2015年英语六年级写作基础知识精选8篇 作文【精选20篇】

作文时我们把人物的一举一动细致描写出来，写出人物具体动作，那么所写的人物形象就会跃然纸上，活起来。那么如何写好人物的动作呢?一起来学习下吧：

一提到动作描写，肯定要准确运用动词。比方说，表示“看”这个动作的词语就有“瞄”“瞟”“盯”“瞥”“端详”等，我们在写人物动作的时候，就不能总是“我看了一眼”可以根据当时的情况，写成“我漫不经心地瞟了他一眼”或“我死死地盯着他”。这样，通过准确运用动词，就能把人物的动作写得准确、具体、鲜明。

准确运用动词，同学们都能做到。但是有些同学就会有疑问：老师，我用了动词了，为什么写出来还是不具体呢?比方说，我写“她举起了手”，可我们老师怎么还说我写的不具体呢?

妙招一：动词+修饰语的方法

这种方法很简单，就是我们在描写人物的动作的时候，首先要准确运用动词，这是基础。然后在这个动词前或后加上表示“方向”“程度”“轻重”“快慢”“数量”的词语。

如：方向+动词--他高高地举起了手;我向右侧了侧身。

轻重+动词--老师轻轻地摸了摸学生的头;他的脚重重地踢在了墙上。

快慢+动词--厨师手里的菜刀飞快地舞动着;他一下子就跳了起来。

程度+动词--爸爸狠狠地打了小明一巴掌。

动词+数量--他向前跑了几步。

以上这些类的词语可以单独用，也可以结合在一起用。大家试一试，用这样的方法写出来是不是很具体呢?

在介绍第二种方法之前，我们来做一个简单的动作--敲门，注意是“敲门”，而不是“拍门”或“推门”。这个动作看似简单，但要把它写好，其实包含着“大玄机”。什么玄机呢?这就是老师要给大家介绍的妙招二--动作拆分法。

其实，再复杂、连贯的动作，都不是一下子就能完成的，在观察和描写时，如果把动作分解成若干步骤，一步一步仔细观察，并选择恰当的动词一步一步地描写，就不难把人物动作写具体了。动作拆分法，简单来说，就是把一个大动作分成几个连贯的小动作，用慢镜头的方式一一描绘出来。我们都知道，在传统的武打动作或电视的慢镜头中，往往把一种行为分解成若干个部分，或者是把一个大动作细化为几个小动作，然后分别对每一个部分、每一个小动作按一定层次具体展示或描写，使整个动作行为栩栩如生。

运用这种动作拆分的方法，“敲门”这个简单的动作可以分解为如下几个小动作：①走到门前②停下③举起(右)手④弯曲手指⑤敲门。准确地描述出这几个连续动作，组成流畅的句子，就能具体地写出人物“敲门”的经过了。

运用这种方法，“敲门”这个大动作，我们就可以写成一段话：他穿戴整齐地来到妈妈的门前，轻轻推了一下，门紧闭着，里面似乎有亮光。他迟疑地举起了右手，想了想，慢慢弯曲食指，轻轻地敲在门上，里面没有反应，又敲了三下，仍然没有动静。他鼓起勇气，又轻轻地敲了敲，还是没有人出来开门，他一下子愣在了那里。

同学们，运用这种动作拆分的方法，我们是不是一下子就能把动作写具体了呢?希望同学们在自己的作文中也能运用这种方法，让自己的文章更加具体。

妙招三：准确运用词语

这里的“准确”，包括两层含义：一是体现人物特点，二是结合具体情境。这就要求在写人物动作的时候，避免使用那些“万能词”。什么是万能词呢?就是那些无所不能，多用途的词语。比方说下面的句子

我走到门前。

我走到妈妈面前。

我走过去。

“走”就是一个万能词，还有“看”“拿”“吃”等等。这些词用起来看似没有任何问题，可以用来写人物的动作。但是要知道，这些万能词有时却是万万不能的，因为它们不够准确。

我们都知道，世界上没有完全相同的两个人，人物的性别、性格、年龄、身份不同，他们所表现出来的行动的特点也一定是不同的。所以，在描写人物动作的时候，要充分结合人物的性别、性格、年龄、身份等，要表现出人物的特点。

例如：一个家境富裕的孩子，他是把一块钱拿在手里。而一个贫穷的孩子，他会把一块钱攥在手里。

再如：一个腼腆的人，笑的时候是“抿着嘴，嘴角微微翘起”的微笑，而一个爽朗的人笑得时候是“咧开嘴巴，露出牙齿”的开怀大笑。

第二点，人在不同情景、环境中，行动的特点更是不同的，更需要注意准确用词。

比方说，你在饭后散步时的“走”和上学要迟到时的“走”是一样的吗?肯定是不一样的。你在平时喝水时，可能是“拿起杯子，把杯子凑到嘴边，一仰脖，喝一口。”而当你渴极了或者是时间紧急的时候，你会怎样喝水呢?肯定是“一把抓过杯子，凑到嘴边，一仰脖，‘咕咚’灌下一大口”，你看，同样是你这个人，同样是喝水，因为情境不同，表现出来的动作不同，所选用的动词肯定也是不一样的。

提醒同学们一定要注意，在描写人物行动时，务求做到“准确”二字--抓住人物行动的特点写，抓住人物在特定情境中行动的特点写。这样才能把人物的动作写准确，把人物写活。

[写作基础：如何写好人物的动作

一、培养基础英语写作能力

转变英语学习观念，培养基础英语写作能力是提高商务英语写作能力的基础和关键。为此，必须抓好以下三个环节:

1.不断通过写作练习培养英语语法的应用能力，重视掌握有关词汇的用法，以便能运切实用有关语法和词汇去写作。这是英语写作的基础。

不仅要记住语法规则，更重要的是要通过做各种各样的写作练习，以达到在写作中能正确运用有关语法规则。要记住英语单词的汉语意思，更重要的是要通过阅读在上下文中准确掌握英语单词的用法。单词的用法(主要是实词的用法)主要包括：单词的确切意思-包括其情感意义、文体色彩等;它与有关同义词或近义词的区别;它的习惯性搭配。这样，学习者才能在写作中避免那些尽管语法上没有什么错误、用词却有明显错误的现象。

2.通过大量阅读逐渐培养英语思维，并掌握一些写好句子的技巧，以便在把句子写正确的同时，不断培养用地道的英语把句子写好的能力。

结合提高阅读能力，大量阅读各类题材的英语文章，有意识地逐渐培养英语思维，并把它用于写作。在阅读过程中要注意:不要死扣每句英语的汉语意思，而应着重获取作者所要传递的信息;对于相对简易的、与日常生活或所学专业有关的文章，应注意某些意思的英语表达方式，尤其要注意与汉语有明显不同的表达方式，注意其用词、词序、搭配等，以便将来写作时有效地模仿，使写出的句子地道化。掌握英语句子的写作技巧，恰当运用各种类型的句子。

3.了解一些英语段落、篇章的组织和写作知识。所写段落与篇章均要力求连贯(coherence)和衔接(cohesion)。篇章的用词和句式在文体上一般要保持一致(unity)。

二、商务英语文体特点

要提高商务英语写作水平，除了要有扎实的英语基本功，还要对商务英语文体特点有充分的认识，准确的区别不同体裁商务英语的风格特点，从而写出满足不同商务目的的要求的商务文件。不同的商务环境相对应的不同的商务活动也是不相同的，了解商务英语语言的共同特点、风格、语篇结构而且清楚认识在不同商务活动中商务英语写作的具体特点和要求。它包括构思、起草、修改3个阶段。

1.构思阶段

商务英语写作在此切断必须考虑三个文体：(1)写作目的-通知、请求、说服、存档;(2)写给谁-客户、上级、同事、下属;(3)字数要求;(4)形式结构-计划或建议报告、商务函件、备忘录、电子邮件。明确这些要求后，需要考虑语篇结构，采用那种陈述顺序-直接顺序、间接顺序、直接于间接混合顺序。

2.起草阶段

起草阶段，是将构思阶段在头脑中形成的想法以书面文字的形式呈现出来。商务英语写作的最终目的是为了获的读者的支持、信任和好感。而且还要注意礼貌用词，例如使用褒义词、适当的头衔、不带任何性别、种族和年龄偏见的词等。

作为专门用途英语的商务英语，因其特殊目的，希望通过最有效的沟通提供给合作者更容易理解的清楚具体的信息。其信函在词汇选择上，遵循3c原则:

(1)conciseness(精简)。在复合词与简单词之间、长词与短词之间，应选择简单词或短词;在词组与单词之间，选择单词，尽量不使用不必要的介词词组;

(2)clarity(明白)。要准确传达商务交流的内容，必须避免使用模棱两可的词语或表达方式，这样才能使信函意义明确，不被误解，表达思想才能够更突出。避免在同一信函或其他写作中使用同一词。避免使用“if”，“hope”，“but”等表示疑问的词。在日期表达上，涉及到具体某月，均使用那个月的具体名词，如“January，February，…”。避免用“instant， ultimo，approx”等不确定词语。另外避免将日期写成如“5/4/1995”类似的形式，因为对于英国习惯是4月5日，而美国习惯是5月4日。

(3)Courtesy(礼貌)。尽量使用表示肯定的词汇，少用否定词，因为否定词给人一种否定的印象，或者还有指责对方的意思肯定对方时用词多用“you”，“your”，少用“I”，“we”，“us”，“our”，此种方式即“以客户为中心的‘You—attitude’”表达形式，因为不管你的目的是提供信息、说服别人还是增进友谊，最能打动人。

3.修改阶段

商务英语写作在修改阶段，力求句子简洁明了，段落清晰完整如上文所述。

完成商务英语写作过程在商务写作中，还应注意所选词语的礼貌性，讲话要婉转客气。的第一阶段是写出高水平商务英语的前提。提高商务英语写作能力的关键是把握商务英语写作的三个基本原则-简洁、准确、完整以及商务活动应遵循的语用策略-礼貌、合作。总之，商务英语的文体决定了商务英语写作的基本原则;简洁-才能提高效益;准确-才能避免延误;完整-才能显示逻辑思考能力。

由于教育背景和工作经历的不同而写作风格各异，但他共同遵循的写作宗旨是明晰扼要，其商务文稿要力求开门见山，扣住主题，思路清楚，层次分明，内容具体而完整。现代商业写作做到这些还远远不够。要走出写作风格的误区:一是避免使用套话。二是少用大词多用小词。用简单的言词交流思想，使人感到亲切，书面语向口语化过渡。然而写作的口语化并不意味着要用俚语或行话，因为它们的用法是有局限性的，很难用得恰到好处，弄不好让人感觉随意无礼，容易产生费解和误解。时代的发展变化促使语言更新由繁到简，这不免引起一些人的抱怨，他们认为这是“稀释”了英语。竞争如此激烈的社会，人们惜时如金，那个人会愿意听您咬文嚼字，仔细去揣模字里行间的文学色彩，欣赏书面语措词如何地道。

由上可见，不同文体的英语语言有不同的使用标准、礼貌标准以及传达含义的约束化表达方式，只有了解和掌握现代商务英语词汇的文体特征和应遵循的要求，才能处理好对外业务往来中的各类商务写作，使相关业务顺利开展下去。

一个句子必须按照一定的模式来组织，这个模式称为句式。下面是语文迷为大家提供的高考英语写作优秀句式，供大家参考。

1) on the other hand, the contribution of day schools cant be ignored.

2) due to high tuition fee, most of ordinary families cannot afford to send their children to boarding schools.

3) since it is unnecessary to consider students routinelife, day school can lay stress on teaching instead of other aspects, such as management of dormitory and cafeteria.

4) furthermore, students living in their own home would have access to a comfortable life and have more opportunities to communicate with their parents, which have beneficial impact on development of their personal character.

5) from what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that both of day schools and boarding schools are important to train young students for our society.

6) there is much discussion over science and technology. one of the questions under debate is whether traditional technology and methods are bound to die out when a country begins to develop modern science and technology.

7) According to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.

8) The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.

9) No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.

10) People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.

11) An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.

12) When it comes to education, the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.

13) Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.

14) Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful

15) An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However, this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents, who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.

16) Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus, which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.

17) There is no denying the fact that air pollution is an extremely serious problem: the city authorities should take strong measures to deal with it.

18) An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward retirement.

19) A proper part-time job does not occupy students too much time. In fact, it is unhealthy for them to spend all of time on their study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

20) Any government, which is blind to this point, may pay a heavy price.

21) Nowadays, many students always go into raptures at the mere mention of the coming life of high school or college they will begin. Unfortunately, for most young people, it is not pleasant experience on their first day on campus.

22) In view of the seriousness of this problem, effective measures should be taken before things get worse.

23) The majority of students believe that part-time job will provide them with more opportunities to develop their interpersonal skills, which may put them in a favorable position in the future job markets.

24) It is indisputable that there are millions of people who still have a miserable life and have to face the dangers of starvation and exposure.

25) Although this view is wildly held, this is little evidence that education can be obtained at any age and at any place.

26) No one can deny the fact that a persons education is the most important aspect of his life.

27) People equate success in life with the ability of operating computer.

28) In the last decades, advances in medical technology have made it possible for people to live longer than in the past.

29) In fact, we have to admit the fact that the quality of life is as important as life itself.

30) We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

31) People believe that computer skills will enhance their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

32) The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that this knowledge may be less useful than most people think.

33) Now, it is generally accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduation.

34) This is a matter of life and death--a matter no country can afford to ignore.

35) For my part, I agree with the latter opinion for the following reasons:

36) Before giving my opinion, I think it is important to look at the arguments on both sides.

37) This view is now being questioned by more and more people.

38) Although many people claim that, along with the rapidly economic development, the number of people who use bicycle are decreasing and bicycle is bound to die out. The information Ive collected over the recent years leads me to believe that bicycle will continue to play extremely important roles in modern society.

39) Environmental experts point out that increasing pollution not only causes serious problems such as global warming but also could threaten to end human life on our planet.

40) In view of such serious situation, environmental tools of transportation like bicycle are more important than any time before.

41) Using bicycle contributes greatly to peoples physical fitness as well as easing traffic jams.

42) Despite many obvious advantages of bicycle, it is not without its problem.

43) Bicycle cant be compared with other means of transportation like car and train for speed and comfort.

44) From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that advantages of bicycle far outweigh its disadvantages and it will still play essential roles in modern society.

45) There is a general discussion these days over education in many colleges and institutes. One of the questions under debate is whether education is a lifetime study.

46) This issue has caused wide public concern.

47) It must be noted that learning must be done by a person himself.

48) A large number of people tend to live under the illusion that they had completed their education when they finished their schooling. Obviously, they seem to fail to take into account the basic fact that a persons education is a most important aspect of his life.

49) As for me, Im in favor of the opinion that education is not complete with graduation, for the following reasons:

50) It is commonly accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduate.

51) Even the best possible graduate needs to continue learning before she or he becomes an educated person.

52) It is commonly thought that our society had dramatically changed by modern science and technology, and human had made extraordinary progress in knowledge and technology over the recent decades.

53) For lack of distinct culture, some places will not attract tourists any more. Consequently, the fast rise in number of foreign tourists may eventually lead to the decline of local tourism.

54) There is a growing tendency for parents to ask their children to accept extra educational programs over the recent years.

55) This phenomenon has caused wide public concern in many places of world.

56) Many parents believe that additional educational activities enjoy obvious advantage. By extra studies, they maintain, their children are able to obtain many kinds of practical skills and useful knowledge, which will put them in a beneficial position in the future job markets when they grow up.

57) In the first place, extra studies bring about unhealthy impacts on physical growth of children. Educational experts point out that, it is equally important to take some sport activities instead of extra studies when children have spent the whole day in a boring classroom.

58) Children are undergoing fast physical development; lack of physical exercise may produce disastrous influence on their later life.

59) In the second place, from psychological aspect, the majority of children seem to tend to have an unfavorable attitude toward additional educational activities.

60) It is hard to imagine a student focusing their energy on textbook while other children are playing.

61) Moreover, children will have less time to play and communicate with their peers due to extra studies, consequently, it is difficult to develop and cultivate their character and interpersonal skills. They may become more solitary and even suffer from certain mental illness.

62) From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that, although extra studies indeed enjoy many obvious advantages, its disadvantages shouldnt be ignored and far outweigh its advantages. It is absurd to force children to take extra studies after school.

63) Any parents should place considerable emphasis on their children to keep the balance between play and study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

64) There is a growing tendency for parent these days to stay at home to look after their children instead of returning to work earlier.

65) Parents are firmly convinced that, to send their child to kindergartens or nursery schools will have an unfavorable influence on the growth of children.

66) However, this idea is now being questioned by more and more experts, who point out that it is unhealthy for children who always stay with their parents at home.

67) Although parent would be able to devote much more time and energy to their children, it must be admitted that, parent has less experience and knowledge about how to educate and supervise children, when compared with professional teachers working in kindergartens or nursery schools.

68) From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw a conclusion that, although the parents desire to look after children by themselves is understandable, its disadvantages far outweigh the advantages.

69) Parents should be encouraged to send their children to nursery schools, which will bring about profound impacts on children and families, and even the society as a whole.

70) Many leaders of government always go into raptures at the mere mention of artistic and cultural projects. They are forever talking about the nice parks, the smart sculptures in central city and the art galleries with various valuable rarities. Nothing, they maintain, is more essential than such projects in the economic growth.

71) But is it really the case? The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that artistic and cultural projects may be less useful than many governments think. In fact, basic infrastructure projects are playing extremely important role and should be given priority.

72) Those who are in favor of artistic and cultural projects advocate that cultural environment will attract more tourists, which will bring huge profits to local residents. Some people even equate the build of such projects with the improving of economic construction.

73) Unfortunately, there is very few evidence that big companies are willing to invest a huge sums of money in a place without sufficient basic projects, such as supplies of electricity and water.

74) From what has been discussed above, it would be reasonable to believe that basic projects play far more important role than artistic and cultural projects in peoples life and economic growth.

75) Those urban planners who are blind to this point will pay a heavy price, which they cannot afford it.

76) There is a growing tendency these days for many people who live in rural areas to come into and work in city. This problem has caused wide public concern in most cities all over the world.

77) An investigation shows that many emigrants think that working at city provide them with not only a higher salary but also the opportunity of learning new skills.

78) It must be noted that improvement in agriculture seems to not be able to catch up with the increase in population of rural areas and there are millions of peasants who still live a miserable life and have to face the dangers of exposure and starvation.

79) Although rural emigrants contribute greatly to the economic growth of the cities, they may inevitably bring about many negative impacts.

80) Many sociologists point out that rural emigrants are putting pressure on population control and social order; that they are threatening to take already scarce city jobs; and that they have worsened traffic and public health problems.

81) Now people in growing numbers are beginning to believe that learning new skills and knowledge contributes directly to enhancing their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

82) An investigation shows that many older people express a strong desire to continue studying in university or college.

83) For the majority of people, reading or learning a new skill has become the focus of their lives and the source of their happiness and contentment after their retirement.

84) For people who want to adopt a healthy and meaningful life style, it is important to find time to learn certain new knowledge. Just as an old saying goes: it is never too late to learn.

85) There is a general debate on the campus today over the phenomenon of college or high school students doing a part-time job.

86) By taking a major-related part-job, students can not only improve their academic studies, but gain much experience, experience they will never be able to get from the textbooks.

87) Although peoples lives have been dramatically changed over the last decades, it must be admitted that, shortage of funds is still the one of the biggest questions that students nowadays have to face because that tuition fees and prices of books are soaring by the day

88) Consequently, the extra money obtained from part-time job will strongly support students to continue to their study life.

89) From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw a conclusion that part-time job can produce a far-reaching impact on students and they should be encouraged to take part-time job, which will benefit students and their family, even the society as a whole.

90) These days, people in growing numbers are beginning to complain that work is more stressful and less leisurely than in past. Many experts point out that, along with the development of modern society, it is an inevitable result and there is no way to avoid it.

Wake up in the morning, it was time for exercise, a lot of weight this summer vacation, belly also more than a swimming laps, should be reduced. So my parents asked me to exercise every morning. In order to improve the enthusiasm of my mom and dad also accompany me to go together. "Oh hello -" I reluctantly a yawn.

We run to the south culture square.

Do sit-ups. Get everything ready, his hands, take a deep breath. "Oh well, work hard, ah, ah hey..." Myself cheer yourself up, first physical ok, easily get ten, there are twenty, I lubrication on the lips with her tongue. The momentum, "ah -" I use all my strength "eleven, twelve... two three ~ ~ ~ ~ nine, ten." I havent even count strength of the final. Well done task today. Hey, go to do push-ups.

My father and I climbed onto the grass beside, the two of us put his hands on the grass. Just now the sit-ups do all my strength is gone. The skylight, finally finished twenty, too tired to my breath.

Half an hour later, Im too tired to full head big sweat, and was out of breath ran home.

It seems my strength is not enough. Later have to exercise a lot.

早上醒来，到了做运动的时间啦，这个暑假体重增加了不少，肚子上还多了一个游泳圈，应该减减了。所以爸妈要求我每天早上锻炼身体。为了提高我的积极性，爸妈也陪我一起去。“哎呦喂——”我极不情愿地伸了伸懒腰。

我们跑步到了南城文化广场。

先做仰卧起坐。做好一切准备，双手抱头，深吸一口气。“哎呀哎呀，加把劲呀，嘿呀...”我自己给自己鼓劲，刚开始体力还行，轻轻松松搞定十个，还有二十个，我用舌头润滑了一下嘴唇。一鼓作气，“呀——”我使出我全身的力气“十一、十二…二~~九、三~~十。”最后我连数数的力气都没了。还好完成了今天的任务。哎，做俯卧撑去。

我和爸爸都爬到旁边的草地上，我们两个把双手撑在草地上。刚才的仰卧起坐搞得我全身力气都没了。费了九牛二虎之力，终于做完了二十个，累得我气喘吁吁。

半个小时之后，我已经累得满头大汗，又上气不接下气的跑了回家。

看来我的力气还是不够呀。以后得多多锻炼喽。

公共基础知识主要是测试考生对相关知识的掌握程度以及分析问题解决问题的能力。小编为大家带来2017综合基础知识写作，希望可以帮助各位考生顺利备考事业单位考试。

一、熟悉公文的基本格式

公文写作和文章写作有着千丝万缕的联系，但二者也有着极其大的差别，公文写作非常注重写作的格式，因为公务文书有一个显着的特征--规范的体式。这也就给广大考生提供了一个明确的信号，在复习备考公文写作题时一定要注意公务文书的基本格式，比如公务文书的三大组成部分(眉首、主体、版记)以及每个部分中所包含的一些基本要素(如：发文字号、标题、主送机关、成文日期、附件等)。尤其要注意每一个部分的特别之处，比如发文字号的书写格式，标题的书写规范，成文日期的书写规范以及位置要求等等，掌握好了这些基本的格式要求之后，我们写作的公文就做到了“形似”。

二、熟悉每个文种的例文

有人说过这样一句话：“天下公文一大抄”，这句话或许存在一定的夸大成分，但更多地是给我们提供了一个备考方略--通过熟悉例文掌握公文写作。在熟悉了公文的基本格式以后我们能做到“形似”，但是要让写作的公文更加符合题目要求，得到更高的分数，考生在写作公文时还要让公文符合特定文种的一些基本特点，在形似的基础上做到特色突出。而要突出特色就要对每种文种进行深入的了解，熟悉例文是深入理解具体文种特色的最直接有效地途径。

三、注意特殊用语

公文写作过程中注意了前面两个方面，可以保障写出的文章没有形式上的错误或者问题，但要想得到高分特别是要和其他考生拉开差距更多地是要做到“神似”，这时候就要注意每种文种的特殊用语，比如请示的结束语使用错误就很容易形成扣分点，把“妥否，请批示”写成“妥否，请批准”，一字之差，语气就有天壤之别，得分也会有非常明显的差距。所以在备考公文写作的过程中一定要注意公文当中的特殊用语，这是公文达到神似的基础要求。

四、注意语言风格

许多考生在备考公文写作时也注意写作训练，希望通过多写多练来提高分数，这种做法值得表扬，但是在写作训练时一定要注意公文写作的文体要求，即公文的表达方式和语体特征。公文的表达方式包括叙述、说明、议论，以说明为主，在公文写作过程中一般不会使用抒情的表达方式，而有些考生在写作公文时神采飞扬，大发感慨，这样就违背了公文写作在表达方式上的要求;公文的语体特征是准确、简明、庄重、得体，一般不会出现网络流行词或者是新闻式的词语，而有些考生为了体现自己的与时俱进，在写作公文时大量使用时髦词语如“亲”“给力”等等，则违背了公文在语体特征上的要求。所以在写作公文时一定要使用规范的语言，或者使用“官方”语言，这样才会让我们写作的公文更加符合公文的“神”，也才更加符合考试的要求，也才能获得高分。

纵观全国各大考试，期中涉及到公文写作的大概有政法干警、招警、选调生、社区、三支、村官、军转干部考试等。那么，在复习公文写作这部分内容的过程当中，大家应该怎样去把握呢?

首先，选对教材，扎实基础。市面上现在关于事业单位考试的书层出不穷，关于公文写作方面的复习的资料更是良莠不齐，因此考生在选择复习教材的时候一定要选择那些权威机构的专业教材，以便更有针对性的进行复习。由于公文写作需要识记的东西较多，因此在复习的过程当中考生一定要熟悉公文写作的知识体系，掌握知识点之间的关系，做到事半功倍。比如在复习15种法定公文的适用范围这一部分的时候大家一定要将容易混淆的公文进行对比复习，这样才能加深对于知识的理解，帮助记忆。

其次，把握重点，各个击破。由于公文写作部分的知识内容相对较多，因此考生在复习之前一定要了解清楚所参加考试历年考试中所涉及到的公文写作部分重点内容，有针对性的复习。总体来说，在公文复习方面，大家一定要注意一下几个重点知识。第一是15种法定公文的适用范围，此部分内容虽然简单，但是容易混淆，因此对于几种常考的公文一定要熟记，这几种公文分别是函、通报、请示、报告、通知和决定。第二是公文的写作格式，公文的写作格式可以说是公文写作中的必考内容，而且分值较大。在复习此部门考点的过程中大家一定要结合实际中的公文，不仅从理论上掌握知识，而且与实际中的公文进行对比学习，以便达到最好的效果。

再次，多做练习，巩固掌握。在掌握好基本知识的基础上，多做好题是复习公文的必胜绝技。建议考生在做题过程当中多做真题，多做材料题。材料题对于知识的考察较为综合，可以涉及到公文写作的方方面面，复习的过程当中能够使大家对于公文写作知识有一个准确的把握。

也许你不是最聪明的，但是你可以是最努力的;也许你不是最了解公文写作的，但你可以是最了解考试重点的;也许你不是最早看到这篇文章的，但你可以是从中收获最多的。2017悄然而至，希望大家在备考的路上一路顺风，华图教育将为您保驾护航。

1. In general, I don’t agree with

2. In my opinion, this point of view doesn’t hold water。

3. The chief reason why… is that…

4.There is no true that…

5. It is not true that…

6. It can be easily denied than…

7. We have no reason to believe that…

8. What is more serious is that…

9. But it is pity that…

10. Besides, we should not neglect that…

11. But the problem is not so simple. Therefore…

12. Others may find this to be true, but I believer that…

13. Perhaps I was question why…

14. There is a certain amount of truth in this, but we still have a problem with regard to…

15. Though we are in basic agreement with…,but

16. What seems to be the trouble is…

17. Yet differences will be found, that’s why I feel that…

18. It would be reasonable to take the view that …, but it would be foolish to claim that…

19. There is in fact on reason for us so believe that…

20. What these people fail to consider is that…

21. It is one thing to insist that… , it is quite another to show that …

22. Wonderful as A is , however, it has its own disadvantages too。

23. The advantages of B are much greater than A。

24. A’s advantage sounds ridiculous when B’s advantages are taken into consideration。

撰写毕业论文必须坚持理论联系实际的原则。小编收集了关于毕业论文的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

一、坚持理论联系实际的原则

撰写毕业论文必须坚持理论联系实际的原则。理论研究，特别是社会科学的研究必须为现实服务，为社会主义现代化建设服务，为两个文明建设服务。理论来源于实践，又反作用于实践。科学的理论对实践有指导作用，能通过人们的实践活动转化为巨大的物质力量。科学研究的任务就在于揭示事物运动的规律性，并用这种规律性的认识指导人们的实践，推动社会的进步和发展。因此，毕业论文在选题和观点上都必须注重联系社会主义现代化建设的实际，密切注视社会生活中出现的新情况、新问题。

坚持理论研究的现实性，做到理论联系实际，就必须迈开双脚，深入实际，进行社会调查研究。这也是我们正确认识社会的基本途径。人们只有深入到实际中去，同客观事物广泛接触，获得大量的感性材料，然后运用科学的逻辑思维方法，对这些材料进行去粗取精，去伪存真，由此及彼，由表及里的加工制作，才能从中发现有现实意义而又适合自己研究的新课题。在我国改革开放的实践中，新情况、新问题、新经验层出不穷，需要研究的问题遍布社会的方方面面，只要我们对现实问题有浓厚的兴趣和高度的敏感性，善于捕捉那些生动而具有典型性的现实材料，通过深入的思考和研究，就能从中引出有利于社会主义现代化建设的规律性认识，提高毕业论文的价值。当然撰写毕业论文可选择的课题十分广泛，并不只限于现实生活中的问题，也可以研究专业基本理论，中西方比较研究等。但无论选择什么研究课题，都必须贯彻理论联系实际的原则，做到古为今用，洋为中用，从历史的研究中吸取有益于现实社会发展的经验教训，从对外国的研究中，借鉴其成功经验和失败的教训，或为我国的对外政策提供某些依据。

贯彻理论联系实际的原则和方法，必须认真读书，掌握理论武器。李瑞环同志指出：“强调联系实际，绝不意味着否定读书的重要，恰恰相反，更要认真地读，反复地读，深钻苦研，做到真正读懂弄通。否则，没有掌握理论，怎么谈得上理论联系实际?”(《求是》杂志1989年第24期)认真读书包括两个方面的内容，一是学好专业课，具备专业基础知识。这是写好毕业论文的前提和必要条件。经验告诉我们，只有具备了相应水平的知识积累，才能理解一定深度的学术问题;同时，也只有具备了某一特定的知识结构，才能对某学科中的问题进行研究。正如黑格尔所说，在讨论学术问题之前，必须“先有具备某种程度的知识”，否则，“没有凭借作为讨论出发的根据，于是他们只能徘徊于模糊空疏以及毫无意义的情况中”。(小逻辑》第三版序言)二是要认真学习马克思主义的基本原理，学会运用马克思主义的立场、观点和方法分析问题、解决问题。马克思主义正确地揭示了自然界、人类社会和思维发展的最一般规律，成为无产阶级和革命人民认识世界和改造世界的强大思想武器。马克思主义作为伟大的认识工具，虽然并不直接提供解决各种具体问题的答案，但它对我们如何正确地发现问题，分析和解决问题提供了正确的立场、观点和方法，因此，大学毕业生在撰写毕业论文时，应当努力学习和掌握马克思主义基本理论，自觉地用马克思主义的立场、观点和方法来指导毕业论文的写作。

二、立论要科学，观点要创新

(一)立论要科学

毕业论文的科学性是指文章的基本观点和内容能够反映事物发展的客观规律。文章的基本观点必须是从对具体材料的分析研究中产生出来，而不是主观臆想出来的。科学研究作用就在于揭示规律，探索真理，为人们认识世界和改造世界开拓前进的道路。判断一篇论文有无价值或价值之大小，首先是看文章观点和内容的科学性如何。

文章的科学性首先来自对客观事物的周密而详尽的调查研究。掌握大量丰富而切合实际的材料，使之成为“谋事之基，成事之道”。

其次，文章的科学性通常取决于作者在观察、分析问题时能否坚持实事求是的科学态度。在科学研究中，既不容许夹杂个人的偏见，又不能人云亦云，更不能不着边际地凭空臆想，而必须从分析出发，力争做到如实反映事物的本来面目。

再次，文章是否具有科学性，还取决于作者的理论基础和专业知识。写作毕业论文是在前人成就的基础上，运用前人提出的科学理论去探索新的问题。因此，必须准确地理解和掌握前人的理论，具有广博而坚实的知识基础。如果对毕业论文所涉及领域中的科学成果一无所知，那就根本不可能写出有价值的论文。

(二)观点要创新

毕业论文的创新是其价值所在。文章的创新性，一般来说，就是要求不能简单地重复前人的观点，而必须有自己的独立见解。学术论文之所以要有创新性，这是由科学研究的目的决定的。从根本上说，人们进行科学研究就是为了认识那些尚未被人们认识的领域，学术论文的写作则是研究成果的文字表述。因此，研究和写作过程本身就是一种创造性活动。从这个意义上说，学术论文如果毫无创造性，就不成其为科学研究，因而也不能称之为学术论文。毕业论文虽然着眼于对学生科学研究能力的基本训练，但创造性仍是其着力强调的一项基本要求。

当然，对学术论文特别是毕业论文创造性的具体要求应作正确的理解。它可以表现为在前人没有探索过的新领域，前人没有做过的新题目上做出了成果;可以表现为在前人成果的基础上作进一步的研究，有新的发现或提出了新的看法，形成一家之言3也可以表现为从一个新的角度，把已有的材料或观点重新加以概括和表述。文章能对现实生活中的新问题作出科学的说明，提出解决的方案，这自然是一种创造性;即使只是提出某种新现象、新问题，能引起人们的注意和思考，这也不失为一种创造性。国家科委成果局在1983年3月发布的《发明奖励条例》中指出：“在科学技术成就中只有改造客观世界的才是发明，……至于认识客观世界的科学成就，则是发现。”条例中对“新”作了明确规定：“新”是指前人所没有的。凡是公知和公用的，都不是“新”。这些规定，可作为我们衡量毕业论文创造性的重要依据。

根据《条例》所规定的原则，结合写作实践，衡量毕业论文的创造性，可以从以下几个具体方面来考虑：

(1)所提出的问题在本专业学科领域内有一定的理论意义或实际意义，并通过独立研究，提出了自己一定的认识和看法。

(2)虽是别人已研究过的问题，但作者采取了新的论证角度或新的实验方法，所提出的结论在一定程度上能够给人以启发。

(3)能够以自已有力而周密的分析，澄清在某一问题上的混乱看法。虽然没有更新的见解，但能够为别人再研究这一问题提供一些必要的条件和方法。

(4)用较新的理论、较新的方法提出并在一定程度上解决了实际生产、生活中的问题，取得一定的效果。或为实际问题的解决提供新的思路和数据等。

(5)用相关学科的理论较好地提出并在一定程度上解决本学科中的问题。

(6)用新发现的材料(数据、事实、史实、观察所得等)来证明已证明过的观点。

科学研究中的创造性要求对前人已有的结论不盲从，而要善于独立思考，敢于提出自己的独立见解，敢于否定那些陈旧过时的结论，这不仅要有勤奋的学习态度，还必须具有追求真理、勇于创新的精神。要正确处理继承与创新的关系，任何创新都不是凭空而来的，总是以前人的成果为基础。因此，我们要认真地学习、研究和吸收前人的成果。但是这种学习不是不加分析地生吞活剥，而是既要继承，又要批判和发展。

三、论据要翔实，论证要严密

(一)论据要翔实

一篇优秀的毕业论文仅有一个好的主题和观点是不够的，它还必须要有充分、翔实的论据材料作为支持。旁征博引、多方佐证，是毕业论文有别于一般性议论文的明显特点。一般性议论文，作者要证明一个观点，有时只需对一两个论据进行分析就可以了，而毕业论文则必须以大量的论据材料作为自己观点形成的基础和确立的支柱。作者每确立一个观点，必须考虑：用什么材料做主证，什么材料做旁证;对自己的观点是否会有不同的意见或反面意见，对他人持有的异议应如何进行阐释或反驳。毕业论文要求作者所提出的观点、见解切切实实是属于自己的，而要使自己的观点能够得到别人的承认，就必须有大量的、充分的、有说服力的理由来证实自己观点的正确。

毕业论文的论据要充分，还须运用得当。一篇论文中不可能也没有必要把全部研究工作所得，古今中外的事实事例、精辟的论述、所有的实践数据、观察结果、调查成果等全部引用进来，而是要取其必要者，舍弃可有可无者。论据为论点服务，材料的简单堆积不仅不能证明论点，强有力地阐述论点，反而给人以一种文章拖咨、杂乱无章、不得要领的感觉。因而在已收集的大量材料中如何选择必要的论据显得十分重要。一般来说，要注意论据的新颖性、典型性、代表性，更重要的是考虑其能否有力地阐述观点。

毕业论文中引用的材料和数据，必须正确可靠，经得起推敲和验证，即论据的正确性。具体要求是，所引用的材料必须经过反复证实。第一手材料要公正，要反复核实，要去掉个人的好恶和想当然的推想，保留其客观的真实。第二手材料要究根问底，查明原始出处，并深领其意，而不得断章取义。引用别人的材料是为自己的论证服务，而不得作为篇章的点缀。在引用他人材料时，需要下一番筛选、鉴别的功夫，做到准确无误。写作毕业论文，应尽量多引用自己的实践数据、调查结果等作为佐证。如果文章论证的内容，是作者自己亲身实践所得出的结果，那么文章的价值就会增加许多倍。当然，对于掌握知识有限、实践机会较少的大学生来讲，在初次进行科学研究中难免重复别人的劳动，在毕业论文中较多地引用别人的实践结果、数据等，在所难免。但如果全篇文章的内容均是间接得来的东西的组合，很少有自己亲自动手得到的东西，那也就完全失去了写作毕业论文的意义。

(二)论证要严密

论证是用论据证明论点的方法和过程。论证要严密、富有逻辑性，这样才能使文章具有说服力。从文章全局来说，作者提出问题、分析问题和解决问题，要符合客观事物的规律，符合人们对客观事物认识的程序，使人们的逻辑程序和认识程序统一起来，全篇形成一个逻辑整体。从局部来说，对于某一问题的分析，某一现象的解释，要体现出较为完整的概念、判断、推理的过程。

毕业论文是以逻辑思维为主的文章样式，它诉诸理解大量运用科学的语体，通过概念、判断、推理来反映事物的本质或规律，从已知推测未知，各种毕业论文都是采用这种思维形式。社会科学论文往往是用已知的事实，采取归纳推理的形式，求得对未知的认识。要使论证严密，富有逻辑性，必须做到：(1)概念判断准确，这是逻辑推理的前提;(2)要有层次、有条理的阐明对客观事物的认识过程;(3)要以论为纲，虚实结合，反映出从“实”到“虚”，从“事”到“理”，即由感性认识上升到理性认识的飞跃过程。

此外，撰写毕业论文还应注意文体式样的明确性、规范性。学术论文、调查报告、科普读

议论文是对某个问题或某件事进行分析、评论，表明自己的观点、立场、态度、看法和主张的一种文体。议论文有三要素，即论点、论据和论证。论点的基本要求是:观点正确，认真概括，有实际意义，恰当地综合运用各种表达方式;论据基本要是:真实可靠，充分典型;论证的基本要求是:推理必须符合逻辑。

写议论文要考虑论点，考虑用什么作论据来证明它，怎样来论证，然后得出结论。它可以是先提出一个总论点，然后分别进行论述，分析各个分论点，最后得出结论;也可以先引述一个故事，一段对话，或描写一个场面，再一层一层地从事实分析出道理，归纳引申出一个新的结论。这种写法叫总分式，是中学生经常采用的一种作文方式。也可以在文章开头先提出一个人们关心的疑问，然后一一作答，逐层深入，这是答难式的写法。还要以是作者有意把两个不同事物以对立的方式提出来加以比较、对照，然后得出结论，这是对比式写法。

议论文是用逻辑、推理和证明，阐述作者的立场和观点的一种文体。这类文章或从正面提出某种见解、主张，或是驳斥别人的错误观点。新闻报刊中的评论、杂文或日常生活中的感想等，都属于议论文的范畴。

议论文又叫说理文，它是一种剖析事物、论述事理、发表意见、提出主张的文体。作者通过摆事实、讲道理、辨是非，以确定其观点正确或错误，树立或否定某种主张。议论文应该观点明确、论据充分、语言精炼、论证合理、有严密的逻辑性。

一、 议论文的要素:

详细说明议论文三要素:论点、论据、论证

论点:是作者对所论述问题的见解和主张，是议论文的灵魂。

1.议论文一般只有一个中心论点，有的议论文还围绕中心论点提出几个分论点，分论点是用来补充或证明中心论点的，只要研究这些论点的关系，就可以分出主从。

2.如何找中心论点。论点应该是明确的判断，是作者看法的完整陈述，在形式上应该是完整的句子。位置可分:文章标题、文章开头、文章结尾、文章中间，有的则需要读者概括。

论据: 证明论点成立的材料。

1.事实论据:事实在议论文中论据作用十分明显，分析事实，看出道理，检验它与文章点在逻辑上是否一致。

2.道理论据:作为论据的道理总是读者比较熟悉的，或者是为社会普遍承认的，它们是对大量事实抽象，概括的结果。

论证: 议论文中的论点和论据是通过论证组织起来的。论证是运用论据来证明论点的过程和方法，是论点和论据之间的罗辑关系纽带。论点是解决“需要证明什么，”论据是解决“用什么来证明”，论证是解决“怎样证明”。

论证方法有以下几种:

1.举例论证:列举确凿、充分，有代表性的事例证明论点;

2.道理论证:用马列主义经典著作中的精辟见解，古今中外名人的名言警句以及人们公认的定理公式等来证明论点;

3.对比论证:拿正反两方面的论点或论据作对比，在对比中证明论点;

4.比喻论证:用人们熟知的事物作比喻来证明论点。此外，在驳论中，往往还采用“以尔之矛，攻尔之盾”的批驳方法和“归谬法”。在多数议论文中往往是综合运用的。

二、议论文结构

1.基本结构是提出问题(引论)分析问题(本论)解决问题(结论)。

2.可分两大类

a.纵式:逐层深入的论述结构

例1.“层层深入”式，先提出论点后，先从消极方面论证，然后进一步从积极方面论述.

例2.“起录转合”式:开头破题，引出论述问题;接着承接开头，阐述所论述的问题;“转”是从各个角度证明论点;最后归结，就是“合”。

b.横式:并列展开的论述结构

例如:

有“总论--分论--总论”式，先提出论点，而后从几个方面阐述，最后总结归纳;

有“总论--分论”式，先提出论点，然后从几个方面论证。

有“分论--总论”式，对所要论述的总是分几个方面剖析，然后综合归纳出结论。

总之，分析议论文的结构，先要弄明白中段落层次间的内在联系，还要注意文章中起着承上启下作用的过渡段，过渡句以及过渡词语。

考场如何写好议论文

1.写好字

一篇内质不错的文章，字迹可憎，其分值往往不理想。为何?其一，字和卷面差，按评分要求要扣分，其二，试卷的“面目”在一定程度上控制着阅卷者打分的情绪。美观整洁的书写是文章最好的“外衣”，它对阅卷者评分印象的形成是直接有效的:首先，笔划要清楚。字迹笔划清楚，字体端正，就能给阅卷者留下好印象。相反，龙飞凤舞，一路狂草，但难以辨认，就算文章写得好，也难以让人欣赏。其次，字体要适中。字体过大，卷面有拥挤繁乱之感，观之不雅。字体过小，阅读起来如觉蚁行，极其费神。再次，尽量少涂改。要涂改也须规范地涂改，切忌乱涂乱画，在卷面留下醒目的墨点，造成凌乱之感。

2.拟好题

题目是文章的眼睛，是文章传递显要信息的重要部分。由于它位居文章结构之首，所以文章题目的优劣也会直接影响阅卷者对文章的第一印象。议论文拟题的基本要求是:在准确的基础上力求醒目、舒畅。具体而言，可鲜明，可形象，可简洁，可别致，可整齐，不一而足。总之，以能激发阅卷者阅读兴趣或使之有耳目一新之感为最佳。

议论文的题目要求符合文体特征，要求鲜明，使人见其题而知其旨。观点鲜明的文章最受阅卷者的欢迎，因为它具有清澈感和透明感，能够传达出文章内容之大概，便于阅卷者准确而快速地把握整篇文章的基本内容。

3.开好头

高尔基说过:“(开头)好像音乐里定调一样，全曲的音调都是它给予的，也是作者花功夫的所在。”议论文的开头要讲究“短、快、靓”。短，即要简捷，最好三两句成段，引入本论。开头短，可避免冗长之赘，而且短句成段，在空间上突出其内容的重要性。快，即入题要快，最好三言两语就点明文章的基本观点或议论的话题。因为评分标准中有“中心明确”的细则。开篇确定中心，有利于阅卷者按等计分，也有利于作者展开论述，不致出现主旨不清、中途转换论题等作文大忌。靓，即要精彩。这也是传统文论中所说的“凤头”。精彩的开头，最突出的效果是吸引阅卷者，给阅卷者留下好的印象。文章开头要精彩，多用比喻、类比、排比等修辞引入论点，还可引述名言，讲述寓言故事导入话题。

4.中间段写好首句和末句

议论文的结构是否严谨，条理是否清楚，论证是否严密，论据是否典型，关键在中间段的写作。而结构、条理、论证和论据等是议论文评分的重要细则，因此，写作议论文要尽量符合这些标准。

常见的论述模式是:首句为小论点或承上启下的过渡词句;中间围绕小论点，运用恰当的事实、理论论据，或针对现实生活中的某些现象，分析说理;最后结合论述内容写一两句小结的话语。其中首句和末句的写作最重要，它能直接勾勒文章的脉络，显示全文的论述思路。另外，文章的整体论证结构常用正反对比式。许多道理只要从正反两面说了，就基本上可做到论述严密。在考场中熟练地运用这种作文模式，可迅速地展开写作，减少失误，节省时间。同时，它可使阅卷者能便捷地依据评分标准，在中档以上分项计分，避免不利于考生的个人评分因素出现。

5.典型而鲜活的论据

论点是议论文的灵魂，分论点是支撑起这个灵魂的骨架，而论据是议论文的血肉。一个人要丰满多彩，光有灵魂和骨架，没有血肉是不可想象的。同样一篇议论文只有中心论点和分论点是不能称为文章的，它还必须有典型而鲜活的论据。

典型的论据是指能充分反映事物本质，具有代表性的事例与名言。它首先要求真实，切合题旨。其次，选用的论据要弃旧用新，要厚今薄古。有些同学作文，记住几个经典论据，如司马迁、居里夫人、张海迪，变换着角度使用，把它们当做万花油。其实，这些论据就算典型，也不能引人注目。相反，选取人无我有、人有我新的论据说理，使阅卷者在阅读时产生新鲜感，效果会更好。另外，有些同学习惯用古代事例阐述事理，整篇文章未能联系实际，无时代的活水，也不能达到充分说理的目的。最好能引述时尚言论和当前媒体普遍关注的事例辅助说理，加强说理的针对性、时代感，使文章更具说服力。

6.结好尾

结尾是全文内容发展的必然结果，是文章结构的重要组成部分。现代著名作家师陀曾说:“写文章不管长短，首先要考虑好结尾。有了结尾，如何开头，中间如何安排，便迎刃而解了。”好的结尾当如豹尾，响亮有力，令人警醒，催人奋进。如鲁迅的《论雷锋塔的倒掉》，结尾只有两个字:“活该!”短短两字，可谓简洁之至，力透纸背。

其实，文章的结尾有时比开头还重要。由于阅卷者看完结尾后即开始打分，因此，它的好坏还直接影响到阅卷者的评分心理。李渔曾说:“篇际之终当以媚语摄魂，使之执卷流连，若难遽别。”结尾如有此种效果，整篇文章将增色不少。议论文结尾的写作，要收束全文，突出中心论点;要体现全文结构的紧凑、完整，不能草率收兵，也不能画蛇添足;语言要干脆有力、清音留响，富有启发性和鼓舞性。

7.语言形象畅达

语言项是作文评分的重要标准。议论文的语言，要准确鲜明，生动形象。有些同学写议论文，常摆出说大道理的架式，将哲学原理和辩证法的术语一股脑搬出来，以求说理的充分、透彻，但效果适得其反。

一个道理有一千种说法，要尽量选用形象生动的说法。要显形象生动之效，除了采用比喻、类比、事例等论证方法外，形象畅达乃至华美的语言必不可少.修饰议论文的语言，注意运用比喻、排比、对偶和反复等修辞，使文章形成华美流畅感;注意运用假设句、反问句或整句，使文章增强不可辩驳之势。修饰语言之功，虽不是一朝一夕可成，但只要积久成习，自然会有长进.

导语：如何写好高中作文，对于学生作文的写作基础也要好好的训练，话题作文的基本要求：话题作文还是要审题，所写内容必须在话题范围之内。“立意自 定”，关键要读懂话题关键词的意旨，若给出导语提示，还应划出导语中包含归结的关键语词。一般初学者，首先要注意让这些关键词贯穿在自己作文的始终，统帅 自己的文意。更多作文写作基础尽在。

如何写好高中作文，对于学生作文的写作基础也要好好的训练,实际效果又发现学生完全没有一般思想认识的基础，真正可见现在所谓合格教育的成效，和高中教学要求的“架空作业”。

一、文章形式的革命——夹叙夹议

尽快脱离初中只重记叙，笼统归结的写法。高中的作文记叙只向最高水平开一条缝，你得复杂记叙，融情思与哲理于一炉，有最动人的细节和最精美的表达，巧妙蕴 含深刻的思辨和无穷的回味，这不是一般人能做到的，更不是学不会议论抒情的同学的避难所。所以，比自己多练议论，远比固守初中记叙的窠臼要有前途。高中的 记叙必须简约，只提炼能说明自己观点的内核，而尽量舍弃叙述的完整过程与细节。叙，惜墨如金；而起始学写议，应力求具体多点分析阐述。

二、文章立意的升华——深入浅出

叙完笼统归结是初中模式作文的又一通病，常常文章的结尾具有宽泛的普适性，而缺乏对文章应有之义作具体针对性的挖掘阐发，常常文章的“穿鞋戴帽”大到可以 套在无数篇文章上，却没什么真正的思考。高中作文倘使还用夹叙夹议，也要对叙的材料反复推敲，找出几例可以统一在一个观点里的材料，就材料的不同侧面来评 析议论，最后上升归结出恰当切题、言之有物的中心。

三、文章表达的提高——点睛生花

好的文笔追求更高效率、更多意蕴。描述中就渗透情思与评析，这是较高水平的表达。一般的叙议分段，也应注意所叙材料紧贴自己的议论，议论应采取逐层推进， 前后分界，避免相互缠绕。但又必须前后连贯，形成一个整体。在文章中一定写好精心组织的关键议论，努力使文章多处呈现运用一定修辞的文采。

应用文是人们日常生活中广泛使用的文体。它最突出的特点是它的实际应用性，应用文包括很广，如书信、通知、日记、海报、便条、启事、请柬、电报、合同等。应用文的语言应使用规范语言，重在实用，力求朴实、准确、简洁。

一、书信

书信我们分为两部分：信封和内容。

1、信封的写法。

英语信封正面的左上角，写发信人的姓名和地址。在信封的正面中央偏左一点，写收信人的地址和姓名。

英语信封上的地点名称由小到大，视其长短可占二至五行不等。

寄信人只写姓名，不写头衔。但是，收信人一般都在名字前加上头衔，以示礼貌和尊敬。对于没有官衔和学衔的人士，通常在姓名前写上Mr., Mrs.,或Ms.。

信封的写法，一般来说，很少出现在中考英语的作文中。

2、内容。

英文信一般可以分为下列几个部分。

1)信端(Heading)即写信人的地址和发信日期。

2)收信人姓名地址

3)称呼

4)信的正文

5)结束语

6)签名

有的时候，出题者会让考生写e-mail。e-mail的写法和书信的写法基本一致。只不过少了书信在信封上的繁琐。

二、发言稿

发言稿要注意以下三点：

1、发言的地点

2、发言的对象

3、发言的内容。

三、通知

通知的正文一般都是写在"Notice"以词之下，一般来说不必写称呼语和结束语。出同时的单位名称可以写在notice之上，也可以写在正文的右下角。

正文一般采用文章式，有时为了醒目，也可采用广告式。广告式要力求简明扼要，一个句子可分几行。每行第一个字母一般要大写。

四、启事

启事是一种公告式的应用文。团体或个人如有什么事情要向大家公开说明或对公众有什么要求，可将要说的话写成启事，张贴在布告栏上或登在报刊上。启事一般无固定格式，要求简明扼要即可。

五、海报

海报是一种带有装饰性的宣传广告。有时配以绘画图案。内容以影讯、展览、演出信息、友谊赛等为主。为了尽可能使更多的人知道，海报往往贴在醒目之处。

写人的英语作文在高考中不少见，什么样的作文更能吸引人呢?下面请看语文迷为大家带来的技巧。

写人记叙文，一般为肖像描写、行动描写、语言描写、心理描写以及对细节的描写，应根据要求，灵活掌握，突出重点。

【几点注意】

1.使用正确人称和时态。

①时态：

一般现在时--描写人物外貌、性格、兴趣等

一般过去时-- 描写人物出生、教育背景、经历、事迹

②人称：第一人称或第三人称

2.介绍人物的姓名、年龄、外貌、学历、经历、专业、爱好、特长、事迹、性格等，包括所给的全部信息点，不能遗漏或随意添加。

3.对所给的信息进行适当重组，安排好写作顺序，突出重点信息。

4.正确运用描写人物的词汇和句型。

【常见词语】

①外貌特征：

pretty, beautiful, good-looking，handsome,ordinary-looking, with a big nose, with a big

smile, short, tall,thin, strong, white-haired，1.80 metres tall, …

②性格特点：

absent-minded, charming, attractive, bright, wise smart, confident, naughty，talkative, diligent,

lazy, friendly, generous, be ready to help others,kind-hearted, warm-hearted, patient, humorous,

have a good/ bad temper, independent,narrow-minded, …

③童年情况：

as a boy of 15, be born on, during his childhood, live a happy/hard life, the son of a poor family,

spend his childhood in, ...

④兴趣爱好： be delighted in doing, be good at , be interested in , be fond of , be crazy about, be pleased with, do well in, enjoy doing, have a strong desire to do, long for/long to do), take a pleasure in doing,…

⑤教育背景： be admitted to Beijing University, be enrolled in, fail in the test, get a master’s

degree, get on well with one’s lessons, go abroad to further one’s study, graduate from,major in, receive a doctor’s degree, pass the examination, take an active part in, …

⑥ 成就或事迹：

become a member of the team, encourage sb to do sth, give up one’s life for sth, receive the

Nobel Prize for physics, set a new world record of,win the first prize in, win a gold /silver/ bronze

medal, have a talent for, make up one’s mind to do sth., put one’s heart into, work hard at,

concentrate oneself to, devote oneself to,do sth.with great determination and perseverance, ...

⑦他人评价：

an inspiring leader, a model worker, an advanced teacher, be respected by , be honored as, be

considered/regarded as, be famous/known as,his hard work brought him great success, make

great contributions to our country, set a good example for , be highly spoken of for, ...

例文

你班要举办以“Ordinary but Great”为题的英语主题班会。

请根据下列信息准备一篇发言稿，介绍赵郁的成长经历。

注意： 1、词数不少于60。

2、文章的题目和开头已经给出。

3、可以适当增加细节，以使行文连贯。

提示词：首席技师 chief technician

Ordinary but Great

We are all ordinary people, but following what we are interested in and doing what we are good

at can help us make great achievements for society and go far. Here’s a convincing and inspiring example.

______________________________________

【范文】

Zhao Yu, the chief technician in the Benz Company,is regarded as a great success. However, his success is no accident. As a young boy with a sense of creativity, he was eager to learn and to make a lot of inventions. Being an ordinary worker in the Benz Company for 17 years, not only did he do well in his job, but he also made efforts to teach himself English and to learn how to use computers. Now it is easy for him to read English materials about cars. Besides, he became expert at solving various technical problems.Because of his great contribution, he has received awards many times.

Zhao Yu has set a good example that ordinary people can stand out by doing their jobs with interest and enthusiasm.

【评析】

1.作者运用了所给出的全部信息：姓名、职务、经历。对所给的信息进行了适当重组，突出了重点信息(赵郁的经历)，内容完整、详略得当，体现了话题“Ordinary but great”所表达的内容。

2. 正确使用人称(第三人称)，灵活使用时态(一般过去时、一般现在时);合理使用过渡词，使文章层次分明、结构紧凑。

3. 语言规范，表达准确。文章运用了一些高级句式，如同位语、介词短语、分词短语、倒装句、同位语从句等，增加了文章的亮点。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

小说是什么?理论上的定义是：小说是作者对社会生活进行艺术概括，通过叙述人的语 言来描绘生活事件，塑造人物形象，展开作品主题，表达作者思想感情，从而艺术地反映和 表现社会生活的一种文学体裁。而作家们对小说有着自己的认识，如贾平凹说："小说是什 么?小说是一种说话，说一段故事，我们作过许许多多的努力--世上已经有那么多的作家 和作品，怎样从他们身边走过，依然再走--其实都是在企图着新的说法。"(《白夜·后记》) 这种"小说是一种说话"的经验之谈，值得我们初学小说者认真思索。

小说的特点主要有三点：第一，以塑造人物形象为反映或表现生活的主要手段;第二， 有较完整、生动的情节;第三，有具体的、典型的环境描写。因此，人物、情节和环境被称 为"小说的三要素"。

小说的类别可分为：长篇小说，中篇小说，短篇小说和微型小说。在写作上，这四类小 说各有不同的要求。如短篇小说，它的篇幅和容量比较短小，一般二万字以下，两千字以上。 人物集中，故事单纯，结构紧凑。往往截取生活中富有典型性的某一侧面或片断加以集中描 绘，以提示社会生活的意义，"它往往只有一个主人公，一条线索;往往只写几个小时或几 天之内集中发生的事，但却使读者盾了以后可以联想到更远更多的事。"(茅盾)由于它借一 斑而窥全貌，以一目尽传精神，鲁迅把它譬之为"大伽蓝"中的"一雕栏一画础"。如他的 《狂人日记》、《风波》、《祝福》等。再如微型小说，它的篇幅更短，几十个字、几百个字至 一千多字。情节单一，人物很少。多取材于日常生活中的一件小事，寓有褒贬或哲理。如日 本现代作家星新一的《宝子姑娘》和我国当代一些作家的微型小说作品。小说家沙汀说："我 以为小说之分为长篇、中篇和短篇，主要的差异并不在于字数，而在于表现方法。"这个说 法对初学写作者来说，很有指导意义;要从事不同类别的小说写作，不能不仔细研究并熟练 地掌握它们不同的表现方法。

一、说明文的含义和分类

所谓说明文，就是以说明为主要表达方式来解说事物、阐明事理而给人以知识的文章，它通过对实体事物的解说，或对抽象整理的阐释，使人们对事物的形态、构造、性质、种类，成因、功能，关系或对事理的概念、特点、来源、演变、异同等有所认识，从而获得有关的知识。以说明为主是说明文与其他文体从表达方式上相区别的标志。

在各种文章样式中，说明文体是一种相对独立的类别。在人们的社会生活中，说明文越来超越显示出它的重要作用和实用价值。现实生活充分表明，说明文不是一种无足轻重的文章形式，而是运用范围极为广泛的常用文体，它与人们的生产、工作和生活的关系相当密切，而且由于社会生活的需要，说明文写作正在大量涌现。

关于说明文的分类，现在人们从不同的角度，根据各自的标准，对说明文有不同的分法。我们根据说明文的表现手法，大体上把它分为三类：一、阐释性说明文;二、述说性说明文;三、文艺性说明文。

从几个不同侧面来解说事物、阐释事理的说明文叫阐释性说明文。有关历史、地理、物理、化学、动物、植物、科学卫生、语言文艺等方面的知识性文字或教材、科学实验报告、器物使用说明等都属于这一类。

通过简述概况或情节来介绍事物的说明文叫述说性说明文。电影、电视剧各戏曲的剧情简介，小说和其它文学作品心的内容提要、连环画或某些摄影照片的解说词等都属于这一类。

运用形象化的手法来介绍事物、阐述事理的说明文叫文艺性说明文。这类说明文具有较多的文学色彩。知识小品(或叫科学小品)、名胜古迹、文物的说明简介等都属于这一类。

一般说来，前两类的写法比较平实，重在对事物或事理的条分缕析的解说。后一类的写法活动活泼，富有情趣，多采用文艺笔调。

二、 说明文的特点

说明文有如下特点：

1、 说明性

所谓说明性，是指说明文主要运用说明的表达方式，侧重对客观事物或事理作如实的介绍、简要的解说，力求使人有所知。就整个文体而言，说明文与记叙文、议论文的特点有显著的区别。记叙文记叙人物的活动，事情的经过，景物的状态，以及作者对人物、事件、景物的观感，主要用记叙和描写的表达方式，重在使人有所感;议论文通过逻辑论证形式，分析事物的本质、规律和特点，提出主张，发表见解，主要用议论的表达方式，重在使人有所悟;比如，同是写读书学习这件事，高尔基在《我的童年》里描述了一段读书的具体情景，把人物读书时的画面绘声绘色地表达出来了，这是记叙性的;毛泽东在《中国共产党在民族战争中的地位》里写了一节“学习”，论述了学习的重要性和学习的任务以及必须采取正确的学习态度等问题，阐述了观点，论证了事理，这是议论性的;《读书笔记》用简洁的文字介绍做读书笔记的几种常用方法：“第一种是在书上画记号”;“第二种方法是摘录，就是把书中的重点、重要的材料、精彩的句子或段落，抄录在笔记本上”;“第三种方法是写出全篇或全书的提要”;“还有一种是写心得体会(读后感)”;“除了上述方法之外，还可以使用卡片”。全文既没有具体描述，也没有分析论证，主要是运用了说清事理的表达方式，条分缕析地介绍了作读书笔记的具体方法，读后使人获得学习经验。这是说明性的。由于写作目的不同，由于表达内容的方式不同，文章的特点自然也就不同了。正如记叙文具有形象性、抒情性，议论文具有说理性、逻辑性一样，说明文具的说明性。当然，一篇说明文由于表达内容的需要，部分地使用记叙或议论的表达方式，也是常见现象，但是这只能说它含有记叙或议论的成分，并不会因此而改变它的说明性质。

2、 知识性

一般说来，记叙文、议论文都或多或少地含有各种知识，能给人以教益，但是在传授知识方面，都比不上说明文那样直接、集中和强烈。这是因为说明文写作，其直接目的就给人以知识或技能。说明文的内容以知识为核心，不管是哪一篇说明文，它的内容不外乎是自然科学知识，社会科学知识，人们日常生活、工作、学习所需要的知识，从宏观世界到微观世界，从基础学科到尖端科学，从奇妙的微生物到人类社会，从石器到电脑，从沙漠到海洋，从地层变化到天体运行，……漠漠宇宙，大千世界，无一不是说明文内容所涉足的领域，知识性是说明文写作的出发点，也是它的落脚点。

说明文既然要给人传授知识，就必须具有高度的科学性(包括阐释事理的合理性)。不管是对实体事物的说明，还是对非实体事物的说明，都必须如实地反映客观事物，做到内容真实可靠，反映准确恰当，解说清楚明白。如果说明文违反知识的科学性，则是一个致使的伤。说明文主要对客观事物或事理予以冷静地解说阐释，一般不需要带上强烈的感情色彩或表示作者的倾向，具有客观性的特点。

《辞海》是这样介绍银杏的：

银杏亦称“白果树”、“公孙树”。银杏科。落叶乔木。叶扇形。雌雄异株。种子椭圆形或倒卵形。系孑遗植物，我国普遍栽培;日本亦产生长较慢，寿命较长，可达千余年。种仁供食用，多食中毒，外种皮可提栲胶。木材浅黄色，细致，轻软，供建筑、家具，雕刻及其他工艺品用。又为庭园树、行道树。中医学上以种子入药，性平、味苦涩、有小毒。功能敛肺定喘，主治痰哮喘咳、遗精、带下、小便频数等症。种子含有氢氰酸、组氨酸、蛋白质等。

这段关于银杏的说明文只是对银杏的名称、特点、产地，用途等作客观的如实的介绍，全是解说式的语言，把它与郭沫若的散文《银杏》对比，其客观性就显而易见了。

3、 实用性

从说明文的社会功用看，它具有广泛的实用价值。诸如法律条文的撰写、典章制度的编纂，天文历法的修著，生产知识的记录，工作经验的介绍等等，从卷帙浩繁的百科条目到一种产品的使用说明，说明文的触角，探伸到社会生活、生产的各个领域，起着巨大的作用，成为人们交换思想、交流经验的工具，沟通文理学科的桥梁。

三、 说明文的写作

写说明文和写其它文章一样，必须明确写作意图，确立文章中心;充分占有材料，力求做到言之有物、言之有序。除了这些一般性的要求之外，说明文的写作还有如下要求：

(一) 抓住事物特征，把握说明中心

任何事物都具有自身的质的规定性，一个事物的特征是区别于其它事物的标志。写说明文只有抓住事物的特征，才能把被说明的事物准确清晰地介绍给读者，让人们对事物有确切的了解。事物往往有方面的特征，介绍事物时，不可能在一篇说明文里面面俱到;只能根据需要，一次谈一两个特征。因此，要写好说明文，还必须把握说明文的中心。如：《漫活圆周率》是一篇介绍数学基础的说明文。文章题为“漫话”，并没有漫无边际地随意堆砌关于圆周率的材料，而是围绕求出圆周率的更精确的数值这个中心，向人们介绍了古今中外数学家对圆周率的数值所做的贡献。

抓住事物特点，把握说明中心，这是写说明文的一个重要要求，要做到这一点，写作者必须在写作前对被 说明的事物作深入细致的研究。必须懂得只有熟悉被说明的事物，认识并掌握被说明事物本身的规律性，才能做到这一点。

(二) 针对具体情况，选好写作角度

写说明文也是要求有的放矢的。写什么、怎样写，要从读者的实际情况考虑，使文章具有针对性，切合读者的知识水平、职业特点和年龄大小。往往读者对象不同，写的角度也不同。如阐述吸烟有害的说明文很多，有的是针对老年人的，有的是对妇女而言的，的有是对青少年而言的，角度不同，说明的内容则各有侧重。《青少年吸烟害处大》这篇文章从青少年是国家的未来和希望的高度介绍吸烟对青少年的危害，突出分析青少年的生理特征，说明青少年接触毒性物质比成年人吸收快、排除慢、毒害大的情况，指出“吸烟对青少年是绝对有害而无一利的”。这样说明目的清楚，针对性强。

写说明文选取什么角度要依实际情况而定。比如，介绍牛的知识，如果是为饲养者写的，要侧重介绍牛的生活习惯和特性;如果是为使用者写的，要侧重介绍牛的功能和力气;如果是为兽医写的，则主要介绍它的身体构造;如果是为食用者写的，可以主要介绍它的营养价值。当然，作为科普知识介绍，不妨全面一点为好。

(三) 务求解说清楚、做到条理分明

写说明文的目的就是让人获得知识的技能，只有解说清楚，才能达到这个目的。说明说明，一说即明，如何解说清楚，要讲究说明的方法，注意结构的安排，着力语言的运用。关于说明的方法，这里就不详细介绍了。这里着重讲讲结构安排的条理性问题。

文章的条理性是客观事物、事理本身的特点、规律在文章结构上的反映。说明文解说事物、阐释事理要按其本身的条理来安排说明的次序，使之层次清楚，主次分明，安排说明文的结构首先要注意条理性。如何具体安排结构，不同类型的说明文有不同要求，介绍产品制作过程的说明文，往往按照产品生产工序来安排结构，如叶圣陶的《景泰蓝的制作》是一篇介绍手工工艺品景泰蓝的说明文。它按照制作工艺的程序，抓住“做胎”、“掐丝”、“涂色”、“烧制”、“打磨”五道关键工序依次作了详细具体的说明，全篇言之有序，给人的印象十分鲜明。这一类安排，以时间变化为序，着重写事物的过程。

(四)语言准确简明，文字通俗浅显

选用准确的语言，精当地解说事物的事理，是说明文语言的基本要求。说明文是以介绍知识性内容为主的，只有如实反映被说明内容的客观情况，才能保证知识的科学性。相反，语言不准确就会失去知识的科学性。

明代学者徐光启笔译古数学家欧几里得的《几何原理》，其中的一节：

凡论度必始于一体。自点引之而为线，自线广之而为面，自面积之而为体，各自三大纲。是心有长而无阔者谓之线，有长与阔而无厚者谓之面，长与阔厚俱全者谓之体。唯点无长阔厚薄，其间不能容，不可以数度，然线之两端即点，而线面体皆由此生。点虽不入于数，实为从数之本。

这节解说数学基本概念的说明文，把什么是点、线、面、体，点与数度的联系和区别作了确切的阐释，语言也很精当。

此外，在说明文中往往有些内容是带有专门化的科学知识，涉及一些专门名词和专业术语，在说明中特别要求把它们运用得准确无误，使读者便于领会。如：“航空”与“航天”是两个不同的概念，有篇文章作了这样的解说：“飞机在大气层内飞行，称为航空;卫星、飞船在大气层外飞行，称为航天。它们是采用不同的飞行器在不同的空间来完成飞行任务的”。这种解说是十分准确的，使人对什么叫“航空”、什么叫“航天”得到了科学的了解。

说明文的语言必须简要精当。看下面的这段文字：

“蝉的幼虫脱皮是从背上开始的。先出来的一层旧皮从背上裂开，露出淡绿色的蝉来。先出来的是头，接着是吸管和前腿，最后是后腿和折叠着翅膀，只留下尾边尖儿还在那层旧皮里。这时候，它腾起身子，往后翻下来，头部倒挂着，原来折叠着的翅膀打开了，竭力伸直。接着，用一种几乎看不清的动作尽力把身体翻上去，用前脚的爪子钩住那层旧皮。这个动作使它的尾巴尖儿从那层旧皮里完全脱出不了。那层旧皮就只剩下空壳，成了蝉蜕，。从开始到完全脱出来，大约要半个钟头。

这段文字不到二百个字，具体说明了蝉的幼虫脱皮的整个过程。用简明的语言把幼虫脱皮的复杂动作细致而真切地写出来了。文字不枝不蔓，语言富有表现力，给人很清晰的印象。、

说明文要介绍一些科学知识和一些内容，往往是一般人所不熟悉的内容人，要把专门化的科学知识解说清楚，让人易于了解，必须做到深入浅出，通俗易懂，生动活泼，富有趣味。如，《洲际导弹自述》是一篇介绍洲际导弹知识的科技小品。文章用拟人化手法把洲际导弹问世、分类、构造、特点及其威力和弱点都解说得十分清楚，文章把它赋予假定的人类行为，读起来生动风趣，易于理解。为了把说明文写得生动活泼、通俗易懂，人们常常运用各种修辞手法，增强文章的形象性、趣味性。

在说明文的写作中，应该注意克服几种常见的毛病。这就是：

第一，防止知识性的差错。如有篇写“牛”的习作这样写道：“牛有水牛、黄牛两种，牛是反刍动物，只吃青草，不必喂料。牛都两只角，体强力大，是世界各国普遍使用的耕作工具。”由于写作者对有关牛的知识了解不够，有些只是一知半解。所以写起来造成知识性的错误。世界上牛的品种不只水牛、黄牛两种，杂交品种的牛并不长角;除了青草外，还必须给牛喂其它饲料;世界上也不是普遍使用牛作为耕作工具，牛还有专供食用、奶用或运输用,甚至作为神物崇拜的。

第二避免文体性的错误。如有篇说明文题为《蚯蚓》，其中写道：“……别看这小动物不惹眼，它可天天在松土、干活，它不讲究吃穿，不讲究休息，不讲住的，不讲报酬，整天埋头苦干，为人们劳作耕地，让作物生长茂盛。我不禁想起我们的老师，他们也有蚯蚓精神。

我愿作一条辛勤劳动的蚯蚓。”

显而易见，这篇习作把一篇说明文写成了一篇借物咏志的抒情散文了。

第三，克服片面性的论述。如，有篇题为《青蛙》的知识小品，介绍青蛙时写道：“青蛙是两栖、变温的动物，营养价值很高，……”这样定是片面的，青蛙能捕捉害虫，有益于庄稼的生长，只写它营养价值高，不宣传要保护它，饲养它，必然会造成不良社会影响。片面性是不利普及科学知识的。

Dear Sue,

I’m Li Hua, one of your students in China. It’s almost a month since you left us. We all miss you and are very grateful for what you did for us.

We are busy as usual. We had an English speech contest the other day. I won the first prize! This again reminds me of all your kind help. Do you still remember the trees we planted together on the hill behind the school? Yesterday, we went there and watered them. The tree you planted yourself is growing well, and the whole class decided to name it Sue Wood. Will you come back to see Sue Wood?

How is everything with you lately? We hope to know more about you and your American students. Hope to keep in close touch.

All the best.

Yours，

Li Hua

Last night, I had a wonderful dream. In the dream, I rode my bike in a country road. On the both sides of the road, there are many trees. And these trees all have different fruits, apples, pears, oranges, bananas and many other fruits. The fruits are ripe. I can get them on the bike. They are delicious. I eat many fruits and I am full. And then, I go back home. I tell the story to my mother, but she doesn’t believe me. Then, I woke up.

昨天晚上我做了一个美妙的梦。梦里我骑着自行车在乡间的小路上。路的两边种满了树，这些树上有不同的水果，有苹果、梨、橘子、香蕉和很多其他水果。果子成熟了，我可以站在自行车上摘水果。水果很美味，我吃了很多水果都饱了然后就回家了。我把故事告诉妈妈，但是她不相信我，然后我就醒了。

文案，原指放书的桌子，后来指在桌子上写字的人。现在指的是公司或企业中从事文字工作的职位，就是以文字来表现已经制定的创意策略。小编收集了文案写作基础，欢迎阅读。

1、展现对阅听众要求的了解。

你会觉得了解你需要的人，也是能满足你的需要的人。相同的道理也适用于文案策划广告。“这广告懂得我，”读者如此感觉：“我可以相信它一点。”这有助于排除买家对卖家的疑虑，甚至是“通常一点都不可相信”之感。Xerox资讯存取系统的广告巧妙地运用了莫非定律，展现出对目标阅听众面临问题的了解：有个人在办公室里，话筒紧贴耳朵，传来坏消息：“先生，我们已经查过你在找的那份资料——肯定是丢掉了。”

2、挑战公认的事实。

广告里比较令人愉快的吊诡之一是，和普遍接受的想法唱反调的东西反而比较令人信服，崭新的想法令读者惊异。媒体界的陈腔滥调之一是用“每千人成本”——多少钱多少读者——作为评量杂志的指标。Barrons，一本读者财产经常超过七位数字的投资杂志，向这个想法提出了挑战。论证重点应该是读者的“质”而非“量”。“最低百万富翁成本”于是成为标题。

3、既然事实比宣称可信，最好用事实当宣称。

在广告里，“宣称”常常只是“谎言”比较婉转的说法。很多这种特别修饰过的谎言都是特别为了过律师和出版品检查人员那关特别准备的。你不能说你的花生酱里花生比较多，除非举行过公开公正的数花生仪式。可是却可以说某人如果为小孩准备这种花生酱就是比较好的妈妈。那你只要承认自己是在做广告，所有的罪名就都不成立了。广告反正就只是广告。对律师和检查人员来说，只要站得住脚，尽管说谎去!可是，对其他所有人来说，谎言就是谎言，而且清清楚楚。这是为什么BMW的广告里不只坚持BMW是上选投资，还用它的高二手售价来证明这点。它的说服力并不是来自与其他汽车的相互比较，而是目标阅听众可能用来与其他投资相较的“去年有一种汽车表现超过纽约股票市场里318种股票”。

4、让读者得以相信。每个人的心里都有一个地方其实真的想要相信如果用哪种爽肤水或润丝精就会拥有比较美好的生活。不幸的是，这地方配有横肉满身腰备武装的警卫巡逻，一遇到像本书这样的胡言乱语就立即打倒在地。我们的强壮警卫需要的通行凭证，是让他可以接受你的前提而不致看来象白痴的有力证据。DDB替Avis制作的广告里并不只是说Avis更努力，它说的是如果你只是第二名就得更努力——还有别的路吗?

5、让读者不得不相信。

这和第四点相互呼应。美国总统柯立芝曾经说过“无道理者终究难信”。Avis广告的前提，呼应小鱼若不游得快些便可能被大鱼果腹的生存法则，便合乎此道。Volkswagen那张敞篷车顶棚全开，露出汽冷式引擎的广告也是如此：“冷却器不会有问题，因为没有冷却器”——无可辩驳的标题。

6、成为同类产品中最佳选择。

这些日子这句话充斥在每个创意简报里。这是“90年代”最基本的策略之一，虽然你弄不清楚是哪个90年代——由买家还在用贝币付款时，广告主就已经在使用这个策略了。这法子之所以有效，是因为每个买东西的人都希望别人觉得他做了件聪明事，至少不要被当作是做了什么傻事。买主的趋善避恶是横古亘今，毋庸置疑的，这Saab 9000的定位为什么是“给继承了脑袋而非财宝的人预备的跑车”。

7、创造购买的渴望。

只要你还有脉搏，就有渴望。如果产品能实现你的渴望，它的广告也就不必象推销员一样喋喋不休，而可以成为内在的诱引喃喃低语，鼓励你去将美梦成真。对“野火鸡”(Wild Turkey)——波本威士忌的极品高价产品——而言，这便意味令读者不可或忘任何价格较为低廉的选择都是盲目简吝与自我否定：“当然有比较便宜的波本——也有比较不值钱的股票和比较小的车”。

总之，广告，照定义来，就只是一半的事实：广告只会提出对产品有利的论述。至于不利的论述，对手会很开心地提出来的。加上读者对你说的东西只能半信半疑，你的一半事实很快就会变成四分之一事实。那就离无关紧要不屑一顾，只有一线之隔了。

如果有一个简单的原则能够把这一切总和起来——事实上没有着简单原则，无论如何我还是提出来——那就是，写广告的人应该假设读者至少和他自己一样聪明。这有助于自己常常——或者几乎总是——保持真诚的好处。此外也有助成就诚实的撰文——和可信的广告。

能力目标：

正确理解应用文写作知识，并会具体运用写作知识进行写作实践。

教学设计 ：

通过具体的实例讲解 应用文写作基础知识

导入 ：

“博士”寻驴

从前，有一位老先生，号称学富五车、才高八斗，方圆百十里地享有很高的声望，人称“博士”，他也因此得意洋洋、自视很高。这一天，家人来向他报告：家里一头最精壮的黑驴莫名其妙地丢失了，而眼下正是田里、家里活儿最多、最需要牲口的时候，请老爷赶紧想办法或者找回黑驴、或者重买一头新驴。当时一头正值壮年的驴也还很值几个钱，于是有好事者提醒博士说，还是先写个寻驴启事，也许还能找回来呢!博士连连点头称是。于是磨墨铺纸，提笔运腕，一张寻驴启事一气呵成，墨迹未干就赶紧让家人拿出去，张贴在闹市口了。

可是，转眼几天过去了，一点黑驴的消息也没有，博士决定亲自到街头去看一看、听一听，了解了解关于黑驴的消息。来到闹市口，自己写的启事还在，还真有不少人在围观，博士混入人群，心下得意，想听听大家的说法。只听得有好事者正摇头晃脑地给大家念着：“……，我中华古国、历史悠久，文化灿烂、民风淳朴、文明教化，……盘古开天……，唐宗……，宋祖……”“什么嘛!什么嘛!”“什么意思!瞎耽误工夫!”围观的人没等好事者念完，就已连连唾弃着地四下散去。原来，“博士”真不愧为博士，一个寻驴启事洋洋洒洒上万字下去，还没提到一个驴字，难怪他等了好几天没有任何消息呢!原来大家还没等他讲到驴就早已不耐烦读下去了!

那么，到底什么是应用文呢?

关于应用文的概念， 1979 年上海辞书出版社出版的《辞海》的解释是：应用文是人们在日常生活、工作和学习中所应用的简易通俗文字，包括书信、公文、契约、启事、条据等。定义很简单，但没能概括出应用文的本质特征，仅仅指出应用文的“简易通俗”，这才只是应用文的一些方面，而不是全部特征。

根据国务院办公厅颁布的《国家行政机关公文处理办法》中对公文的定义，推广开来，应用文的定义应为：应用文是机关团体、企事业单位以及人民群众在日常工作、生产和生活中办理公务以及个人事务时，交流情况、沟通信息，具有直接实用价值和惯用格式的一种书面交际工具。这个定义规定了应用文的本质特征，使它明显区别于其他文体，又涵盖了应用文的基本特性。

应用文的起源至迟可以追溯到殷商社会晚期，也就是距今 3000 多年前，可以说我国有初步定型文字的最初年代也就伴随着有了应用文的使用。殷墟出土的甲骨卜辞，商周时期的钟鼎文，《周易》中的卦、爻辞等，都是应用文的原始形态。所以，如果说，神话是中国文学的“祖先”，那么甲骨文则是应用文的“祖先”了。

应用文的使用非常广泛，几乎涉及各个领域、各个部门、各个阶层、每个个人。比如，科研单位的人员，需要用学术论文;政府机关指导工作，需要用公文;工商企业经营，需要用合同;打官司，需要用诉状;即使个人今天生病了、不能上课，也需要用到请假条;……。相对于其它文体来说，应用文的使用频率要高得多：许多人可以一辈子不写小说、剧本、诗歌、散文，但他在工作、生活、学习中却免不了要写应用文，小到写张请假条，大到计划、总结、论文等。正如 叶圣陶 先生所说的那样：“大学毕业生不一定能写小说诗歌，但是一定要能写工作和学习中实用的文章，而且非写得既通顺又扎实不可。”

可以这么说，应用文使用的广泛，已经到了无所不在的程度。今天在中国特色的社会主义市场经济条件下，应用文是任何企事业单位和个人日常工作、生活中不可缺少的一个重要工具。

应用文同别的文体比较，有共性，也有个性。共性是他们都是对客观事物的反映，都要谋篇布局、用词造句、使用标点符号，讲究条理性、逻辑性，同样使用叙述、说明、议论等表达方式，要求准确、鲜明、生动的文风。具体表现在以下几方面。

教学内容：

第一节 应用文的主题

应用文写作基础知识既有与一般文体写作的共通之处，更多的是其在写作知识运用上的独特性，只有掌握其独特性，才能正确、规范地写好应用文体。

主题先行性

一、主题的特点 主题单一性

主题显露性

应用文的主题就是解决问题的方法、建议。其主题是十分明确直接的，主题的确立大多不是写作者有感而发，而是应客观实际的需要，为解决实际问题而产生的，由此可以说应用文主题就是解决问题的具体方法。因此应用文的主题具有以下特点：

文学作品的主题是从生活中、从已获取的材料中提炼出来的，往往反对主题先行。而应用文主题的确立与文学作品主题的确立不同，其主题确立在全文写作之前，所谓“意在笔先”。因为应用文总是先产生了具体问题而后产生写作的需求，而解决这一问题的方法、结论往往也产生在文章写作之前;同时执笔者的写作行为往往也是被动的，是应解决问题而动笔，写作的过程更是确切地体现主题。如《国务院关于同意黑龙江省调整哈尔滨市部分行政区划的批复》一文就是为答复《调整哈尔滨市部分行政区划的请示》而写的文章，表示同意请示提出的请求事项而作，主题一定是确立在写作之前。

一般说文学作品的主题具有其复杂性，对主题的理解更呈多元化。然而应用文的主题则必须单一、明确，读者对主题的理解不允许多元，而要求理解上的同一性，这样才利于统一认识，更有利于问题的解决。如：《关于当代青年消费问题的调查报告》一文就消费观念、消费现状、消费趋势和消费结构等四个方面，展开调查，尽管涉及面广，材料较丰富，但文章紧紧围绕“当代青年消费”这一中心，内容集中，一题一议，主题单一、明确。

文学作品的主题要求含蓄、曲折，令人回味。而应用文写作就不同，要求直截了当地点明主题，表明态度，提出解决问题的措施和办法，对文章所涉及的各类问题，必须有明确的观点立场，应该怎么做，解决什么问题，达到什么目的，都要明确地表达出来。

标题显旨

二、主题的表现方法 开头点旨

结尾点旨

应用文主题的表达要做到明确、显露。那么怎么才能做到主题从文章中显露出来呢?下面就给大家介绍几种表现方法：

标题显旨，就是在文章的标题中直接点明主题。如《三季度物价水平再次转降，出口增速趋于稳定》，这篇经济活动分析报告的标题就直接点明了主题，让人一看就大致明白了文章的主要内容，主题十分显露。这不失为是一种使主题显现的好方法。

这种方式是在文章的开头或每一段落的开头用简短的语句陈述主题，使主题凸现出来。如《 2001 年经济形势展望》一开头就指出： “展望 2001 年，经济回升的势头还比较微弱，促进经济的持续向好仍然需要克服许多困难。” 开宗明义，点明主题。再如《靠名牌赢得市场——关于深圳市飞亚达(集团)股份有限公司的调查》一文在 “启示：现代企业必须重视实施名牌战略” 的小标题下，分三段来阐述这一问题，在每段开头用段首句点明主旨：第一段的段 首句： 实施名牌战略是提高产品质量、提升企业品味的内在要求。 第二段的段首句： 实施名牌战略是企业参与市场竞争尤其是国际市场竞争的客观需要。 第三段的段首句： 实施名牌战略是增强国家经济实力的重要手段。 在这三句主题句的提示下，每段的中心就十分明了。

这种方式是在文章的的结尾之处点明文章主题。如李政道的论文《基础、应用科学与生产三者关系》一文就是采用这一方法结尾。文章的结尾指出： “我再重复一下，没有基础学科就没有应用学科，没有应用学科就没有生产学科，三者是紧密结合在一起的。” 非常清晰地显示了主题。

主题决定材料的选取

三、主题的作用 主题决定文种的选用

主题决定结构的安排

主题决定表达方式的选用

实训：

根据下面材料概括出主题，并用主题句表现出来。

1 .目前，全世界的年教育经费已超过 2000 亿美元，在公共资金的支出中仅次于军事经费，占第二位。世界工业化国家人口只占世界人口约三分之一，其教育经费比发展中国家多十倍以上。中国人口占世界总数超过五分之一，但教育经费仅占约三十分之一。按 1982 年的数字算，人均教育费为 11.2 元人民币，属世界 14 个人均教育经费不足 5 美元的国家之一。

2 .国外有两家鞋厂，各派一位推销员到太平洋某岛国去推销本厂的鞋子。上岛后不久，他们各发回一份电报。一位的电文是：“此岛上的人都不穿鞋，明天我就回去。”另一位的电文是：“太好了!这个岛上的人都没穿上鞋子，我打算长驻此岛。”

第二节 应用文的材料

材料的真实性

一、材料的特点 材料的现实和新颖性

材料的典型性

应用文写作对材料是十分依赖的，常言道“巧妇难为无米之炊”，为了表现主题我们需要收集一系列材料，或综合或舍取运用到文章的写作之中，使主题真实立体地表现出来。应用文材料的使用除了与文学作品有共通之处外，更多地体现自身特点：

应用文在材料的选用过程中不准改变材料本身性质，必须保持材料的真实性，对材料的时间、地点、数据、事实过程及结果都不能任意改动，否则就会使材料本身的价值发生变异，导致歪曲事实的真相，弄虚作假的后果，失去应用文的主题应有的价值，不仅不能解决问题，反而于事无补。应用文要求的真实是“绝对的真实”，也就是说所有材料要确凿无误、持之有据。不仅对搜集到的材料要反复核实，在材料的解释上，也要有科学的态度，实事求是。

应用文写作是为了解决现实问题而作的即时之作，其主要的材料需选取能反映现实的新颖材料。所谓现实是指，围绕文章要解决的问题所存在的事实(数据)材料而非通过联想和推论得到的材料。如在《新的消费热点：出门旅游过年》一文中，为了陈述出门旅游过年的现状，就采用了大量的事实(数据)材料： “根据国家旅游局对江苏、广东、云南、海南、北京、福建、广西、四川、黑龙江、湖南、山东、山西等 13 个省、自治区、直辖市的调查，……今年春节期间，这些地区直接由旅行社接待的国内旅游人次比往年至少有 15 %的增长……以上 13 个省、区、市的旅行社，春节期间共接待旅游者 124 万人次，旅行社营业收入 14 亿元。” 文中采用的材料都是新近现实发生的，这是大多数应用文材料的特点。所谓新颖是指，材料本身是新近产生的，如新事实、新政策、新的统计数据、新发现的问题等和用新的角度重新审视其新意。

所谓典型性是指那些最能支持主题和说明问题的材料。典型材料可以是一个具体的事例，一些有说服力的数据和一些带有普遍性的现象。如题为《“小解放”为何俏销湖北》的市场调查报告中，在说明“优质服务获得良好口碑”这一经验时，采用了这样一则事实材料： “去年 10 月的一天傍晚，河南省郑州市某单位的一辆小解放牌车在去广州途径武汉时，在武汉黄鹤楼处出现问题，求助电话打到了该销售中心，中心经理立即亲自带队迅速赶到现场，发现该车是用户对后驱动桥端面螺丝没拧紧而发生齿轮油漏尽，导致差速器锥齿烧损。当维修人员在后半夜将修好的车交给用户时，用户激动地说虽然我们不属于该省管辖，又没带保用手册，并且问题又是因我们使用不当所致，你们还这样及时周到地服务，太让我们感动了!‘小解放走到哪服务到哪，此言不虚，以后再买车，还买‘小解放。” 这一材料就是一则很能表现主题的材料，是典型的材料。 直接获取

获取材料的方法

二、材料的选取 间接获取

围绕主题，挖掘材料的意义

材料的使用 根据主题的需要，进行详略处理

合理安排材料，注重条理

如何获取材料，哪些材料是应用文写作值得关注的?下面我们谈谈这个问题：

在实践之中积累材料。在自身及周围同事的工作实践中做个有心人，时刻关注有价值的事件及数据，如在工作中及时对做了什么工作、采用了什么方法、取得了什么效果、有哪些人参与等信息及时记录收集。

在观察中掌握材料。在观察时要做到实事求是，防止主观武断、先入为主，同时要全面、系统、动态地进行观察，以获取真实、广泛、完整的材料，并能把观察所得及时整理成文字，给写作提供基础。

在调查中拓展材料。个人的实践和视野总是有限的，观察也不可能做到深入细致，这样就需要走向实际、走向社会，向有关人士了解情况，做一些调查，以扩大自己的视野，获取材料上的补充。经济类的应用文，调查是必不可少的步骤，如市场调查报告，市场预测报告需在调查之后，才能动笔。

通过查阅文献资料获取材料。应用文写作材料常常从有关文件、正式出版物，以及会议资料中获取材料，为写入具体文章之用，因此大量查阅文献资料来获取材料，是应用文写作经常采用的方法。

获取材料是写作的第一步。总的来说，获取材料要求以多为好，以全为贵。材料多了，便于比较、鉴别，更有选择的余地;材料全面，观点才能不至于偏颇，因此，动笔之前，应当围绕主题，占有详尽而充实的材料。

其次，强调对感性材料的分析研究，不能停留在表面的认识上，要挖掘材料能凸现主题的一面，使其在文章中发挥挖掘主题的作用。如有这样一则材料 ： 某日，某国驻广州领事馆的外交官员去珠江三角洲某市参观，市长亲自接待，但讲不好普通话请了一个翻译，本来 10 分钟就可以讲完的话，结果用了 20 分钟。此外交官用标准的普通话问：广东不是在大力推广普通话吗么? 这则材料从不同的角度可展现不同的主题，但意义深浅不一。从较粗浅的角度看，可表现“市长不重视说普通话”的主题;进一步挖掘可表现“我们的官员素质的高低，直接关乎办公的效率”。这样的材料还可以根据主题的需要进行开拓。同学可以动动脑筋来挖掘一下。

使用材料时，要分清主次。对材料的加工整理，无非是为了突出文章的主题，加强应用文的表达效果，处理材料的详略要以此为据。突出事件特征的材料要详写，一般材料可略写;处于主体地位的材料详写，处于从属地位、过渡的材料略写;读者不熟悉的材料详写，熟悉的略写;材料之间角度相异的详写，材料之间相同的略写。

根据主题的需要，按照一定的组织形式，安排材料的先后顺序，在安排顺序时要考虑材料的主次、时间的先后、材料间的逻辑顺序、人们认识事物的规律、事物发展的过程等因素。

最后，数字材料是应用文写作中十分重要的材料，数字有时比文字材料更具体、准确、更能说明问题。因此，要注意： ⑴ 真实、准确地用好数据材料。 ⑵ 运用统计数据，展开分析论证，更好地为主题服务。 ⑶ 适当地使用统计图表。 ⑷ 变抽象的数字为具体，使其形象。如有两篇介绍乐山大佛的文字，其中一篇在介绍时用了这样一些数字： “乐山大佛身高 71 米 ，头高 14 . 7 米 ，宽 10 米 。” 这些数字看似具体清晰，但比较抽象，大佛的高大这一主题没有凸现出来。另一段文字这样写道： “佛像有三十多层楼高，耳朵有四人高，每只脚背上可以停五辆解放牌汽车，脚大拇指上，可以摆一桌酒席。” 这段文字也用了数字，但采用文字叙述的方法，使抽象的数字形象了，大佛的高大形象仿佛就在眼前，极好地体现了主题。

实训：

概括下列材料的主题。

1 .随着市场的进化，专业化分工的加强，未来 10 年内，以往支撑家电企业的自营渠道因为成本原因将全面撤退，而其他大量零星的代理商将通过特许经营方式加盟到大的品牌渠道中，成为品牌渠道的连锁店。

2 .据 1987 年国家审计局的公报， 1985 —— 1986 年仅对 2700 多个县以上的教育主管部门的审核，查出被挪用、占用普教经费，竟高达 5 亿多万，占审计总额的 5 %，成了违纪金额中的主要项目。被占用的钱用来建干部宿舍、招待所、办工楼、买小汽车、经商办厂。一个县教育局竟把 40 万转入银行吃利息，而置全县二万多平方米的学校危房于不顾。

第三节 应用文的结构

固定性

一、应用文结构的特点 条理性

文种不同结构不同

应用文是经过长期写作实践，逐渐形成较固定的写作结构，以适应实际工作需要，使写作更快速，阅读更便捷，提高办事效率。特别是公文写作，其格式更规范，结构更固定。

应用文写作要求有严密的思路，表现在结构上以求清晰有条理。在写作中要根据主题的需要安排好结构。如写事件，就应按“开端——发展——结果”的顺序安排结构;写问题就应按“发现问题——分析问题——解决问题”的顺序安排结构。

凡文种都有相对稳定的结构样式，应用文写作结构安排需适应不同文体的要求。如写合同就需要将合同的条款按标的、数量、质量、价款等内容分条列项地写清楚;写通知要按目的依据、事项、执行要求的顺序安排结构。

二、常见的应用文结构模式

(一)单段式

正文内容用一个自然段来表达。用于内容少而单一，不便分开，往往采用一段文字来表达。如写在商品外包装上的说明文;公文中的函、批复，也常用一段文字来进行写作。“玉兰油”写在外包装上的说明： “经实验证明能帮助减少细纹。四星期内，肌肤重现青春光泽。请不要涂抹在眼睛及眼睑周围。如不慎入眼，即用清水彻底洗清。如有持续眼睛刺激，请向医生咨询。如有持续皮肤刺激，请停止使用。请置于儿童接触不到的地方。” 这就是单段式。

(二)两段式

正文内容用两个自然段来表达。用于内容简单，不需每层内容都分段。这种结构模式，一般用于以下几种情况：

1 .把结语部分内容和主体内容分开写，单列一个自然段，成为两段式。即行文的缘由和行文事项为一段，希望、要求等结语为一段。

2 .写作目的缘由、行文事项各为一段。

3 .在转发、发布性公文中，将发布或转发的文件名和发文意见列为一段，执行要求另为一段。

4 .在答复性公文中，将表示收到对方文件为一段，而答复事项为另一段。

5 .没有开头、结语部分，将主体内容列为两段。

(三)三段式

这是短篇应用文比较规范的常用模式。正文把写作目的缘由、写作事项、结尾分为三段来写。

(四)多段式

它用于内容较多，篇幅较长的应用文书，总共有四个自然段以上。一般是开头概述基本情况、说明原因、目的、依据，结尾单独成段或省略结尾，主体部分内容分为若干个段，各部分不分条列项。如短文式的说明书、简单的市场预测报告等。内容多、篇幅长的应用文书，一般不宜采用多段式，宜采用将主体内容分成几部分，用小标题或总分条文式。

(五)条款式

用分条列项的形式安排结构。规章制度、计划、合同和职能部门的一些文书，较多使用这种形式。全文从头到尾都用条款组织内容，给人以眉目清楚、排列有序的印象。

(六)表格式

这是应用文不同于其他文体所特有的一种结构形式。表格式通常有以下两种形式：

1 .由职能部门或企事业管理部门或企业如银行、厂矿、公司等单位，事先印制好表格式的规范文本，将有关内容分项列出，各项之后留下空白，让使用或合作单位和个人按规定填写。表格文书一般要注明填写要求和注意事项。如申请专利、商标的文书、合同、税务征管文书、财务会计文书，大都采用这种形式。

2 .作者单位临时制作的表格式文书。根据写作目的，将有关统计数据编制成表格。

三、应用文结构的基本内容及写法

(一)标题

应用文写作的标题，要求充分体现主题，有的标题还有规范要求。这与文学作品形式多样、灵活多变的标题有着明显的不同。应用文的标题通常有三种形式：

1 .公文式标题。这类标题程式性强，表达直接而少变化，主要用于公文。

2 .新闻式标题。新闻式标题通常又称文章式标题，又可分为单标题和双标题两种形式。单标题有的直接提出文章主题，如 “小商品也要高质量” 、 “做好纪检信息工作实践与体会” ;有的概述主要内容，如 “积极财政政策仍将持续至少两到三年的时间” ;有的在标题中提出问题，如 “日本经济何时走出低谷” 。

双标题是有正题和副题的双行标题，其中正题符合单标题的要求，更多地突出文章主题，副题则对正题起补充作用，常常说明应用文的内容范围和文种，如 “靠名牌赢得市场——关于深圳市飞亚达(集团)股份有限公司的调查” 、 “繁重 · 活跃 · 稳定 · 上升—— 2002 年国内市场发展趋势” 。

3 .论文式标题。这类标题或表达文章的观点和内容或点明所论述范围。如 “核心竞争力——企业制胜的根本” 、 “双峰县农村劳动力转移的调查与思考” 。

(二)开头

应用文写作开头担负着统领全文，揭示主题或全文的作用。开头要求开门见山，直接显露，常见的开头方式有：

1 .概述式。这种方式要求用简明扼要的语言，围绕主题介绍有关情况或背景。如一篇题为《加强民族团结 繁荣民族事业》的总结开头： “山东省青州市是少数民族居住比较集中的地区之一，有回、满、蒙古、朝鲜、土家等 27 个民族， 2 . 6 万余人，占全市人口的 2 .5 %。近年来，青州市积极加强 民族团结，繁荣民族事业，有力地推动了全市经济和社会各项事业全面发展。” 就是用了这一开头方式。报告、会议纪要、调查报告等文种也常用此开头方式。

2 .说明依据式。开头引用上级指示精神或有关法律，常以“根据”、“按照”、“遵照”等词语领起下文。如《关于粮食政策性财务挂帐停息的意见》一文的开头： “根据中共中央、国务院关于妥善解决粮食财务挂帐问题的一系列文件精神，结合各地清理粮食财务挂帐的实际情况，经过反复研究，对粮食财务挂帐实行停息的有关政策提出如下意见”。 这种方式常在通知、批复、通告、规章等文种的开头使用。

3 .陈述目的式。开头以简明的语言，直接说明写作的目的和意义，常用介词“为”、“为了”领起下文。如《国务院关于成立经济贸易办公室的通知》一文开头写道： “为适应加快改革开放和经济建设的新形势，加强宏观调控和协调日常经济工作，国务院第 100 次常务会议决定，……”。

4 . 说明原因式。开头常用“由于”、“鉴于”、“因为”等词领起下文，也可以简述发文原因，再引出写作目的。如《广州市建设用地起坟通告》的开头 “因建设的需要，经核准，市公安局天河区分局征用天河区东圃镇堂下乡(村)土地。为便利建设工程顺利进行，……”。

5 .议论式。开头用议论的表达方法，表达作者的看法，提出观点。如《现代化企业需要什么样的复合型会计人才》的开头： “随着社会主义市场经济的不断深入发展，会计工作也不断拓宽，过去那种单一的会计知识结构已远远不能适应会计管理工作的需要，会计人员作为企业经济管理的重要的专门人才，必须相应地提高自身的专业素质，改变原来那种单一的知识结构，以适应市场经济发展的需要。因此，培养造就一批复合型会计人才是当前会计工作的一项重要任务，也是企业发展向现代化迈进的关键所在。”

6 .提问式。先提出问题，然后引出下文。这种开头方式能引起读者的注意和思考。这种开头方式常见于调查报告、学术论文的写作。如《核心竞争力——企业制胜的根本》的开头： “在激烈的市场竞争中，一个企业制胜的根本是什么?为什么有的企业能长盛不衰，有的企业只能成功一时，而有的企业却连一点成功的机会都没有?笔者一直为这些问题所困惑。” 这篇论文就是采用了提问式开头。

(三)结尾

应用文的结尾讲究言尽意尽，不留“余味”，不添“蛇足，更不能草率。常用的结尾方法有：

1 .强调式。对文中提出的问题作强调说明，以引起重视。

2 .结论式。对文中的主要观点或问题，加以归纳总结或略作重申，以加深印象。

3 .说明式。对与主体内容有关但性质不同的问题或事项作补充交代、说明，以保证内容的完整性，如公文结尾交待施行日期、执行范围、传达对象、与该文规定不符的原有规定如何处置等;论文结尾处说明尚未解决而应另作讨论的问题。

4 .号召式。提出希望，发出号召，展望未来。如公文的通报、市场预测、计划等常用这种结尾形式。如《关于成都矿产综合利用研究所值班人员勇斗歹徒先进事件的通报》一文结尾就是采用这一方法。

5 .建议式。针对设定的施行目标、产生的问题提出意见和建议。

除了上述几种结尾方式，还有请求式、责令式、表态式等不一一列举，有的则没有结尾，自然收尾。

实训：

指出下列开头所使用的方式。

1 . 20 世纪 90 年代后，我国计算机市场随着信息化建设的启动和发展，进入前所未有的高速发展阶段， 1991 年至 1997 年间的平均增长速度高达 56.9 %。 1998 年由于受到亚洲金融危机的和我国经济出现通货紧缩等国内外宏观经济环境的影响，增长速度下降。此后，经过调整和转型，我国计算机产业和市场在发展速度、结构升级、市场拓展、出口贸易、企业转制等多方面均出现了飞跃性的进步。

2 .教育在社会发展中处于什么地位?它与科技、经济的关系如何?不久前，河南教委组织 17 个地区、 34 个县教育部门的同志对 100 多个村进行调查。

3 .根据《国务院关于建立职工医疗保险制度的决定》、《 ×× 省推进城镇职工基本医疗保险制度改革的意见》和《国务院办公厅转发劳动保障部财政部关于实行国家公务员医疗补助意见的通知》精神，结合我省公务员医疗保障的实际，制定本实施意见。

第四节 应用文的表达方式及语言

一、表达方式

应用文写作中常用的表达方式只有叙述、说明、议论三种，而描写、抒情一般在广告、调查报告、经济新闻等文体中偶尔使用。我们现在只谈叙述、说明、议论这三种方式在应用文体中的使用。

(一)叙述

叙述这种表达方式是应用文体写作常用的一种方法。有的以叙述事实作立论的依据，如通报、经济活动分析报告、市场调查、总结等;有的以叙述事实为依据进行决策和预测;有的对事实作如实反映和记载，如会议纪要、合同、诉讼公文等。叙述在应用文写作中有如下几个特点：

1 .以记事为主

应用文写作反映现实，解决问题，与记叙文以写人为主不同，而是多以记事为主，如反映经济活动状况、市场情况、经济信息、介绍典型经验、阐述事情原委、总结工作等，采用叙述来记事。

2 .叙述客观真实

文学作品的叙述可作艺术加工，所述事件不必是客观存在的事实。但应用文不同，其所述事实，必须客观真实，不允许对事实夸大或缩小，更不能歪曲事实或主观臆造，否则就会导致决策失误，使经济活动混乱，使企业和消费者蒙受损失。如市场预测所依据的市场事实失真，那么预测结果必定出现很大的偏差，从而导致决策的失误。

3 .以概括叙述为主

文学作品需通过叙述细节来塑造人物形象，展开故事情节。而应用文写作则是通过叙述为文章得出正确结论作依据。如通报的叙述是为后面阐述事实的性质，达到对这一事件学习，鉴戒或引起注意的目的而服务的。叙述本身不是全文的核心(主题)所在，因而应用文写作的叙述大多用简明扼要的概括叙述。

4 .多用顺叙

为使应用文条理清晰，让读者掌握理解所述的客观事实，在文章中常常使用顺叙。在叙述时有的按照时间顺序，有的以事件发展的顺序，有的按人们认识事物的客观过程来叙述，这样叙述能使较复杂的事实头绪清晰，一目了然。

5 .语言较平实

应用文的语言要求平铺直叙，较少使用修饰性词语，笔法较朴实。因为应用文语言是需把握问题实质，直接表现主题，为主题服务，而不像文学作品那样文笔的曲折，主题的含蓄 , 讲究语言的修饰性、词语的色彩，常用修辞手法，应用文的实用性决定了其语言的简洁朴实。

(二)说明

说明这一表达方式在应用文中是与叙述相结合的，起到对客观事物真实介绍说明的作用，有很多文种都依赖这一表达方式。如说明书、报告、请示、经济活动分析、合同、自荐书等，都离不开说明。说明在应用文写作中表现出以下几个特征：

1 .说明客观、科学

通过说明真实客观地反映事物的真实面貌，本质特征，这就要求说明需客观、科学、严肃。

2.多用数字进行说明

说明不但要客观真实，而且要做到准确无误，用数字进行说明就能起到这样的作用。因此在应用文写作中就少不了数字进行说明，特别是需要反映量的变化时，数字的作用就尤为突出。

3.综合使用多种说明方法

在说明方法使用的过程中，常常是多种方法结合同时使用。如数字说明和比较说明、定义说明和分类说明等说明方法结合运用，这样可以把事物说得更具体、准确。

(三)议论

应用文写作常常用议论的方式进行评论、分析，探寻事物发展的规律，阐述主题。其议论有以下几个特点：

1 .重数据、重材料

与议论文的议论不同，应用文中议论不是靠言论的雄辩，而是需要无可辩驳的事实材料和数据为依据，正可谓“事实胜于雄辩”。应用文反对不切实际的议论。如在一篇《三季度物价水平》的经济活动报告中，对该季度的物价水平转降的情况分析是这样议论的：“ 三季度，居民消费价格总水平同比上涨 0.8 %，涨幅比二季度缩小 0.8 个百分比，其中 9 月份已转为下降，同比下降 0.1 %;社会商品零售价格总水平同比下降 0.9 %，已连续 4 个月处于下降之中，并且降幅在不断增大;工业品出厂价格指标同比下降 1.7 %，降幅比二季度增大 1.4 个百分点。各种物价总水平再次全面转降在很大程度上是外生性涨价因素所致，但这也清晰地表明困扰我国经济的紧缩和总需求不足问题并未真正消除，而只是被外生性涨价因素掩盖起来了。一旦政策支持力度减弱，经济就会再次下降。” 这段文字在议论时采用了大量的数据材料，材料充分，议论切合实际，得出的结论有说服力。

2 .常与说明、叙述等方式结合使用

夹叙夹议、说议结合，是应用文中的议论特点。应用文写作往往不单独进行完整的议论，议论依赖于所叙述的事实和说明的现象，是在事实和现象的基础上进行议论。如在一篇《靠名牌赢得市场》的调查报告中，文章是这样写的：“ 90 年代初，瑞士、日本各种品牌的钟表开始大规模进入中国市场。面对严峻的市场形势，公司决策层认真研究数量和质量的辩证关系，决定借鉴国外钟表工业发展的成功经验，走‘少而精的道路，即以提高‘单位面积的产出取胜，生产高技术含量、高附加值的产品，在工艺上精益求精，把人、财、物集中用到刀刃上，争取在最短的时间里后来居上。 ”这段文字采用夹叙夹议方法，材料具体，剖析深入，语言生动活泼。

二、 语言运用

应用文的语言与文学创作的语言有较大的差别，其主要特点是：

(一)程式化

程式化的语言是写作实践的产物，是应用写作实践中常用的习惯用语，这种语言已经约定成俗，得到广泛的认可和共识。学习掌握这种语言的关键是表达要简明合乎规范。程式化的语言根据功用不同，可大致分为下列几方面内容：

举例

称谓语

本人、我、你、贵、该

起始用语

兹因、据核实、关于、鉴于、为了

结尾用语

为荷、为盼

表态用语

照办、可行、同意

谦敬用语

请、承蒙、惠示、惠允

时限用语

当即、立即、从速

期望用语

务希、务请、如蒙、勿误

列举概括用语

各类、多起、数事、上项、如下

特殊含义的用语

签发、核查、归口、取缔、缺口、责成、任命、复议、追加

(二)书面化

应用文的写作性质决定其语言风格表现为简明、规范、严肃，而书面语能较好达到这一语言要求，因而应用文语言大多采用书面语进行书写。如《中共中央关于接受宋庆龄同志为中国共产党正式党员的决定》中写道： “她一贯是共产党最亲密的战友，是中国各族人民包括台湾同胞和海外侨胞衷心敬爱的领袖之一，是爱国主义、民主主义、国际主义和共产主义的伟大战士，是保卫世界和平事业久经考验的前驱，是全体中国少年儿童的慈爱的祖母……。” 中的“同胞”、“战士”、“祖母”等用的都是书面语，改为口语就不合适了。

(三)常用数词

应用文写作常用数字来说明问题，因此经常大量使用数字。在分析问题、说明问题时，运用数字，可以比较明确地表达事物的状态，从而加深对该事物的认识。如一个企业管理是否先进，只有运用同行业国内外的对比数字才能说明。邓小平同志在《关于科学和教育工作的几点意见》中，讲到我国科研人员少、队伍小时用了三个数字：美国科研队伍有 120 万人;前苏联是 90 万人;我们是 20 多万人。这三个数字勾勒出三个国家科研队伍的基本状况，十分清晰地说明了我国科研人员少、队伍小的现状。应用文常用的数字有以下几种：

举例

绝对数和概数

乐山大佛身高 71 米 ，头高 14 ﹒ 7 米 ，宽 10 米 。

平均数

力争五年内人口年平均增长率控制在千分之十二点五左右。

百分数

2003 年，我国粮食增长 16 %，棉花增长 66 %，糖料增长 83 %。

对比数

甲比乙多生产了两倍。

(四)运用应用文语言的要求

1 .叙述语言需简洁、概括。

在进行叙述时要用最简短的语言陈述特定时空的信息，通过概述事实的主干，而不应纠缠于耗时费事的具体情节之中。如有一篇表彰通报是这样写的： “ ××× 在科学研究上走的是一条不平凡的路，他全心扑在科研上，而忘记了个人的事。有一次孩子病了，他妻子在家里忙着护理，打电话到 ××× 单位叫他赶回家把孩子送医院治疗。 ××× 接了电话答应后，电话筒一放他又埋进了实验。他妻子在家中左等右等等不到他回家，急得像热锅上的蚂蚁，又往 ××× 单位打电话，这时 ××× 正潜心做实验，电话铃声都没听见了。他妻子又急又气只好打 120 急救中心的电话，才把孩子送往医院治疗。他的小孩高烧退后，还在问他妈妈：‘爸爸又出差了吗?或者还没下班……” 该公文将 ××× 先进事迹作为表彰决定的理由时，不懂得以最简洁的文字陈述特定时空的信息，通过快叙概述事实的主干，而仍用记叙文慢叙写话的方法表述公文事实，结果摆脱不了耗时费字的情节纠缠，公文内容冗长，不简明扼要，失去了公文的品味，违背了文约事丰的要求。

2 .语言表达要严谨、有分寸。

应用文语言表达是否严谨有分寸，关系到对问题的判断、处理是否合理、准确。如一份处理决定，其中这样写道： “李××在 1998 年 9 月间收受×××工程公司的 50 万元的巨款。案发后李××还和×××工程公司经理及会计订立攻守同盟，妄图掩盖其过错”。 文中“过错”一词有失严谨，表述与事实不符，李××的行为不是过失而是严重犯罪。

3 .数据语言书写要规范、清晰、准确。

具体要做到以下几点：( 1 )在同一篇文章中序数数字的体例要统一，不能体例混杂。如 “农历初一至初 7 放假” 一句，前后数字体例书写不规范，需统一书写。同时分数与小数的体例也必须统一。如 “该县企业所得税收入完成 95.6 万元，比去年增长百分之十三 ” 也出现了混写的错误。( 2 )表示公元世纪、年代、年、月、日、时刻均需使用阿拉伯数字 , 而星期则用汉字。如” 21 世纪 ” 、“ 90 年代 ，“星期五”。( 3 )邻近两个数字并列表示概数时，应该用汉字书写，数字与数字之间不能用顿号将其隔开。如“ 3 、 4 天 ” 应写成”“三四天”，“七、八种”的“七”和“八”之间不能用顿号隔开。

4 .朴实、简洁。

应用文的语言要求准确无误，朴实无华，简洁有力，不像有些文学作品用华丽多彩的语言去描摹事物，呈现事物的形象，而是提倡朴素美，简洁美。如一篇公文是这样写的： “ 2000 年某天深夜，乌云密布，雷声隆隆，大雨倾盆而下，刹那间，美丽富饶的鱼米之乡被一片汪洋吞没。接连几天如注的暴雨，淹没了田野、冲毁了村庄和工厂，交通、电力、通讯一度中断。这百年不遇的特大洪涝灾害，给我乡造成了不可估量的损失。……” 这段语言就违反了应用文语言的写作要求，带有浓厚的文学色彩，不够朴实、简洁，也有失真实。

实训：

指出下面语段中语言表达的错误。

( 1 ) ××× 收受包工头的贿赂几十万元，造成国家直接或间接经济损失二千多万元。

( 2 ) ××× 自 1998 年以来用五年的时间，先后完成了省部级的科研成果十多项，多次获得国家省部级的奖励。

( 3 )国际化的经济浪潮汹涌澎湃，怀有强国之梦的国家就是以能加入 WTO 为最高梦境的。随着入关的脚步一天天逼迫，我市的乡镇企业局深入学习“三个代表”重要思想，真抓实干，使我市乡镇企业的局面生机盎然，发展蒸蒸日上，千帆竞发，波澜壮阔，入关前的我市乡镇企业的形势十分喜人……

一、基础写作训练的方法

1.利用课文的词、句复习，训练学生的组句能力。从词和句入手，将每个单元课文的词和句与基础写作结合起来，是培养和提高学生的英语能力的有效途径。这不仅能帮助提高学生记忆和灵活应用词汇的能力，而且还有助于训练学生语句表达的正确性。

(1)归纳词汇和句型，帮助学生建立对词、句使用的感性认识。写作是一种语言的输出形式，只有大量的语言输入，语言输出才有可能;只有积累了一定的感受和大量的语言素材，写作才有可能进行。为了帮助学生记忆课文中的单词和短语，达到积累语言素材，掌握基本语法知识与语句结构的目的，教师可以从训练学生归纳每个单元课文中出现的重要词汇、短语和常用句型入手，使学生对句型结构的认识更加清楚，并对词、句的使用语境形成感性的认识。

(2)操练词汇和句型，训练学生的记忆和使用词、句的能力。为了使学生掌握和应用课文中所学词汇和句型，教师应为学生创设多层次的练习活动，拓宽写作的训练途径。教师可采用将学生从课文中归纳的词汇、句型进行词类转换、习惯用法、句型转换、完型填空、写短文等形式的训练，帮助提高学生的记忆和使用词、句的能力。

二、借鉴课文词、句进行仿写。

通过提供情景让学生模仿造句，不仅可以降低写作难度，而且可以增加学生写作的兴趣、自信和成就感，使学生的遣词造句的能力在实践中得到提升。

三、借鉴课文句型，训练写作多种表达与技巧，拓展学生思维。

教师在教学实践中会发现，学生在基础写作中往往出现句式雷同、语句呆板、行文单一等现象，缺乏用5个句子有效表达和传输信息的能力。因此，教师就有必要继续进一步加强句子多样化表达、句子转换替代、句子合并等训练，教会学生使用不同的短语、句型结构表达同一的意义;同时，还让学生明白写作的逻辑原则:一个句子表达的信息量越多，而且使用的句子越精练、清楚，那么句意表达和传输信息就越有效。

四、利用课文体裁，训练学生谋篇布局的能力。

教师会发现高三学生在写作中存在的另一个问题是层次不清、结构散乱以及逻辑性不强，这是因为学生缺乏谋篇布局的能力。针对这方面问题，教师可以在教学中利用课文的体裁进行文章结构方面的训练以及进行句子、段落间的连接训练。

通讯是以叙述、描写为主要表达方式，将具有新闻价值的人物或事件及时、具体、生动地予 以报道的新闻体裁。

一、通讯特点

通讯作为报刊、电台等媒体最主要的体裁之一，新闻性显然是基本的特征。而新闻性中，真 实、时效、思想性及典型意义构成了它的不同层面。就报道对象言，或是人物、事件，或是 经验、成果、工作情况、社会风貌等，都必须是真实的，不允许虚构或“合理想象”，而且 报道对象应该具有必须的思想性和典型意义。就报道时效言，通讯虽不及消息这般快速敏捷 ，有时为将人物、事件报道细致完整需时较长，但也必须及时，仍须有很强的时效概念。除 去真实、时效的新闻性特征，通讯的主要特点有：

1、生动性。

通讯尤其是人物通讯具有一定的文学色彩。消息在表达上主要 是平面的叙述，语言追求简洁 、明快、准确。通讯则较多借用文学手段，可以描写、抒情、对话，可以用比喻、象征、拟 人等修辞。因此通讯在语言和表达方法上都具有一定的文学性，它在报道真实的人和事的过 程中，善于再现情景，平添许多生动和形象，给人以立体感、现场感。

此外，通讯虽然一般以第三人称叙述为主，但在“见闻”、“采访记”一类的通讯中，也采 用第一人称。不过其中的“我”主要起见证人或采访线索的作用。在效果上第一人称的使用 也增加了一些亲切感。

2、完整性。

通讯须相对完整、具体地报道人物或事物的过程。消息侧重写 事，叙述 简明扼要，一般不展开情节。通讯可写人物也可写事件，其材料比消息丰富、全面，其容量 比消息厚实、充足。它要求详尽、具体地报告事件的经过、演绎人物的命运，充分展开情节 ，甚至描写细节和场面。这些既是生动性的表现，同时也是内容完整性、具体化的要求。

3、评论性。

通讯须运用夹叙夹议的方法对人或事作出直接的评论。消息是 以事实说话，除 述评消息一般不允许作者直接发表议论。通讯则要求在报道人物或事件的同时，表露记者的 感情与倾向。然而通讯的评论不同于议论性文体的论证，它须时时紧扣人物或事件，依傍事 实作适时的、恰到好处评价点拨。因此这是一种通过描写、叙述、抒情等表达手段进行的议 论，它的特点是以情感人，理在情中。

二、通讯种类

1、人物通讯

是以人物的思想、言行、事迹和命运为报道内容的通讯。 人物通讯并非仅仅 是“名人通讯”，报道对象的选择取决于其蕴含的新闻价值，一般来说人物必须具有先进性 或典型性。在取材上可写“全人全貌”，也可截取片断着重写人物的某个侧面或阶段。此两 类一般以人物的“行”为主，而“人物专访”则以写人物的“言”为主。通过记者的专访， 记述人物的谈话，从而揭示其精神世界。

2、事件通讯

是以具典型意义的事件为报道对象的通讯。事件通讯时效 性较强，它围绕中 心事件选材，虽不着力刻划人物，但往往通过典型事件表现一群人或一个集体。所以它通过 较为详尽地展示事件的完整过程，挖掘其意义，揭示其本质，进而反映社会风尚，弘扬时代 精神。? 除人物通讯与事件通讯外，另有：“工作通讯”，这是介绍某单位先进事迹，传播其典型经 验和做法，以指导一般的通讯;“概貌通讯”，这是记述某地区、部门、行业、工程的新面 貌、新气象的通讯。报刊上常见的“见闻”、“纪行”、“巡礼”、“散记”均属此类。此 外，还有以写一段片断、一个场景、一场冲突为对象的“新闻故事”、“小通讯”之类，它 们以生动、快捷的形式宣传新人新事新风尚，实为通讯家属中不可忽视的一员。

三、通讯写作

1、关于选材与提炼主题

占有材料对通讯写作来说就是通过扎实细致的采访广泛搜集第一手材料。随后在纷繁的直接 材料中剥离出典型材料、背景材料。这些材料不仅要求真实，而且要有意义，具有典型性、 指导性，同时还要有意味，具有具体、完整、感人的生动性、情节性。在这般基础上根据深 和新的原则提炼主题，通讯才可能呼应社会关注热点，反映时代风尚特点，宣传党的路线方 针，从而以正确的舆论引导人，以先进的人物激励人，以真实的事件震撼人。然而通讯写的 是真人真事，其主题必须从实际生活中提炼而来，不能随意“拔高”，更不能虚构夸大，它 永远不能违背新闻的真实性原则。

2、关于写人

事因人生，人以事观。人与事虽不可分，但在人物通讯与事件通讯中的确有以人为主和以事 为主之别，为叙述方便故而分之。? 写人在文学创作中已积累丰富经验，在“非虚构”的原则下，我们不妨可借用其多种手段， 并注意以下三个方面：第一，形与神兼备。即不仅要写出人物的行为和事迹，更要展示其精 神世界;第二，言与行统一。人物语言、行为表达、传递出人物的思想，而不同的语气、句 式、词汇及动作表情、神态等是极富个性色彩的内心表露形式。写好了人物的言与行，无疑 是写活了人;第三，画龙必须点睛。如果说言行、事例、情节勾勒出人物的整体形象称为“ 龙” ，那么揭示人物行为意义，指出人物个性特点的评点便是“睛”。“画龙”用的是纪实的叙 述、描写，“点睛”则是超脱的议论或抒情。

3、关于叙事

通讯离不开写事，事件通讯更须完整地叙述事件的起因、人员、场面、结果等，以交待事件 的复杂性和社会影响度。叙事要注意两点：第一，理清主线、丰满细节。一个新闻事件的发 生、发展过程中，有因有果，有人有事，头绪多而关系复杂，作者须理清主线，按事件原貌 将其完整地、动态地、立体地呈现给读者。而为实现这一目标，就须选择典型的细节。一篇 优秀的事件通讯，必然有几个生动感人的细节来充分展示主线，使作品丰满而具现场感。第二，时间为经、时间为纬。通讯须有一定的时间要领因为事件、故事总在于一定的时间和空间中。纺织好时空画面既是一个结构总是也是一个表达方法问题。篇幅不长而情节不太复杂的事件通讯可多运用插叙、补叙、分叙等手段，充分展开矛盾和利用背景材料，使文章有变化起伏。容量大而情节复杂的事件通讯则常常运用时空交叉方式，以时间推进、空间变换等手段来切割事件，构成若干侧面。经过作者精心的组合剪辑将事件完整而利落地报告于世。

显然选材与提炼主题是各类通讯写作中必须面对的，而写人与叙事则因通讯品种不同而有所侧重。但是通讯的写作模式也必然带来约束，因而通讯的散文化写法亦开始为人注目。所谓 的散文化倾向有以下几个特点：(一)生活面更趋广阔，(二)结构不拘一格，(三)技法更多样 化，(四)报道呈系列化。

思考与练习：

一、阅读下列消息，然后给它拟写引题和正题：

本报讯(记者董洪亮)我国唯一的教育艺术刊物《教育艺术》杂志日前度过了五 周岁生日。冰心老人、贺敬之等知名人士为之题词致贺。

《教育艺术》由中华教育艺术研究会暨中华教育艺术家协会、首都师范大学青年教育艺术研 究所共同主办，李燕杰教授担任社长。该刊以“激扬正气，振奋民魂”为办刊宗旨，主要栏 目有“名家谈教育艺术”、“时代精神磁场”、“青春思絮”、“教育艺术一千问”等。《 教育艺术》杂志被海内外读者誉为“青年的良师，家长的益友，干部的参谋，教师的助手” 。

(《中国教育报》1994年11月17日第2版)

二、一件新闻在不同的报纸上刊出时，会因编辑的眼光不同而出现不同的标题。请就近日发 生的一件重大新闻，比较、分析各大报纸刊出时的标题有何不同。

三、写一篇新闻，报道学校或班上新近组织的某项活动。时间、地点、事件要交代清楚，还 要注意详略得当，有条有理。? 四、下面这则题为《卫生部写信感谢空军某部官兵》的消息与通讯《为了六十一个阶级弟兄 》是同题材的报道，请仔细比较两文章，谈谈通讯与消息在确立主题、写作方法等方面的异 同。

新华社20日讯卫生部最近写信给人民解放军空军领导机关，表扬和感谢空军某 部 官兵为了抢救平陆县公路工地食物中毒的员工，克服各种困难，完成了空投药品的任务。

信上说，2月3日，山西省平陆县风陵渡公路工地上发生六十多人食物中毒事故，当地县委 来 电话后，经与你们联系，立即得到大力支援，派专机前往空投药品。飞行员们为了抢救工人 阶级兄弟的生命，毫不犹豫地连夜起飞，迅速地执行这一任务。由于药品的及时供应，使全 体中毒员工经过抢救脱离了生命危险。这一英雄行为，充分说明了人民空军战士有高度的为 人民服务的精神和共产主义风格。

信上还说，空军战士抢救中毒工人的事迹，大大地鼓舞了病人和平陆县全县人民的革命意志 ，他们纷纷写信感谢党中央和毛主席对他们的关怀，感谢人民空军的大力支援。中共平陆县 委还将此事件写成材料，向全县人民进行教育，学习人民解放军忠于祖国、忠于人民的高贵 品质。

(原载《人民日报》1960年2月21日)

五、阅读近期报纸，书面推荐人物通讯、事件通讯、概貌通讯各一件。

六、实地采访，写一篇通讯。

基础较为薄弱的同学最常见的问题是这样六种情况：

第一种：听不懂，答案定位不到;

第二种：局部听懂情况下，抓不住重点;

第三种：听不懂，能捕捉到局部一些答案;

第四种：基本听懂情况下，答案定位较有限，能顺利定位到的答案很多来不及写完整;

第五种：基本听得懂，能捕捉到的答案也写下了，但是拼写错误较严重;

第六种：最后一种，也是最让考生崩溃的一种，在基本听得懂的情况下，定位到的答案能写下了，也拼对了，但是细节错误被扣了，比如漏了单位，复数。

这是一个非常有趣的现象，通常会发现，学生处于第几种状况之下，那么在此时他/她的分数可能就是几分。

试想，如果考生什么都听不懂，连平时很熟悉、很亲切的is、 am、 are、 but、 because都很难捕捉到的时候，只能通过猜测来解决，雅思听力一共40题，即便算其有10%的命中率，答对四题也只能勉强赶上1分，而这样的分数很难上台面。

相对而言，第六种情况已经是想要突破6分的考生的较为理想的状态了。也就是说，如果考生想要突破6分，那么以上6种阻碍要做到各个击破，对于还处于第一、第二种的同学来讲任务显然还是比较艰巨的。