2015年英语六年级写作基础知识精选8篇 作文(经典20篇)

记叙文是以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主，以写人物的经历和事物发展变化为主要内容的一种文体形式。下面是小编为大家整理的关于记叙文的六要素的写作基础，欢迎大家阅读!

1.记叙文一般都具备六要素，但有的记叙文，如果其中某些要素是读者熟知的，或者某些要素不交代不影响表达效果，是可以省略的。

2.记叙的人称有第一人称和第三人称。以“我”的口吻或角度来叙述的是第一人称，如《小桔灯》《孔乙己》等。采用第一称来写，便于直抒胸臆，读起来有一种亲切感和真实感。以第三人称的角度来叙述文章中的人物、事件、场景等，如《皇帝的新装》。其优点在于不受空间和时间的限制，能从更多的方面自由地叙述。

3.记叙文的线索形式有：1以时间转移为线索2以一人3以一事4以一物为线索。多数记叙文存在着两条或两条以上的线索。如《藤野先生》，文章除了以作者与藤野先生交往为叙事线索(明线)外，还有作者爱国主度思想感情这一暗线。

4.记叙的顺序要求掌握的是顺叙、倒叙、插叙三种。顺叙指记叙的时候按照事情发生、发展、和结局的顺序来写，前因后果、条理很清楚。如《一面》;倒叙，指记叙的时候把后发生的事情写在前面，把先发生的事情写在后面。先把结局说出来，吸引读者了解其起因和过程，如《背影》;插叙，指在记叙过程中，需要插入另一些有关的情节，再接着叙述后来的事情，如《驿路梨花》。

5.记叙文常用的层次划分方法有以下几种：

(1)按事件和发展过程来划分《皇帝的新装》

(2)按空间转换来划分，如《老山界》

(3)按内容变化来划分，如《从百草园到三味书屋》

(4)按人物、场景变化来划分，如《分马》

(5)按感情变化来划分，如《荔枝蜜》不太喜欢蜜蜂—想去看蜜蜂—赞美蜜蜂—想变成蜜蜂。

(6)按表达方式的变换来划分，如《一件珍贵的衬衫》，抒情—记叙—抒情、议论。

6.理解和分析记叙文中叙述、描写、议论、抒情等多种表达方式综合运用的特点和作用。理解和分析记叙文中常用的表现手法(象征、对照、衬托等)和修辞手法(比喻、拟人、排比等)，理解记叙性语言准确、生动的特点。

7.记叙文虽然以叙述、描写为主要表达方式，但常常借助议论、抒情、说明来开拓意境，深化主题。很多是各种表达方工综合运用。

(1) 叙述：把人物的经历和事物的发展变化过程表达出来的一种表达方式。它是写作中最基本、最常见、也是最主要的表达方式。

(2 )描写：是对人物的外形、动作、事物的性质、形态和景物的状貌，变化所作的具体刻画和生动描摹。

(3 )说明：是用简明的语言、客观而准确地解说事物或阐述说事理的一种表达方式。

(4)抒情：是作者通过作品中心人物表达主观感受，倾吐心中情感的文字表露，可分为直接抒情、间接抒情两种。直接抒情即直抒胸臆。间接抒情是在叙述、描写、议论中流露出爱憎感情。

(5)议论:根据作品写出自己的见解或道理.

8.记叙文的语言的特点：准确，生动。

小结：

1.记叙文的要素

2.记叙文的人称

3.记叙文的线索：1以时间转移为线索2以一人3以一事4以一物为线索

4.记叙文的顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙三种

5.记叙文的划分

6.记叙文的表达方式：叙述、描写(语言，动作，外貌，心理，神态，环境等或正面，侧面)、议论、抒情、说明等

7.记叙文的语言的特点：准确，生动

8.记叙文的表现手法：白描、衬托、渲染、对比、伏笔、铺垫等。

总结：

1.关于记叙文和文学作品阅读题的解答主要从两主面着手：

一是概括文章的内容，抓住以下几个要点：

(1)把握记叙文的要素，以写事为主的应明确写什么事，写人为主的应明确写什么样的人。

(2)把握关键性语句，揣摩作者为什么要写这些人、事。

(3)分析层与层之间的关系，理清文章脉络，然后概括。

二是弄清记叙文和文学作品的结构特点及表现形式。掌握以下划分段落的方式：

(1) 以时空变化划分 (2) 以作者思想感情的变化来划分 (3) 按记叙内容的变化来划分 (4) 按描述角度的变化、事情发展的阶段来划分

2.文段在内容上：以中心、意思相联系(思想感情)来答

在结构上：

文段在开头：总起全文

文段在中间：承上启下

文段在结尾：总结全文或照应主题或首尾呼应。

记叙文的阅读，要明确有关的知识点，把握其文体特征。

一、记叙文的概念：记叙文是以记叙、描写为主要表达方式，以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主要内容的文章。中学阶段，为了教学的方便，常常把消息、通讯、人物传记、回忆录、寓言、童话、小说等，都划归到记叙文教学中。

二、记叙文的分类：从写作内容与方式看，可分为两类：简单的记叙文和复杂的记叙文。从写作对象的不同，可分为四类：

1.写人的记叙文;2.叙事的记叙文;3.写景的记叙文(即散文);4.状物的记叙文。

三、记叙的要素：记叙文有六要素——时间、地点、人物、事件的起因、经过、结果。

四、记叙的顺序：常用的有三种——顺叙、倒叙、插叙。

五、记叙的线索：一般有以下几种——人线、物线、情线、事线、时线、地线。

六、记叙的人称：一般采用第一人称或第三人称，个别时候使用第二人称。

七、记叙的中心与详略：整体感知，准确把握文章中心。分析材料与中心的关系，理解材料的详略安排。

八、记叙文所用的表达方式：常见的是五种——记叙、描写、说明、议论和抒情。比较复杂的记叙文，往往几种表达方式综合运用。

我们的身边有一位工作认真，对待学生细心、负责的好老师，她就是教我们英语的赵老师。

赵老师个子不高，讲起课来语速很快，不过我们也都适应了。她的课也许讲的不是最出色的，但她对我们无微不至的关心才是我喜欢她的原因。她说的每一句话都是有道理的，可能她说的时候你感觉不到，但事后你细细一想，也都不无道理。

她对学生日常生活也很关注。那是一年初夏，我和缪严寒、陈思豪都穿了长袖衣服到学校，在她的英语课上，讲课之余，她说到：“最近气温都升到了35度以上，可我们班有些同学还穿着长袖衣服，我希望你们明天把衣服换成短袖的。”

在我的印象中好像没有哪个老师会像赵老师那样关注我们，都做些什么，说些什么。在课堂上，她时时刻刻抓住我们的注意力，任何一个小动作，都逃不过她的眼睛。

这就是我的英语老师——赵老师。

想象力是十分强烈地促进人类发展的伟大天赋，那么大家知道学生如何写好想象文章呢？下面一起来看看！

想象是以感觉、知觉和记忆为基础的。三者的区别在于：感觉、知觉反映当前事物的形象；记忆反映过去感知的事物的形象；想象则反映未曾经历过的或现实中不存在的事物的形象，例如《西游记》中的孙悟空、猪八戒及各种妖魔鬼怪，都是想象的形象，是非现实的。?想象在科学论文和文学作品的写作中有着重要的作用。大量的科学研究成果是受想象的启发而获得的，无数文学人物的形象是通过想象而创造出来的。所以，爱因斯坦说：“想象力比知识更重要，因为知识是有限的，而想象概括着世界上的一切，推动着进步，并且是知识进化的源泉。严格地说，想象力是科学研究中的实在因素。”（《爱因斯坦文集》第一卷）

古今中外的许多作家都认为想象力是文学创作绝对必需的。例如，茅盾说：“创作文学时必不可缺的，是观察的能力与想象的能力：两者缺一不可。”（《茅盾文艺杂论集》上集）

想象力的基础是敏锐的观察力和牢固的记忆力。较强的想象力表现为：善于控制想象的方向，围绕一个中心展开想象；善于提高想象活动的新颖程度；善于在现实的基础上创造非现实的新形象；想象的内容是丰富的、多层次、多侧面的。这种较强的想象力主要是经由人的后天教育与环境熏陶，通过实践的锻炼而逐步发展起来的。

重视并且认真培养、锻炼想象力，就可使想象活动在写作中发挥开拓思路、强化感情、促进独创、深化主题的作用。

想象分为有意想象和无意想象。梦是无意想象的极端表现，与写作有着密切的关系。然而，写作中的想象按其创造性的本质来说，则都是有意想象。有意想象又可以分为再造想象和创造想象。科学写作中的想象具有客观性和精确性，而文学写作中的想象具有主观性和虚构性。

文学创作想象的主要特点是进行表象的分解与综合。只有在理解想象的特点的基础上，才能经过不断的写作实践，培养出丰富的想象能力。

[写作基础：学生如何写好想象文章

通讯，是运用叙述、描写、抒情、议论等多种手法，具体、生动、形象地反映新闻事件或典型人物的一种新闻报道形式。小编收集了新闻写作基础知识：通讯，欢迎阅读。

通讯是以叙述、描写为主要表达方式，将具有新闻价值的人物或事件及时、具体、生动地予 以报道的新闻体裁。

一、通讯特点

通讯作为报刊、电台等媒体最主要的体裁之一，新闻性显然是基本的特征。而新闻性中，真 实、时效、思想性及典型意义构成了它的不同层面。就报道对象言，或是人物、事件，或是 经验、成果、工作情况、社会风貌等，都必须是真实的，不允许虚构或“合理想象”，而且 报道对象应该具有必须的思想性和典型意义。就报道时效言，通讯虽不及消息这般快速敏捷 ，有时为将人物、事件报道细致完整需时较长，但也必须及时，仍须有很强的时效概念。除 去真实、时效的新闻性特征，通讯的主要特点有：

1、生动性。

通讯尤其是人物通讯具有一定的文学色彩。消息在表达上主要 是平面的叙述，语言追求简洁 、明快、准确。通讯则较多借用文学手段，可以描写、抒情、对话，可以用比喻、象征、拟 人等修辞。因此通讯在语言和表达方法上都具有一定的文学性，它在报道真实的人和事的过 程中，善于再现情景，平添许多生动和形象，给人以立体感、现场感。

此外，通讯虽然一般以第三人称叙述为主，但在“见闻”、“采访记”一类的通讯中，也采 用第一人称。不过其中的“我”主要起见证人或采访线索的作用。在效果上第一人称的使用 也增加了一些亲切感。

2、完整性。

通讯须相对完整、具体地报道人物或事物的过程。消息侧重写 事，叙述 简明扼要，一般不展开情节。通讯可写人物也可写事件，其材料比消息丰富、全面，其容量 比消息厚实、充足。它要求详尽、具体地报告事件的经过、演绎人物的命运，充分展开情节 ，甚至描写细节和场面。这些既是生动性的表现，同时也是内容完整性、具体化的要求。

3、评论性。

通讯须运用夹叙夹议的方法对人或事作出直接的评论。消息是 以事实说话，除 述评消息一般不允许作者直接发表议论。通讯则要求在报道人物或事件的同时，表露记者的 感情与倾向。然而通讯的评论不同于议论性文体的论证，它须时时紧扣人物或事件，依傍事 实作适时的、恰到好处评价点拨。因此这是一种通过描写、叙述、抒情等表达手段进行的议 论，它的特点是以情感人，理在情中。

二、通讯种类

1、人物通讯

是以人物的思想、言行、事迹和命运为报道内容的通讯。 人物通讯并非仅仅 是“名人通讯”，报道对象的选择取决于其蕴含的新闻价值，一般来说人物必须具有先进性 或典型性。在取材上可写“全人全貌”，也可截取片断着重写人物的某个侧面或阶段。此两 类一般以人物的“行”为主，而“人物专访”则以写人物的“言”为主。通过记者的专访， 记述人物的谈话，从而揭示其精神世界。

2、事件通讯

是以具典型意义的事件为报道对象的通讯。事件通讯时效 性较强，它围绕中 心事件选材，虽不着力刻划人物，但往往通过典型事件表现一群人或一个集体。所以它通过 较为详尽地展示事件的完整过程，挖掘其意义，揭示其本质，进而反映社会风尚，弘扬时代 精神。 除人物通讯与事件通讯外，另有：“工作通讯”，这是介绍某单位先进事迹，传播其典型经 验和做法，以指导一般的通讯;“概貌通讯”，这是记述某地区、部门、行业、工程的新面 貌、新气象的通讯。报刊上常见的“见闻”、“纪行”、“巡礼”、“散记”均属此类。此 外，还有以写一段片断、一个场景、一场冲突为对象的“新闻故事”、“小通讯”之类，它 们以生动、快捷的形式宣传新人新事新风尚，实为通讯家属中不可忽视的一员。

三、通讯写作

1、关于选材与提炼主题

占有材料对通讯写作来说就是通过扎实细致的采访广泛搜集第一手材料。随后在纷繁的直接 材料中剥离出典型材料、背景材料。这些材料不仅要求真实，而且要有意义，具有典型性、 指导性，同时还要有意味，具有具体、完整、感人的生动性、情节性。在这般基础上根据深 和新的原则提炼主题，通讯才可能呼应社会关注热点，反映时代风尚特点，宣传党的路线方 针，从而以正确的舆论引导人，以先进的人物激励人，以真实的事件震撼人。然而通讯写的 是真人真事，其主题必须从实际生活中提炼而来，不能随意“拔高”，更不能虚构夸大，它 永远不能违背新闻的真实性原则。

2、关于写人

事因人生，人以事观。人与事虽不可分，但在人物通讯与事件通讯中的确有以人为主和以事 为主之别，为叙述方便故而分之。 写人在文学创作中已积累丰富经验，在“非虚构”的原则下，我们不妨可借用其多种手段， 并注意以下三个方面：第一，形与神兼备。即不仅要写出人物的行为和事迹，更要展示其精 神世界;第二，言与行统一。人物语言、行为表达、传递出人物的思想，而不同的语气、句 式、词汇及动作表情、神态等是极富个性色彩的内心表露形式。写好了人物的言与行，无疑 是写活了人;第三，画龙必须点睛。如果说言行、事例、情节勾勒出人物的整体形象称为“ 龙” ，那么揭示人物行为意义，指出人物个性特点的评点便是“睛”。“画龙”用的是纪实的叙 述、描写，“点睛”则是超脱的议论或抒情。

3、关于叙事

通讯离不开写事，事件通讯更须完整地叙述事件的起因、人员、场面、结果等，以交待事件 的复杂性和社会影响度。叙事要注意两点：第一，理清主线、丰满细节。一个新闻事件的发 生、发展过程中，有因有果，有人有事，头绪多而关系复杂，作者须理清主线，按事件原貌 将其完整地、动态地、立体地呈现给读者。而为实现这一目标，就须选择典型的细节。一篇 优秀的事件通讯，必然有几个生动感人的细节来充分展示主线，使作品丰满而具现场感。第二，时间为经、时间为纬。通讯须有一定的时间要领因为事件、故事总在于一定的时间和空间中。纺织好时空画面既是一个结构总是也是一个表达方法问题。篇幅不长而情节不太复杂的事件通讯可多运用插叙、补叙、分叙等手段，充分展开矛盾和利用背景材料，使文章有变化起伏。容量大而情节复杂的事件通讯则常常运用时空交叉方式，以时间推进、空间变换等手段来切割事件，构成若干侧面。经过作者精心的组合剪辑将事件完整而利落地报告于世。

显然选材与提炼主题是各类通讯写作中必须面对的，而写人与叙事则因通讯品种不同而有所侧重。但是通讯的写作模式也必然带来约束，因而通讯的散文化写法亦开始为人注目。所谓 的散文化倾向有以下几个特点：(一)生活面更趋广阔，(二)结构不拘一格，(三)技法更多样 化，(四)报道呈系列化。

如何写好高中作文，对于学生作文的写作基础也要好好的训练，话题作文的基本要求：话题作文还是要审题，所写内容必须在话题范围之内。下面一起来看看！

一、文章形式的革命——夹叙夹议

尽快脱离初中只重记叙，笼统归结的写法。高中的作文记叙只向最高水平开一条缝，你得复杂记叙，融情思与哲理于一炉，有最动人的细节和最精美的表达，巧妙蕴含深刻的思辨和无穷的回味，这不是一般人能做到的，更不是学不会议论抒情的同学的避难所。所以，比自己多练议论，远比固守初中记叙的窠臼要有前途。高中的记叙必须简约，只提炼能说明自己观点的内核，而尽量舍弃叙述的完整过程与细节。叙，惜墨如金；而起始学写议，应力求具体多点分析阐述。

二、文章立意的升华——深入浅出

叙完笼统归结是初中模式作文的又一通病，常常文章的结尾具有宽泛的普适性，而缺乏对文章应有之义作具体针对性的挖掘阐发，常常文章的“穿鞋戴帽”大到可以套在无数篇文章上，却没什么真正的思考。高中作文倘使还用夹叙夹议，也要对叙的材料反复推敲，找出几例可以统一在一个观点里的材料，就材料的不同侧面来评析议论，最后上升归结出恰当切题、言之有物的中心。

三、文章表达的提高——点睛生花

好的文笔追求更高效率、更多意蕴。描述中就渗透情思与评析，这是较高水平的表达。一般的叙议分段，也应注意所叙材料紧贴自己的议论，议论应采取逐层推进，前后分界，避免相互缠绕。但又必须前后连贯，形成一个整体。在文章中一定写好精心组织的关键议论，努力使文章多处呈现运用一定修辞的文采。

话题作文训练举隅

话题作文的基本要求：话题作文还是要审题，所写内容必须在话题范围之内。“立意自定”，关键要读懂话题关键词的意旨，若给出导语提示，还应划出导语中包含归结的关键语词。一般初学者，首先要注意让这些关键词贯穿在自己作文的始终，统帅自己的文意。

规定“题目自拟”，一定不要用话题作标题。1、标题范围尽量要小，不要太大太泛；要合理出新，不落俗套。2、标题不能过长，可以采用副标题的方式对主标题加以限制。3、标题要含蓄，把思维蕴涵于形象的标题之中。

[关于高中话题作文的写作基础

现代诗歌也是由一个个作者觉得好看好听的文字组成的，每个字都给人美好的感觉。小编整理了怎样写现代诗歌，欢迎欣赏与借鉴。

一、什么是立意：

1、首先是个名词，狭义上是诗的主题、中心思想。

2、其次是个动词，指诗歌创作中的一个小活动，即确立和表现诗的主题、中心思想。

二、立意在诗中出现的时机或位置

1、写诗之前；

2、写诗之中；

3、写诗之后，改诗中。

4、无立意的诗 （本文不讲）

三、根据立意来写诗的优缺点

1、优点：诗的方向感、目的、目标明确，主题集中鲜明，便于读者立解诗意。

2、缺点：易让诗成为艺术性的说明文字，比较机械地图解某种观念，解说某种思想。以前的中国诗就有主题先行的问题；限制了诗歌的功能和表现范围。

四、立意诗的适用范围

征文诗，广告诗，社交诗，政策宣传诗，哲理诗，报纸副刊诗等

五、立意的数量

一首短诗，立意不易太多，一般不超过二个，立易太多，让读者感到发昏、混乱。

六、立意的深浅，隐显。

各有好处，不是决定一首诗成败的关键。

七、立意的新鲜感

好的立意是新鲜的、创意的、个性的。

如：劳动创造幸福；我爱故乡。。这类立意就不好。

八、如何让立意具有新鲜感

1、改良传统的立意：我爱故乡——我同故乡互爱。劳动创造幸福——劳动带来苦难

2、细化一般性的立意：我爱你，将爱细化成深爱、浅爱、痛苦的爱等。

3、引入诗歌中还没有出现过的哲学、宗教思想、人生道理、人文文化。这个最难也最重要，可以拓展诗歌的表现领域。

4、改变立意的层级，A把个人的思想，升格成一批人的思想。也就是走出自我。B、把大家的思想，变成个人性的理解，也许这种个人性的理解是错，但在某种条件下能自圆其说就好。

[写作基础：怎样写现代诗歌

什么是描写?描是描绘，写是摹写。描写就是用生动形象的语言，把人物或景物的状态具体地描绘出来。这是一般记叙文和文学写作常用的表达方法。

写文章，只有通过描写，才能做到‘绘声绘色‘、‘活灵活现‘、‘栩栩如生‘、‘历历在目‘、‘维妙维肖‘。这是因为作者通过具体的形象化的语言写人、状物，把客观对象写得有声、有色、有昧、有形，使人有亲临其境、如睹其人、如闻其声、如嗅其味、如见其色、如历其事的感觉。

描写的特点有哪些呢?‘今日读者的味已经受到与阅读竞争的其他活动的影响。所有这些活动都影响到现代写作，也改变了描写的性质?‘今日读者要求动作快，甚至在描写中也是一样。……你可以注意到现代描写的如下特点：1、全文统一于一种语调、语气和气氛--描写中的所有事物都只加强一种感觉印象。任何削弱或改变这种感觉的都要删去。2、动作--现代读者拒绝在为描写而描写上花费时间。他们需要在整个描写中有行动和动作。3、许多感觉印象--作者运用词语诉诸读者的五种感觉器官，使他们‘感觉‘到作者所描述的一切……。4、活跃的、生动的图象--好的描写包含着能使你看见并深深记住的图画。‘([美]威廉•W•韦斯特《提高写作技能》)描写的作用是什么?主要是再现自然景色、事物情状，描绘人物的形貌及内心世界，使人物活动的环境具象化。

一、细描与白描

细描：使用大量生动、贴切的比喻，绚丽的文字，斑斓的色彩，进行浓笔涂沫。例如《荷塘月色》的一些段落。

白描：以质朴的文字，抓住人物或事物的特征，寥寥几笔就勾勒出人物或事物形象的写法。鲁迅在《作文秘诀》中写道：‘白描却没有秘诀。如果要说有，也不过是和障眼法反一调：有真意、去粉饰，少做作，勿卖弄而已。‘(《南腔北调集》)例如朱自清的《背影》对父亲的描写就是这样。也可以说，白描实际上是用叙述的方式进行描写。

二、静态描写与动态描写

静态描写：指平面地静止地对人物或景物进行描写。如《子夜》一开头，描写黄昏时苏州河外白渡桥的景色，就是用这种方法来表现三十年代旧上海的畸形的繁华的。

动态猫写：指以动来写静，或把物用拟人化的手法进行描写。如朱启清《绿》中所写的梅雨亭：‘这个亭踞在突出一角的岩石上，上下都空空?模?路鹨恢徊杂フ?着翼浮在天宇中一般‘。

三、人物描写?

刻划人物形象，离不开对人物的描写。丁玲说：‘有许多人物是我们大家都熟悉的。但是要把这个人物画出来，让读者认得，理解，体会，引起自然的爱憎，是需要许多手法的?

那么，有哪些人物描写的手法呢?常用的有正面描写和侧面描写两种。

首先，我们来研究正面描写。所谓正面描写，是指直接描写人物的外貌、心理和行动。

(一)外貌描写：也称肖像描写。即是对人物的外貌特征(包括人物的容貌、衣着、神情、体型、姿态等等)进行描写，以揭示人物的思想性格，表达作者的爱憎，加深读者对人物的印象。

进行外貌描写一般使用：1、简笔勾勒特征;2、运用修辞手法;3、寄托作者爱憎;4、借助他人眼睛;5、相关人物对比;6、一人几幅肖像;7、结合其它技法。

外貌描写的要求是：根据需要，抓住特征，绘形传神，刻画性格，显示灵魂。其关键在于：第一，进行肖像描写，要根据情节发展的需要去写，不能每写到人就必写人的肖像。有的作者不懂得这个道理，因而他笔下的肖像描写有时是不必要的。写肖像，不能眉毛胡子一把抓。鲁迅告诉我们，要‘画眼睛‘。‘画眼睛‘是写人物肖像的关键。鲁迅是很善于‘画眼睛‘的。他在《祝福》中14次写到样林嫂的眼睛，而每一次眼神的变化，都透露出人物当时的心理和性格的变化。需要着重指出的是：‘画眼睛‘，这是比喻的说法，并不意味着描写人物外貌非得画眼睛不可。

鲁迅所说的‘画眼睛‘的意思是：善于细致地精确地描绘人物外貌最富特征的部分，而舍弃与表现人物性格和精神面貌无关的其它东西。鲁迅写祥林嫂是‘画眼睛‘，但也写了祥林嫂‘花白的头发‘;写阿Q则着重写他头上的瘌疮疤，却比写眼睛更能表现出他的精神胜利法;写闰土，在写眼睛的同时，也写到闰土的手：‘那手也不是我所记得的红活圆实的手，却又粗又笨而且开裂，像是松树皮了。‘反映了闰土生活的艰辛和痛苦。写孔乙己却没有写眼睛，而是写他那件‘又旧又破的长衫。‘

写肖像的高要求是刻画性格、显示灵魂。鲁迅曾立志画出中国国民的‘活的灵魂‘。列夫•托尔斯泰为了写出玛丝洛娃的灵魂，勾勒出玛丝洛娃在牢中的内心世界，曾对玛丝洛娃的外貌描写修改了二十次。

第二，外貌描写切忌公式化、脸谱化。一般情况下，‘人如其面‘。然而人的内心与外貌并不总是一致的，外表漂亮不一定心灵美，而且，‘知人知面不知心‘。优秀作品中写的好人外貌不一定都是漂亮、英俊;写的坏人也并不一定都是麻子、瞎子、跛脚。如《牛虻》中的中年牛虻，就是瘸腿，面部丑陋，有刀伤痕。法捷耶夫的《毁灭》中的英雄莱奋生却矮小而背脊稍微弯曲。这都说明，作家即使描写心爱的人物也不是‘脸谱化‘地一味美化人物，而是严格地尊重生活的真实。在写批判人物时，有时常常以外形美来反衬人物的心灵丑，如《毁灭》中的反面人物美谛克，他风度翩翩，却动摇变节。《红楼梦》中的王熙风美丽俊俏，却心毒手狠。

(二)心理描写：以语言文字对人物的内心世界、思想道德品质、个性性格特征所进行的描写。

进行心理描写应注意掌握以下三个原则：

第一，写人物的心理活动，应写特定的人物在特定的环境中必然产生的心理活动，而不能为心理描而进行心理描写。如大雪寒天里，一般人想的是驱寒取暖，快出太阳;这是人本能的常态的要求。可是特定的人物在特定的环境中，就不一定如此想。?第二，写心理活动，要防止左一个心理活动，右一个心理活动。只有在关键的情节、动作、表情出现时，才伴之以心理描写。?第三，写心理活动，要努力写人物细微的感情波澜和复杂的心理变化过程。例如高尔基的《母亲》最后一章所写尼洛夫娜发现暗探时一刹那的动摇、害怕，以及内心冲突，直到坚定、沉着。

(三)行动描写：通过语言文字表现人物自身在矛盾斗争中的行动，来展示人物的性格特征和精神面貌的描写。

为什么要进行人物行动描写呢?这是因为人们的所作所为是其思胄愿竦闹苯颖硐帧T?文学作品中，人物行动描写是塑造人物的主要手段。施耐庵要塑造武松的性格，就安排了一回‘景阳岗武松打虎‘，全是写武松怎样‘打‘，从行动上描写出武松英雄的本色和武艺的高强。书中写他采取先防御、后进攻的策略，又显示出他的谋略与机智。作者正是通过对武松打虎的全过程的生动细致描写，表现了他多方面的性格特征。所以，茅盾说：‘人物的性格必须通过行动来表现。‘又说：‘既然人物的行动(作品的情节)是表现人物性格的主要手段，那么，人物性格是不是典型的，也就要取决于这些行动的有没有典型性。作者支使人物行动的时候，就要尽量剔除那些虽然生动，有趣，但并不能表现典型性格的情节?(《关于艺术的技巧》)

行动描写应掌握两个原则：一、人物性格应当从他自己的行动里流露出来;二、人物的行动应当经过选择，足以表现人物的性格。因此描写人物行动的目的就应十分明确;三、要注意人物行动的生动性和典型性。所谓生动性，指的是作者不仅要写出人物在做什么，而且要写出他怎样做。所谓典型性，则指的是作者要写出人物为什么这样做，而不那样做。

以上讲的正面描写方法，在写作时，不是机械地按照外貌描写、心理描写、行动描写三种方法进行描写的。‘人是社会诸关系的总和‘。在描写人物时，要将这些方法综合起来，灵活运用，这样才能把人物写得活灵活现，栩栩如生。

其次，在研究了正面描写之后，我们来看什么是侧面描写。所谓侧面描写是指：不从正面去描写人物，而是从对其他人物、事件的叙述和描写中渲染气氛、烘托人物的描写方法。清人毛宗岗在评《三国志演义》时，认为这部小说经常采用衬托的手法来刻划人物性格。他在‘群英会蒋干中计‘这回的评语中写道：‘文有正衬，有反衬。写鲁肃老实，以衬孔明之乖巧，为反衬也。写周瑜乖巧，以衬孔明之加倍乖巧，是正衬也。譬如写国色者，以丑女形之而美，不若以美女形之，而觉其更美;写虎将者，以懦夫形之而勇，不若以勇士形之，而觉其更勇。‘

任何事物总是相互联系着矛盾着而存在。衬托的方法正是辩证规律在艺术创造中的一种反映和应用。《艺概》的作者刘熙载说：‘正面不写写反面，本面不写写对面、旁面，须知睹影知竿乃妙。‘我国古人把这种方法称为‘反面敷粉‘。

对于正面描写和侧面描写，在具体描写人物时，也应根据主题需要，按照情节发展的具体情况，考虑是用正面描写还是用侧面描写，抑或是兼用正面描写和侧面描写。

四、环境描写

环境描写，是指对人物与之发生直接关系的那种外界条件--社会和自然的描写。

人物的活动，事件的展开，总是在一定社会环境、自然环境中进行的。‘人创造环境，同样环境也创造人。‘(马克思、恩格斯《德意志意识形态》)因此，写人记事常常需要对环境进行描写。茅盾在《关于艺术的技巧》中指出：‘人物不得不在一定的环境中活动，因此，作品中就必须写到环境。作品中的环境描写，不论是社会环境或自然环境，都不是可有可无的装饰品，而是密切地联系着人物的思想行动。‘

环境描写分为两类：

(一)自然环境描写，又称景物描写，是对人物活动的自然景物进行的描写。

景物描写的作用主要有：(l)写景衬托人物心情;(2)写景点明时令、地点;(3)写景表现人物关系;(4)写景表现人物性格。?进行景物描写，应该注意以下几点：

l、精细观察，抓住景物特征描写。只有抓住特征写风景，才能做到‘真，好让读者看完以后，闭上眼就立刻能想象出你所写的风景‘。(《契诃夫论文学》)

2、要选好写景的时机和写景的角度。契诃夫认为‘风景描写只有在适当的时候，在它能像音乐或者由音乐伴奏的朗诵，向读者传达这样那样心情的时候，才合适，才不至于把局面弄糟。‘

3、要体现地方色彩。鲁迅指导青年作者时提出：‘现在世界环境不同，艺术上也必须有地方色彩，庶不至于千篇一律。‘又说：‘地方色彩，也能增画的美和力，自己生长其地，看惯了，或者不觉得什么，但在别地方的人，雌鹄词蔷醯梅浅??匮劢纾?黾又?兜摹?‘

4、写景应渗透人物的感情。写景不应该是自然主义的纯客观的描绘。王国维在《人间词话》里把境界分为‘无我之境‘和‘有我之境‘。所谓‘有我之境‘即‘物皆著我之色彩‘，作者或人物的思想感情作用于周围的自物景物，在所写的景物上直接渗透作者的感情。

5、采用对比方法写景。如《祝福》的开头与结尾写祝福时的景色气氛，以乐景反衬祥林嫂的悲剧，更增强了作品对旧社会的批判力量。

6、采用象征手法写景。如高尔基的《海燕》，茅盾的《雷雨前》。

(二)社会环境猫写：从狭义上说，社会环境是指人物活动的处所、背景、氛围等;而从广义上说，是指一定的历史时期的社会生活、人际关系的总和。如我们写一个学生，就不能不写他所求学的社会环境：学校，学校中班级里的教师、学生及与他们的关系，有时，还要写到他的家庭、父母、亲友。

社会环境描写必须具有鲜明的时代色彩。如同是王愿坚写红军的作品，《七根火柴》的社会环境与《普通劳动者》的社会环境就不同;同是写过去与敌人斗争，以表现共产党员品质为主题的《清贫》和《生的伟大，死的光荣》，社会环境描写也各具特征。而当代的作品，更是具有鲜明的时代色彩，如不少作品进行环境描写时表现出的环保意识，就是过去时代的环境中所不可能有的。?

进行社会环境描写，要努力画好‘风俗画‘。高尔基说：‘不可忘记：除风景画之外，还有风俗画。‘例如鲁迅《风波》开头所写的江南农村晚饭时的情景，就是一幅颇具特色的风俗画。

五、物体描写

在写作中，我们既要描写人物，又要描写环境，还要描写物体，即描写各种动物、植物和各种无生命的物体--自然界客观存在的物体和人类发明、创造出来的器物、用具等。这种物体描写，也称为‘状物‘。状物是对物体的描摹，类似绘画中的‘写生‘。

状物的目的在于使读者对所描摹的物体有一个准确而鲜明的具体印象。前人对状物提出的要求是：以形写神，形神兼备。也就是说，状物要从‘摹形‘和‘传神‘两方面下功夫。

什么是‘摹形‘呢?就是要逼真地描写物体的大小、形状、颜色和质地。为了使被描摹的物体具体而形象地呈现在读者眼前，必须在‘摹形‘时注意抓住物体的特征，既抓住物体的整体特征也要抓住物体的局部特征和细节特征。为此就要认真细心地观察物体、弄清该物体与其它物体的区别，并且区分出该物体各个部分的不同之处。根据前人的经验?摹形‘要准确、生动，应注意运用数量词和方位词，进行比较，使用比喻，还可以用动态词语描写静物。

什么是‘传神‘呢?就是要描写物体内在的神态，使描摹的物体具有感染力，从而引起读者情感的共鸣，或联想，或启迪。‘传神‘要与‘形似‘结合起来，切忌外加。最好是在‘摹形‘过程中‘传神‘，当然也可以在描写的同时兼用议论，只是要适当，不可过多。

描写物体--状物应按一定的顺序进行。其顺序与观察顺序有关，与物体本身构造有关，也与主题表达的需要有关。

按观察顺序状物，通常是依据人们的观察习惯，由部分到整体，由表面到内部，或是由形状、色彩到位置、结构。按物体的构造状物，其顺序可以是由上到下、由前而后，从左至右，或由主要部分到次要部分，或由外部结构到内部结构。按主题表达需要状物，它的顺序必须与物体的主要内容相呼应，以体现物体内蕴的意义。

状物应注意艺术性，尽量写得有知识性、趣味性，以引人人胜。

关于物体的性质、功用、成因、制作过程及其用法的介绍，是另一种表达方法--说明的内容，不属于状物的范围。

描写，是用形象性的、渗透着感情的语言，用绘声绘色的手法，把人物、事物、景物的状态、神态、动态具体真切地勾画出来，使其直接诉诸读者的感觉器官，以引起某种程度的美感或快感，进而产生感情上的共鸣。

学习描写应注意以下几点：一是贴切，就是要恰如其分地描绘事物，要符合实际;二是要抓住特征，就是要抓住被描写事物区别于其他事物的特有的东西;三是要注意描写为表达中心服务，与中心无关的描写不但没有意义，还会影响中心的表现，是不可取的。成功的描写源于对生活的观察，要学好描写，首先要养成对周围的人和事物认真观察的习惯，做个有心人。有了平时丰富的积累，描写起来就会感到轻松自如了。开始练习时，以想好描写的思路为重点，词语可以朴实一些，逐渐地把重点移到词语上。

任何事情的发生都要有一定的环境，或自然环境，或社会环境。任何人物都有形象。在写文章时，首先对事情发生的环境进行描写，或对文中人物外貌的描述，都是描写式的开头方法。

This morning I went to the market to buy some vegetables with my parents。 On the way we all highly praised a young man in western—style clothes and leather shoes who was riding by。 But he rode so fast that he knocked an old lady down carelessly。Instead of stopping， he pretended not to see this and rode away quickly。 We were all very angry with the young man。 To our happiness， a girl in plain dress ran forward at once， helped the lady up and took her home。 We all praised the girl。 From this we know we cannot judge a person by his appearance。 A person who is dressed beautifully may not have a beautiful soul。 Only a person who has a beautiful soul is really beautiful。

1.至于我，在某种程度上我同意后面的观点，我认为……

As far as I am concerned, I agree with the latter opinion to some extent.I think that ____。

2.总而言之，整个社会应该密切关注……这个问题。只有这样，我们才能在将来……

In a word, the whole society should pay close attention to the problem of ______.Only in this way can ______in the future。

3.但是，……和……都有它们各自的优势(好处)。例如，……，而……然而，把这两者相比较，我更倾向于(喜欢)……

But ______and ______have their own advantages.For example, _____, while_____.Comparing this with that, however, I prefer to______。

4.就我个人而言，我相信……，因此，我坚信美好的未来正等着我们。因为……

Personally, I believe that_____.Consequently, Im confident that a bright future is awaiting us because______。

5.随着社会的发展，……因此，迫切需要……如果每个人都愿为社会贡献自已的一份力量，这个社会将要变得越来越好。

With the development of society, ______.So it“s urgent and necessary to ____.If every member is willing to contribute himself to the society, it will be better and better。

6.至于我(对我来说，就我而言)，我认为……更合理。只有这样，我们才能……

For my part, I think it reasonable to_____.Only in this way can you _____。

7.对我来说，我认为有必要……原因如下：第一，……; 第二，……;最后……但同样重要的是……

In my opinion, I think it necessary to____.The reasons are as follows.First _____.Second ______.Last but not least,______。

8.在总体上很难说……是好还是坏，因为它在很大程度上取决于……的形势。然而，就我个人而言，我发现……

It is difficult to say whether _____is good or not in general as it depends very much on the situation of______.However, from a personal point of view find______。

9.综上所述，我们可以清楚地得出结论……

From what has been discussed above, we may reasonably arrive at the conclusion that____。

10.如果我们不采取有效的方法，就可能控制不了这种趋势，就会出现一些意想不到的不良后果，所以，我们应该做的是……

If we can not take useful means, we may not control this trend, and some undesirable result may come out unexpectedly, so what we should do is_____。

A New Year has begun, everyone will have a few new hope, I also like everyone, and hope to be able to achieve.

Resolutions of the first is: I hope my body health, can grow a bit, a bit fatter, this can increase the resistance, less sick, so Im going to exercise more, maintain the vitality of the body.

Resolutions are 2: I hope my brothers and sisters to academic progress, my father, mother, aunt, uncle, aunt and aunt can have a long career, grandma grandpa, grandma, and physical well-being, at the same time also hope that all concerned about me, take care of me, with my friends and relatives, teachers, students can be healthy, happy, happiness and peace.

My New Years resolution is 3: I hope my academic progress, can write speed faster, so that the rest of my time can be used to read more extra-curricular books, let me learn more knowledge, know more interesting things, believe that life will be more colorful.

Finally, my hope is that the economy of our country can be a bit better, let those unemployed, poor people in society, there is a job can be done, let their children can be happy go to school, to find their happiness. Although I can do now is limited, but I in my heart silently pray for them.

Everyone wants to finish his resolutions, I also hope I want to be able to realize, so it must be hard to achieve,) do his bit to handle yourself, believe that hope things will be realized one by one.

新的一年已经开始，每个人多多少少都会有几个新的希望，我也和大家一样，并且希望都能够实现。

我的新年新希望第一是：希望我的身体健康，能够长高一点，长胖一点，这样就能增加抵抗力，比较不会生病，所以我要多运动，保持身体的活力。

我的新年新希望第二是：希望我的兄弟姐妹能学业进步，我的爸爸、妈妈、阿姨、伯父、伯母和姑姑能事业顺利，爷爷、奶奶和外婆身体安康，同时也希望所有关心我、照顾我、陪伴我的亲朋好友、师长、同学都能身体健康、开开心心，而且平安幸福。

我的新年新希望第三是：希望我的课业进步，写字速度能够再快一点，这样我剩下的时间就可以用来阅读更多的课外书籍，让我了解更多知识，认识更多有趣的事物，相信这样生活一定会更多采多姿。

最后，我的希望是：我们国家的经济能够好一点，让社会上那些失业、穷困的人，有工作可以做，让他们的小孩能够快快乐乐的去学校上课，找回他们的幸福。虽然我现在能做的有限，但是我在心里默默的为他们祈祷。

每个人都想要完成自己的新年新希望，我也期望我的希望能够实现，所以就必须认真去达成，尽到自己的本分，管好自己，相信这样希望的事情一定会一一实现。

Dear Sir or Madam,

Im Li Hua, a middle school student from China. I read the announcement of the summer camp that you have posted on the Internet and I am interested in it.

I know that you welcome students from different countries and Id like to take part in it. Ive been learning English for 10 years, and I speak fluent English. What is more, Ill be able to tell students from other countries about China and learn about their countries as well. I hope I will be accepted as a member of your summer camp.

Looking forward to your reply!

Yours，

Li Hua

熟悉公文的基本格式

公文写作和文章写作有着千丝万缕的联系，但二者也有着极其大的差别，公文写作非常注重写作的格式，因为公务文书有一个显着的特征--规范的体式。这也就给广大考生提供了一个明确的信号，在复习备考公文写作题时一定要注意公务文书的基本格式，比如公务文书的三大组成部分(眉首、主体、版记)以及每个部分中所包含的一些基本要素(如：发文字号、标题、主送机关、成文日期、附件等)。尤其要注意每一个部分的特别之处，比如发文字号的书写格式，标题的书写规范，成文日期的书写规范以及位置要求等等，掌握好了这些基本的格式要求之后，我们写作的公文就做到了“形似”。

熟悉每个文种的例文

有人说过这样一句话：“天下公文一大抄”，这句话或许存在一定的夸大成分，但更多地是给我们提供了一个备考方略--通过熟悉例文掌握公文写作。在熟悉了公文的基本格式以后我们能做到“形似”，但是要让写作的公文更加符合题目要求，得到更高的分数，考生在写作公文时还要让公文符合特定文种的一些基本特点，在形似的基础上做到特色突出。而要突出特色就要对每种文种进行深入的了解，熟悉例文是深入理解具体文种特色的最直接有效地途径。

注意特殊用语

公文写作过程中注意了前面两个方面，可以保障写出的文章没有形式上的错误或者问题，但要想得到高分特别是要和其他考生拉开差距更多地是要做到“神似”，这时候就要注意每种文种的特殊用语，比如请示的结束语使用错误就很容易形成扣分点，把“妥否，请批示”写成“妥否，请批准”，一字之差，语气就有天壤之别，得分也会有非常明显的差距。所以在备考公文写作的过程中一定要注意公文当中的特殊用语，这是公文达到神似的基础要求。

注意语言风格

许多考生在备考公文写作时也注意写作训练，希望通过多写多练来提高分数，这种做法值得表扬，但是在写作训练时一定要注意公文写作的文体要求，即公文的表达方式和语体特征。公文的表达方式包括叙述、说明、议论，以说明为主，在公文写作过程中一般不会使用抒情的表达方式，而有些考生在写作公文时神采飞扬，大发感慨，这样就违背了公文写作在表达方式上的要求;公文的语体特征是准确、简明、庄重、得体，一般不会出现网络流行词或者是新闻式的词语，而有些考生为了体现自己的与时俱进，在写作公文时大量使用时髦词语如“亲”“给力”等等，则违背了公文在语体特征上的要求。所以在写作公文时一定要使用规范的语言，或者使用“官方”语言，这样才会让我们写作的公文更加符合公文的“神”，也才更加符合考试的要求，也才能获得高分。

写人，这个词的含义比较宽泛，望文生义，指的就是对人物进行描写。在文学创作中，它与“叙事”、“抒情”鼎足而三，又常常难解难分。小编收集了写人记事的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

知识要点：

1、写记叙文，会具体地写人记事，有较明确的中心思想。

2、会恰当地选择材料和组织材料。

3、能写清楚事情的起因、经过和结果。

4、能运用具体的事例写出人物的某些特点。

考试说明：

1、记叙文构思六“一”诀

(1)一槌定音的开头

即开篇二三句或点出记叙重点，埋下行文线索，或明确主题思想、奠定感情基调。这样的开头，简洁洗练，直截了当。《回忆我的母亲》一文的开头，堪称一槌定音的典范。首句“得到母亲去世的消息，我很悲痛”交代写作缘由，次句先以“我爱我母亲”定下感情基调，再用“特别是她勤劳一生”点明主旨。短短两句，即成为全篇回忆母亲优秀事迹的十分清晰的总枢纽。

(2)一线穿珠的结构

即全文没有贯穿到底的中心事件，而是以主要人物的活动或品质为主线，组织典型而各有侧重的情节，统一服务于中心。这种结构避免了行文的旁逸斜出，使文章重点突出。魏巍《我的老师》分写七件小事：假发怒、教跳舞、观蜜蜂、教读诗、依恋师、化纠纷、梦寻师，皆由热爱、感激、思念老师这条感情线索贯穿起来，从而使文章具有较强的感染力。

(3)一波三折的情节

“文似看山不喜平”。只有一个中心事件的文章，若能在故事情节的发展上做到张驰结合，起伏变化，则可扣人心弦。《鲁提辖拳打镇关西》中，当鲁达听到金氏父女的哭诉后，怒火中烧，要“打死了那厮再来”时，情节陡起，似乎高潮即将到来，但作者却巧妙地让史进、李忠两个“三次五回劝的他住”。这样有急有缓，掀起波澜;当鲁达送走金氏父女，“径到状员桥来”，惩强除恶的好戏似乎就要上演时，作者却笔锋一转，写鲁达在郑屠肉铺前坐了下来，三戏郑屠。这样一放一收，又掀起波澜。简单的一个鲁提辖拳打镇关西的故事，写得如此精彩，情节的一波三折功不可没。

(4)一字传神的细节

人物性格的塑造、作者感情的抒发，都离不开一字传神或一针见血的细节。鲁迅《社戏》写孩子们归航途中偷豆，阿发“于是往来的摸了一回，直起身来说道：‘偷我们的罢，我们的大得多呢。’”阿发“往来的摸”，有比较鉴别之意，显现出他聪明而无私的童贞，传达出作者对他的敬佩喜悦;鲁迅《孔乙己》写孔乙己“从破衣袋里摸出四文大钱，放在我手里，见他满手是泥，原来他便用这手走来的”。这里的“摸”，表钱数不多之意。特定的动作正是孔乙己生活窘迫、穷困潦倒、遭遇悲惨的写照，传达出作者对他的哀伤同情。同为“摸”字，作者却在不同的地方赋予各异的含义，且凝练传神，可见匠心。

(5)一语反复的扣题

文章以关键语句反复扣题，显得内容紧凑、中心突出。《谁是最可爱的人》由这样三个板块扣题：一是开头，在书写自己在朝鲜的感觉后，以“我们的战士，我感到他们是最可爱的人”扣题;二是主体，在展示了三个典型事例后，分别以“你不觉得我们的战士是最可爱的吗?”“你不觉得我们的战士是最可爱的人吗?”“你们已经可以了解我们的战士是怎样一种人”扣题;三是结尾，在号召人们热爱战士后，以“他们确实是我们最可爱的人”扣题。以上扣题句将“战士”与“谁是最可爱的人”联系起来，反复出现，强化了人们的认识。

(6)一箭双雕的收尾

就是说文章的结尾既自然结束全文，又巧妙引发思考。《驿路梨花》结尾写道：“我望着这群充满朝气的哈尼小姑娘和那洁白的梨花，不由得想起了一句诗：‘驿路梨花处处开’。”这个结尾既实写自然梨花，又虚写雷锋精神，结构上照应题目，内容上深化主题，意蕴丰富。

2、如何使记叙文生动感人

(1)积累动情点

所谓动情点，就是事件中能触动人们思想感情的关键内容。要写出动人的文章，首先要有能打动人们思想感情的材料。材料动人，文章才有可能动人。如果题材寡情，连作者都感动不了，又怎能打动读者的心呢?那么，学生生活中有没有生动感人的素材呢?回答是肯定的。同学们虽然没有“战火分飞”的经历，也少“痛失亲人”的感受，但是像《散步》《这不是一颗流星》中所反映的那样的生活体验，同学们的生活中则是俯拾即是取之不尽的。

积累动情点，就要留意我们身边发生的感人的故事。要留住情感的火花，就应该准备一个记录本，随时摄录一些感情的神貌，主要是描述细微的感受和动情的氛围。如果能随手记录，不断积累，并经常翻阅，那么这些记录便是作文的源头活水，可令文思喷涌永不枯竭。

(2)渲染动情点

人的七情六欲是相通的，能令你动情的内容，往往也能使别人动情。然而令人动情的，不一定是事物或物件的整体或整个过程，往往是事物的某个部位或事件的某一细节。因此作文不能只写事物的轮廓，而应抓住最让人动情的内容渲染之凸现之。

一般来说，在写人的文章中，人物的精神品质、性格特点可以看作动情点。譬如《小橘灯》中小姑娘的镇定、勇敢、乐观的精神便是最能给“我”以鼓舞的动情点。因此，作者对小姑娘打电话的动人事例做了具体描述，来渲染她的“镇定”;对困苦的家庭环境做了具体的描绘，来渲染穷人孩子早当家的“勇敢”;对做灯送客人以及安慰客人等情节做了细致的描写，来表现小姑娘坚信未来的“乐观”。在叙事的文章中，能够展现整个事件的内涵之处便是动情点。如《走一步再走一步》，作者铺陈了“我”冒险攀登悬崖从而陷入困境，并在父亲指点下爬下悬崖摆脱困境的过程。尤其是先细腻地刻画了全身颤抖冷汗直冒地向上爬、心惊肉跳地蹲、头晕目眩地向下望、全身麻木地伏等，而后又细致地描写了因毫无信心而啼哭及信心萌发探踩岩石，最后爬下悬崖的过程。文章卒章显志，自然地归结出：化解困难，从而克服困难。

在写景的文章中，景物的特点往往也是动情点。比如刘鹗的《大明湖》。济南城的特色，历下亭的古老，古水仙祠的荒凉，都是令人动情的。然而最让人动情的则是铁公祠前优美的湖光山色。作者渲染了千佛山的色彩艳丽，大明湖的澄清明净，芦苇花的景象奇绝，用清丽的文字描绘了优美的意境。

(3)交代动情原因

要使文章动人，还得交代令人动情的特殊原因。为什么同样的事情，别人没动情你会动情?又为什么相似的事情，昨天没动情而今天会动情?交代了动情的原因，也等于营造了动情的氛围。例如《蛛网》：清晨，薄暮的晨雾像一层轻纱裹着树林，新鲜的空气中夹杂着树脂的清香，叫人感到清新、愉快。这个特殊环境，既是蛛网成为精美绝伦的头巾的客观条件，又是激起“我”美好想象的外在因素。同样的道理，越是战火纷飞，越能体现白求恩的精神品质;对儿子越爱，越能表现[***被屏蔽词语]的无产阶级革命家的宽阔胸怀和崇高的国际主义精神。可见，看似与中心无关的内容，其实恰恰是营造情感氛围所必须的。

总之，积累动情的素材，渲染动情的内容，交代动情的原因，让感情充满作文的全过程，是情感贯穿文章的始终，这是使记叙文动人的有效方法。让我们从范文的研读中获得借鉴，从作文的实践中得到验证吧。

[11—1]我的启蒙老师

导思：这是一篇命题作文。

1、从题目来看，显然是一篇写人的记叙文。“老师”前面有两个定语：“我的”、“启蒙”，不要随意掉了一个定语。

2、可写文化课的老师，也可写科技小制作的启蒙老师，唱歌跳舞的启蒙老师，体育运动的启蒙老师……凡是初学某一门知识，使你得到基本的入门知识的人，就是启蒙老师。

3、通过语言、动作、肖像描写刻画启蒙老师，把记忆中启蒙老师那些最使你感动的事写出来，以说明是启蒙老师的循循善诱、诲人不倦，才将你领进门的。

[11—2]真没想到……

要求：(1)或选一事，或选一物、或选一景，写一篇600字左右的记叙文。(2)要有适当的抒情和议论。(3)如写到学校、教师、同学，一律用假名代替;否则扣分。

导思：我们日常生活中，常常在不经意间被某件小事打动，从中受到启发和教育，从中悟出了某种道理。《真没想到……》这一命题就是针对这一现象设计的。命题要求以此为题目写一篇记叙文。一般来说，中学生写记叙文是比较拿手的。如何写好这篇文章呢?

1、要把好选材关，日常生活中耳闻目睹、亲身经历的事情很多，其中不可预见的突发事件也不乏其例，如何选择恰当的材料呢?一定要注意比较权衡，理出一些既新颖，蕴涵主题又很大的事情来写。

2、文章要尽可能以情动人，有叙有议，怎样能作到这一点呢?“言为心声”，凡是发自肺腑的声音，字里行间自然会真情流露，具体到表达技巧上，一定要会用词，注意词语的感情色彩，注意语言的具体生动，这样才能吸引读者，打动读者。

英语是占据分数比较多的，所以写好英语作文很重要。小编整理了关于文明的英语作文，快来看看吧。

【预测作文】文明旅游

【猜题理由】有些旅游景点的文物景观遭到了严重的破坏，致使最近文明旅游的倡议越来越受重视，因此就“游客可付费在仿造长城上涂写留言”发表看法。

【预测题目】文明旅游

写作内容：1. 以约30个词概括短文的要点;

2. 以约120个词写一篇短文，就“游客可付费在仿造长城上涂写留言”发表你的看法，内容包括：

(1)谈谈对某些人喜欢在旅游景点随便涂鸦留言的看法;

(2)对专门修一段仿造城墙让游客付高价留言的做法你是赞成还是反对，并简要陈述你的理由。

【参考范文】

It is reported that tourists to China’s Great Wall can now leave their mark on a fake wall recently built near the real wall in Badaling if they pay 999 yuan.

In China, many visitors have the hobby of carving graffiti on places of interest, especially on some famous cultural relics. Last year I went to the Great Wall and found many people had left names and ugly words on the Wall, which destroys many historic bricks. In my opinion, such people should feel ashamed of leaving their marks on the great relics which were created by our ancestors.

So personally I quite agree with this brilliant project though it has caused criticism from some people. The Great Wall would be ruined one day if we didn’t take any steps to protect it. The fake wall is a really good idea because it will protect our relics as well as making profits from the project.(124 words)

英语写作指导：

英语学习中，在英语书面表达时，每次写作前问自己四个问题：这篇文章的体裁格式是怎样的?主体时态用什么时态?人称用第几人称?可以分几段，之间用什么过渡词、连接词?带着这四个问题去审题，搞清楚文章的主要内容，然后列出提纲。最后利用自己有把握的英语句子丰富自己的提纲就可以了。

(1)条理性。指的是合理布局文章结构。首先，在文章思路、组织材料、叙述顺序等方面要有一定的条理性。其次，根据需要，安排好段落，各段之间要层次分明，也要重视每一段的开头和结尾，开头语往往是总起句，结尾语往往是总结句。

(2)准确性。指要求写出语法正确的句子，包括时态、语态、用词和句法等，要准确、地道地表达。必须要牢牢掌握一些常用句型或习惯表达，避免中式英语，在实践中不断总结中英用法的差异，养成用英语思维写作的习惯。高考英语作文素材。

(3)流畅性。指根据整篇文章思想的需要，有效采用不同的连接手段，清晰段落，使文章层次清楚、行文连贯。

(4)简洁多样性。简洁性就是语言简洁，不重复。多样性就是能随情景内容的变化写出句式多样的语句。这也是新课程标准对写作的评价标准。

(5)思想性。新标准对写作的要求，增加了情感因素，在准确流畅表达写作要点的同时，适当增加句子的感情色彩，增加一些人情味，使文章读起来更亲切，完全达到与读者进行交流的目的。

(6)美观性。指的是卷面书写规范、清楚、干净、整洁。在高考书面表达中，书面整洁是也是一个主观评分标准，所以在高考中保持书面整洁是必要的。

总结：那么在高考作文中，除了自己的一些英语知识的巩固还需要的是自己的情绪和思维。写作期间保持稳定的情绪，按照自己的思维完成写作，从总结文章中—布置文章结构—使用表达的语句—下笔连贯。最后当然是要检查是否出现拼错字，句子语法有误等。

句子依据用途或语气可分为四大类即：陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句。

陈述句：说明一件事情，表示陈述语气的句子。

疑问句：提出一个问题，表示疑问语气的句子。

祈使句：要求或者希望中国人做什么或不做什么，表示祈使语气的句子。

感叹句：表示感叹语气的句子。

一、陈述句和反问句的互换：

陈述句指说明意见、叙述事实的句子。反问句是指用疑问句的形式表达确定的意思的句子。

把陈述句改成反问句有两种情况：

1 肯定语气改成反问句如：

天才来自勤奋。改为：难道天才不是来自勤奋吗?

2 否定语气改成反问句

小孩掉进河里，我们不能见死不救。

小孩掉进河里，我们能见死不救吗?

注意点：陈述句改成反问句，要把句中表示肯定的词改成表示否定的词，句末的句号改成问号，并加上“吗”、“呢”等句末的句号要改成问号。

反问句改成陈述句也有两种情况：

把反问句改成陈述句就要把“难道”和“不”等词删去，把句末的问号改成句号，并去掉“难道……吗”和“怎么……呢”语气助词。

练习 ：

1、既须劳动，又长见识，这就是养花的乐趣。

2、不劳动，连棵花也养不活，这难道不是真理吗?

3、难道我们播下的种子不会在自己学生的身上开花结果吗?

4、老师对我的教导，难道我会忘记吗?

二、 肯定句和否定句的互换：

表达一个肯定的意思，也可以采用否定句式，例如，“人人都都遵守课堂纪律。”可以改写成“没有一个人不遵守课堂纪律。”改写后句子的肯定语气要比原来的句子更强。改写时要注意：双重否定是表示进一步的肯定，所以必须用上两个表示否定的词，也就是“否定+否定=肯定”。如果只用一个否定的词，句子意思就完全相反了

例：天下的人都知道秦国是从来不讲信用的。

天下的人没有一个不知道秦国是从来不讲信用的。

注意：

练习：

1)全班同学都参加了这次植树活动。

2)学好语文和输血，对青年人的成才才会起促进作用。

3)同学们都觉得书籍是我们的好老师。

4)记住“只拣儿童多处行”是会找到春天的。

5)上坡下的每一块地都被大水淹没了。

6)事情的来龙去脉得向你说清楚。

7)这里的情况你是清楚的。

三、直接引语与间接引语的改写：

我们在说话或写作中，有时需要直接引用别人的对话，有时需要转述。例如雨来摇摇头说：“我在屋子里什么也没有看见。”这是直接叙述的句子。如果要改成转述的句子，就可以改成“雨来摇摇头说，他在屋子里什么也没有看见。”

改写时应注意三点：一是改换人称，将对话中表示“谁”(如我、我们等)的人称代词改成“他”或“他们”。与引号前的人称一致起来。二是改变标点，将冒号改成逗号，双引号去掉。三是适当调整词语，需要时可作少量的文字改动，但不能改变句子的基本意思，使句子通顺。

例：贝多芬说：“我是来弹一首曲子给这位姑娘听的。

贝多芬说，它是来弹一首曲子给这位姑娘听的。

1)他轻轻地说：“我买不起，我的钱不够。”

2)蔺相如说：“秦王我都不怕，我会怕廉将军吗?

3)小华告诉我：“ 我的《儿童时代》先借给你看。”

4)妈妈对我说：“ 我今晚要加班，不回家吃饭了。”

5)小华对小丽说：“明天我们班要参加区文艺会演，我得早点到校排演。”

四、陈述句改成把字句和被字句

如：他碾死了小青虫。可改成

⒈“把”字句：他把小青虫碾死了。将陈述句改成把字句，就是将句中表示动作的对象移到表示动作的词前面，加上“把”即成把字句。在变换句式时必须保持原句的意思。

⒉“被”字句：小青虫被他碾死了。把陈述句改成被字句，就是将句中表示接受动作的词调到句首，换上“被”就成了被字句。

这两种句子的变换只要调换句中的某些词的位置就行了。

如上面句①中只需把“碾死了”和“小青虫”的位置调换一下，再在他的后面加个“把”字;句②则把“小青虫”与他“他”之间加个“被”字就行了。两个句子互相改换之后，它们原来的意思不能改变。

五、有些陈述句为了突出句中的某一部分，可交换下词语的位置。

如：“我去过北京。”与“北京，我去过。”前者突出“我去过”，后者突出了“北京”。改变说法，做到语言美。

在公共汽车上，看到一位老太太上车，一个小学生连忙让座，应怎么说呢?

应说：“老奶奶，请您坐这儿!”

注意点：如说“喂，老太婆，坐这儿来!”就很没有礼貌。我们在与人交往时，要学会使用“请”“打扰”“对不起”“谢谢”“没关系”，接电话时，要用“您好!请问……”等。

六、特殊句式的变换

1、词语位置的变换：如

常式句：亲人再见了!

变式句：再见了，亲人。把主谓语的位置进行互换

2、变换提示语的位置：如

(1)、我说：“爸爸，也许它不会死……” (提示语在前)

(2)、“爸爸!”，我说，“也许它不会死……”(提示语在中间)

(3)、“爸爸，也许它不会死……” 我说。 (提示语在句末)七、关联句

句子依据结构分类，可分为单句和复句。复句是能分成两个或两个以上相当于单句的分段的句子。复句内的各个单句形式，叫做分句。同一个复句里的分句，说是的是有关系的事，它们又是由关联词语连接起来的，因此也称作关联句。常见的关联句有七种类型，每类关联句有它们自己常用的关联词语。

1、因果关系：因为……所以 因此 既然……就

2、条件关系：只有……才 只要……就 无论……都 不管……总

3、假设关系：如果……就 要是……就 哪怕……也 即使……也4、递进关系：不但……而且 不光……还 不仅……还

5、并列关系 ：既……又 一边……一边 一方面……一方面 一会儿……一会儿

6、转折关系：虽然……但是 尽管……还是

7 选择关系：是……不是 宁可……也不 不是……就是 与其……不如

运用关联词语要注意以下几点：

关联词语一般都成对出现，只有少数单独使用。(如“可是”、“而”、“因此”等)

关联词语大都有一定的搭配习惯，不能任意组合。

关联词语起连接作用，可以把两句话并为一句。

七、因果句式的改写：

因果句式，是按事物的原因和结果关系来写的。它有两种形式：一是先因后果，二是先果后因。因果句式中，原因可以是一个或几个，但结果只能是一个。改写时，可以用关联词，也可省支其中一个关联词，甚至不用。但原意一定要保持不变。

八、缩句和扩句

缩句的目的是为了更好地分析和理解句子。把句子中表示修饰或限制的词语去掉，保留原来句子的主干，缩成一个简单完整的句子。缩句不能增加和减少原句基本成分，不改变原句的意思。

缩句主要方法有以下几种：

1、分辨句式，提出问题。先看看这句话是写人还是写景物的，然后可以提出“谁是什么”、“谁干什么 ”或者“什么是什么”、“什么干什么”、“怎么样”来找出句子的主要部分。如：“这毛茸茸的在地上流动着的小绒球原来是刚孵出来的小鸡。”我们可提问：什么?--小绒球;是什么?---是小鸡。缩句后就是成 “小绒球是小鸡。”

2、进行词语比较，找出主要词语。有些句子很长，修饰的部分较多，我们就要在几个词语中选出主要的，才能正确地缩句。如“工人宿舍前的草地上开满了五颜六色的野花。”因为“野花”只能开在“草地上”。所以“草地上”是主要词，而“工人宿舍前”是修饰“草地”的。

3、如果是否定句缩句，就要把否定词一起写出来，否则就会改变句意。如“我不相信他那种骗人的鬼话。”应缩成“我不相信鬼话”，而不能缩成“我相信鬼话” 另外要提醒小朋友的是，缩句后，虽然句子十分简短，但它还是个完整的句子，所以句末必须加上原句上的标点符号。扩句恰好相反，是在句子的主干上增加一些恰当的修饰或限制性的词语，是句子的内容变得丰富、具体和生动。扩句的过程正好与缩句相反，即按一定要求给句子的主干添枝加叶，加上修饰成分，使它表达的意思更具体、形象、生动。

在具体扩句过程中，要注意以下几个方面：

1、所加的修饰词必须与主干搭配得当

2、扩句后句子的成分不变。

3、扩句后不能改变句子的结构。

在读过一篇文章或一本书之后，把获得的感受、体会以及受到的教育、启迪等写下来，写成的文章就叫“读后感”。小编收集了写作基础：读后感的基本写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、读后感的概念

读后感的概念有两重含义：一是真实的、不受任何约束的读后感，二是一种作文的体裁，考试时要接受各种条件的约束。下面这篇读后感，就接近于第一种读后感。写这种读后感，主要是给自己看的，一定要真实，有什么感想(当然感想应当有意义，值得一写)就写什么感想，与心得笔记不同，它要展开来写，尽量像一篇文章，尽量写得生动、实在、深刻。一般应当写清楚读了什么，有什么感想，联想到了什么，对自己有什么作用等。它不追求文体、格式框框，写起来也可长可短。

二、读后感的写法

写读后感最重要的一点是要读出所读书籍或者文章的“眼睛”，它是你展开来写的基础、中心和出发点，这个问题我们已经在上一讲里说过了，这里就不多讲了。其次，写读后感，有它一定的规矩，有的书上把它归纳为“引、议、联、结”，四个字，想公式一样。对于这些规矩我们不可以不学，考试时只要内容有创意，套用这种公式未尝不可;但我们也不要受其所限，写成千篇一律的“八股文”，也可尝试在结构上有自己的创意，有自己的个性。但不管怎样，读后感也离不开“读”——对原文的引述、概括、评价等等，离不开“感”——自己的感想。只要把这两个字表达好了，就是好的读后感。

三、写读后感的基本技巧

在读过一篇文章或一本书之后，把获得的感受、体会以及受到的教育、启迪等写下来，写成的文章就叫“读后感”。

读后感的基本思路

(1)简述原文有关内容。如所读书、文的篇名、作者、写作年代，以及原书或原文的内容概要。写这部分内容是为了交代感想从何而来，并为后文的议论作好铺垫。这部分一定要突出一个“简”字，决不能大段大段地叙述所读书、文的具体内容，而是要简述与感想有直接关系的部分，略去与感想无关的东西。

(2)亮明基本观点。选择感受最深的一点，用一个简洁的句子明确表述出来。这样的句子可称为“观点句”。这个观点句表述的，就是这篇文章的中心论点。“观点句”在文中的位置是可以灵活的，可以在篇首，也可以在篇末或篇中。初学写作的同学，最好采用开门见山的方法，把观点写在篇首。

(3)围绕基本观点摆事实讲道理。这部分就是议论文的本论部分，是对基本观点(即中心论点)的阐述，通过摆事实讲道理证明观点的正确性，使论点更加突出、更有说服力。这个过程应注意的是，所摆事实、所讲道理都必须紧紧围绕基本观点，为基本观点服务。

(4)围绕基本观点联系实际。一篇好的读后感应当有时代气息，有真情实感。要做到这一点，必须善于联系实际。这“实际”可以是个人的思想、言行、经历，也可以是某种社会现象。联系实际时也应当注意紧紧围绕基本观点，为观点服务，而不能盲目联系、前后脱节。

以上四点是写读后感的基本思路，但是这思路不是一成不变的，要善于灵活掌握。比如，“简述原文”一般在“亮明观点”前，但二者先后次序互换也是可以的。再者，如果在第三个步骤摆事实讲道理时所摆的事实就是社会现象或个人经历，就不必再写第四个部分了。

四、写读后感应注意的问题

第一是要重视“读”

在“读”与“感”的关系中，“读”是“感”的前提、基础;“感”是“读”的延伸或者说结果。必须先“读”而后“感”，不“读”则无“感”。因此，要写读后感首先要读懂原文，要准确把握原文的基本内容，正确理解原文的中心思想和关键语句的含义，深入体会作者的写作目的和文中表达的思想感情。

第二是要准确选择感受点

读完一本书或一篇文章，会有许多感想和体会;对同样一本书或一篇文章，不同的人从不同的角度思考问题，更是会产生不同的看法、受到不同的启迪。以大家熟知的“滥竽充数”成语故事为例，从讽刺南郭先生的角度去思考，可以领悟到没有真本领蒙混过日子的人早晚要“露馅”，认识到掌握真才实学的重要性;若是考虑在齐宣王时南郭先生能混下去的原因，就可以想到领导者要有实事求是的领导作风，不能搞华而不实，否则会给混水摸鱼的人留下空子可钻;再要从管理体制的角度去思考，就可进一步认识到齐宣王的“大锅饭”缺少必要的考评机制，为南郭先生一类的人提供了饱食终日混日子的客观条件，从而联想到改革开放以来，打破“铁饭碗”，废除大锅饭的必要性。

一篇读后感，不能写出诸多的感想或体会，这就要加以选择。作为初学者，就要选择自己感受最深又觉得有话可说的一点来写。要注意把握分析问题的角度，注意联系自己的实际情况，从众多的头绪中选择最恰当的感受点，作为全文议论的中心。

英语写作是一种创作性的学习过程。启动知识信息储存，构思立意，谋篇布局，遣词造句，对语言表达的正确性和准确性、思维的逻辑性和文章的条理性都比口语要求更高。通常英语写作有以下几个特点：紧扣教学大纲对考生书面表达的要求;以有指导的写作为主(guidedwriting)，便于考生在短时间内构思成文;突出试题的交际性，考查考生在特定的情景中运用语言的能力;增强试题的实用性，所选话题贴近学生学习生活，为学生所熟悉;看图作文主要考查考生运用所学知识解决实际问题的能力。

一、给写作留有充分的时间

在小升初英语题中， “书面表达”往往是最后一项，有的学生把最后几分钟用在写作上，匆匆了事，这是很不明智的。学生用在写作上的时间应不少于10分钟，力争不丢分，少丢分。

二、认真审题，先打草稿

写之前一定要认真阅读写作要求，切忌见题就写。小升初英语作文主要有两种类型： “提示作文”和 “看图作文”。 “提示作文”一般已经给出要点，而 “看图作文”则需根据图画及提示在很短的时间内将要点列出。把要点列出后，在草稿纸上写提纲，打草稿，就可以看出大概有多少字。在正式往试卷上写之前，根据题目要求适当增减内容，保持卷面整洁。

三、写好简单句，慎用长句

考生要根据所列要点，运用相应的提示词及正确的动词形式在稿纸上写出简单句。考生应熟悉简单句的五种基本句型，尽量使用简单句。在简单句的基础上，根据各句之间的关系适当加上一些连词，使得整篇文章结构紧凑，行文流畅。套用句型，能显示考生的英语基础扎实，提高作文档次。慎用长句是因为其成分多，结构复杂，所以出错的机会也多。考生在没有十足的把握时最好少用或不用长句，以免给自己的作文带来不必要的损失。

四、熟悉各种时态，灵活运用

时态是学习英语语言的难点。考生务必系统地学习初中出现的各种时态，做到灵活运用。在同一篇作文当中，时态要保持一致。

五、切忌中式英语，避免生搬硬套

一些学生因缺乏写作技巧，往往在写英语作文时，根据中文意思堆积英文单词，编造出许多中式英语，结果错误百出，意思表达不清楚，直接影响考试成绩。

六、认真检查和修改，减少错误

做完写作题后要从头至尾读一遍，检查一下文章是否通顺，有无逻辑错误，标点符号、单词拼写和时态运用是否正确，避免笔误。

导语：写人的记叙文怎么写呢?有哪些方法可以更好地写好一个人的记叙文呢?我们来看看吧!

记一个人的写人记叙文，大致有以下三种情况：

(一)通过写一件事写一个人。有的文章写人只写了一件事，写这一类的作文要注意以下几点：

1、要选择有代表性的生动事例画写。反映一个人的精神面貌的事例是很多的，通过一件事写人就要选取最有代表性的生动事例来写。

2、要写出事情的发展过程，使人物的形象逐步完整。

3、要把事情写具体。用一个典型事例记叙一个人，应该把这一事例写具体，这样人物形象才能丰满。

4、为了使读者对人物了解得更全面，使重点记叙的这件事有充分的依据和坚实的思想基础，使人物的形象更加丰富，文章的开头可以对人物作简要的介绍。

(二)通过几件事写一个人。

我们在生活中会接触到各种各样的人，有时使用一件事来反映一个人就显得比较单簿，不足以充分反映人物的特点及其品质，因此，必须用两三件事才可能说的明白，再现得充分。

通过几件事写一个人，要注意以下几点：

1、几件事不能相互矛盾，人物的性格在几件事中要和谐、统一。

2、概括交代和具体描写相结合。在一篇简短的作文中要用几件事写一个人，不可能将每一件事详细叙述，因此一般可以彩杨交代和具体描写相结合的方法。即先概括交代一些事例，再具体记叙一两件事。

(三)通过对比的方法写一个人。

通过对比方法写一个人，一般有三种：第一种是同一个人前后相比，说明这个人变化;第二种是对一个人的认识前后相比，说明这个人的品质;第三种是一个人同另一个人比，突出歌颂其中一个人。

通过对比的方法写一个人要注意：

(1)要突出主要人物及其主要特点。

(2)要写出人物的真实表现，不要捏造事实，采用拔高或贬低的方法。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

1918年11月11日，延续4年之久的第一次世界大战以英、美、法等国的胜利和德、奥等国的失败而告结束。1919年1月，获胜的协约国在巴黎凡尔赛宫召开和平会议。中华民国作为战胜国参加会议。中华民国代表在会上提出废除外国在华特权，取消二十一条等正当要求，均遭拒绝。会议竟决定日本接管德国在华的各种特权。对这丧权辱国的条约，中华民国代表居然准备签字承认。消息传来，举国震怒，群情激愤。以学生为先导的五四爱国运动就如火山爆发般地开始了。

In November 11, 1918, the first World War lasted for 4 years in Britain, America, France and other countries and the victory of Germany, Austria and other countries come to an end in failure. 1919 January, winning xiediguo held in the Palace of Versailles in Paris peace conference. The Republic of China as a victorious nation to attend the meeting. The representative of China at the proposed abolition of privileges in China and foreign countries, cancel twenty-one legitimate demands were rejected. Japan has decided to take over the meeting in Germanys privileges in china. To humiliate the country and forfeit its sovereignty of this treaty, the representative of the Republic of China was prepared to recognize the signature. When the news came out, the country burning, burning with indignation. The student led five four patriotic movement like a volcano began.

5月4日下午，北京3000多名学生在天安门前集会游行，他们高呼：“还我青岛”“收回山东权利”、“拒绝在巴黎和会上签字”、“废除二十一条”、“抵制日货”、“宁肯玉碎，勿为瓦全”、“外争国权，内惩国贼”等口号，并且要求惩办交通总长曹汝霖、币制局总裁陆宗舆、驻日公使章宗祥，呼吁各界人士行动起来，反对帝国主义的侵略行径，保卫中国的领土和主权。这一运动得到的工人和各阶层人士的声援和支持，上海、南京等地的工人纷纷举行罢工或示威。在全国人民的压力下，北洋政府被迫释放被捕学生，罢免曹汝霖等人的职务，并指令巴黎参加会议的代表拒绝在和约上签字。

The afternoon of May 4th, more than 3000 students in Beijing shouting at them in front of the Tiananmen demonstrations,: "I also Qingdao" "Shandong," refused to withdraw the right "in Paris and will sign", "the abolition of the twenty-one", "boycott Japanese goods," "would rather die, not for your guns", "defend our sovereignty, punish traitor" and other slogans, and for the punishment of traffic chief Cao Rulin, President of monetary Bureau Lu Zongyu, Minister Zhang Zongxiang, calls for action, fight against imperialist aggression, defend the territorial integrity and sovereignty Chinese. This campaign workers and all sectors of the solidarity and support, Shanghai, Nanjing and other places of the workers have held strikes and demonstrations. In the country under the pressure of the people, the government was forced to release the arrested students, and others recall Cao Rulins position, and ordered the Paris representatives attending the meeting refused to sign the peace treaty.

为了继承和发扬“五四”运动以来中国青年光荣的革命传统，1939年，陕甘宁边区的西北青年救国联合会规定5月4日为青年节。1949年12月，中央人民政府政务院正式宣布这一规定。

In order to inherit and carry forward the "five four" youth movement Chinese glorious revolutionary tradition, in 1939, the Shaanxi Gansu Ningxia border region of the Northwest China Youth Federation provides for the May 4th Youth day. In 1949 December, the Central Peoples government officially announced the provisions.

【提要】高考英语作文 : 2017年高考英语作文写作模板：图画类写作模板

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Look at this picture./The picture shows that.../From this picture, we can see.../As is shown in the picture.../As is seen in the picture...

2.衔接句

As we all know, .../As is known to all,.../It is well known that.../In my opinion,.../As far as I am concerned,.../This sight reminds me of something in my daily life.

3.结尾句

In conclusion.../In brief.../On the whole.../In short.../In a word.../Generally speaking.../As has been stated...