叙议分段，也应注意所叙材料紧贴自己的议论，议论应采取逐层推进，前后分界，避免相互缠绕。但又必须前后连贯，形成一个整体。在文章中一定写好精心组织的关键议论，努力使文章多处呈现运用一定修辞的文采。

话题作文训练举隅

话题作文的基本要求：话题作文还是要审题，所写内容必须在话题范围之内。“立意自定”，关键要读懂话题关键词的意旨，若给出导语提示，还应划出导语中包含归结的关键语词。一般初学者，首先要注意让这些关键词贯穿在自己作文的始终，统帅自己的文意。

规定“题目自拟”，一定不要用话题作标题。1、标题范围尽量要小，不要太大太泛;要合理出新，不落俗套。2、标题不能过长，可以采用副标题的方式对主标题加以限制。3、标题要含蓄，把思维蕴涵于形象的标题之中。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

Directions： You are allowed 40 minutes to write an essay no less than 150 words on the following topic.

1.some emphasize book knowledge

2.others stress practical experience

3.which one is more important？ Give your reasons to illustrate your opinion.

范文：

Which is more important in life， knowledge from the books you read， or personal experience you gain in reality？ The answer may vary from person to person. The young， educated may emphasize the former， and the old may stress the later. But in my opinion， they are of the same importance.

Experience is priceless. How to become an efficient secretary？ How to prepare for your first child to come into the world？ There is so much experience we need in careers， in life and even in academic studies. It helps one deal with the problems with ease and confidence. Especially activities and to accumulate experience of different kinds is more crucial.

Experience， however， is limited in terms of time and space. For one thing， it is impossible for anyone to experience all the important events and meet all the famous people. For another， as the speed with which skills are obsolete and new problems crop up is unprecedented because of the fast development of society， experience is far less adequate. Depending too much on it only leads to narrow-mindedness and prejudice.

One way to compensate for it is to read books. Books of various kinds can bring us almost unlimited additional experience. From books you can not only trace back to the wisdom of our antecedents， but keep up with the latest developments of science and technology. To be sure， it＇s secondhand experience. But it is the ideal supplement to our own limited experience. Few of us can travel around the world， or live long beyond one hundred years， but all of us can live many lives by reading books.

Both book knowledge and personal experience are essential. While experience makes one more resourceful， book knowledge makes one more learned.

[中考英语作文Knowledge or Experience知识或经验

Now, the new term begins. I live the life normal as before. Every morning, I get up at 6:30. After washing, I eat breakfast at home. My mother always cooks delicious and nutritious breakfast for me. I usually go to school at 7:20 by bike. It only takes me ten minutes to get to the school. We have the morning reading at 7:40 and the classes begin from 8:00. I usually have Chinese, math, English and other subjects. I go home at noon and have a short rest at home. Classes are over at 5:30. I usually play at school for a while and then go home. At night, I usually finish my homework and then watch TV. About 10:00, I go to bed. This is my all day.

过去的事情如滩上的贝壳五颜六色，五光十色，过去的事情如天空上的繁星变化多端，神秘莫测，让我来拾起一枚贝壳，摘下一颗星星，看看里面发生的事情吧!

在过去的一个夏天，妹妹到我家来玩，我爸爸、妈妈都出去上班了，只留下我和妹妹在一起，我们吃完饭，休息了一下，就开始疯狂地玩耍了，就当玩到最嗨的时候，我发现妹妹的异常，我摸了摸她的头：“天啊!怎么这么烫!”我脱口而出的一句话，让妹妹惊呆了!妹妹用茫然的眼睛望着我，嘴里还不停地念叼“怎么办!怎么办!”我定了定神，首先是想到的温度计，可是温度计被爸爸、妈妈放在了哪里呢我翻箱倒柜，尽可能用最快的速度找到温度计，“温度计找到了!”我大喊起来，我以箭一般的速度跑到卧室，给妹妹量体温，妹妹张开手臂，我把温度计夹在她的手臂下。

过了一会儿，我看了看温度计我不禁失声叫起来，这可是高烧啊!我……我该怎么办。突然，我想到了在课堂上科学老师金老师，对我们说过，酒精有挥发性，挥发性，挥发性，我心里默念着这个词语，努力地动脑想，我家有没有酒精，“有没有!”我怒吼起来，使劲地拍着脑子，“哦!我家好像有医用酒精!”我飞快的跑到厨房，拿出了医用酒精，用棉签擦在了妹妹的头上，果然，不出我所料，妹妹的烧退了许多，我倒了一杯白开水，我扶她起来喝水，吃了一点药，妹妹的脸色好多了!

我拿一条白毛巾，淋上水，敷在妹妹的额头上，我叫她好好休息，妹妹睡着了，我拿起电话打给了爸爸、妈妈告诉他们刚才的突发事件，以及我是怎样解决的，爸爸、妈妈都表扬我，说我对待突发事件，临危不惧，能冷静对待事情。

这件事情，让我感触很深深，让我懂得了用知识也可以救助别人。

大多数中国考生的写作过程不是写作过程，而是翻译过程. Therefore, the ABC approach to improve the writing ability for IELTS candidates would be the application of the KISSable principle.

Keep It Short and Simple.

Please remember, in any language available now, there are basically two types of information involved in the communication process. Namely:

Action

State

Action is actualised by verbs, while State is shown by nouns, adjs or prepositional phrases.

It is strongly recommended that beginners of English writing start their practice by using this KISSable approach. Please heed the following examples:

科技改变了人们的日常生活。

食品安全问题始终是一个负责任的政府应该时刻关心的问题。

由于大多数雅思考生的汉语思维和汉语的语言能力已经达到了成人的水平，在翻译写作过程中出现了现有的英文水平对付不了比较复杂的汉语思维所产生的中文信息，从而导致有想法没办法，有思路没门路的尴尬情况。所以刚刚开始练习的考生可以把自己想法中的主要信息挑出来，分成是动作还是状态两种类型，使用简单的主+谓+结构;或者主+系动词+表语的模式来练习写作。 比如上文所提的例子：

Science and technology have altered our daily life.

阅读是写作的基础，古人说：“熟读唐诗三百首，不会做诗也会吟”，就很好的讲明了阅读与写作的关系。我们初学诗歌写作，只有多读多思考，才能体会到佳作的精髓，在加上不断的练笔，便在不知不觉中学到了写诗的技巧，写出优美的诗句那是很轻松的事情。

要学写儿童诗，必须引导学生多阅读诗歌精品，引导孩子学会欣赏儿童诗。为此，我们可以搜集摘抄一些优秀的儿童诗，让学生朗读它，欣赏它。要学会体会、感受儿童诗所表达的意境，努力用自己的审美去探索美、发现美、创造美，这样往往能从所欣赏到的儿童诗中折射出儿童诗创作的灵感。

古代名家李白、杜甫、白居易、骆宾王等创作的诗歌，很多适合孩子阅读，除选中教材的之外，教师还可以筛选、补充一些。

当代作家中，比较有名气的儿童诗人有冰心、柯岩、樊发稼、金波、高洪波等，郭沫若、叶圣陶、艾青等名家也创作过儿童诗，教师可以为学生搜集整理或引导学生借阅、购买一些相关书籍，开阔学生的视野，触动学生创作的灵感。

一、【名诗欣赏】

我在教学生写以“春天”为话题诗歌，师生先共同欣赏着名儿童诗作家金波的《春的消息》

风，摇绿了树的枝条，

水，漂白了鸭的羽毛，

盼望了整整一个冬天，

你看，春天已经来到!

让我们换上春装，

像小鸟换上新的羽毛，

飞过树林，飞上山岗，

到处有春天的欢笑。

看到第一只蝴蝶飞，

它牵引着我的双脚，

我高兴地捕捉它，

又爱怜地把它放掉。

看到第一朵花迎春开放，

我会禁不住欣喜地雀跃，

小花朵，你还认得我吗?

你看我又长高了多少?

来到去年叶落的枝头，

等待它吐出新的绿苞，

再去唤醒沉睡的溪流，

听它唱歌，和它一起奔跑。

走累了，我躺在田野上，

头顶有明媚的太阳照耀。

是谁瘙痒了我的面颊?

啊，身边又钻出了嫩绿的小草……

熟读后，师生一起总结出这首诗的写作特点：诗人以一颗童心与大自然无拘无束地交流，冬去春来，大自然苏醒了，那小鸟、蝴蝶、花朵、新芽、溪流都显得如此亲切。当“我”躺在初春的田野上与大地共享明媚阳光时，那嫩绿的小草竟悄悄地又来和“我”玩耍，诗人巧妙地运用了拟人的写法，把人与自然之间那种和谐，那种默契，表达的妙不可言。

二、【争做小诗人】

1、让我们以“春天”为话题，可以写春山、春水、春花、春雨还可以写春天的人们。自定题目，写首诗歌。

2、小组评议，选取佳作，全班交流。

3、佳作展示。

春雨

龚伟

春雨，是一位着名的音乐家

听，他又开始演奏了

沙沙沙，沙沙沙

那悦耳的声音

是青蛙苏醒的闹钟声

是小草冲出地面的拥挤声

春雨，是一个百宝箱

看，宝物正送给人们

什么宝物

哦!是桃花的清香

是柳树那长长的辫子

是大自然的五彩芬芳

点评：小作者把春雨比喻成音乐家和百宝箱，通过合理的想象写出了春雨给大自然带来的生机。小作者通过春雨写出了大自然美丽壮观的景象，写出了生命对春天的渴望。

小编认为，现在初中学生以编演课本剧作为一种实践锻炼方式，是对于学生语 文素质的提高是大有裨益的，是符合“大语文”教学观要求的，为此小编整理了关于校园课本剧的写作基础。希望更多同仁能 够参与其中，共同促进课本剧的发展。

首先我们要知道什么是课本剧。

课本剧是学校师生共同编写、排练的以所学课文、学校生活为素材，通过创 设情景，角色模拟，展示升华课文主题思想和故事情节，反映学校生活、学习的 一种话剧表演形式。它对于活跃班级文化生活、寓教于乐，培养学生的创新精 神和参与能力，提高他们全面深刻地学习理解、感悟掌握课文内容的自主想象创 造力，有着不可替代的作用。如今，在推进语文课改，推行素质教育的小学语文 课堂，课本剧表演正独领风骚，成为一道亮丽的风景。

怎样编演课本剧?

编演课本剧选哪一 篇?怎样编?谁演什么角色合适?人物性格有何特点?等等一系列问题。

编演过程，对学生语文知识的要求是多方面的。剧本不是课文，不再有大量 的叙述性语言，除了有简单的舞台说明外，大部分是对话。对话语言要规范，就 要求改写剧本时用词要准确、句子要完整;表演时语音要准确，对话就要与人物 性格相符合。这些都需要学生有较扎实的听说读写能力。

因此，为了演好某个角 色，演员对其中的每一句话，甚至是一个眼神都是反复推敲、试演，在这个过程 中，其语文基础知识自然也得到了训练和提高。如编演《羚羊木雕》，人物语言 都很有个性，奶奶虽只一句话，但若没有认真揣摩、分析，其两难境地是很难表 现得那样传神的。

编演课本剧同时又是一种创造性活动。 改编是一种创造， 表演更是一种创造。 “一千个观众就有一千个哈姆雷特”， 每个学生在阅读课文时都有自己独到的理 解。改编后进入表演，根据实际，结合当代学生的一些特点不断调整、 充实，进行再创造，从而使人物的动作、表情、对话等更具个性化，使得形象更 为丰满。如《羚羊木雕》结尾，当“我”和“万芳”和好时，如用《友谊地久天 长》的背景音乐来烘托等，就是一种创造性，将会取得很好的演出效果。

戏剧是一门文学，其生命力的源泉就是生活。编演课本剧就是用戏剧语言辅 以动作等来推动情节发展，进而反映生活的。这就需要学生将戏中人物与自己的 生活经验相结合，去把握其性格并注意对话语言的表达技巧。表演中的动作也是 如此。要具备了迁移知识到实际生活的能力， 具备了对生 活的观察、分析能力。

编演本剧亲身感受人物的生活、用心体验他说的每一句话，就更直接、更感 性地理解了人物， 不知不觉中被人物身上所具有的品质、 精神所感染。

课本剧的选材 1、 课文内容 2、 学校生活 3、编写课本剧 4、安排好课本剧的结构

安排好课本剧的结构 创作课本剧要吃透课文的主题思想和故事情节，根据课文故事情节

据人物的出场顺序，创造性地设计好人物的对白、动作、表情。(后两 者可在“对白”的前面或后面用提示语注明。)

剧本开头要写明剧中的人物(给剧中人物起好一个简洁的代名称)

安排好场景(布景、道具的设计制作及其摆放位置)

依据课文内容情节的发生顺序，创造性地让一个个人物出场表演。人物 对白不要机械套用课文原话， 要在不改变课文原意的前提下， 创编更生动、 幽默， 更具有个性化的人物对白，剧本的尾声一定要达到创作的最高潮，以利于揭示升 华表演主题，收到应有的体验教育效果。

剧本的尾部要注明“该剧据第*册中学《语文》同名课文改编”字样和 创作组、导演组成员和扮演剧中人物的队员名单。

明确编演步骤及要求 课本剧的编演，要有一定步骤，编演程序分为选、读、编、演(包括排练、 演出)、评五个步骤，其中每步相应地有具体要求。

选 要选较生动的、学生感兴趣的记叙性课文，如《摆渡》、《花的话》、 《皇帝的新装》等。所选课文不一定要很长(如选《蚊子和狮子》)，长课文也 不一定要全演，可选其中一个层次(如《古代英雄的石像》)。无论长短，所选 课文要求情节性要强，人物性格要鲜明。要改编课文，就必须对课文有深入理解，这就需要引导学生多读，研 读课文、推敲语言文字、体会人物情感，使其知背景、明主题、熟内容。只有清 楚这些，才能更好地体会揣摩人物富有个性的语言，才能更好地塑造人物形象。 因为人物的性格总是与特定的历史背景相联系，为表现主题服务的。

改编课本时，人物对话和舞台说明可适 当增删，还可做变动。但无论增删或变动，都既要适合于剧情发展及人物性格的 需要、为主题服务，又要适合舞台演出。

对课文里一些能突出人物性格的对话 及有关动作要在剧本里体现，注意突出其作用。

演 包括排练和演出。排练时，要注意全体学生语文素质的提高，可分为 多个小组，使学生人人都有参与活动的机会，各小组也可根据实际，对剧本稍作 修改。

演出时注意两点：

1.舞台布置及道具应从简，不能人为造成演出的难度。 如《摆渡》船可虚拟;《七根火柴》中熊熊燃烧的篝火，则可用几块泡沫裁成火 苗的形状，再涂上红、黄广告色，绘成火的样子即可。

2.人物对话的表演是重点，应掌握好语调、语气、速度、节奏等，最大程度地为突出人物性格、推动情节发 展服务。

通讯是以叙述、描写为主要表达方式，将具有新闻价值的人物或事件及时、具体、生动地予 以报道的新闻体裁。

一、通讯特点

通讯作为报刊、电台等媒体最主要的体裁之一，新闻性显然是基本的特征。而新闻性中，真 实、时效、思想性及典型意义构成了它的不同层面。就报道对象言，或是人物、事件，或是 经验、成果、工作情况、社会风貌等，都必须是真实的，不允许虚构或“合理想象”，而且 报道对象应该具有必须的思想性和典型意义。就报道时效言，通讯虽不及消息这般快速敏捷 ，有时为将人物、事件报道细致完整需时较长，但也必须及时，仍须有很强的时效概念。除 去真实、时效的新闻性特征，通讯的主要特点有：

1、生动性。

通讯尤其是人物通讯具有一定的文学色彩。消息在表达上主要 是平面的叙述，语言追求简洁 、明快、准确。通讯则较多借用文学手段，可以描写、抒情、对话，可以用比喻、象征、拟 人等修辞。因此通讯在语言和表达方法上都具有一定的文学性，它在报道真实的人和事的过 程中，善于再现情景，平添许多生动和形象，给人以立体感、现场感。

此外，通讯虽然一般以第三人称叙述为主，但在“见闻”、“采访记”一类的通讯中，也采 用第一人称。不过其中的“我”主要起见证人或采访线索的作用。在效果上第一人称的使用 也增加了一些亲切感。

2、完整性。

通讯须相对完整、具体地报道人物或事物的过程。消息侧重写 事，叙述 简明扼要，一般不展开情节。通讯可写人物也可写事件，其材料比消息丰富、全面，其容量 比消息厚实、充足。它要求详尽、具体地报告事件的经过、演绎人物的命运，充分展开情节 ，甚至描写细节和场面。这些既是生动性的表现，同时也是内容完整性、具体化的要求。

3、评论性。

通讯须运用夹叙夹议的方法对人或事作出直接的评论。消息是 以事实说话，除 述评消息一般不允许作者直接发表议论。通讯则要求在报道人物或事件的同时，表露记者的 感情与倾向。然而通讯的评论不同于议论性文体的论证，它须时时紧扣人物或事件，依傍事 实作适时的、恰到好处评价点拨。因此这是一种通过描写、叙述、抒情等表达手段进行的议 论，它的特点是以情感人，理在情中。

二、通讯种类

1、人物通讯

是以人物的思想、言行、事迹和命运为报道内容的通讯。 人物通讯并非仅仅 是“名人通讯”，报道对象的选择取决于其蕴含的新闻价值，一般来说人物必须具有先进性 或典型性。在取材上可写“全人全貌”，也可截取片断着重写人物的某个侧面或阶段。此两 类一般以人物的“行”为主，而“人物专访”则以写人物的“言”为主。通过记者的专访， 记述人物的谈话，从而揭示其精神世界。

2、事件通讯

是以具典型意义的事件为报道对象的通讯。事件通讯时效 性较强，它围绕中 心事件选材，虽不着力刻划人物，但往往通过典型事件表现一群人或一个集体。所以它通过 较为详尽地展示事件的完整过程，挖掘其意义，揭示其本质，进而反映社会风尚，弘扬时代 精神。? 除人物通讯与事件通讯外，另有：“工作通讯”，这是介绍某单位先进事迹，传播其典型经 验和做法，以指导一般的通讯;“概貌通讯”，这是记述某地区、部门、行业、工程的新面 貌、新气象的通讯。报刊上常见的“见闻”、“纪行”、“巡礼”、“散记”均属此类。此 外，还有以写一段片断、一个场景、一场冲突为对象的“新闻故事”、“小通讯”之类，它 们以生动、快捷的形式宣传新人新事新风尚，实为通讯家属中不可忽视的一员。

三、通讯写作

1、关于选材与提炼主题

占有材料对通讯写作来说就是通过扎实细致的采访广泛搜集第一手材料。随后在纷繁的直接 材料中剥离出典型材料、背景材料。这些材料不仅要求真实，而且要有意义，具有典型性、 指导性，同时还要有意味，具有具体、完整、感人的生动性、情节性。在这般基础上根据深 和新的原则提炼主题，通讯才可能呼应社会关注热点，反映时代风尚特点，宣传党的路线方 针，从而以正确的舆论引导人，以先进的人物激励人，以真实的事件震撼人。然而通讯写的 是真人真事，其主题必须从实际生活中提炼而来，不能随意“拔高”，更不能虚构夸大，它 永远不能违背新闻的真实性原则。

2、关于写人

事因人生，人以事观。人与事虽不可分，但在人物通讯与事件通讯中的确有以人为主和以事 为主之别，为叙述方便故而分之。? 写人在文学创作中已积累丰富经验，在“非虚构”的原则下，我们不妨可借用其多种手段， 并注意以下三个方面：第一，形与神兼备。即不仅要写出人物的行为和事迹，更要展示其精 神世界;第二，言与行统一。人物语言、行为表达、传递出人物的思想，而不同的语气、句 式、词汇及动作表情、神态等是极富个性色彩的内心表露形式。写好了人物的言与行，无疑 是写活了人;第三，画龙必须点睛。如果说言行、事例、情节勾勒出人物的整体形象称为“ 龙” ，那么揭示人物行为意义，指出人物个性特点的评点便是“睛”。“画龙”用的是纪实的叙 述、描写，“点睛”则是超脱的议论或抒情。

3、关于叙事

通讯离不开写事，事件通讯更须完整地叙述事件的起因、人员、场面、结果等，以交待事件 的复杂性和社会影响度。叙事要注意两点：第一，理清主线、丰满细节。一个新闻事件的发 生、发展过程中，有因有果，有人有事，头绪多而关系复杂，作者须理清主线，按事件原貌 将其完整地、动态地、立体地呈现给读者。而为实现这一目标，就须选择典型的细节。一篇 优秀的事件通讯，必然有几个生动感人的细节来充分展示主线，使作品丰满而具现场感。第二，时间为经、时间为纬。通讯须有一定的时间要领因为事件、故事总在于一定的时间和空间中。纺织好时空画面既是一个结构总是也是一个表达方法问题。篇幅不长而情节不太复杂的事件通讯可多运用插叙、补叙、分叙等手段，充分展开矛盾和利用背景材料，使文章有变化起伏。容量大而情节复杂的事件通讯则常常运用时空交叉方式，以时间推进、空间变换等手段来切割事件，构成若干侧面。经过作者精心的组合剪辑将事件完整而利落地报告于世。

显然选材与提炼主题是各类通讯写作中必须面对的，而写人与叙事则因通讯品种不同而有所侧重。但是通讯的写作模式也必然带来约束，因而通讯的散文化写法亦开始为人注目。所谓 的散文化倾向有以下几个特点：(一)生活面更趋广阔，(二)结构不拘一格，(三)技法更多样 化，(四)报道呈系列化。

思考与练习：

一、阅读下列消息，然后给它拟写引题和正题：

本报讯(记者董洪亮)我国唯一的教育艺术刊物《教育艺术》杂志日前度过了五 周岁生日。冰心老人、贺敬之等知名人士为之题词致贺。

《教育艺术》由中华教育艺术研究会暨中华教育艺术家协会、首都师范大学青年教育艺术研 究所共同主办，李燕杰教授担任社长。该刊以“激扬正气，振奋民魂”为办刊宗旨，主要栏 目有“名家谈教育艺术”、“时代精神磁场”、“青春思絮”、“教育艺术一千问”等。《 教育艺术》杂志被海内外读者誉为“青年的良师，家长的益友，干部的参谋，教师的助手” 。

(《中国教育报》1994年11月17日第2版)

二、一件新闻在不同的报纸上刊出时，会因编辑的眼光不同而出现不同的标题。请就近日发 生的一件重大新闻，比较、分析各大报纸刊出时的标题有何不同。

三、写一篇新闻，报道学校或班上新近组织的某项活动。时间、地点、事件要交代清楚，还 要注意详略得当，有条有理。? 四、下面这则题为《卫生部写信感谢空军某部官兵》的消息与通讯《为了六十一个阶级弟兄 》是同题材的报道，请仔细比较两文章，谈谈通讯与消息在确立主题、写作方法等方面的异 同。

新华社20日讯卫生部最近写信给人民解放军空军领导机关，表扬和感谢空军某 部 官兵为了抢救平陆县公路工地食物中毒的员工，克服各种困难，完成了空投药品的任务。

信上说，2月3日，山西省平陆县风陵渡公路工地上发生六十多人食物中毒事故，当地县委 来 电话后，经与你们联系，立即得到大力支援，派专机前往空投药品。飞行员们为了抢救工人 阶级兄弟的生命，毫不犹豫地连夜起飞，迅速地执行这一任务。由于药品的及时供应，使全 体中毒员工经过抢救脱离了生命危险。这一英雄行为，充分说明了人民空军战士有高度的为 人民服务的精神和共产主义风格。

信上还说，空军战士抢救中毒工人的事迹，大大地鼓舞了病人和平陆县全县人民的革命意志 ，他们纷纷写信感谢党中央和毛主席对他们的关怀，感谢人民空军的大力支援。中共平陆县 委还将此事件写成材料，向全县人民进行教育，学习人民解放军忠于祖国、忠于人民的高贵 品质。

(原载《人民日报》1960年2月21日)

五、阅读近期报纸，书面推荐人物通讯、事件通讯、概貌通讯各一件。

六、实地采访，写一篇通讯。

选题是论文写作活动的第一步，也是很重要的一步。小编收集了论文写作之怎么选题，欢迎阅读。

无论是搞科学研究还是写学术论文，首先必须解决的问题是究竟要研究什么，那么，选题就是要解决这个问题。同时，论文写作是一个系统性很强的写作实践活动，是一个系统工程，选题是论文写作活动的第一步，也是很重要的一步。其重要性主要表现在：第一，论文成败的关键;第二，写作活动的起点。

有人说，论文选准了题就等于写成功了一半，这话一点不假，也足可见选题的重要。所谓选准了题，有两方面的意思：一方面是说所选课题与作者的知识结构相适应，作者有能力把它完成，并且还能够发挥作者自身的优势;另一方面是说作者所选的课题本身具有重要价值，值得研究探讨。上述两方面因素对选题来说是缺一不可的，否则，你选了很有价值的课题却没有能力完成，这样的课题只能是白选，或者所选的课题你有能力去做但其本身没有什么价值，这样的课题也等于是白选。可见，选题本身也是一门学问，也反映出一个人独立进行科学研究的能力的大小。掌握了这门学问，论文写作就会事半功倍，没有掌握选题的基本规则，论文写作就可能事倍功半甚至劳而无功。

一般来说，论文课题分为两大类，一类为开创性研究课题，一类为发展性研究课题。

所谓开创性研究，也称探索性研究，即研究前人未曾涉及或未研究过的领域或问题。这类研究课题主要包括三个方面：一是开创新领域，创建新理论;二是填补研究空白;三是研究那些随着社会发展和科技进步而不断出现的新课题。对于我们所涉猎的人文科学，特别是教育学科、艺术学科(尤其是我们这些从事实际工作的人)，研究这类课题难度很大，精力和能力都有所不及。

所谓发展性研究，也称为开发性研究，即在已有研究成果的基础上，再做进一步的研究，将现有成果加以深化、扩展和开发。发展性研究课题也主要包括三个方面：一是深化、补充已有的观点;二是批驳、修正已有的观点;三是赋予已有理论以新的意义。我们的论文写作主要选择的还是这类发展性的课题。

从总体上讲，我们在选题时至少应该考虑以下这几个方面的因素：首先，选题是否有意义，没有意义的题目不要选;其次，选题是否有学术价值，没有学术价值的题目也不要选;再次，在所选题目内自己是否能够提出独到的见解，即能否出新，没有新意的题目最好也不要选;第四，选题是否适合自己的水平，不适合自己水平的题目不能选，这包括知识结构是否适应，研究能力是否胜任，研究兴趣是否浓厚，客观条件是否具备等等。

在具体谈怎样进行选题之前，请允许我以自己的亲身体会来进一步说明选题对科学研究和论文写作的意义。

我中师毕业参加工作后，有好几年曾热衷于自学音乐理论和歌曲创作，也出了一点点成果。后来有机会进修了英语，便开始做考研究生的梦，妄想从山沟沟里爬出来，这就面临一个选择什么专业的问题，实际上也是一个课题选择的问题。普通中师没有专业之分，无论考哪个专业都得从零开始，这倒也给自己在专业选择方面提供了便利。考虑到自己所从事的是教师职业，对教育多少有些感性认识，也考虑到考教育专业可能是冷门，专业知识相对来说比别的专业要容易(这显然是在瞎猜)，于是就决定选择教育学专业，可以说，这是我所做的第一次大的选题。上研究生以后，面对教育学的许多分支学科和研究方向，我又反复权衡了自己的劣势、优势和兴趣，特别是分析了教育理论的研究现状，感到惟有选择“美育和艺术教育”这一研究方向，才是自己的唯一出路。事实证明，这一选择是正确的。我这个不被导师看好的半路出山的学生在学习期间发表了十多篇文章，正是这些文章坚定了自己考博士研究生继续学习的信心。凭心而论，并不是我的文章写得怎么好，主要是我的选题基本上都集中在美育、艺术教育领域，而这一领域正是我国整个教育理论研究的最薄弱之处，随便翻开国内的教育学术期刊，这方面的文章特别少(我是不是有投机取巧的嫌疑?的确是!)。后来的博士学位论文选题确定为中小学艺术教育，也是充分考虑了各方面的因素的，包括国内外的研究现状、自身积累、客观条件等等。现在回过头来看，可以不夸张地说，选题不仅影响了自己的学习研究状况，甚至在一定程度上影响了我的人生：不选教育学专业，就不一定能够考出来;不选美育与艺术教育方向，就肯定不能发表那些文章，也就难以获得继续学习的机会(因为博士生招生不仅看考试成绩，更要看已有的研究成果)，也难以顺利完成学业。在这里我把自己作为一个例子提出来，只是想以自己的亲身经历说明，无论是对于科学研究或是写论文，选题这一关的的确确是非常非常重要的。

上面谈了一点题外话，现在言归正传，具体谈谈究竟怎样进行选题。

选题可根据角度的不同以及个人特点来进行。一般来说，可以考虑在以下几个方面进行选题：

1.在自己的专业领域内选题。

这是最基本的，也是最一般的选题范围，像我们的选题一般都是集中在音乐教育领域，并主要是普通学校的音乐教育领域，因为我们大多从事普通音乐教育的理论研究和实际工作，在自己的研究或工作范围内选题，自然有着得天独厚的优势。比如，我是音乐教研员，那么，在教研工作方面我最有发言权;我是中小学音乐教师，那么，写有关中小学音乐教育方面的论文我掌握的材料就会比别人多;如果我是高师音乐系的老师，显然写高师音乐教育改革方面的问题别人应当比不过我。应该说，这是非常浅显的道理，但往往有的人选题时并不是扬长避短，而是有些喜新厌旧，总觉得做文章也有家花不如野花香的感觉，习惯于把兴奋点集中在别人的专业领域里。当然，一个人兴趣爱好广泛是好事，但是在广博的同时还得有专攻。因此，一般来说，我们首先最好是立足于自己的专业领域，在自己最为熟悉的方面进行选题，以后再来慢慢地拓宽。由于在自己的专业领域里可能是行家里手，知识丰富，掌握的材料很多，因而这类选题在写作时应避免材料的堆积，避免知识介绍式的毫无创建的一般性文章，同时也应避免专业知识的炫耀。实际上，无论哪类选题，都要注意这方面的问题。

2.在出现的新矛盾新问题中选题。

这种选题应注意用发展的观点、全新的观念去研究和解决新问题，找出规律，正确预测发展趋势，提出解决问题的新思路、新方案。这种选题应避免就事论事，避免片面、狭隘、绝对和极端;应避免用旧理论、旧框框去套新情况、新问题;应避免用旧观念去理解新事物，同时也要防止专赶时髦的一窝蜂现象。比如，目前，教育界都在谈论应试教育向素质教育的转轨，我们选择有关音乐教育在转轨中的作用，音乐教育在素质教育中的地位等这样的课题，这就是在新矛盾新问题中进行选题。但是，目前我们看到的关于这类选题的文章，无论在观念上还是在写作的角度上，大多千篇一律，确实有一窝蜂之感：总体上大都是谈音乐教育在转轨中、在素质教育中是处于多么重要的地位，发挥着多么重要的作用等等;在篇章结构上大多是先谈音乐教育在德育方面的作用，然后再谈音乐教育在智育方面的作用，在体育方面的作用等等。却很少有人能够来点逆向思维，反过来思考一些问题：如，目前我们的音乐教育在哪些方面不符合转轨的要求，不符合素质教育的要求，转轨和素质教育又对音乐教育提出了什么样的要求，什么样的音乐教育才是真正的素质教育，目前我们实施的音乐教育是不是就是素质教育，音乐教育本身是不是也应该转转轨等等。总之，目前的情况是，绝大部分的文章对音乐教育唱赞歌的多，反思的少。毫无疑问，如果我们把后面的几个问题作为选题，那么选题会更有价值，也更能显示出作者的水平。我曾在《儿童音乐》上写过一篇小文章，正标题为“敢问音乐教育路在何方?”副标题是“——由‘素质教育中的音乐教育’命题引发的思考”，这篇文章对上述现象做了剖析。此外，《中国音乐教育》1998年三期上刊登的“关于艺术教育功能的思考”一文，实际上也是谈的这个问题。

3.在热点焦点问题上选题。

由于这类选题所选择的热点和焦点，这本身就意味着更受人关注，因而成功的可能性也就更大。这类选题应避免现象罗列或泛泛而谈，应当用前瞻的眼光，用新的观念剖析其历史根源或现实的深层原因，应作出令人信服的理性分析，挖掘其蕴涵的意义，找出规律，指明发展趋势，或者提出对策。比如，“音乐考试”也算得上是音乐教育领域的一个热点焦点问题，尤其是当前艺术教育比以往更加受到重视的大背景下。为此，《中国音乐教育》98年在“探索与争鸣”栏目开辟专栏讨论这个问题。第一期就发表了两篇强烈呼吁音乐课要纳入升学考试科目的文章，应该说，这两篇文章确有值得推敲的地方。文章一味地认为，只要纳入了升学考试科目，音乐教育目前所存在的问题就会一了百了，迎刃而解，似乎音乐教育存在的问题完全是因为它不是升学考试科目所引起的，而究竟为什么要这样做，现阶段这样做的可能性有多大，特别是怎样去实施，文章不能心平气和地去加以论述。发这两篇文章，主要是从编辑的角度考虑，想借此引起大家的争论。也正是基于这一原因，我们还特别写了这样几句“编者按”：“音乐课程是否应该纳入毕业与升学考试范围，其考试究竟应该怎样进行才能真正体现素质教育的要求，这是我国音乐教育界长期争论和探讨的问题，也是广大音乐教师目前最为关注的问题之一。为了进一步统一思想，澄清认识，本刊拟从本期起就该问题开辟专栏进行讨论。望读者能从音乐教育的特点和当前我国音乐教育的实际出发，就此问题发表不同意见。”应该说，编者按里就已经明确提示了大家，下一步我们需要听到的是反面意见，遗憾的是，尽管也收到了许多参与讨论的稿件，但这些文章几乎都统一了口径。观点相同也不要紧，但必须有新的内容，能提出新的论据。直到第三期快要发稿的时候，我们才收到了一篇题为“音乐统考不可行”的文章，这篇文章写得不错，真正是从音乐教育的特点和当前我音乐教育的实际出发来谈问题，谈出了一定的道理，同时作者投稿的时期也赶得好，因此，文章很快就被发表了。这也提示我们，热点焦点问题大家都关注，都可能把它们作为自己的论文选题，这时候，就千万不要人云亦云，跟着别人跑。或者你要提出与别人不同的观点，或者你要在与别人不同的层面上选题，或者你要从新的角度选题。总之，要力争出新。

4.在经常深入思考的领域里或自己的兴奋点上选题。

这类选题也许和作者的专攻学科并不完全一致，但只要有所创见，再进一步进行系统地研究，就有可能写出高质量的论文。许多自学成才的专家学者，许多由一个专业转入另一个专业的理论家、科学家的事迹都证明：只要对某一领域确有创见，不论是否是原有专业，都能做出贡献，论文的选题同样如此。老师们大都是长期工作在基层学校的骨干教师，接触了各种各样的实际情况，对许多问题一定有过深入的思考(这些问题当然不一定都是音乐教学方面的问题)，这是人所不及的，特别是那些专门从事理论研究的人所望尘莫及的，这是一笔大财富，如果我们不以论文或其他的方式把它们记录下来，那么对自己和社会都将是一大损失。在经常思考的领域或自己的兴奋点上选题，如果不是自己的专业领域，那么，就应该特别注意，不要被自己认为认识较深，但实际上却远没有登堂入室的错觉所迷惑，否则，就可能出现外行指导内行、班门弄斧的尴尬场面。

5.在学科边缘或交叉点上选题。

6.在冷门盲点上选题。

冷门和盲点，或是因为远离当时的热点、焦点，或是一时被认为是无关紧要的问题，或是尚未被人意识到的问题。其实，课题的价值并不在于是否赶一时的时髦，也不取决于在某一时刻是否为人们所关注，科学课题自有其本身的价值所在。冷门和盲点一旦其价值被发现，研究出成果，便会向热门和焦点转化。这类选题不仅很少与人撞车，而且容易获得成功，同时又可拓宽研究的视野。当时我选择美育和艺术教育这一课题，应该说就是在教育学领域中冷门和盲点上的选题。这类选题，只要大家留意并用心思考，还是不难找到的。比如，目前我国的艺术教育还很落后，大家的注意力都集中在考试上，并一致认为归根到底就是由于艺术课程不是升学考试科目，结果忽视了一个更为深层的原因，那就是艺术教育的法规建设问题。为什么艺术课在很多地方形同虚设，可有可无，原因之一是艺术课教学还不规范，这又是因为它没有受到权威法规的制约。再有，目前社会上的器乐考级热一浪高过一浪，进而严重冲击了学校音乐教育的正确实施，原因之一也是没有受到法规的制约。但目前有关呼吁加强艺术教育法规建设的文章却很难看到，这应该说就是一个盲点。而实际上，《艺术教育工作条例》的制订工作已经基本完成了，不久就会由国务院颁布，很显然，现在的盲点到时就是热点焦点。条例一旦颁布，随之而来的便是艺术课程教学、课外校外艺术活动、社会艺术环境、艺术教师、艺术教育的管理与组织、艺术教育的物质条件保障等各方面都将要制订具体的规定和实施细则，因此，如何规范上述各个方面，到时无疑又是热点焦点，但现在却是冷门和盲点。像这样的选题便是有远见的选题。另外，同样的一个问题，从一个角度去写可能是热点焦点问题，而从另外一个角度去写则可能是冷门盲点问题，这样，从第一个角度写的人就多，而从第二个角度写的人就少。比如，关于音乐教育的辅德益智功能，往往是从正面谈的多，这就是热点焦点，而从反面谈的少，即反过来看看，目前我们的音乐教育能真正辅德益智吗?这就是冷门盲点。

上面我们分六个方面谈了怎样进行论文的选题，这是一种大致的分法，因为事实上，这六个方面也存在着相互交叉的关系。我想，总而言之，对于初写论文的同志，选题时最好记住这几句话：宜小不宜大，宜窄不宜宽，宜单不宜众，宜冷不宜热，宜实不宜虚。对于有较好论文写作基础的同志，则应根据自己的实际情况另当别论了。

这里我想就“宜小不宜大”多说几句。我们在选题时要注意把研究的范围缩小并加以限制，这样便于驾驭，容易把握。范围大了，不容易讲深讲透。王力先生在谈到论文写作时曾说：“应该写小题目，不要搞大题目，小题目反而能写出大文章，大题目倒容易写得很肤浅，没有价值。”他还举了一个例子说明这个问题：加拿大一位汉学家写了一篇文章，讲的是汉语唇音轻化的问题。这个问题够小的了，但他写了六七十页(约二万多汉字)，很有内容，很深入。由此可见，选小题目，专谈一个问题，谈深谈透了就是好文章。

另外，不管从哪个方面进行选题，还有一个前期工作恐怕不能忽视，那就是查看文献资料。选择课题，必须以相关的丰富知识作基础，要了解本学科过去的研究情况：已经进行了哪些研究，有了哪些经验或教训，获得了哪些成果。看看自己的设想与前人对这个问题的结论如何，自己是否有新的见解。同时还要了解本学科的研究现状：研究达到了什么水平，还有哪些问题没有解决，需要如何进一步研究。如果对这些问题不了解，就可能重复研究别人已经完成的研究课题，在研究过程中就要走弯路，就要浪费人力、时间和精力。而这些问题都必须通过查看文献资料才能解决。

关于如何选题的问题就谈到这里，有时间的话，老师们不妨再去看看本书后面的附录二——“第一、二届全国音乐教育论文评选获奖名单”，上面有近500个论文题目，对照上面所讲的，看哪些选题比较好，哪些又太一般化。

比喻就是打比方，是用具体的、浅显的、熟知的事物去说明或描写抽象的、深奥的、生疏的事物的一种修辞手法。写文章如果能适当地加点比喻，将使语言更加鲜明、生动、形象，使深刻的、抽象的道理浅显地具体地体现出来。

一、分析成分

提到比喻句的组成，很多孩子都会不假思索地回签“本体”、“喻体”、“比喻词”。

如：满世界都是雨，头顶的岩石像为我撑起的巨伞。这句话中本体是“岩石”，喻体是“巨伞”，比喻词是“像”。

又如“红红的枫叶像一枚枚邮票。”本体是“枫叶”，喻体是“邮票”，比喻词是“像”。对比喻句成分的分析，看似非常简单，但书面练习或检测中却不会这么直白地问你“本体”、“喻体”、“比喻词”是什么。通常会出现这样提问：本句把比作。那么，孩子们就要懂得这种问法的解答方法。即把“本体”放前“喻体”放后来回答。结合刚才的例句就是：第一句把岩石比作巨伞，第二句把枫叶比作邮票。另外，还有一种问法，即“用 比喻”，它的答法则刚好相反，即把喻体放前本体放后来回答。即第一句用巨伞比喻岩石，第二句用邮票比喻枫叶。这两种问法都是分析比喻句成分的常用形式。因此，孩子们要扎实掌握，灵活运用。这种问法也是在为高年级时分析比喻手法做准备。

二、体会作用

比喻能给人以生动亲切之感，这种感觉我们如何用语言表达出来呢?如孩子们经常遇到这种题型：

问题：啊，老桥，你如一位德高望重的老人，在这涧水上站了几百年了啊?这句话用了修辞手法，这种表达的效果好在哪?

分析：

1.这个句子把老桥比作老人，用了比喻的修辞手法。

2.回答比喻的好处，一般从两个方面来作答。一是写清作者写了什么;二要写出自己读的受。结合本句，从“老”字体现了桥的年代久，从“桥”的使用价值来看，它是用来载人为人众服务的。“德高望重”一词的意思是品德高尚，名望很大。综合对词语的理解，我们可以这样回答本句比喻手法的好处：作者生动形象地写出了桥的古老和它默默无闻为大众服务的品质，表达了作者对桥的赞美和敬佩。这里要重点强调这样的语式：作者生动形象地写出了;表达(表现了)。这样的语句很自然地把两方面内容串联在了一起。

再举个例子，让大家感受一下。

忽然，像被一阵风吹来似的，远处的小丘上出现了一群马，马上的男女老少穿着各色的衣裳，群马疾驰，襟飘带舞，像一条彩虹向我们飞过来。

分析：这句话把“各色的衣裳，飞驰的骏马，飘舞的衣襟、衣带”统一作为一个本体出现，那么整理后我们可以说，本句的“本体”是蒙古族友人远道迎客的景象，那么本句就是把这些景物比作彩虹，这样写的好处是作者生动、形象地写出了蒙古族友人远道迎客的场景，表达了他们对汉族朋友的热情好客。

三、学会仿写

低年级学生的比喻句通常来源于课文中的优美语句，因此语言简单，结构短小，如：太阳像火球、月亮像小船。

可是随着年级的升高，本应越写越精彩的比喻句却出现了非常尴尬的局面。很多高年级的学生，在答题时依然在写低年级时非常简单的句子。为了考察高年级学生语词积累和运用能力，同时也为了避免“低智”的句子出现，现在的比喻句多以“仿写”的形式出现，即“照样子写句子。”对于仿写，我们要牢牢把握两点。

1.结构要正确

如：雨像一曲无字的歌谣，神奇地四面八方飘然而起。

这个句子分前后两部分，前半部把雨比作歌谣，后半部写了歌谣飘然而起的景象。那么我们的仿写也要分前后两部分。

又如：索溪像一个从深山中蹦跳而出的野孩子，一会儿绕着山奔跑，一会儿撅着屁股，堵着气又自个闹去了。

这句话分两个部分，前半部用野孩子比喻索溪，后半部分采用并列关系，用两个“一会儿”写出了索溪淘气的行为，那我们仿写同样要采用这样的结构。

2.搭配要合理

前两个例句让我们清晰地看到，一个比喻句要做到生动形象，除了要有精彩的喻体外，作者还要对喻体进行了进一步详细地补充：山雨的静谧，索溪的淘气劲儿都是作者通过补充描写展现出来的。由此可见，后面补充的句子，特别是动词一定要与喻体相搭配。下面结合孩子的仿写，做进一步说明。

原句：啊，老桥，你如一位德高望重的老人，在这涧水上站了几百年了吧!

仿写：啊，老师，你如一位辛勤的园丁，哺育着我们这些刚刚发芽的幼苗。

分析：仿写句子的结构是正确的，但“哺育”不是园丁的行为，因此搭配“园丁”是不会理的。

改写：啊，老师，你如一位辛勤的园丁，精心浇灌着我们这些刚刚发芽的幼苗。

分析：“浇灌”是“园丁”发出的动作，这样的搭配就比较合适了。

再举个例子：

原句：雨像一曲无字的歌谣，神奇地从四面八方飘然而起。

仿写：风像妈妈温柔的手，轻轻地抚摸着孩子们。

分析：句子结构正确，“抚摸”搭配“手”合理，正确。

今天，我从三个方面分析了比喻句，一般来说这也是有关比喻句的出题类型，希望能给你带来帮助。

读后感，就是读了一本书或一篇文章，或读了一段话，或读了几句名言后，把具体感受和得到的启示写成的文章，读后感也可以叫做读书笔记， 是读完一篇文章的感受以外的总结、点评。所谓感，可以是从书中领悟出来的道理或精湛的思想，可以是受书中的内容启发而引起的思考与联想，可以是因读书 而激发的决心和理想，也可以是因读书而引起的对社会上某些丑恶现象的抨击。读后感的表达方式灵活多样，基本属于议论范畴，但写法不同于一般议论文，因为它 必须是在读后的基础上发感想。要写好有体验、有见解、有感情、有新意的读后感，必须注意以下几点：

首先，要读好原文。读后感的感是因读而引起的。读是感的基础。走马观花地 读，可能连原作讲的什么都没有掌握，哪能有感?读得肤浅，当然也感得不深。只有读得认真，才能有所感，并感得深刻。如果要读的是议论文，要弄清它的论 点(见解和主张)，或者批判了什么错误观点，想一想你受到哪些启发，还要弄清论据和结论是什么。如果是记叙文，就要弄清它的主要情节，有几个人物，他们之 间是什么关系，以及故事发生在哪年哪月。作品涉及的社会背景，还要弄清楚作品通过记人叙事，揭示了人物什么样的精神品质，反映了什么样的社会现象，表达了 作者什么思想感情，作品的哪些章节使人受感动，为什么这样感动等等。

其次，排好感点。只要认真读好原作，一篇文章可以写成读后感的方面很多。如对原文中心感受得深可以写成读后感，对原作其他内容感受得深也可以写成读后感，对个别句子有感受也可以写成读后感。总之，只要是原作品的内容，只要你对它有感受，都可以写成读后感。

第三，选准感点。一篇文章，可以排出许多感点，但在一篇读后感里只能论述一个中心，切不可面面俱到，所以紧接着便是对这些众多的感点进行筛选比较，找出自己感受最深、角度最新，现实针对性最强、自己写来又觉得顺畅的一个感点，作为读后感的中心，然后加以论证成文。

第四，叙述要简。既然读后感是由读产生感，那么在文章里就要叙述引起感的那些事实，有时还 要叙述自己联想到的一些事例。一句话，读后感中少不了叙。但是它不同于记叙文中叙的要求。记叙文中的叙讲究具体、形象、生动，而读后感中的 叙却讲究简单扼要，它不要求感人，只要求能引出事理。初学写读后感引述原文，一般毛病是叙述不简要，实际上变成复述了。这主要是因为作者还不能把握 所要引述部分的精神、要点，所以才简明不了。简明，不是文字越少越好，简还要明。

第五，联想要注意形式。联想的形式有相同联想(联想的事物之间具有相同性)、相反联想(联想的 事物之间具有相反性)、相关联想(联想的事物之间具有相关性)、相承联想(联想的事物之间具有相承性)、相似联想(联想的事物之间具有相似性)等多种。写 读后感尤其要注意相同联想与相似联想这两种联想形式的运用。

英语书面表达是体现个人水平的一个主要因素，也是各种考试考查的重要内容。怎样才能提高英语写作能力呢?方法是多种多样的，但最重要的是夯实学生的语言基本功，打好坚实的基础。语言的基本功在写作教学中体现为准确应用词汇和正确使用句型结构的能力，语句的组织衔接和谋篇布局的能力。在学生真正地掌握语汇用法的前提下，比较行之有效的方法是把句型教学放在写作情景中进行教授，培养学生的应用和运用能力。

在句型结构教学中，应尽多设计一些写作情景，使句型结构服务于教学，这样不仅提高了学生的写作兴趣，也加强了教学的目的性和针对性。为了提高写作能力和写作水平，本文主要归纳和总结了英语写作中常用的一些重点句型。希望能给同行们在教学中，学生在学习上有一些帮助。

以形式主语it引导的句型。

句型1.

It (so) happened(chanced) that +clause. = sb. happened /chanced to do sth. =sb.did sth. by chance. 如：

It happened that he was out when I got there. 当我到那儿时，碰巧他不在。=He happened to be out when I got there.= It chanced that he was out when I got there= He was out by chance when I got there.

句型2.

It seems that sb. do/ be doing/ have done/ had done= Sb. seems to do/ be doing/ have done/to be done/to have been done(还有动词appear等可这样使用)如:

It seemed that he had been to Beijing before.他好象以前去过北京。=He seemed to have been to Beijing before.

句型3.

It is / was+被强调的部分+that(who)+剩余的部分.如：

It wasn’t until he came back that I went to bed.直到他回来我才睡觉。(一定要注意被强调句型中的谓语动词否定的转移)。 It was because he was ill that he didn’t come to school today.只因为他有病了今天没有来上学。(只能用because而不能用for, as 或since)

It is I who am a student. 我确实是个学生。(句中am不能用are来代替。)

句型4.

It is high time (time/ about time)+ (that) 主语+should do / did+其它。(从句中的谓语动词用的是虚拟语气。)如:

It is high time that we should go / went home.我们该回家了。

句型5.

It is / was said ( reported…)+that+从句. 如：

It was said that he had read this novel.据说他读过这篇小说。=He was said to have read this novel.

句型6.

It is impossible / necessary/ strange…that clause.(从句中的谓语用should+do / should have done，其形式是虚拟语气。)如：

It is strange that he should have failed in this exam.真奇怪，他这次考试没有及格。

句型7.

It is + a pity/ a shame…that clause.(注意从句中的谓语动词用should do或should have done的形式，但should可以省略。)如：

He didn’t come back until the film ended. It was a pity that he should have missed this film. 他直到电影结束才回来。他没有看到这部电影真可惜。

句型8.

It is suggested / ordered/ commanded /…that +clause.(从句的谓语动词用should do, 但should可以省略。)如：

It is suggested that the meeting should be put off.有人建议推迟会议。

句型9.

It is/was+表示地点的名词+where+从句。(注意本句不是强调句型，而是以where引导的定语从句。)如：

It was this house where I was born.请比较：It was in this house that I was born.(后一句是强调句型。)

句型10.

It is / was +表示时间的名词+when+从句。(注意本句型也不是强调句型，而是以when引导的定语从句。)如：

It was 1999 when he came back from the United States. 请比较：It was in 1999 that he came back from the United States.

句型11.

It is well-known that+从句。如：

It is well-known that she is a learned woman.众所周知，她是个知识渊博的妇女。

句型12.

It is +段时间+since+主语+did. 请比较：

It was +段时间+since+主语+had done. 如：

It is five years since he left here.他已经离开这儿五年了。

It was five years since he left here.(同上)

注意下列句型的翻译:It is five years since he lived here.他从这儿搬走已经有五年了。

句型13.

It +谓语+段时间+before+主语+谓语.( before引导的是时间状语从句。) 如：

It wasn’t long before the people in that country rose up.没有多久那个国家的人民就起义了。

It will be three hours before he comes back.三个小时之后他才能回来。

句型14.

It is +形容词(possible, impossible, necessary等) +for+ sb.+ to do. 如：

It is impossible for me to finish this work before tomorrow.我明天之前完成此工作是不可能的。

句型15.

It is +(心理品质方面的)形容词+of + sb. +to do.= 主语+ be +形容词+to do.(常用的形容词有：kind, stupid; foolish, good, wise等。)如：

It is kind of you to help me.=You are kind to help me.你真好给我提供了帮助。