浏览
2836作文
669如何做到让英语写作更加简单顺畅
全文共 1173 字
+ 加入清单一个完整的英语句子,单词的数量最好不要超过20个,否则的话,句子偏长,听话人的注意力有可能不集中,漏听一、两个单词,从而影响对整个句子的理解。为了避免句子冗长,通常采取两种办法:一种是将一个长句子划分为几个短句子,每个短句子之间有语气上的停顿,让听话人有间歇的感觉;另外一种则是简化句子的单词构成,用一些简单的单词,代替一些复杂的单词。下面给各位介绍三种常用的简化方法:
第一种方法是用一个单词代替一组意义相同的单词,比如:
用forget(忘记)代替do not remember(没有记住)
用ignore(忽视)代替do not pay attention to(不注意)
用now(现在)代替at this point in time(此时此刻)
用because(由于)代替due to the fact that(鉴于下列事实)
第二种方法是省略同义词或近义词,比如在下面例句中,形容词important(重要的)和significant(有重要意义的),就是两个同义词(也可以说是近义词),我们可以省略important,只保留significant。
The government project is important and significant.(这项政府计划是重要的,有重要意义。)
The government project is significant.(这项政府计划有重要意义。)
第三种方法是在不改变句子含义的前提下,省略所有可以省略的单词,比如在下面例句中,the cover of the book(书的封面)可以省略成the book cover,is red in color(是红色的)可以省略成is red。
The cover of the book is red in color.(书的封面是红色的)
The book cover is red.(书的封面是红色的)
最后我们把这三种方法结合起来,将一个冗长、绕嘴的句子,改写成一个简短、易懂的句子。
University malls must be accessible and free from congestion in order that students, faculty and employees may have unobstructed passage through those areas of the campus.(校内道路必须是便于通行的,不拥堵的,以便让学生、教师和职员能够无阻碍地通过,到达校园的各处。)
University malls must be free enough from congestion to allow people to walk through easily.(校内道路不应当拥堵,以便人们顺利通行。)
更多相似作文
篇1:2024七年级英语写作指导
全文共 1545 字
+ 加入清单初一是正式开始写英语作文,怎么样才能写出好的英语作文呢?
一、充分准备,打好基础。
为了提高初一英语作文写作水平,平时应加强阅读,多背诵一些句形、段落甚至短文。俗话说:“读书破万卷,下笔如有神”,只有多读,多记,多背诵,才能出口成章,下笔成文。此外,写好初一英语作文还要掌握一些应用文体的写作方法,如书信、日记、通知等,它们大多有固定的格式。
二、认真审题,明确要求
在写初一英语作文的时候仔细看清写作要求和提示,分清材料的主次,接着确定体裁、格式和人物、地点等要素;最后确定时态,同时考虑相关的语态搭配用法。
三、遣词造句、表达规范
初一英语作文用词要恰当,不可逐句把提示翻译成英语。写作时,应尽量选用你最熟悉、最有把握的词和句型来表达思想。如果有些单词不会些,有些句型不会表达,可以设法绕开,用熟悉的同义词、同义短语或同义句来代替。要学会善于运用适当的关联词,如and, or, but, so,because, since等,以使初一英语作文行文逻辑紧密,自然流畅。
四、认真撰写,卷面整洁
初一英语考试中也会有初一英语作文题,如果时间允许,书面表达一定要先写草稿。在抄写入答题卷前,要先进行检查修改。首先检查所写内容是否切题;之后检查主题是否明确,表达方式是否恰当;最后检查所用时态、语态、人称是否符合要求,前后是否一致。
英语写作常用名言
1.Knowledge is power. 知识就是力量 2.Live and learn. 活到老,学到老
3.The more you know, the more you find you don’t know. 知之愈多,便觉知之愈少
4.Never teach a fish to swim. 切勿班门弄斧
5.Never too old to learn; never too late to turn. 学习不厌老,改过不嫌迟 6.Better sense is the head than cents in the pocket. 口袋里有钱不如头脑里有知识
7. The greatest artist was once a beginner. 最伟大的艺术家也曾是个初学者 8.It’s never too late to learn. 活到老,学到老 9.A good book is a good friend. 好书如同挚友
10. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. 只会学习不玩耍,聪明孩子也变傻
11. A young idler, and old beggar. 少壮不努力,老大徒伤悲
12. By reading we enrich the mind, by conversation we polish it.读书使人充实,交谈使人精明
13. Experience must be bought. 吃一堑,长一智
14. There is no royal road to learning. 学问无捷径
15. Imagination is more important than knowledge. 想象力比知识更重要 16. The empty vessels make the greatest sound. 满瓶不响,半瓶咣当
17. If you don’t learn to think when you are young, you may never learn.如果你年轻的时候没有学会思考,那么就永远学不会思考
18.There is only one good, knowledge, and one evil, ignorance.最有益的是知识,最有害的是无知
篇2:应用文写作基础知识
全文共 11168 字
+ 加入清单第一节 应用文的主题
应用文写作基础知识既有与一般文体写作的共通之处,更多的是其在写作知识运用上的独特性,只有掌握其独特性,才能正确、规范地写好应用文体。
一、主题的特点 (主题单一性、主题先行性、主题显露性)
应用文的主题就是解决问题的方法、建议。其主题是十分明确直接的,主题的确立大多不是写作者有感而发,而是应客观实际的需要,为解决实际问题而产生的,由此可以说应用文主题就是解决问题的具体方法。因此应用文的主题具有以下特点:
文学作品的主题是从生活中、从已获取的材料中提炼出来的,往往反对主题先行。而应用文主题的确立与文学作品主题的确立不同,其主题确立在全文写作之前,所谓“意在笔先”。因为应用文总是先产生了具体问题而后产生写作的需求,而解决这一问题的方法、结论往往也产生在文章写作之前;同时执笔者的写作行为往往也是被动的,是应解决问题而动笔,写作的过程更是确切地体现主题。如《国务院关于同意黑龙江省调整哈尔滨市部分行政区划的批复》一文就是为答复《调整哈尔滨市部分行政区划的请示》而写的文章,表示同意请示提出的请求事项而作,主题一定是确立在写作之前。
一般说文学作品的主题具有其复杂性,对主题的理解更呈多元化。然而应用文的主题则必须单一、明确,读者对主题的理解不允许多元,而要求理解上的同一性,这样才利于统一认识,更有利于问题的解决。如:《关于当代青年消费问题的调查报告》一文就消费观念、消费现状、消费趋势和消费结构等四个方面,展开调查,尽管涉及面广,材料较丰富,但文章紧紧围绕“当代青年消费”这一中心,内容集中,一题一议,主题单一、明确。
文学作品的主题要求含蓄、曲折,令人回味。而应用文写作就不同,要求直截了当地点明主题,表明态度,提出解决问题的措施和办法,对文章所涉及的各类问题,必须有明确的观点立场,应该怎么做,解决什么问题,达到什么目的,都要明确地表达出来。
二、主题的表现方法 (标题显旨、开头点旨、结尾点旨)
应用文主题的表达要做到明确、显露。那么怎么才能做到主题从文章中显露出来呢?下面就给大家介绍几种表现方法:
标题显旨,就是在文章的标题中直接点明主题。如《三季度物价水平再次转降,出口增速趋于稳定》,这篇经济活动分析报告的标题就直接点明了主题,让人一看就大致明白了文章的主要内容,主题十分显露。这不失为是一种使主题显现的好方法。
这种方式是在文章的开头或每一段落的开头用简短的语句陈述主题,使主题凸现出来。如《 2001 年经济形势展望》一开头就指出: “展望 2001 年,经济回升的势头还比较微弱,促进经济的持续向好仍然需要克服许多困难。” 开宗明义,点明主题。再如《靠名牌赢得市场——关于深圳市飞亚达(集团)股份有限公司的调查》一文在 “启示:现代企业必须重视实施名牌战略” 的小标题下,分三段来阐述这一问题,在每段开头用段首句点明主旨:第一段的段 首句: 实施名牌战略是提高产品质量、提升企业品味的内在要求。 第二段的段首句: 实施名牌战略是企业参与市场竞争尤其是国际市场竞争的客观需要。 第三段的段首句: 实施名牌战略是增强国家经济实力的重要手段。 在这三句主题句的提示下,每段的中心就十分明了。
这种方式是在文章的的结尾之处点明文章主题。如李政道的论文《基础、应用科学与生产三者关系》一文就是采用这一方法结尾。文章的结尾指出: “我再重复一下,没有基础学科就没有应用学科,没有应用学科就没有生产学科,三者是紧密结合在一起的。” 非常清晰地显示了主题。
三、主题的作用 (主题决定材料的选取、主题决定文种的选用、主题决定结构的安排、主题决定表达方式的选用)
第二节 应用文的材料
一、材料的特点 (材料的真实性、材料的现实和新颖性、材料的典型性)
应用文写作对材料是十分依赖的,常言道“巧妇难为无米之炊”,为了表现主题我们需要收集一系列材料,或综合或舍取运用到文章的写作之中,使主题真实立体地表现出来。应用文材料的使用除了与文学作品有共通之处外,更多地体现自身特点:
应用文在材料的选用过程中不准改变材料本身性质,必须保持材料的真实性,对材料的时间、地点、数据、事实过程及结果都不能任意改动,否则就会使材料本身的价值发生变异,导致歪曲事实的真相,弄虚作假的后果,失去应用文的主题应有的价值,不仅不能解决问题,反而于事无补。应用文要求的真实是“绝对的真实”,也就是说所有材料要确凿无误、持之有据。不仅对搜集到的材料要反复核实,在材料的解释上,也要有科学的态度,实事求是。
应用文写作是为了解决现实问题而作的即时之作,其主要的材料需选取能反映现实的新颖材料。所谓现实是指,围绕文章要解决的问题所存在的事实(数据)材料而非通过联想和推论得到的材料。如在《新的消费热点:出门旅游过年》一文中,为了陈述出门旅游过年的现状,就采用了大量的事实(数据)材料: “根据国家旅游局对江苏、广东、云南、海南、北京、福建、广西、四川、黑龙江、湖南、山东、山西等 13 个省、自治区、直辖市的调查,……今年春节期间,这些地区直接由旅行社接待的国内旅游人次比往年至少有 15 %的增长……以上 13 个省、区、市的旅行社,春节期间共接待旅游者 124 万人次,旅行社营业收入 14 亿元。” 文中采用的材料都是新近现实发生的,这是大多数应用文材料的特点。所谓新颖是指,材料本身是新近产生的,如新事实、新政策、新的统计数据、新发现的问题等和用新的角度重新审视其新意。
所谓典型性是指那些最能支持主题和说明问题的材料。典型材料可以是一个具体的事例,一些有说服力的数据和一些带有普遍性的现象。如题为《“小解放”为何俏销湖北》的市场调查报告中,在说明“优质服务获得良好口碑”这一经验时,采用了这样一则事实材料: “去年 10 月的一天傍晚,河南省郑州市某单位的一辆小解放牌车在去广州途径武汉时,在武汉黄鹤楼处出现问题,求助电话打到了该销售中心,中心经理立即亲自带队迅速赶到现场,发现该车是用户对后驱动桥端面螺丝没拧紧而发生齿轮油漏尽,导致差速器锥齿烧损。当维修人员在后半夜将修好的车交给用户时,用户激动地说虽然我们不属于该省管辖,又没带保用手册,并且问题又是因我们使用不当所致,你们还这样及时周到地服务,太让我们感动了!‘小解放走到哪服务到哪,此言不虚,以后再买车,还买‘小解放。” 这一材料就是一则很能表现主题的材料,是典型的材料。 直接获取
二、材料的选取 (获取材料的方法、间接获取、围绕主题,挖掘材料的意义、材料的使用 根据主题的需要,进行详略处理、合理安排材料,注重条理)
如何获取材料,哪些材料是应用文写作值得关注的?下面我们谈谈这个问题:
在实践之中积累材料。在自身及周围同事的工作实践中做个有心人,时刻关注有价值的事件及数据,如在工作中及时对做了什么工作、采用了什么方法、取得了什么效果、有哪些人参与等信息及时记录收集。
在观察中掌握材料。在观察时要做到实事求是,防止主观武断、先入为主,同时要全面、系统、动态地进行观察,以获取真实、广泛、完整的材料,并能把观察所得及时整理成文字,给写作提供基础。
在调查中拓展材料。个人的实践和视野总是有限的,观察也不可能做到深入细致,这样就需要走向实际、走向社会,向有关人士了解情况,做一些调查,以扩大自己的视野,获取材料上的补充。经济类的应用文,调查是必不可少的步骤,如市场调查报告,市场预测报告需在调查之后,才能动笔。
通过查阅文献资料获取材料。应用文写作材料常常从有关文件、正式出版物,以及会议资料中获取材料,为写入具体文章之用,因此大量查阅文献资料来获取材料,是应用文写作经常采用的方法。
获取材料是写作的第一步。总的来说,获取材料要求以多为好,以全为贵。材料多了,便于比较、鉴别,更有选择的余地;材料全面,观点才能不至于偏颇,因此,动笔之前,应当围绕主题,占有详尽而充实的材料。
其次,强调对感性材料的分析研究,不能停留在表面的认识上,要挖掘材料能凸现主题的一面,使其在文章中发挥挖掘主题的作用。如有这样一则材料 : 某日,某国驻广州领事馆的外交官员去珠江三角洲某市参观,市长亲自接待,但讲不好普通话请了一个翻译,本来 10 分钟就可以讲完的话,结果用了 20 分钟。此外交官用标准的普通话问:广东不是在大力推广普通话吗么? 这则材料从不同的角度可展现不同的主题,但意义深浅不一。从较粗浅的角度看,可表现“市长不重视说普通话”的主题;进一步挖掘可表现“我们的官员素质的高低,直接关乎办公的效率”。这样的材料还可以根据主题的需要进行开拓。同学可以动动脑筋来挖掘一下。
使用材料时,要分清主次。对材料的加工整理,无非是为了突出文章的主题,加强应用文的表达效果,处理材料的详略要以此为据。突出事件特征的材料要详写,一般材料可略写;处于主体地位的材料详写,处于从属地位、过渡的材料略写;读者不熟悉的材料详写,熟悉的略写;材料之间角度相异的详写,材料之间相同的略写。
根据主题的需要,按照一定的组织形式,安排材料的先后顺序,在安排顺序时要考虑材料的主次、时间的先后、材料间的逻辑顺序、人们认识事物的规律、事物发展的过程等因素。
最后,数字材料是应用文写作中十分重要的材料,数字有时比文字材料更具体、准确、更能说明问题。因此,要注意: ⑴ 真实、准确地用好数据材料。 ⑵ 运用统计数据,展开分析论证,更好地为主题服务。 ⑶ 适当地使用统计图表。 ⑷ 变抽象的数字为具体,使其形象。如有两篇介绍乐山大佛的文字,其中一篇在介绍时用了这样一些数字: “乐山大佛身高 71 米 ,头高 14 . 7 米 ,宽 10 米 。” 这些数字看似具体清晰,但比较抽象,大佛的高大这一主题没有凸现出来。另一段文字这样写道: “佛像有三十多层楼高,耳朵有四人高,每只脚背上可以停五辆解放牌汽车,脚大拇指上,可以摆一桌酒席。” 这段文字也用了数字,但采用文字叙述的方法,使抽象的数字形象了,大佛的高大形象仿佛就在眼前,极好地体现了主题。
第三节 应用文的结构
一、应用文结构的特点 (固定性、条理性、文种不同结构不同)
应用文是经过长期写作实践,逐渐形成较固定的写作结构,以适应实际工作需要,使写作更快速,阅读更便捷,提高办事效率。特别是公文写作,其格式更规范,结构更固定。
应用文写作要求有严密的思路,表现在结构上以求清晰有条理。在写作中要根据主题的需要安排好结构。如写事件,就应按“开端——发展——结果”的顺序安排结构;写问题就应按“发现问题——分析问题——解决问题”的顺序安排结构。
凡文种都有相对稳定的结构样式,应用文写作结构安排需适应不同文体的要求。如写合同就需要将合同的条款按标的、数量、质量、价款等内容分条列项地写清楚;写通知要按目的依据、事项、执行要求的顺序安排结构。
二、常见的应用文结构模式
(一)单段式
正文内容用一个自然段来表达。用于内容少而单一,不便分开,往往采用一段文字来表达。如写在商品外包装上的说明文;公文中的函、批复,也常用一段文字来进行写作。“玉兰油”写在外包装上的说明: “经实验证明能帮助减少细纹。四星期内,肌肤重现青春光泽。请不要涂抹在眼睛及眼睑周围。如不慎入眼,即用清水彻底洗清。如有持续眼睛刺激,请向医生咨询。如有持续皮肤刺激,请停止使用。请置于儿童接触不到的地方。” 这就是单段式。
(二)两段式
正文内容用两个自然段来表达。用于内容简单,不需每层内容都分段。这种结构模式,一般用于以下几种情况:
1 .把结语部分内容和主体内容分开写,单列一个自然段,成为两段式。即行文的缘由和行文事项为一段,希望、要求等结语为一段。
2 .写作目的缘由、行文事项各为一段。
3 .在转发、发布性公文中,将发布或转发的文件名和发文意见列为一段,执行要求另为一段。
4 .在答复性公文中,将表示收到对方文件为一段,而答复事项为另一段。
5 .没有开头、结语部分,将主体内容列为两段。
(三)三段式
这是短篇应用文比较规范的常用模式。正文把写作目的缘由、写作事项、结尾分为三段来写。
(四)多段式
它用于内容较多,篇幅较长的应用文书,总共有四个自然段以上。一般是开头概述基本情况、说明原因、目的、依据,结尾单独成段或省略结尾,主体部分内容分为若干个段,各部分不分条列项。如短文式的说明书、简单的市场预测报告等。内容多、篇幅长的应用文书,一般不宜采用多段式,宜采用将主体内容分成几部分,用小标题或总分条文式。
(五)条款式
用分条列项的形式安排结构。规章制度、计划、合同和职能部门的一些文书,较多使用这种形式。全文从头到尾都用条款组织内容,给人以眉目清楚、排列有序的印象。
(六)表格式
这是应用文不同于其他文体所特有的一种结构形式。表格式通常有以下两种形式:
1 .由职能部门或企事业管理部门或企业如银行、厂矿、公司等单位,事先印制好表格式的规范文本,将有关内容分项列出,各项之后留下空白,让使用或合作单位和个人按规定填写。表格文书一般要注明填写要求和注意事项。如申请专利、商标的文书、合同、税务征管文书、财务会计文书,大都采用这种形式。
2 .作者单位临时制作的表格式文书。根据写作目的,将有关统计数据编制成表格。
三、应用文结构的基本内容及写法
(一)标题
应用文写作的标题,要求充分体现主题,有的标题还有规范要求。这与文学作品形式多样、灵活多变的标题有着明显的不同。应用文的标题通常有三种形式:
1 .公文式标题。这类标题程式性强,表达直接而少变化,主要用于公文。
2 .新闻式标题。新闻式标题通常又称文章式标题,又可分为单标题和双标题两种形式。单标题有的直接提出文章主题,如 “小商品也要高质量” 、 “做好纪检信息工作实践与体会” ;有的概述主要内容,如 “积极财政政策仍将持续至少两到三年的时间” ;有的在标题中提出问题,如 “日本经济何时走出低谷” 。
双标题是有正题和副题的双行标题,其中正题符合单标题的要求,更多地突出文章主题,副题则对正题起补充作用,常常说明应用文的内容范围和文种,如 “靠名牌赢得市场——关于深圳市飞亚达(集团)股份有限公司的调查” 、 “繁重 · 活跃 · 稳定 · 上升—— 2002 年国内市场发展趋势” 。
3 .论文式标题。这类标题或表达文章的观点和内容或点明所论述范围。如 “核心竞争力——企业制胜的根本” 、 “双峰县农村劳动力转移的调查与思考” 。
(二)开头
应用文写作开头担负着统领全文,揭示主题或全文的作用。开头要求开门见山,直接显露,常见的开头方式有:
1 .概述式。这种方式要求用简明扼要的语言,围绕主题介绍有关情况或背景。如一篇题为《加强民族团结 繁荣民族事业》的总结开头: “山东省青州市是少数民族居住比较集中的地区之一,有回、满、蒙古、朝鲜、土家等 27 个民族, 2 . 6 万余人,占全市人口的 2 .5 %。近年来,青州市积极加强 民族团结,繁荣民族事业,有力地推动了全市经济和社会各项事业全面发展。” 就是用了这一开头方式。报告、会议纪要、调查报告等文种也常用此开头方式。
2 .说明依据式。开头引用上级指示精神或有关法律,常以“根据”、“按照”、“遵照”等词语领起下文。如《关于粮食政策性财务挂帐停息的意见》一文的开头: “根据中共中央、国务院关于妥善解决粮食财务挂帐问题的一系列文件精神,结合各地清理粮食财务挂帐的实际情况,经过反复研究,对粮食财务挂帐实行停息的有关政策提出如下意见”。 这种方式常在通知、批复、通告、规章等文种的开头使用。
3 .陈述目的式。开头以简明的语言,直接说明写作的目的和意义,常用介词“为”、“为了”领起下文。如《国务院关于成立经济贸易办公室的通知》一文开头写道: “为适应加快改革开放和经济建设的新形势,加强宏观调控和协调日常经济工作,国务院第 100 次常务会议决定,……”。
4 . 说明原因式。开头常用“由于”、“鉴于”、“因为”等词领起下文,也可以简述发文原因,再引出写作目的。如《广州市建设用地起坟通告》的开头 “因建设的需要,经核准,市公安局天河区分局征用天河区东圃镇堂下乡(村)土地。为便利建设工程顺利进行,……”。
5 .议论式。开头用议论的表达方法,表达作者的看法,提出观点。如《现代化企业需要什么样的复合型会计人才》的开头: “随着社会主义市场经济的不断深入发展,会计工作也不断拓宽,过去那种单一的会计知识结构已远远不能适应会计管理工作的需要,会计人员作为企业经济管理的重要的专门人才,必须相应地提高自身的专业素质,改变原来那种单一的知识结构,以适应市场经济发展的需要。因此,培养造就一批复合型会计人才是当前会计工作的一项重要任务,也是企业发展向现代化迈进的关键所在。”
6 .提问式。先提出问题,然后引出下文。这种开头方式能引起读者的注意和思考。这种开头方式常见于调查报告、学术论文的写作。如《核心竞争力——企业制胜的根本》的开头: “在激烈的市场竞争中,一个企业制胜的根本是什么?为什么有的企业能长盛不衰,有的企业只能成功一时,而有的企业却连一点成功的机会都没有?笔者一直为这些问题所困惑。” 这篇论文就是采用了提问式开头。
(三)结尾
应用文的结尾讲究言尽意尽,不留“余味”,不添“蛇足,更不能草率。常用的结尾方法有:
1 .强调式。对文中提出的问题作强调说明,以引起重视。
2 .结论式。对文中的主要观点或问题,加以归纳总结或略作重申,以加深印象。
3 .说明式。对与主体内容有关但性质不同的问题或事项作补充交代、说明,以保证内容的完整性,如公文结尾交待施行日期、执行范围、传达对象、与该文规定不符的原有规定如何处置等;论文结尾处说明尚未解决而应另作讨论的问题。
4 .号召式。提出希望,发出号召,展望未来。如公文的通报、市场预测、计划等常用这种结尾形式。如《关于成都矿产综合利用研究所值班人员勇斗歹徒先进事件的通报》一文结尾就是采用这一方法。
5 .建议式。针对设定的施行目标、产生的问题提出意见和建议。
除了上述几种结尾方式,还有请求式、责令式、表态式等不一一列举,有的则没有结尾,自然收尾。
第四节 应用文的表达方式及语言
一、表达方式
应用文写作中常用的表达方式只有叙述、说明、议论三种,而描写、抒情一般在广告、调查报告、经济新闻等文体中偶尔使用。我们现在只谈叙述、说明、议论这三种方式在应用文体中的使用。
(一)叙述
叙述这种表达方式是应用文体写作常用的一种方法。有的以叙述事实作立论的依据,如通报、经济活动分析报告、市场调查、总结等;有的以叙述事实为依据进行决策和预测;有的对事实作如实反映和记载,如会议纪要、合同、诉讼公文等。叙述在应用文写作中有如下几个特点:
1 .以记事为主
应用文写作反映现实,解决问题,与记叙文以写人为主不同,而是多以记事为主,如反映经济活动状况、市场情况、经济信息、介绍典型经验、阐述事情原委、总结工作等,采用叙述来记事。
2 .叙述客观真实
文学作品的叙述可作艺术加工,所述事件不必是客观存在的事实。但应用文不同,其所述事实,必须客观真实,不允许对事实夸大或缩小,更不能歪曲事实或主观臆造,否则就会导致决策失误,使经济活动混乱,使企业和消费者蒙受损失。如市场预测所依据的市场事实失真,那么预测结果必定出现很大的偏差,从而导致决策的失误。
3 .以概括叙述为主
文学作品需通过叙述细节来塑造人物形象,展开故事情节。而应用文写作则是通过叙述为文章得出正确结论作依据。如通报的叙述是为后面阐述事实的性质,达到对这一事件学习,鉴戒或引起注意的目的而服务的。叙述本身不是全文的核心(主题)所在,因而应用文写作的叙述大多用简明扼要的概括叙述。
4 .多用顺叙
为使应用文条理清晰,让读者掌握理解所述的客观事实,在文章中常常使用顺叙。在叙述时有的按照时间顺序,有的以事件发展的顺序,有的按人们认识事物的客观过程来叙述,这样叙述能使较复杂的事实头绪清晰,一目了然。
5 .语言较平实
应用文的语言要求平铺直叙,较少使用修饰性词语,笔法较朴实。因为应用文语言是需把握问题实质,直接表现主题,为主题服务,而不像文学作品那样文笔的曲折,主题的含蓄 , 讲究语言的修饰性、词语的色彩,常用修辞手法,应用文的实用性决定了其语言的简洁朴实。
(二)说明
说明这一表达方式在应用文中是与叙述相结合的,起到对客观事物真实介绍说明的作用,有很多文种都依赖这一表达方式。如说明书、报告、请示、经济活动分析、合同、自荐书等,都离不开说明。说明在应用文写作中表现出以下几个特征:
1 .说明客观、科学
通过说明真实客观地反映事物的真实面貌,本质特征,这就要求说明需客观、科学、严肃。
2.多用数字进行说明
说明不但要客观真实,而且要做到准确无误,用数字进行说明就能起到这样的作用。因此在应用文写作中就少不了数字进行说明,特别是需要反映量的变化时,数字的作用就尤为突出。
3.综合使用多种说明方法
在说明方法使用的过程中,常常是多种方法结合同时使用。如数字说明和比较说明、定义说明和分类说明等说明方法结合运用,这样可以把事物说得更具体、准确。
(三)议论
应用文写作常常用议论的方式进行评论、分析,探寻事物发展的规律,阐述主题。其议论有以下几个特点:
1 .重数据、重材料
与议论文的议论不同,应用文中议论不是靠言论的雄辩,而是需要无可辩驳的事实材料和数据为依据,正可谓“事实胜于雄辩”。应用文反对不切实际的议论。如在一篇《三季度物价水平》的经济活动报告中,对该季度的物价水平转降的情况分析是这样议论的:“ 三季度,居民消费价格总水平同比上涨 0.8 %,涨幅比二季度缩小 0.8 个百分比,其中 9 月份已转为下降,同比下降 0.1 %;社会商品零售价格总水平同比下降 0.9 %,已连续 4 个月处于下降之中,并且降幅在不断增大;工业品出厂价格指标同比下降 1.7 %,降幅比二季度增大 1.4 个百分点。各种物价总水平再次全面转降在很大程度上是外生性涨价因素所致,但这也清晰地表明困扰我国经济的紧缩和总需求不足问题并未真正消除,而只是被外生性涨价因素掩盖起来了。一旦政策支持力度减弱,经济就会再次下降。” 这段文字在议论时采用了大量的数据材料,材料充分,议论切合实际,得出的结论有说服力。
2 .常与说明、叙述等方式结合使用
夹叙夹议、说议结合,是应用文中的议论特点。应用文写作往往不单独进行完整的议论,议论依赖于所叙述的事实和说明的现象,是在事实和现象的基础上进行议论。如在一篇《靠名牌赢得市场》的调查报告中,文章是这样写的:“ 90 年代初,瑞士、日本各种品牌的钟表开始大规模进入中国市场。面对严峻的市场形势,公司决策层认真研究数量和质量的辩证关系,决定借鉴国外钟表工业发展的成功经验,走‘少而精的道路,即以提高‘单位面积的产出取胜,生产高技术含量、高附加值的产品,在工艺上精益求精,把人、财、物集中用到刀刃上,争取在最短的时间里后来居上。 ”这段文字采用夹叙夹议方法,材料具体,剖析深入,语言生动活泼。
二、 语言运用
应用文的语言与文学创作的语言有较大的差别,其主要特点是:
(一)程式化
程式化的语言是写作实践的产物,是应用写作实践中常用的习惯用语,这种语言已经约定成俗,得到广泛的认可和共识。学习掌握这种语言的关键是表达要简明合乎规范。程式化的语言根据功用不同,可大致分为下列几方面内容:
(二)书面化
应用文的写作性质决定其语言风格表现为简明、规范、严肃,而书面语能较好达到这一语言要求,因而应用文语言大多采用书面语进行书写。如《中共中央关于接受宋庆龄同志为中国共产党正式党员的决定》中写道: “她一贯是共产党最亲密的战友,是中国各族人民包括台湾同胞和海外侨胞衷心敬爱的领袖之一,是爱国主义、民主主义、国际主义和共产主义的伟大战士,是保卫世界和平事业久经考验的前驱,是全体中国少年儿童的慈爱的祖母……。” 中的“同胞”、“战士”、“祖母”等用的都是书面语,改为口语就不合适了。
(三)常用数词
应用文写作常用数字来说明问题,因此经常大量使用数字。在分析问题、说明问题时,运用数字,可以比较明确地表达事物的状态,从而加深对该事物的认识。如一个企业管理是否先进,只有运用同行业国内外的对比数字才能说明。邓小平同志在《关于科学和教育工作的几点意见》中,讲到我国科研人员少、队伍小时用了三个数字:美国科研队伍有 120 万人;前苏联是 90 万人;我们是 20 多万人。这三个数字勾勒出三个国家科研队伍的基本状况,十分清晰地说明了我国科研人员少、队伍小的现状。应用文常用的数字有以下几种:
(四)运用应用文语言的要求
1 .叙述语言需简洁、概括。
在进行叙述时要用最简短的语言陈述特定时空的信息,通过概述事实的主干,而不应纠缠于耗时费事的具体情节之中。如有一篇表彰通报是这样写的: “ ××× 在科学研究上走的是一条不平凡的路,他全心扑在科研上,而忘记了个人的事。有一次孩子病了,他妻子在家里忙着护理,打电话到 ××× 单位叫他赶回家把孩子送医院治疗。 ××× 接了电话答应后,电话筒一放他又埋进了实验。他妻子在家中左等右等等不到他回家,急得像热锅上的蚂蚁,又往 ××× 单位打电话,这时 ××× 正潜心做实验,电话铃声都没听见了。他妻子又急又气只好打 120 急救中心的电话,才把孩子送往医院治疗。他的小孩高烧退后,还在问他妈妈:‘爸爸又出差了吗?或者还没下班……” 该公文将 ××× 先进事迹作为表彰决定的理由时,不懂得以最简洁的文字陈述特定时空的信息,通过快叙概述事实的主干,而仍用记叙文慢叙写话的方法表述公文事实,结果摆脱不了耗时费字的情节纠缠,公文内容冗长,不简明扼要,失去了公文的品味,违背了文约事丰的要求。
2 .语言表达要严谨、有分寸。
应用文语言表达是否严谨有分寸,关系到对问题的判断、处理是否合理、准确。如一份处理决定,其中这样写道: “李××在 1998 年 9 月间收受×××工程公司的 50 万元的巨款。案发后李××还和×××工程公司经理及会计订立攻守同盟,妄图掩盖其过错”。 文中“过错”一词有失严谨,表述与事实不符,李××的行为不是过失而是严重犯罪。
3 .数据语言书写要规范、清晰、准确。
具体要做到以下几点:( 1 )在同一篇文章中序数数字的体例要统一,不能体例混杂。如 “农历初一至初 7 放假” 一句,前后数字体例书写不规范,需统一书写。同时分数与小数的体例也必须统一。如 “该县企业所得税收入完成 95.6 万元,比去年增长百分之十三 ” 也出现了混写的错误。( 2 )表示公元世纪、年代、年、月、日、时刻均需使用阿拉伯数字 , 而星期则用汉字。如” 21 世纪 ” 、“ 90 年代 ,“星期五”。( 3 )邻近两个数字并列表示概数时,应该用汉字书写,数字与数字之间不能用顿号将其隔开。如“ 3 、 4 天 ” 应写成”“三四天”,“七、八种”的“七”和“八”之间不能用顿号隔开。
4 .朴实、简洁。
应用文的语言要求准确无误,朴实无华,简洁有力,不像有些文学作品用华丽多彩的语言去描摹事物,呈现事物的形象,而是提倡朴素美,简洁美。如一篇公文是这样写的: “ 2000 年某天深夜,乌云密布,雷声隆隆,大雨倾盆而下,刹那间,美丽富饶的鱼米之乡被一片汪洋吞没。接连几天如注的暴雨,淹没了田野、冲毁了村庄和工厂,交通、电力、通讯一度中断。这百年不遇的特大洪涝灾害,给我乡造成了不可估量的损失。……” 这段语言就违反了应用文语言的写作要求,带有浓厚的文学色彩,不够朴实、简洁,也有失真实。
篇3:2024年高考英语作文结尾写作技巧
全文共 1914 字
+ 加入清单一、对全文进行归纳总结的句型
1.From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that…
2.Taking into account all the factors, we may safely come to the conclusion that…
3.Judging from all the evidence offered, we may safely arrive at/reach the conclusion that…
4.All the evidence supports a sound conclusion that…
5.From what is mentioned above, we may come to the conclusion that…
6.To sum up/draw a conclusion, we find that…
7.In short/brief/a word/conclusion/sum/, it is…
8. Therefore/Thus/Then, it can be inferred/concluded/deduced that…
9. From/Through/According to what has been discussed above, we can come to/reach/arrive at/draw the conclusion that…
10. It is believed that…
二、表达个人观点的句型
1. As far as I am concerned, I agree with the latter opinion to some extent.
2. As far as I am concerned, I am really/completely in favor of the test/policy.
3. In conclusion/a word, I believe that…
4. There is some truth in both arguments, but I think the disadvantages of… outweigh its advantages.
5. In my opinion/view, we should…
6. As for me, I…
7. As I see , …
8. From my point of view, …
9. Personally/ I think…
10. My view is that…
11. I think/consider…
12. I take/hold a negative/positive view of…
三、表达建议的句型
1. It’s high time that we tried every possible means to put an end to…
2. It’s really high time we took measures to solve the problem of/put an end to…
3. There is still a long way to go towards solving the problem. We hope that efforts should be made to…
4. We must search for a quick action, because the present situation of…
5. There is no easy solution to the problem of…, but… might be useful.
6. There is no quick answer to the question of…, but … might be helpful.
7. It is necessary that effective/proper/quick actions/steps/measures be taken to…
8. It’s suggested that great efforts be made to…
9.To check/control the tendency/trend is no easy task, and it requires a good/deep awareness/consciousness/understanding of…
篇4:2024年高考英语专题之写作基础知识
全文共 1830 字
+ 加入清单从历年高考写作题来看, 特别是基础写作, 要点都是一目了然的, 写什么, 对于考生来说不是问题, 问题是不知如何写。
实践证明, 只有写出正确地道的句子, 才有可能把文章写好。磨刀不误砍柴功, 写作需练基本功。你有了扎实的基本功, 不管是基础写作还是读写任务, 也不管考什么作文题, 你都能得高分。因此, 从某种意义上说, 我们不必刻意追求猜题押题, 而应脚踏实地地去练好基本功, 这才是高考高分的备考上策。
【基本句型特训】
这里的基本句型包括简单句的五个基本句型和there be句型。
所谓简单句就是由一个主语 (包括并列主语)和一个谓语 (包括并列谓语) 组成的句子, 即一个主谓关系的句子。
六个基本句型
典型例句
主+谓
He studies very hard.
主+谓+宾
We enjoy sports.
主+谓+间宾+直宾
Sports bring me happiness.
主+谓+宾+宾补
Exercise mades me healthy.
主+系+表
Exercise is very beneficial.
There be句型
There are three reasons why I like it.
特别提醒: 根据历年高考阅卷的情况, 考生写句子最易犯的错是: 不用be时却用了, 或者该用be时却没用。因此, 我们须注意:
1.英语句子通常要有谓语动词, 否则就不完整。如表达 “他很累”, 不能说He very tired.
而要说He is very tired. 因为tired是形容词, 句中无动词。切记: 当句子意思完整, 但句中没有动词时, 一定要加上be。
2. 当句中已有谓语动词时, 若不是进行时态或被动语态, 一定不要再用be。如表达 “他昨天来过这里”, 不能说He was came here yesterday. 而要说He came here yesterday.
[课堂练习]
用基本句型翻译下列各组句子, 然后合并成一篇通顺自然的5句话的短文。
●心中有梦:
单句翻译
1. David 7岁了。 (主系表)
2. 他有一个梦想。 (主谓宾)
3. 他想在天上飞。 (主谓宾)
4. 他做了一架纸飞机。 (主谓双宾)
5. 他完成了作业。 (主谓宾)
6. 他玩纸飞机。 (主谓)
7. 有一天, 天上有一架飞机在飞。 (there be句型)
8. 他的父亲鼓励他努力学习成为飞行员。 (主谓宾宾补)
9. 他非常努力地学习。 (主谓)
10. 十八年后他实现了他的梦想。 (主谓宾)
合并成文
______________________________________________________________________________________________
【标准答案】
1. David was seven years old.
2. He had a dream.
3. He wanted to fly in the sky.
4. He made himself a paper plane.
5. He finished homework.
6. He always played with the paper plane.
7. There was a plane flying in the sky.
8. His father encouraged him to study hard and be a pilot.
9. He worked very hard at his lessons.
10. He made his dream come true 18 years later.
合并成文: When David was seven years old, he dreamed of flying in the sky. Having finished his homework, he made himself a paper plane to play with. One day, there was a plane flying in the sky. His father
encouraged him to be a pilot in the future. It was by working hard that he made his dream come true eighteen years later.
篇5:2024年中考英语写作素材:英语作文必背点睛句
全文共 8320 字
+ 加入清单想要写好英语作文平常肯定少不了积累,下面是语文迷网整理的关于中考英语作文的句子素材,希望对你有帮助。
1. According to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.
依照最近的一项调查,每年有4,000,000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。
2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.
最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。
3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.
没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。
4. People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.
人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。
5. An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.
越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。
6. When it comes to education, the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.
说到教育,大部分人认为其是一个终生的学习。
7. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.
许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。
8. Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful effects of international tourism.
应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量,努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。
9. An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However, this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents, who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.
越来越多的专家相信移民对城市的建设起到积极作用。然而,越来越多的城市居民却怀疑这种说法,他们抱怨民工给城市带来了许多严重的问题,像犯罪和**.
10. Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus, which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.
许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少,以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车,而车上可能已满载乘客。
11. There is no denying the fact that air pollution is an extremely serious problem: the city authorities should take strong measures to deal with it.
无可否认,空气污染是一个极其严重的问题:城市当局应该采取有力措施来解决它。
12. An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward retirement.
一项调查显示妇女欢迎退休。
13. A proper part-time job does not occupy students too much time. In fact, it is unhealthy for them to spend all of time on their study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.
一份适当的业余工作并不会占用学生太多的时间,事实上,把全部的时间都用到学习上并不健康,正如那句老话:只工作,不玩耍,聪明的孩子会变傻。
14. Any government, which is blind to this point, may pay a heavy price.
任何政府忽视这一点都将付出巨大的代价。
15.Nowadays, many students always go into raptures at the mere mention of the coming life of high school or college they will begin. Unfortunately, for most young people, it is not pleasant experience on their first day on campus.
当前,一提到即将开始的学校生活,许多学生都会兴高采烈。然而,对多数年轻人来说,校园刚开始的日子并不是什么愉快的经历。
16. In view of the seriousness of this problem, effective measures should be taken before things get worse.
考虑到问题的严重性,在事态进一步恶化之前,必须采取有效的措施。
17. The majority of students believe that part-time job will provide them with more opportunities to develop their interpersonal skills, which may put them in a favorable position in the future job markets.
大部分学生相信业余工作会使他们有更多机会发展人际交往能力,而这对他们未来找工作是非常有好处的。
18. It is indisputable that there are millions of people who still have a miserable life and have to face the dangers of starvation and exposure.
无可争辩,现在有成千上万的人仍过着挨饿受冻的痛苦生活。
19. Although this view is wildly held, this is little evidence that education can be obtained at any age and at any place.
尽管这一观点被广泛接受,很少有证据表明教育能够在任何地点、任何年龄进行。
20. No one can deny the fact that a persons education is the most important aspect of his life.
没有人能否认:教育是人生最重要的一方面。
21. People equate success in life with the ability of operating computer.
人们把会使用计算机与人生成功相提并论。
22. In the last decades, advances in medical technology have made it possible for people to live longer than in the past.
在过去的几十年,先进的医疗技术已经使得人们比过去活的时间更长成为可能。
23. In fact, we have to admit the fact that the quality of life is as important as life itself.
事实上,我们必须承认生命的质量和生命本身一样重要。
24. We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.
我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。
25. People believe that computer skills will enhance their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.
人们相信拥有计算机技术可以获得更多工作或提升的机会。
26. The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that this knowledge may be less useful than most people think.
从这几年我搜集的信息来看,这些知识并没有人们想象的那么有用。
27. Now, it is generally accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduation.
现在,人们普遍认为没有一所大学能够在毕业时候教给学生所有的知识。
28. This is a matter of life and death——a matter no country can afford to ignore.
这是一个关系到生死的问题,任何国家都不能忽视。
29. For my part, I agree with the latter opinion for the following reasons:
我同意后者,有如下理由:
30. Before giving my opinion, I think it is important to look at the arguments on both sides.
在给出我的观点之前,我想看看双方的观点是重要的。
31. This view is now being questioned by more and more people.
这一观点正受到越来越多人的质疑。
32. Although many people claim that, along with the rapidly economic development, the number of people who use bicycle are decreasing and bicycle is bound to die out. The information Ive collected over the recent years leads me to believe that bicycle will continue to play extremely important roles in modern society.
尽管许多人认为随着经济的高速发展,用自行车的人数会减少,自行车可能会消亡, 然而,这几年我收集的一些信息让我相信自行车仍然会继续在现代社会发挥极其重要的作用。
33. Environmental experts point out that increasing pollution not only causes serious problems such as global warming but also could threaten to end human life on our planet.
环境学家指出:持续增加的污染不仅会导致像全球变暖这样严重的问题,而且还将威胁到人类在这个星球的生存。
34. In view of such serious situation, environmental tools of transportation like bicycle are more important than any time before.
考虑到这些严重的状况,我们比以往任何时候更需要像自行车这样的环保型交通工具。
35. Using bicycle contributes greatly to peoples physical fitness as well as easing traffic jams.
使用自行车有助于人们的身体健康,并极大地缓解了交通阻塞。
36. Despite many obvious advantages of bicycle, it is not without its problem.
尽管自行车有许多明显的优点,但是它也存在它的问题。
37. Bicycle cant be compared with other means of transportation like car and train for speed and comfort.
在速度和舒适度方面,自行车是无法和汽车、火车这样的交通工具相比的。
38. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that advantages of bicycle far outweigh its disadvantages and it will still play essential roles in modern society.
通过以上讨论,我们可以得出结论:自行车的优点远大于缺点,并且在现代社会它仍将发挥重要作用。
39. There is a general discussion these days over education in many colleges and institutes. One of the questions under debate is whether education is a lifetime study.
当前在高校和研究机构对教育存在着大量争论,其中一个问题就是教育是否是个终身学习的过程。
40. This issue has caused wide public concern.
这个问题已经引起了广泛关注。
41. It must be noted that learning must be done by a person himself.
必须指出学习只能靠自己。
42. A large number of people tend to live under the illusion that they had completed their education when they finished their schooling. Obviously, they seem to fail to take into account the basic fact that a persons education is a most important aspect of his life.
许多人存在这样的误解,认为离开学校就意味着结束了他们的教育。显然,他们忽视了教育是人生重要部分这一基本事实。
43. As for me, Im in favor of the opinion that education is not complete with graduation, for the following reasons:
就我而言,我同意教育不应该随着毕业而结束的观点,有以下原因:
44. It is commonly accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduate.
人们普遍认为高校是不可能在毕业的时候教会他们的学生所有知识的。
45. Even the best possible graduate needs to continue learning before she or he becomes an educated person.
即使最优秀的毕业生,要想成为一个博学的人也要不断地学习。
46. It is commonly thought that our society had dramatically changed by modern science and technology, and human had made extraordinary progress in knowledge and technology over the recent decades.
人们普遍认为我们的现代科技使我们的社会发生了巨大的变化,近几十年人类在科技方面取得了惊人的进步。
47. Now people in growing numbers are beginning to believe that learning new skills and knowledge contributes directly to enhancing their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.
现在越来越多的人开始相信学习新的技术和知识能直接帮助他们获得工作就会或提升的机会。
48. An investigation shows that many older people express a strong desire to continue studying in university or college.
一项调查显示许多老人都有到大学继续学习的愿望。
49. For the majority of people, reading or learning a new skill has become the focus of their lives and the source of their happiness and contentment after their retirement.
对大多数人来讲,退休以后,阅读或学习一项新技术已成为他们生活的中心和快乐的来源。
50. For people who want to adopt a healthy and meaningful life style, it is important to find time to learn certain new knowledge. Just as an old saying goes: it is never too late to learn.
对于那些想过上健康而有意义的生活的人们来说,找时间学习一些新知识是很重要的,正如那句老话:活到老,学到老。
篇6:英语写作中的常用谚语
全文共 2083 字
+ 加入清单1、Practice makes perfect.
熟能生巧。
2、Take care of the pence/pennies,and the pounds will take care of themselves.
积少成多。/小事谨慎,大事自成。
3、Swift to hear,slow to speak.
多听少讲。
4、Procrastination is the thief of time.
拖延就是偷走时间。
5、Tomorrow is another day.
明天又是新的一天。/明天还有指望。
6、Exploit to the full one’S favorable conditions and avoid unfavorableones.
扬长避短。
7、Promise little,but do much.
少许愿,多做事。
8、cripples learns to limp.
近朱者赤,近墨者黑。
9、Bend the willow while it is still youn.
修树要趁早,育人要趁小。
10、Knowledge is power.
知识就是力量。
11、Passion,though a bad regulator,is a powerful sprin.
激情虽难驾驭,却是强大动力。
12、Learn from other’S strong points to offset one’S weaknesses.
取长补短。
13、He than run fast gets the rin.
捷足先登。
14、We never know the worth of water till the well is dry.
井干方知水宝贵。
15、Our greatest glory consists not in never failin9,but in rising every time we fall.
人生最大的光荣,不在于永不失败,而在失败还能站起。
16、Ideals are like stars-we never reach them,but like marlners,we chart our courses by them.
人之需要理想,如水手之需星辰;星辰虽不可及,但可指引我们航程。
17、Youth’s stuff will not endure.
青春易逝。
18、A pet lamb makes a cross ralTl.
宠坏的羊羔会变成恶羊。
19、Prepare for the worst and hope for the best.
做最坏的准备,怀最好的希望。
20、Do not throw the baby with the bath water.
别把小孩和洗澡水一起泼掉。
21、Wisdom is only found in truth.
惟有在真理中才能找到智慧。
22、A stitch in time saves nine.
小洞不补,大洞吃苦。
23、An hour in the morning is worth two in the evenin9./The morning hour has gold in its mouth.
一天之计在于晨。
24、Where there is a will,there is a way.
有志者事竟成。
25、Broaden one’S scope ofknowledge and widen one’S horizon.
拓宽知识,开拓视野。
26、He that can have patience can have what he will.
惟坚韧者始能遂其志。
27、Thought is the seed of action.
思想是行动的种子。
28、As you give,as you receive./As you sow,you shall mow.
种瓜得瓜,种豆得豆。
29、Every man is the master ofhis own fogune.
每人都是自己命运的主人。
30、Good health is the best treasure a person can procure.
健康是一个人最宝贵的财富。
31、Disappointment is the nurse of wisdom.
失败是成功之母。
32、The first step to knowledge is to know that we are ignorant.
走向知识的第一步是知道自己无知。
33、Home-keeping youth have ever homely wits.
孩子不见世面,知识少的可怜。
34、People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.
自己有缺点,勿揭他人短。
35、Give me where to stand,and l will move the world.
给我一个支点,我可以跷起整个地球。
篇7:英语格言写作素材
全文共 12662 字
+ 加入清单Time flies. 光阴似箭.
Time is life. 时间就是生命.
Times change. 时代在改变.
Time is money. 时间就是金钱.
Life is sweet. 人生是美好的.
Love is blind. 爱情是盲目的.
Extremes meet. 两极相通,有无相生。
Like knows like 人识其类。
Let well alone. 不要画蛇添足. /事已成功,不必多弄.
Marry thy like. 结婚须找同类人.
One man,no man. 个人是渺小的.
Hsitory is bunk. 历史是一堆废话。
Time marches on. 岁月如流
Murder will out. 恶行终会败露。
Never say "die. 永远不要说" 完了".
Care is no cure. 忧虑治不了病。
Beware beginning. 慎始为上。
Deeds, not words. 行动胜于空谈.
No mill, no meal. 不磨面,没饭吃.
Like begets like. 龙生龙,凤生凤。
Love begets love. 爱爱相生.
In doing we learn. 我们在干中学习.
No cross,no crown. 未经苦难,得不到荣冠.
Care killed a cat. 忧虑能杀人。
Boys will be boys. 男孩子总是男孩子.
No song, no supper. 不出力,不得食.
The truth will out. 真相总会大白.
Time works wonders. 时间能创造奇迹.
To think is to see. 思考就是明白.
Truth will prevail. 真理必胜
A lie begets a lie. 谎言生谎言。
Years bring wisdom. 年岁带来智慧.
In love is no lack. 爱情不会感到缺乏.
Easy come, easy go. 来得容易去得 . /悖入悖出.
Every little helps. 点滴都有用.
Forgive and forget. 恢弘大度,勿念旧恶。
Manners maketh man. 举止造人品.
Laugh and grow fat. 心宽体胖 。
Knowledge is power. 知识就是力量.
Let the world slide. 人世沧桑,听其自然.
Love me,love my dog. 爱屋及乌.
Life means struggle. 生活就是斗争.
Fair plays a jewel. 比赛风格好,胜过珠宝.
Early sow,early mow. 种得早,收得早.
Grasp all, lose all. 贪多必失.
Whats lost is lost. 失者不可复得。
Waste not, want not. 不浪费,不会穷.
Tomorrow never comes. 切莫依赖明天. / 我生待明日,万事成蹉跎.
No man is infallible. 没有人不犯错误。
Alms never make poor. 施舍穷不了人.
Love will find a way. 爱心所至,金石为开.
Manners make the man. 举止见人品。
Patience is a virtue. 忍耐是一种美德.
Pity is akin to love. 怜悯生爱.
Call a spade a spade. 是啥说啥,难听不怕。
Delays are dangerous. 因循出危险.
Diamond cuts diamond. 强中自有强中手.
Counsel is no command. 劝告不是命令.
Poverty tries friends. 贫穷考验朋友.
Once bitten,twice shy. 吃一次亏,学一次乖.
Pain past is pleasure. 痛苦过去即欢乐.
Leal heart lied never. 心诚无谎言。
Hot love is soon cold. 过热的爱情冷得快.
As good lost as found. 有得必有失. /得失同喜.
Every dog has his day. 瓦块也有翻身日,人人都有运来时。
Wise fear begets care. 懂得担心,就会小心.
"Never”is a long word. 不要轻易说“决不”。
After wind comes rain. 风是雨的头。
Nurture passes nature. 教养胜过天性.
Time tries all things. 时间检验一切.
Time cures all things. 时间是最好的医生. /时间能医愈一切创痛.
Truth needs no colour. 真理不需要打扮.
Silence gives consent. 沉默就是赞成。
Still waters run deep. 静水流深。
Study,study,and study. 学习,学习,再学习.
Virtue never grows old. 美德不会衰老.
No sweet without sweat. 幸福来自汗水.
No herb will cure love. 相思病无药医.
A true jest is no jest. 真正的笑语决非笑话。
A man can die but once. 人无二死.
A bargain is a bargain. 成约不能翻悔。
All men cant be first. 不可能人人得冠军。
All roads lead to Rome. 条条大路通罗马.
Every flow has its ebb. 潮有涨落日,人有盛衰时.
History repeats itself. 历史往往重演。
I think,therefore I am. 我思考,所以我存在。
Let bygones be bygones. 既往宜不咎。
Like author, like book. 书如其人。
Pardon all but thyself. 宽恕一切人,只是别宽恕自己。
Pride goes before fall. 骄者必败。
Knowledge is no burden. 知识再多不压身.
Civility costs nothing. 礼貌不费分文.
Charity begins at home. 仁爱先施于亲友.
Better late than never. 迟做总比不做好.
Better leave than lack. 有余胜过不足.
Cheapest is the dearest. 最便宜的也就是最贵的.
Custom is second nature. 习惯是第二天性。/ 习惯成自然。
In valour there is hope. 希望在于勇敢.
Reason rules all things. 理智统治一切.
Learn young, learn fair. 学习趁年少,而且要学好.
Idleness rusts the mind. 懒散使头脑衰退.
Health and money go far. 有了健康和钱财,就能走遍天下。
Hope well and have well. 善寄希望于未来,又善保有现在.
Hope is a lovers staff. 希望是爱者的手扶之杖.
Every Jack has his Jill. 人均有其偶.
If the cap fits,wear it. 帽子合适,你就戴上;如说的符合你的情况,你就接受。
Failure teaches success. 失败乃成功之母.
First think, then speak. 熟思而后言.
Forewarned is forearmed. 凡事预则立。
Barking dogs dont bite. 吠犬不咬人。
Beauty is but skin-deep. 美只是外表, /不能以貌取人.
Beauty will buy no beef. 漂亮不能当饭吃。
Good wine needs no bush. 酒好无需挂幌子。
Great minds think alike. 英雄所见略同。
All his geese are swans. 自己的鹅都是天鹅。
A poet is born,not made. 诗人靠天成。
A snow year,a rich year. 瑞雪兆丰年。
No man is indispensable. 没有一个人是不可缺少的。/少了谁地球也转。
Never hope for too much. 不要期望太多.
Tomorrow is another day. 明天又是一个新的开始.
Time is life for doctors. 对医生来说,时间就是生命.
Time is the great healer. 时间是最好的医治者.
Time works great changes. 时间会产生巨大的变化.
Two can play at the game. 你会耍的花招,别人也会。
Success has many friends. 成功者朋友多.
No pleasure without pain. 乐中必有苦.
Take things as they come. 随遇而安。
Talent is as talent does. 是不是有实才,就看干得来干不来.
All for one, one for all. 人人为我,我为人人.
A little pot is soon hot. 壶小易沸,量小易怒.
A cat may look at a king. 猫也可以看皇帝。/ 地位虽不同,人人应平等。
A good marksman may miss. 好射手也有失手的时候.
Anger is a brief madness. 愤怒是短暂的疯狂。
Wonders will never cease. 奇迹无穷尽。
You never know your luck. 命运好坏不由已.
Youth is half the battle. 年轻是胜利的一半.
As the call, so the echo. 发什么声音,有什么回声。
As the tree,so the fruit. 什么树结什么果。
He who hesitates is lost. 当断不断,反受其乱.
Fortune favours the bold. 天助勇者。
Forbidden fruit is sweet. 禁果分外甜。
From saving comes having. 富有来自节俭.
Fools haste is no speed. 急急忙忙, 欲速反慢.
Fair and softly goes far. 谦和者致远。
Every man has his faults. 人都有缺点.
Hunger is the best sauce. 饥者口中尽佳肴.
Learn even from an enemy. 即使是敌人也可以向他学习.
Little goods little care. 钱财少,不烦恼.
Practise what you preach. 躬行己说,身体力行. /自己怎么说,就得怎么干.
Second thoughts are best. 再思为上.
It is hard to please all. 要使人人满意是件难事。
Business before pleasure. 先工作,后娱乐./干完正事再玩儿.
It is dogged that does it. 有志者事竞成.
Its a day after the fair. 错过良机,为时已晚。
Reading enriches the mind. 开卷有益.
Opportunities do not wait. 机不可失,时不再来.
Other times,other manners. 隔代不同礼。
Love laughs at locksmiths. 爱情嘲笑锁匠. /爱情能克服困难.
Let the sleeping dogs lie. 莫惹是非。
Every medal has two sides. 每个勋章都有两面。/ 每个问题都有正反两面。
Every bean hath its black. 每粒蚕豆都长黑嘴。 / 人都有缺点。
Even Homer sometimes nods. 即使荷马也会打盹. /智者千虑,必有一失.
Facts are stubborn things. 事实都是顽强的. /事实是掩盖不住的.
Every why has a wherefore. 凡事必有因.
Fortune favours the brave. 天佑勇士。
Art is long,life is short. 人生短暂,艺术长存。
Bad times make a good man. 艰难困苦出能人.
Better be sure than sorry. 稳当总比后悔好。
Good counsel does no harm. 忠言有利无害。
Anything for a quiet life. 悠然自在最难求.
Appearances are deceptive. 外表是靠不住的。
Who knows most says least. 知道得最多的人说得最少。
A good deed is never lost. 好心一定有好报。
A lazy youth, a lousy age. 少时懒惰老来苦.
A watched pot never boils. 心急锅不开.
Take time by the forelock. 要把握时机.
Nothing seek,nothing find. 无所求则无所获.
Never do things by halves. 做事不可半途而废.
The wages of sin is death. 为恶者应灭亡。
Sow nothing, reap nothing. 春不播,秋不收. /无功不能受禄.
True love never grows old. 真正的爱永不衰老.
Sharp tools make good work. 工欲善其事,必先利其器.
Sweep before your own door. 正人先正己。
Time is wealth for workers. 对工人来说,时间就是财富.
Time is grain for peasants. 对农民来说,时间就是粮食.
Today is Yesterdays pupil. 今天是昨天的学生.
After a storm comes a calm. 雨过天晴,苦尽甘来.
A mans home is his castle. 一个人的家就是他的城堡.
A bully is always a coward. 恃强欺弱者均是懦夫。
A creaking door hangs long. 旧门久用,病夫命长。
A bow long bent grows weak. 常拉满弓无力。
An artist lives everywhere. 一技在身,走遍天下。
Youth will have its course. 人生谁无少年时,甜苦酸辛各自知.
There are spots in the sun. 太阳也有黑点。
Beggars cannot be choosers. 乞丐不能挑肥拣瘦.
Be still,and have the will. 不动声色,事方有成.
Art lies in concealing art. 艺术在于使人看不见艺术。
Freedom lies in being bold. 自由在于勇敢.
Give losers leave to speak. 要允许失败者讲话。
First thrive and then wive. 先立业,后成家.
East or West, home is best. 无论在何处,家园最美好.
Every oak must be an acorn. 每棵橡树都曾是一粒橡子.
Every man is his own enemy. 人都有与自己为敌的时候. /败事全由已.
Labour created man himself. 劳动创造人.
Leave off with an appetite. 吃得七分饱,就该离餐桌。
Love is the mother of love. 情生情,爱生爱.
Love is the reward of love. 爱是对爱的报答.
Man proposes, God disposes. 谋事在人,戒事在天。
Man is not made for defeat. 创造人不是为了让他遭受失败. /人不是为失败而生的.
Life is too short to waste. 生命短促,不容浪费.
Honesty is the best policy. 诚实为上策.
Honour lies in honest toil. 光荣在于诚恳地劳动.
Hitch your wagon to a star. 把你的马车拴到星星上. /要胸怀大志.
Hold fast when you have it. 在手之物应紧握.
Many hands make light work. 众擎易举. /人多好办事./ 众人拾柴火焰高.
Marriage is a covered dish. 婚姻是一道盖着的菜.
Brevity is the soul of wit. 言以简为贵.
Bread is the staff of life. 民以食为天。
Blushing is virtues color. 脸红是美德的颜色。
Do as you would be done by. 己所不欲,勿施于人。
Drawn wells are seldom dry. 水井常用不枯竭.
Drift is as bad as unthrift. 花钱凭冲动,等于无底洞.
Dont meet trouble half-way. 不要自寻烦恼。
Diligence redeems stupidity. 勤能补拙.
Blood is thicker than water. 血比水浓.
Counsel breaks not the head. 忠告不会打破头.
Clothes do not make the man. 人不在衣装.
Idleness makes the wit rust. 懒惰使脑筋生锈.
Love is stronger than death. 爱的力量大于死亡./ 爱情能战胜死神.
Love me little,love me long. 爱情应细水长流.
Ones sin will find one out. 坏事终归要败露。
One love drives out another. 新的爱情来,旧的爱情去.
Prettiness makes no pottage. 漂亮不能当饭吃.
Pen and ink is wits plough. 笔墨是才智之犁.
Its never too late to mend. 改过不嫌晚。
Rome was not built in a day. 罗马不是一天建成的./ 伟业非一日之功.
In the end things will mend. 船到桥头自然直.
Envy never enriched any man. 嫉妒从未使人得益。
Familiarity breeds contempt. 亲密生侮心。
Friends are thieves of time. 朋友是时间的浪费者. / 浪费朋友的时间,就是谋财害命.
Four eyes see more than two. 两人总比一人看得周到.
Good clothes open all doors. 门不挡衣着华丽的人。
Good advice is beyond price. 忠告是无价之宝.
Youth is the season of hope. 青春是希望的季节.
All rivers run into the sea. 条条江河归大海.
"They say so" is half a lie. 传闻多失实.
A curst cow has short horns. 性子烈的牛角短,脾气暴的人为害有限。
A miss is as good as a mile. 差之毫厘,失之千里.
All is fair in love and war. 情场战场,不择手段。
A stitch in time saves nine. 不洞不补,大洞尺五. /及时处理,事半功倍.
Time is the father of truth. 时间是真理之父.
There is no end to learning. 学无止境.
There is no satiety in study. 学而不厌.
Time is the greatest teacher. 时间就是良师.
Time is speed for scientists. 对科学家来说,时间就是速度.
Variety is the spice of life. 变化是生活的调味品.
We are all slaves of opinoin. 我们都是意见的奴隶。
More than enough is too much. 超过所需就是太多.
The shortest answer is doing. 最简短的回答是干.
Nothing venture,nothing have. 不担风险就无收获.
No living man all things can. 世上没有万能的人.
The insolent have no friends. 目空一切的人无朋友.
A wonder lasts but nine days. 奇闻只存在九天。
A word is enough to the wise. 智者不用多告诫.
A little labour, much health. 适量的劳动有益于健康。
A lean dog shames his master. 狗瘦主人羞。
A hungry man is an angry man. 饿汉易怒。
A green wound is soon healed. 新伤口愈合快。
Whats done cannot be undone. 木已成舟,覆水难收。
What man has done,man can do. 前人能办的事,后人也能做.
Wishes never can fill a sack. 愿望装不满口袋。
He goes far that never turns. 不回头的人走得远.
He that talks much errs much. 语多必失。
He that talks much lies much. 言多必妄。
Before friends all is common. 朋友之间应不分彼此.
Far fowls have fair feathers. 远方的鸟羽毛美。/弄不到手的东西是最好的。
Eyes are as eloquent as lips. 眼睛会和嘴一样说话.
Easy and success are fellows. 从容与成功是伙伴。
Many a little makes a mickle. 积少成多;集腋成裘.
Love and cough cannot be hid. 爱情象咳嗽,压也压不住.
Life is compared to a voyage. 人生好比是一次航程.
Life is real,life is earnest. 人生真实,人生诚挚.
Marriage makes or mars a man. 婚姻可使人成功,也可使人失败.
Money is round.It rolls away. 圆圆钱币,滚走容易.
Hope is life and life is hope 希望就是生活,生活也就是希望.
Comfort is better than pride. 华美不如舒适.
Custom makes all things easy. 凡事成习惯就容易做。/ 熟能生巧。
Diet cures more than doctors. 自己饮食有节,胜过上门求医。
Deliberating is not delaying. 深思熟虑不误事.
Dexterity comes by experience. 换取经验要付出代价.
Doubt is the key of knowledge. 怀疑是知识的钥匙.
Dare and diligence bring luck. 大胆又勤奋,定能交好运.
Blow first and sip afterwards. 喝茶防烫,吃饭防噎。
Human pride is human weakness. 人类的骄傲即是人类的弱点。
Lazy folk take the most pains. 懒人躲懒最费力.
Light not a candle to the sun. 不要对着太阳点蜡烛。/日既出矣,爝火可熄。
Love is the lodestone of life. 爱情是生活的磁石.
It is never too late to learn. 学习从不嫌晚.
Justifying a fault doubles it. 护短是加倍的错误。
Kill two birds with one stone. 一石二鸟. /一箭双雕. / 一举两得.
Pride hurts, modesty benefits. 满招损,谦受益。
One is never too old to learn. 人有老的时候,没有老得不能学的时候.
One cannot put back the clock. 时光不能倒流.
Early start makes easy stages. 早动身,易从容,早开始,早成功.
Every bird likes its own nest. 鸟均爱其巢;人皆爱其家.
Fair words fill not the belly. 甜言蜜语填不饱肚子。
Fine feathers make fine birds. 好的衣装只能打扮出个好外表。
Fine words butter no parsnips. 花言巧语没有用.
First deserve and then desire. 先做到受之无愧,而后再邀功请赏。
For a lost thing care nothing. 物已丢失,勿再烦恼。
Force can never destroy right. 武力决不能摧毁正义。
Glory is the shadow of virtue. 荣誉是美德的影子.
At court,everyone for himself. 在法庭上人人都要为自己。
As man sows, so he shall reap. 善有善报,恶有恶报。
Good ware makes quick markets. 货好销得快。
He is rich that has few wants. 寡欲者富。
He lives long that lives well. 活得好等于活得久.
He that fears death lives not. 害怕死亡的人,活着也没有快乐。
Wisdom is only found in truth. 唯有在真理中才能找到智慧.
Who loseth liberth loseth all. 失掉自由使失掉一切.
All that glitters is not gold. 闪烁者不尽是金。
A great ship asks deep waters. 大船要在深 水行./ 深水浮大船.
A good tree is a good shelter. 枝叶茂盛的大树是躲避风雨的好去处. / 大树底下好乘凉.
A burnt child dreads the fire. 烧伤的孩子最怕火。
A clean hand wants no washing. 手要是干净无须洗。
A bad penny always comes back. 伪币迟早归原主。
A rolling eye, a roving heart. 眼活情不专.
A proud man hath many crosses. 骄傲者挫折多。
A shy cat makes a proud mouse. 猫儿胆小耗子闹。
All is not at hand that helps. 世间没有唾手可得之事.
The exception proves the rule. 例外证明法则的存在。
No man is a hero to his valet. 在最贴身的人眼中,谁也充不了伟人。
The used key is always bright. 常用的钥匙不长锈.
The sun shines upon all alike. 太阳照人,不分贵贱。
We are not born for ourselves. 人之有生,不为一已.
Two heads are better than one. 两人智慧胜一人.
True praise roots and spreads. 诚实的赞美深入人心.
Truth is the daughter of time. 真理是时间的女儿.
True friendship lasts forever. 真正的友谊恒久不变.
Shallow streams make most din. 溪浅声喧。
Slow and steady wins the race. 稳扎稳打;无往不胜.
Time and tide wait for no man. 时光如逝水,岁月不待人.
There is no joy without alloy. 世上没有十全十美的快乐。/ 金无足赤,乐无十全。
Theres no wisdom like silence. 保持沉默最聪明。
Think today and speak tomorrow. 熟思而后言.
Time is money for enterprisers. 对企业家来说,时间就是金钱.
Too many cooks spoil the broth. 厨师太多烧坏汤。
We soon believe what we desire. 心里想什么就会相信什么。
Speech is the image of actions. 语言是行动的图象。
Two wrongs do not make a right. 两个错误,加不出一个正确. /用错误改正不了错误.
篇8:说明文基础写作方法
全文共 2327 字
+ 加入清单写说明文的目的就是让人获得知识的技能,只有解说清楚,才能达到这个目的。以下是小编给大家整理的说明文写作方法的内容,欢迎大家查看。
写说明文和写其它文章一样,必须明确写作意图,确立文章中心;充分占有材料,力求做到言之有物、言之有序。除了这些一般性的要求之外,说明文的写作还有如下要求:
(一) 抓住事物特征,把握说明中心
任何事物都具有自身的质的规定性,一个事物的特征是区别于其它事物的标志。写说明文只有抓住事物的特征,才能把被说明的事物准确清晰地介绍给读者,让人们对事物有确切的了解。事物往往有方面的特征,介绍事物时,不可能在一篇说明文里面面俱到;只能根据需要,一次谈一两个特征。因此,要写好说明文,还必须把握说明文的中心。如:《漫活圆周率》是一篇介绍数学基础的说明文。文章题为“漫话”,并没有漫无边际地随意堆砌关于圆周率的材料,而是围绕求出圆周率的更精确的数值这个中心,向人们介绍了古今中外数学家对圆周率的数值所做的贡献。
抓住事物特点,把握说明中心,这是写说明文的一个重要要求,要做到这一点,写作者必须在写作前对被 说明的事物作深入细致的研究。必须懂得只有熟悉被说明的事物,认识并掌握被说明事物本身的规律性,才能做到这一点。
(二) 针对具体情况,选好写作角度
写说明文也是要求有的放矢的。写什么、怎样写,要从读者的实际情况考虑,使文章具有针对性,切合读者的知识水平、职业特点和年龄大小。往往读者对象不同,写的角度也不同。如阐述吸烟有害的说明文很多,有的是针对老年人的,有的是对妇女而言的,的有是对青少年而言的,角度不同,说明的内容则各有侧重。《青少年吸烟害处大》这篇文章从青少年是国家的未来和希望的高度介绍吸烟对青少年的危害,突出分析青少年的生理特征,说明青少年接触毒性物质比成年人吸收快、排除慢、毒害大的情况,指出“吸烟对青少年是绝对有害而无一利的”。这样说明目的清楚,针对性强。
写说明文选取什么角度要依实际情况而定。比如,介绍牛的知识,如果是为饲养者写的,要侧重介绍牛的生活习惯和特性;如果是为使用者写的,要侧重介绍牛的功能和力气;如果是为兽医写的,则主要介绍它的身体构造;如果是为食用者写的,可以主要介绍它的营养价值。当然,作为科普知识介绍,不妨全面一点为好。
(三) 务求解说清楚、做到条理分明
写说明文的目的就是让人获得知识的技能,只有解说清楚,才能达到这个目的。说明说明,一说即明,如何解说清楚,要讲究说明的方法,注意结构的安排,着力语言的运用。关于说明的方法,这里就不详细介绍了。这里着重讲讲结构安排的条理性问题。
文章的条理性是客观事物、事理本身的特点、规律在文章结构上的反映。说明文解说事物、阐释事理要按其本身的条理来安排说明的次序,使之层次清楚,主次分明,安排说明文的结构首先要注意条理性。如何具体安排结构,不同类型的说明文有不同要求,介绍产品制作过程的说明文,往往按照产品生产工序来安排结构,如叶圣陶的《景泰蓝的制作》是一篇介绍手工工艺品景泰蓝的说明文。它按照制作工艺的程序,抓住“做胎”、“掐丝”、“涂色”、“烧制”、“打磨”五道关键工序依次作了详细具体的说明,全篇言之有序,给人的印象十分鲜明。这一类安排,以时间变化为序,着重写事物的过程。
(四)语言准确简明,文字通俗浅显
选用准确的语言,精当地解说事物的事理,是说明文语言的基本要求。说明文是以介绍知识性内容为主的,只有如实反映被说明内容的客观情况,才能保证知识的科学性。相反,语言不准确就会失去知识的科学性。
明代学者徐光启笔译古数学家欧几里得的《几何原理》,其中的一节:
凡论度必始于一体。自点引之而为线,自线广之而为面,自面积之而为体,各自三大纲。是心有长而无阔者谓之线,有长与阔而无厚者谓之面,长与阔厚俱全者谓之体。唯点无长阔厚薄,其间不能容,不可以数度,然线之两端即点,而线面体皆由此生。点虽不入于数,实为从数之本。
这节解说数学基本概念的说明文,把什么是点、线、面、体,点与数度的联系和区别作了确切的阐释,语言也很精当。
此外,在说明文中往往有些内容是带有专门化的科学知识,涉及一些专门名词和专业术语,在说明中特别要求把它们运用得准确无误,使读者便于领会。如:“航空”与“航天”是两个不同的概念,有篇文章作了这样的解说:“飞机在大气层内飞行,称为航空;卫星、飞船在大气层外飞行,称为航天。它们是采用不同的飞行器在不同的空间来完成飞行任务的”。这种解说是十分准确的,使人对什么叫“航空”、什么叫“航天”得到了科学的了解。
在说明文的写作中,应该注意克服几种常见的毛病。
第一,防止知识性的差错。如有篇写“牛”的习作这样写道:“牛有水牛、黄牛两种,牛是反刍动物,只吃青草,不必喂料。牛都两只角,体强力大,是世界各国普遍使用的耕作工具。”由于写作者对有关牛的知识了解不够,有些只是一知半解。所以写起来造成知识性的错误。世界上牛的品种不只水牛、黄牛两种,杂交品种的牛并不长角;除了青草外,还必须给牛喂其它饲料;世界上也不是普遍使用牛作为耕作工具,牛还有专供食用、奶用或运输用,甚至作为神物崇拜的。
第二,避免文体性的错误。如有篇说明文题为《蚯蚓》,其中写道:“……别看这小动物不惹眼,它可天天在松土、干活,它不讲究吃穿,不讲究休息,不讲住的,不讲报酬,整天埋头苦干,为人们劳作耕地,让作物生长茂盛。我不禁想起我们的老师,他们也有蚯蚓精神。
第三,克服片面性的论述。如,有篇题为《青蛙》的知识小品,介绍青蛙时写道:“青蛙是两栖、变温的动物,营养价值很高,……”这样定是片面的,青蛙能捕捉害虫,有益于庄稼的生长,只写它营养价值高,不宣传要保护它,饲养它,必然会造成不良社会影响。片面性是不利普及科学知识的。
篇9:微型小说的写作基础
全文共 2778 字
+ 加入清单小说是什么?理论上的定义是:小说是作者对社会生活进行艺术概括,通过叙述人的语 言来描绘生活事件,塑造人物形象,展开作品主题,表达作者思想感情,从而艺术地反映和 表现社会生活的一种文学体裁。下面是小编收集的微型小说的写作基础,欢迎阅读。
微型小说又名小小说,超短篇小说,一分钟小说。过去它作为短篇小说的一个品种而存在, 后来的发展使它已成为一种独立的文学样式,其性质被界定为"介于边缘短篇小说和散文之 间的一种边缘性的现代新兴文学体裁"。阿·托尔斯泰认为:"小小说是训练作家最好的学 校。"(《论文学》)
日本作家星新一指出:"很久以前就存在着类似超短篇小说的作品。……但是,超短篇小说 这个名字的正式出现,是源于美国。"多数人推崇美国作家欧·亨利(1862-1910) 是创始人。他的近三百篇作品,情节生动,笔调幽默。其中《麦琪的礼物》脍灸人口。可以 这么说,超短篇小说具有立意新颖、情节严谨、结局新奇三要素。即在1500字以内,要概 括出普通小说应具有的一切。也可以说,微型小说是一种敏感,从一个点、一个画面、一个 对比、一声赞叹、一瞬间之中,捕捉住了小说--一种智慧、一种美、一个耐人寻味的场景, 一种新鲜的思想。
微型小说在写作上追求的目标是四个字:微、新、密、奇。
一、微。指的是篇幅微小,不超过一千五百个字。因此,构思和行文时必须注意字句的 凝炼,不允许作品中有赘词冗句。如马克·吐温的《丈夫支出帐本中的一页》。全文只有七 行字,却具有长篇小说的全部情节。
二、新。指的是立意新颖,风格清新。星新一写作一分钟小说,就极力追求"新"。他写道: "有些评论家把我的小说与美国的超短篇小说(Short-Short)混为一谈,这是不妥当的。 我是受了美国超短篇小说的影响。但是没有完全依靠,而是发挥了自己独特的风格和技巧。 我的小说强调一个新字,给读者以新题材、新知识,甚至让他们感到惊讶!"(星新一《一 分钟小说选》)为此,他常常借助于童话、寓言、科幻、推理等手法,通过非现实的题材或 现实题材的非现实笔法,反映他在现实生活中的独特的感觉,表现清新的主题,如他的《保 修》。 当然,微型小说的立意和其它形式的小说作品一样,有时并不是一眼能看出的,有时主题并 非一个,是多元化的,这都是可以的。例如美国著名科幻作家弗里蒂克·布朗写的一篇被称 为世界上最短的科学幻想小说:"地球上最后一个人独自坐在房间里,这时忽然响起了敲门 声……"就写得十分别致而耐人寻味。
三、密。指的是结构严密。微型小说的作者在结构上,应力求时间、场所、人物都尽可 能地压缩、集中,使作品结构简练、精巧,如同微雕工艺品那样。因此,特别要在选材、剪 裁和布局上下功夫。
四、奇。指的是结尾要新奇巧妙,出人意料。微型小说的特点多半在于一个"奇"字。 中外作家的许多优秀作品就常在结尾处使人拍案叫绝。如邵宝健的《永远的门》的结尾就出 人意料。
对待微型小说的特点及技巧,一要弄通掌握, 争取在理论指导下站在较高起点上进行实践,二要灵活运用,甚至不去联系,让它们在潜意识中随时起到作用。还可以摹仿。照搬形式、技巧, 发扬精华,受到感应,并力求创新,出自己意。上述特点, 特别是"博采众长"中已经具备了微型小说的一些结构要求。以下再列出一种模式,供初学者学习。
模式如下:
【开头】要使人"一见钟情"。方式有三种:
▲造成悬念,引起兴趣。如《那团云雾》,开头就写不知怎的没了游兴,连山顶上也罩上一团云雾。
▲开门见山,进入情节。往往开头就是人物对话。
▲含蓄蕴藉,曲径通幽。往往描写景物, 烘托铺垫并有照应和伏笔。
【中间】结构主要有三种基本类型:
▲曲折生致式。
①单线曲折,一波三折。如王任叔的《河豚子》,写一农民在二三十年代的社会背景中,因穷困而自杀的过程:弄回毒鱼, 却看到孩子们兴高采烈;怕见惨象而出外, 回来后却见妻儿欢笑等待;吃后等死,却因鱼失去毒性,死不成仍要受苦。
②双线交叉,内在联系。一人两事,或两人一事;可以是两条明线,也可一明一暗,互为陪衬。如《小星的暑假日记》, 父亲编造假材料,儿子编写假日记。父亲打骂儿子后, 再要写材料时只好苦笑。
③反复回环,同中见异。如《奇妙的循环不等式》,车上只有一个空位,售票员不让老太太坐,却让"首长"坐。 司机上车后赶开"首长"请经理坐,经理的丈母娘正是老太太。 又如《他们都是瞎子》,写一对青年热恋、结婚、离婚时都看见一对瞎子相搀相扶。
④前后对比,双峰对峙。 如《变化》写一个业余作者先后发表两篇稿件后,单位领导不同的态度。
(5)欲扬先抑,欲抑先扬。前者,"扬"是主体, 却先在"抑"上着笔,突然一转归于"扬"。后者相反。这样,产生了情节发展的意外性,加强了相反相成的艺术效果。
▲重旨复意式。微型小说应以小暗示大,达到意义的升华;要讲象外之旨,言外之意,引起读者想象。主要采用:①象征。 用具体物象寓示概念或另一形象,但只起结构作用, 不是象在诗歌中着力描写的中心形象那样。如《枪口》, 写一官复原职的领导用别人送的枪打下猎物时,得知走后门的"枪口"也对准了他。 ②双关。如《向不通》, 写大学生向不通十年勤恳工作反不如工作差的升得上去,因而"想不通"。③比喻。如《"炮"炸宴席》, 写小孙子在酒宴上放炮仗捣乱, 又在爷爷不满新经理四十来岁年纪轻时放"炮":"你不是十八岁就当县长!爸爸三十出头就当厂长了! "④省略。这是一种具象化的空白。如《落果》, 老门卫退休后门口枣树上果子不熟就被打光,他写信给厂长:"连几十张馋嘴都管不住,还管厂。"接着省略了厂长感奋、整顿厂风的情节, 而写第二年老师傅收到一包红枣。
▲采用其它文体和艺术体裁的特长。
【结尾】结尾宜巧,要"回眸一笑"。主要有三种:
▲画龙点睛,首尾呼应。如《那团云雾》,开头败了游兴,峰顶似乎有团云雾,结尾那团云雾也不见了。
▲戛然而止,含蓄隽永。如二百来字的《书法家》,局长在书法展览会上应邀不过写了两个拿手的好字是"同意", 面对惊叹和要求只好无奈地说?quot;能写好的数这两个字……"这样结尾, 韵味无穷,艺术容量很大。
以上两种结尾方法只能撩起读者短暂的激动,最佳结尾是:
▲出人意外,扣人心弦。即"欧·享利式结尾",其特点是"巧"。整个布局为结尾服务,读者以为情节东向演进, 结果却西向而行,抖包袱,亮底牌。这种结尾, 打破了情节发展惯用的结构手法,给人以新奇感,深化了主题,增加了容量。大家熟知的《麦琪的礼物》就是这样,一对穷困夫妻为在节日时互送礼物而煞费苦心,最后礼物拿出来却没用:一个卖掉金表为妻子买了梳子, 一个剪掉长发为丈夫买了根表链。又如澳大利亚的《窗》,靠窗的病人每天为角落病人描述窗外美景,为苍白的生活增光添彩。 但是角落病人却见死不救,图谋到了靠窗的好位置,抬头望见窗外只是一堵高墙。
篇10:2024中考英语作文写作高分秘诀
全文共 1570 字
+ 加入清单中考英语考试中“书面表达”往往是最后一项,怎么样在那么短的时间内尽可能的拿到高分呢?
一、中考英语写作的概述
你对于在中考英语写作中拿高分有把握吗?实际考试中,许多学生却常常有“无话可说”的感觉。那要如何我们才能克服这种无话的状态,取得高分呢?
归根到底这是一个英语基本功——单词、短语和句型的问题。
英语作文的前提条件是掌握了一定量的词汇、语法及体裁、题材等方面的知识。学生如果想要在写作方面有本质上的提升,必须进行多次的写作练习。因此,必须合理地设置训练步骤,遵循从初级到高级,从简单到复杂的原则去练习,经过一段写作实践之后,写作水平一定会有大幅度的提高。
中考英语作文对考生的要求有四点:1、内容要完整。2、语句流畅。3、没有语法错误。4、书写规范。
二、中考英语写作的评分标准
1、老师拿到的标准
写作水平的高低和文章的好坏,分数是最直接的评分标准,也是考生们最关心的。但是多少考生真正透彻知道中考英语写作的评分标准?什么样的文章才是阅卷老师眼中的好文章?
评分标准:
(1)整篇作文满分20分,其中内容8分,语言8分,结构4分。
(2)内容贴切,句子流畅,用语准确,加整体印象分1分。
(3)不满60个词,少1——5个词扣0.5分,6——10个词扣1分。
(4)所有给出问题涉及的三项内容,每少一项扣3分。
(5)每个拼写,大小写,标点符号等错误扣0.5分;同一的拼写错误不重复扣分,扣分总和不超过2分。
(6)语法错误每项扣1分,同一错误不重复扣分,扣分总和不超过2分。
2、老师想看到的标准
语言(8分):
词——固定搭配、高频重点词汇;
句——复杂句(各种从句)、特殊句型、正确的句子!
内容(8分):(总、分)论点、论据支持句;简洁、切合主题的记叙内容。
结构(4分):
语言结构——句子重点突出、内容清晰;
内容结构——论点、论据以及记叙之间的逻辑关系;
句数控制——对于相对内容的句数掌握;
亮点、出彩点——排比、拟人、谚语、成语、押韵等。
三、扣分
内容方面:要点缺失,可酌情扣分。比如中考作文“Iwanttodosomethingformyschool”,若没有写一件具体的事情,是要扣3分以上的;若写的事情太过于虚幻,没有实际内容,也会扣1-2分。
字数:少于60字的作文要酌情扣分。
中考英语作文要求60字以上,标点符号不算,少了就要扣分。
但是60字的作文能不能得高分?从我们拿到的实例作文来看,16分以上的作文,没有少于75字的,甚至少于80字的也少之又少。
当然,也极少有超过100字的,因为中考试卷的短线格一共80个,在格子下面大约还有2行的空间,可以加20字左右,再多阅卷人就很难看清了,也会影响卷面的美观。
所以,同学们如果想让作文得到高分,最好是让字数在75-100字之间。
语法和拼写错误:每个扣0.5,重复错误不计;
标点错误:每4个扣0.5。
四、加分
作文的组织结构分。就是根据学生使用复杂句型、单词和谚语、俗语的情况来加分。只要文章中有1个亮点,基本就可以争取到1分(3分的文采分是很难全部拿到的)。而这1分的亮点,是可以提前准备的。
“万金油”式的复杂句型,例如强调句型、only相关的倒装句等,只要同学们多操练几次,几乎是一定能用到作文当中,从而为自己争取到这1分。
其次就是卷面分。很多家长(微博)和同学,尤其是部分书法并不是十分整洁的同学,都会关心是否真的有“卷面分”的存在。虽然在阅卷标准里面并没有卷面分这一项,但是这个分数却真切地反映在了同学们的分数里面。
据阅卷老师的经验,在阅卷的时候并不是按这3个部分逐项打分的,而是在第一遍读完全文之后,心里已经形成了一个“印象分”,然后再细读第二、三遍,把印象分分配到各个打分部分。
因此,这个“印象分”就非常重要,而同学们的书法,也正是在这个环节,影响到了自己的分数。所以初三的考生,如果书法不好,一定要注意。
篇11:事务文书的写作基础
全文共 2501 字
+ 加入清单事务文书是机关、团体、企事业单位在处理日常事务时用来沟通信息、安排工作、总结得失、研究问题的实用文体,小编收集了事务文书的写作基础,欢迎阅读。
常用事务文书写作
——调研报告,工作总结,经验材料的写作 ——调研报告,工作总结,经验材料的写作
马正平 教授
四川师范大学文学院 四川师大写作思维研究所
马正平,四川师范大学文学院教授,四川师范大学写作与思 马正平, 马正平 维研究所所长;写作学专业研究生学科负责人,领衔导师; 教代会主任.美国亚当史密斯大学荣
誉文学博士.
授 课 人 简 介
国务院享受特殊津贴专家,四川省首届有突出贡献的优秀专 家,四川省首届高校教学名师,四川省高校优秀教学团队带 头人. 中国写作学会副会长,中国思维科学学会常务理事,中华美 学学会会员,四川省写作学会执行会长,四川省人大代表. 研究方向 研究方向:美学,中国古代文论,写作学,思维学,语文教 育学 代表性论文:《50年来意境研究述评》,《50年来 代表 论文: 境界阐释述评》,《知行递变论》,《写作文化论》,《写 作分形论》,《非构思写作学宣言》, 《思维本质与分类 新论》,《第三条路:走向生成主义语文教学观》,《21世 纪作文教学应该有一个什么样的体系?》等.
授 课 人 简 介
代表性专著:《写作行为论》,《写作文化论》, 《写作生长伦》,《现代写作教学原理与实践》, 《现代写作学批判与建构》,《生命的空间:〈人间 词话〉当代解读》. 代表性教材:国家教育部"面向21世纪课程教材"— —《高等写作学引论》,《高等写作思维训练教程》, 《高等文体写作训练教程:基本文体》,《高等文体 写作训练教程:实用文体》,《中学作文教学新思 维》. 代表性获奖:曾先后获3次获省政府优秀科研成果三 等奖,1次获四川省高等教育优秀成果一等奖.
一 前 决 策 事 务 公 文
一,前决策公文:论说类 前决策公文 论说类 (一)研究类 调研报告——迫切性,考察性, ——迫切性 1,调研报告——迫切性,考察性,析因 献策性,系统性, 性,献策性,系统性,参考性 工作研究(理论文章) 2,工作研究(理论文章) (二)对策类 3,工作计划[纲领,纲要,办法,细则, 工作计划[纲领,纲要,办法,细则, 方案]——前瞻性 目标性,措施性, 前瞻性, 方案]——前瞻性,目标性,措施性, 阶段性, 阶段性,未来型
二 决 策 性 事 务 公 文
二,决策类公文:论述类 决策类公文: (一)论说类 4,讲话稿——演说性,概括性,指示性 讲话稿——演说性,概括性, ——演说性 (二)记述类 (1)凭证类/非行文 凭证类/ 会议记录——记载性,凭证性,全面性, ——记载性 5,会议记录——记载性,凭证性,全面性, 现场感 (2)历史类/非行文 历史类/ 6,大事记——重要性(政军经法科文),奇 大事记——重要性(政军经法科文),奇 ——重要性 ), 异性,突发性, 异性,突发性,资料性
三 后 决 策 事 务 公 文
三,后决策·论说类 后决策· (一)周知类 7,简报 汇报类/上行文 (二)汇报类 上行文 8,工作总结——回顾性,反思性, 工作总结 回顾性,反思性, 回顾性 概括性,规律性,未来性, 概括性,规律性,未来性,调整性 经验材料——成绩性,细节性, 成绩性, 9,经验材料 成绩性 细节性, 经验性,做法性, 经验性,做法性,榜样性 10,述职报告—— 10,述职报告
一,传统预成性写作
例如: 例如:
壹
"理论文章"的写作方法 理论文章" (一)标题: 标题: 公文式标题:——关于 关于…… 1,公文式标题:——关于…… 2,论文式标题:——《……的启示》 论文式标题:——《……的启示》 的启示 提问式标题:——如何……?为何…… 如何…… ……? 3,提问式标题:——如何……?为何……? 4,复合式标题: 复合式标题: 正文: (二)正文: 提出问题( ):根据现状 提出需要解决的问题. 根据现状, 1,提出问题(总):根据现状,提出需要解决的问题. 分析问题( 分析现状,探讨存在问题的原因, 2,分析问题(分)分析现状,探讨存在问题的原因,为解决问 题提供有效途径. 题提供有效途径. 解决问题: 3,解决问题:提出解决问题的对策
传 统 预 成 性 写 作
几个重点问题
要精心选材. 1,要精心选材. ——怎样才能做到精心选材 怎样才能做到精心选材? ——怎样才能做到精心选材? 要掌握剪裁艺术. 2,要掌握剪裁艺术. ——怎样才能掌握剪裁艺术 怎样才能掌握剪裁艺术? ——怎样才能掌握剪裁艺术? 合理设计文章结构. 3,合理设计文章结构. ——怎样才能设计合理文章结构 怎样才能设计合理文章结构? ——怎样才能设计合理文章结构?
贰 当 代 生 成 性 写 作
二,当代生成性写作
写作的材料,结构,语言, 写作的材料,结构,语言, 材料 标题是运用一套思维操作方法进 标题是运用一套思维操作方法进 行生成和不是预设,构想, 行生成和不是预设,构想,猜想 的写作行为,写作学与写作教学. 的写作行为,写作学与写作教学.
案 例 演 示
例 1:
关于沙尘暴的思考
非 构 思 主 义 写 作
构成分析或过程分析:——我所看到的疯狂的沙尘暴 我所看到的疯狂的沙尘暴? 一,构成分析或过程分析:——我所看到的疯狂的沙尘暴?
构成分析:描写你看到的沙尘暴到来后的世界的样子; 1,构成分析:描写你看到的沙尘暴到来后的世界的样子;或—— 2,过程分析:叙述你看到的沙尘暴到来的故事. 过程分析: 叙述你看到的沙尘暴到来的故事.
二,原因分析:——为什么会出现沙尘暴? 原因分析:——为什么会出现沙尘暴? 为什么会出现沙尘暴
内蒙沙漠的南移; 1,内蒙沙漠的南移; 原始的过度放牧; 3,原始的过度放牧; 1,不但影响人们健康; 不但影响人们健康; 3, 森林的乱砍乱伐; 2,森林的乱砍乱伐; 田鼠对草原的破坏. 4,田鼠对草原的破坏. 2,而且影响社会经济的发展; 而且影响社会经济的发展;
功能分析:——沙尘暴的危害 三,功能分析:——沙尘暴的危害
篇12:小学生写景作文的写作基础
全文共 1528 字
+ 加入清单大自然物换星移、雨雪云雾,一山一水,一草一木,甚至人们生活的一些环境。下面是小编分享的小学生写景作文的写作基础,欢迎大家阅读!
一、仔细观察,抓住景物特点。
第一要抓时序的特点。春夏秋冬,一年四季或晨、午、黄昏一天早晚,景色自然不一样。比如:《高大的皂荚树》中:“春天,下小雨啦。皂荚树为我们遮挡着,雨滴就不会很快调下来。我们就能够像平常一样,在操场上做体操,做游戏。夏天,暴烈的太阳当头照。有了皂荚树的遮挡,烈日就只能投下星星点点的光斑。我们活动在操场上觉得格外凉爽。秋天,皂荚树上许许多多得皂荚儿成熟了,那样子,就像常见得大扁豆。高年级得同学爬上树去,用带钩子得小竹竿把皂荚儿钩下来。小同学呢,把它们捡进筐里,交给老师。冬天,皂荚树落叶了。枯黄的小叶子,打着旋儿,不断地飘落,在地上铺一层一层。这时候,我们就把树叶扫到一起,堆放在墙脚下。”这些片断作者抓住了皂荚树在一年四季的不同特点,反映了作者对校园皂荚树的喜爱和赞美之情。
第二要抓场所的特点。
写景的文章有的指明了场所的,如《街头一景》、《校园春色》,就要把“校园”、“街头”、等这些场所的特点写出来。
第三要抓景色的特点。
不同的风景点特点是不同的,如有的是山景为主,有的以奇石闻名,有的借江湖增光,就应当抓住这些不同的特点,写出景物的个性。如:《火烧云》中:“这地方的火烧云变化极多,一会儿红彤彤的,一会儿金灿灿的,一会儿半紫半黄,一会儿半灰半百合色。葡萄灰,梨黄,茄子紫,这些颜色天空都有,还有些说也说不出来,见也没见过的颜色。”这个片断作者抓住了火烧云的色彩绚丽的特点进行描写的,从而反映了火烧云的美。
二、动静结合,写好景物特点。
在写景作文中,景物有静态与动态的区别。自然景色总是沉静的,但又都在不断地运动与变化之中。写景时既要注意静态的景,又在善于看出景中的动态,做到静中有动,动中有静,动静结合。描写时或先写静态后写动态,或先写动态后写静态,使景物处于静态与动态时的特征和谐完美地呈现在读者面前,只有这样,才能使文章中的景色特点“活”起来。如《第一场雪》中:“落光了叶子的柳树上,挂满了毛茸茸、亮晶晶地银条儿;冬夏常青地松树和柏树,堆满了蓬松松、沉甸甸的雪球。一阵风吹来,树枝轻轻地摇晃,银条儿和雪球儿簌簌地落下来,玉屑似的雪末儿随风飘扬,映着清晨的阳光,显出一道道五光十色的彩虹……
三、以情观景,借景抒情。
写景物的作文,不是为了写景而写景,它最终的目的是要表达人的一种情感。关键在于处理好“景”与“情”的关系。景与情贵在溶合,景中有情、情中有景,才能达到水乳交融、不可分离的境界。在方法上,可多加运用比喻、拟人等修辞手法,使景物带有人的特点,让写实与想象完美结合在一起。一篇优美的文章只有渗透了作者的真情实感,才能更好地表达文章中心,准确地抒发作者的情怀,使读者也能从课文美的文字中真切体会到景美物美,以及作者对景物的喜爱。如:《夕照》中:“太阳被裹上了橘黄色,没有了刺眼的光芒,稳稳地站在那排杨树上,没有丝毫衰老的样子。柔柔的光泻下来,给砖瓦房镀上一层华丽的金黄;房顶顿时化作一汪晶莹的湖水,每一片瓦都跳跃着的:“波纹”是夕阳得意的杰作。那平静的“湖面”难道不是被它踩碎的吗?啊,它和我一样调皮!”作者运用一连串的比喻和巧妙的拟人手法,写出了夕阳的柔美,落山时调皮的模样,使夕阳有了情感,有了生命活力,充分抒发了作者对夕阳的赞美,对夕阳的喜爱之情。
总的来说,写好景物就要抓住景物的特点,根据所写景物的特点,有所侧重地选择景物描写方法,写时要展开丰富的联想,并融入自己的真情实感。平时要多观察、多练习,把你所看到的最美的景色写出来,让读者感到鲜明生动,有身临其境之感。
[小学生写景作文的写作基础
篇13:新闻基础写作知识
全文共 517 字
+ 加入清单新闻是一种纪实类的文体,要求真实性、时效性,以下是小编整理的新闻基础写作知识,欢迎参考阅读!
一、版面术语
报头、报眼、报脚、报眉、头版头条(二版头条、三版头条等)、偏头条、
倒头条、通栏标题、套红、中缝(一四中缝、二三中缝等)
二、报纸的文体
主要有三种:消息、通讯和言论
新闻的分类:
广义:消息、通讯、言论(评论)、图片
狭义:消息(新闻就是消息,消息就是新闻)
消息字数一般要求:重大消息不超过800字,一般消息不超过500字。
三、什么是新闻(消息)?
(1)定义:消息就是用最简要和最迅速的手段报道最新发生的事情的一种宣
传文体。
新闻(消息)就是告诉人们发生了什么,报道最新发生的事实。
消息来源格式:本报讯(记者、特约记者、通讯员),新华社消息、路透社、塔斯社等等
(2)特点:
采写发稿迅速、及时,叙事直截了当,语言简洁明快,篇幅较小。
内容包括:何时、何地、何人、何事、何故,另加“如何”
(3)消息的结构:消息=标题+导语+主体(背景)+结尾
写法:金字塔结构、倒金字塔结构
四、消息的种类(按写作特点分)
(1)简讯(新闻短波)(2)动态消息 (3)经验消息 (4)综合消息 (5
)评述性消息 (6)新闻特写(素描、特写) (7)人物消息 (8)公报式
篇14:2024年中考英语作文写作方法汇编
全文共 1112 字
+ 加入清单中考英语作文评分标准一般分为三类:一等作文、二等作文和三等作文。为了让不同层次的学生在作文得分率上都能有所提高,现对各类作文进行分析,找出相应的得分秘诀。下面说说中考英语一等作文的写作方法。
一、中考英语一等作文的评分标准
内容完整,具体,丰富,包含所有要点,能够围绕内容适当发挥,语句流畅,应用了较丰富的语言结构和词汇,用词准确,句子通顺,行文连续,层次分明,表达清楚,无语法错误,书写规范,标点正确,计满分。
二、中考英语一等作文的写作要求
(一)确保作文的完整性,关注评卷第一印象
考试的时候,要尽量留出充足的时间写作文。这样,我们才能有足够的时间去构思,打草稿。由于评卷是人工进行的,所以作文留给人的第一印象是很重要的,从以往经验看,第一印象至少占1分,那些卷面整洁,文字自然流畅,书写工整,标点符号正确的非常“吃香”,所以,大家平时就应该注意作文的“形象”,“仪表”一定要保证自己看卷面时觉得舒服,那么中考得高分就不是一句空话了。
不论做哪种题目,审题是最关键的,写好中考作文更是这样!要做到内容完整,我们首先要认真看好题目的要求,分析题目到底要我们写什么。比如要求我们用第三人称来写作,如果审题没有审好,用了第一人称,那么,作文一定得不到满分,说不定还是最差的。所以,要重视审题,按题目的具体要求进行构思。中考书面表达基本上都是提示性作文(包括看图作文),因此要保证运用所有的提示要点,进行合理的发挥,为写下满分作文打好基础。
(二)打好草稿质量,全面留意扣主题
写好中考英语一等作文除了做到上面讲的内容之外,还要做到以下几点:
1. 要做到内容具体。中考提示性作文都有具体的内容和要求,写作时只要按规定将作文写出来,得分就不难,但是要想得满分,必须做到围绕内容适当发挥,并且要突出文章的主题,体现实际的中心思想。
2. 要做到语句流畅。这就要求有扎实的英语基本功。在平时的学习过程中,注意一些常用句式的表达方法。要尽量使用自己最熟悉的词语和句型,要尽量避免汉语式的表达方式。要注意句子之间的连贯性,不仅仅从语法上,更主要的是从句意上,把握句子的连贯性。
3. 要做到层次分明。写文章不都是一个段落,一个模式,要根据文章的具体需要,来确定文章究竟用几个段落,作文要讲究层次分明,突出主题。
4. 要按规定的词数书写。中考提示作文都有具体的词数要求,写作时要注意数一数所用的单词数量,词数过多或过少都会丢分。
5. 最后要注意检查。写完作文不是没事可做,最后一步就是细心检查,这很关键。检查时要从题目要求开始,到具体内容无误结束。保证词语,句型的运用正确,标点运用得当等等,都是重点检查的项目,直到在一定的时间之内完成好作文,不留遗憾为止。
篇15:写作基础:学生如何写好想象文章
全文共 798 字
+ 加入清单想象力是十分强烈地促进人类发展的伟大天赋,那么大家知道学生如何写好想象文章呢?下面一起来看看!
想象是以感觉、知觉和记忆为基础的。三者的区别在于:感觉、知觉反映当前事物的形象;记忆反映过去感知的事物的形象;想象则反映未曾经历过的或现实中不存在的事物的形象,例如《西游记》中的孙悟空、猪八戒及各种妖魔鬼怪,都是想象的形象,是非现实的。?想象在科学论文和文学作品的写作中有着重要的作用。大量的科学研究成果是受想象的启发而获得的,无数文学人物的形象是通过想象而创造出来的。所以,爱因斯坦说:“想象力比知识更重要,因为知识是有限的,而想象概括着世界上的一切,推动着进步,并且是知识进化的源泉。严格地说,想象力是科学研究中的实在因素。”(《爱因斯坦文集》第一卷)
古今中外的许多作家都认为想象力是文学创作绝对必需的。例如,茅盾说:“创作文学时必不可缺的,是观察的能力与想象的能力:两者缺一不可。”(《茅盾文艺杂论集》上集)
想象力的基础是敏锐的观察力和牢固的记忆力。较强的想象力表现为:善于控制想象的方向,围绕一个中心展开想象;善于提高想象活动的新颖程度;善于在现实的基础上创造非现实的新形象;想象的内容是丰富的、多层次、多侧面的。这种较强的想象力主要是经由人的后天教育与环境熏陶,通过实践的锻炼而逐步发展起来的。
重视并且认真培养、锻炼想象力,就可使想象活动在写作中发挥开拓思路、强化感情、促进独创、深化主题的作用。
想象分为有意想象和无意想象。梦是无意想象的极端表现,与写作有着密切的关系。然而,写作中的想象按其创造性的本质来说,则都是有意想象。有意想象又可以分为再造想象和创造想象。科学写作中的想象具有客观性和精确性,而文学写作中的想象具有主观性和虚构性。
文学创作想象的主要特点是进行表象的分解与综合。只有在理解想象的特点的基础上,才能经过不断的写作实践,培养出丰富的想象能力。
[写作基础:学生如何写好想象文章
篇16:坚持八条英语作文的写作守则
全文共 629 字
+ 加入清单1、organize your thoughts before writing: brainstorm、make an outline、etc。 下笔前整合思绪:脑力激荡,写出纲要等。
2、write clearly。 be concise。 avoid wordiness。写作清晰,务必精简,避免赘言。
3、use good grammar and write complete sentences。 使用好的文法,写出完整句子。
4、write simple sentences。 avoid a fancy style。 尝试简单句,避免花俏的句法。
5、avoid slang、cliche and informal words。 避免俚语、陈腔滥调和非正式用字。
6、avoid use of the first person (i。e。 i/me/my) unless necessary to specific piece。除非必要,避免使用第一人称:如“我/我的”。
7、writing naturally。 read it aloud。 does it sound natural? does it flow? 自然挥洒,大声朗诵。整篇文章听起来自然吗?通顺吗?
8、move logically from one idea to the next。 dont skip steps。 上下句意要合乎逻辑。别毫无章法乱跳。
篇17:散文的写作基础
全文共 13789 字
+ 加入清单中国是一个散文大国。古今的散文大家和作品,享誉很高,下面是小编收集了关于散文的写作基础,欢迎阅读。
中国是一个散文大国。古今的散文大家和作品,享誉很高。新时期以来,我国的散文创作出现了前所未有的好势头,散文创作持续热闹火爆,涌现了一批专事散文的作家,一些学者、诗人、小说家、评论家、艺术家也跻身其中,众多的大学生也喜爱读写散文。“‘五四’以来的中国散文史,无疑是继先秦、两汉、魏晋、唐宋、明清散文这一座座峰峦之后的又一个高峰。它最为重大的意义是企图号召整个民族,彻底地走向人性的解放,树立科学和民主、平等和自由的现代文明观念。多少散文家都通过自己洋溢着独特个性的笔角,在不同的领域之内,从种种不同的视角,程度不等地完成着这个神圣的使命。”(林非《傅德岷主编〈中国现 代散文发展史〉序》)
1998年6月,中国当代散文创作研讨会认为:我国当代散文发展到今天,取得了很大的成绩,发表、出版了一大批优秀的散文,它们坚持对人生的始终关怀,坚持文学应该有益于人心世道,应该净化、美化和慧化人心,艺术上坚持众美并具、雅俗共赏的原则,成为色、香、味俱全的文化品位的精神食粮。同时,当代散文也面临创新与发展的问题。如今的读者对各类散文家及其作品褒贬不一,文坛上存在多种声音,表明散文创作同样是“没有最好,只有更好”。散文作者认识到这一点才能正确对待他人和自己。散文作者应该顺应时代的潮流,关注社会人生,要以自身的人格力量打动读者。散文属于高雅的精神产品,在经济大潮的冲击下,应当有一个清醒的对抗“商品”的精神。散文的开放是精神的开放、境界的开放,对于境界的把握,应比读者高出一个层次。中外散文名家的成功经验证明,散文创作必须讲究风格和形式,没有风格的写作最终会失去创作的个性。
学习散文写作有两条途径,其一是从摹仿入手,跟在他人后面亦步亦趋。这种没有理论的盲目实践,往往事倍功半。其二是在阅读了一些散文,有了些感性认识,然后学习散文写作理论,使感性认识上升到理性认识的阶段,再阅读名家范文,然后从事写作实践,这样就可以事半功倍。我们应取第二条途径,即:阅读→研究→阅读→写作。
首先,要明白散文的定义。什么是散文呢?有广义和狭义两种概念。广义的散文,在古代指的是一切不押韵的文章。刘勰在《文心雕龙》的《总术》篇写道:“今之常言,有‘文’ 有‘笔’,以为无韵者‘笔’也,有韵者‘文’也。”所谓“笔”,就是指韵文以外的一切记叙性和议论性的文体,这些文体就散文。不过,古代没有“散文”这一个名称;“散文”这个名称是“五四”时期才有的。在现代,广义的散文包括了除去诗歌、小说、戏剧、影视文学之外的一切叙事性、议论性、抒情性的文体,如秦牧在《海阔天空的散文领域》中说,“不属于其他文学体裁,而又具有文学味道的一切篇幅短小的文章,都属于散文的范围”。这样,就有了抒情散文,叙事散文和议论散文等的分类。
狭义的散文则专指抒情散文。这是因为随着文体的发展,叙事散文中的通讯特写、传记文学、报告文学等,已经发展成为独立的文体,各成一类;议论散文则有了专门的名称—— 杂文,也从散文中分了出来,剩下的只有抒情散文,这就是狭义的散文。
我们这里要学习的主要是抒情散文,也涉及叙事散文和其它类型的散文。习作者可以根据自己的人生阅历、文化素养和爱好,或写作抒情散文,或作叙事散文,或写文化散文,或作智慧散文,或写游历散文,或作其它类型的散文。
其次,要认清散文的写作特点。散文是一种内容丰富、题材广泛、篇幅短小、体裁多样、形式灵活、文情并茂的文体。在写作上,它有以下六个特点:
(一)内容丰富,题材广泛散文的内容涉及自然万物、各色人等、古今中外、政事私情……可以说是无所不包、无所不有的。可以写国内外和社会上的矛盾、斗争,写经济建设,写文艺论争,写伦理道德,也可以写文艺随笔,读书笔记,日记书简;既可以是风土人物志、游记和偶感录,也可以是知识小品、文坛轶事;它能够谈天说地,更可以抒情写趣。凡是能给人以思想启迪、美的感受、情操的陶治,使人开阔视野,丰富知识,心旷神怡的,都可选作散文的题材。
(二)思想警辟,诗意盎然散文多是真情实感的产物,那些优秀的篇章,都有思想火花的闪耀,表现着作者对时代和人生的深刻认识与精辟见解。徐迟说:“文学作品,应该有思想。散文也不例外。它要求有特别锐利的思想。即使是抒情散文,也要求有不但是锐利的,而且是特别锐利的思想。不到五百字的《岳阳楼记》,‘先天下之忧而忧,后天下之乐而乐’是一个光辉灿烂的思想。抒情散文固然很多,写到这样的境界就并不很多。然而,这正是散文、抒情散文所应追求的境界。”“凡掷地作金石声的作品差不多总是包含着鲜明的思想、结结实实的思想。有闪光的思想之焦点,飞跃着不灭的思想之火焰的。”(《说散文》)我们读鲁迅的《雪》,可以学到鲁讯从飞雪和雪罗汉身上探索到的美好、光明以及与冷酷现实进行顽强斗争的革命精神;读茅盾的《白杨礼赞》,可以看出茅盾怎样从平凡的白杨树身上联想到北方农民的坚强不屈和英勇豪迈的形象;读袁鹰的《井冈翠竹》,可以领悟作者从普通的毛竹思考到井冈山人民的献身革命与建设的精神品质。秦牧说得好:“思想像一根线串起了生活的珍珠,没有这根线,珍 珠只能够弃散在地。” 散文的优秀作品还每每是诗意盎然的。杨朔说过:“好的散文就是一首诗。”苏联作家巴 乌斯托夫斯基也指出:“真正的散文是充满诗意的,就像苹果饱含着果汁一样。”因此,高尔基对青年作者说:“我们的青年是否也可以试一下,热情地用散文来写人们,使得散文也自然而然地变成为诗。”(引自《回忆高尔基》)杨朔的散文之所以写得那样好,原因之一就他“总是拿着当诗一样写。”他告诉我们:“不要从狭义方面来理解诗意两个字。杏花春雨,固然有诗,铁马金戈的英雄气概,更富有鼓舞人心的诗力。你在斗争中,劳动中,时常会有些东西触动你的心,使你激昂,使你欢乐,使你忧愁,使你深思,这不是诗又是什么?凡是遇到这样动情的事,我就要反复思索,到后来往往形成我文章里的思想意境。”(《东风第一枝?小跋》)他的名篇《荔枝蜜》、《茶花赋》、《海市》…… 都是诗意盎然之作,既是散文, 又是诗篇。
(三)短小精悍,自由灵活有人称散文是文艺战线上的“轻骑兵”,就是因为它具有篇章短小精悍、形式灵活自由的特点。我国古代散文的名篇多数是很短的,如韩愈的《马说》150字,柳宗元的《小石潭记》193字。现代散文的名篇多数也是很短的,如许地山的《落花生》482字,茅盾的《白杨礼赞》1074字。当然,较长的优秀散文也是有的,但它与一般记叙文相比,仍是精悍之作。所以散文写作要求做到短小精悍,以小见大,言近旨远。从形式上来看,散文较其它的文学体裁更为自由活泼、灵活多样。鲁迅在《怎么写》中指出:“散文的体裁,其实是大可以随便的。”冰心在《谈散文》中说:“散文比较自由”。当然,这里说的“随便”、“自由”不是毫不经心、信手乱写。自由灵活的散文写作,是“装着随便的涂鸦模样,其实却是用心雕心刻骨的苦心的文章。”(厨川白村:《出了象牙之塔》)散文写作自由、灵活这一特点,在写作上,首先指的是表达方式灵活自如,不局限于某一种表达方法。因而,散文写作可以记人、叙事、状物、写景、抒情、说理、呐喊、怒吼、抨击、赞颂、幽默、讽刺、高歌、浅唱、漫谈、絮语、嘻笑怒骂、妙语解颐……各式各样、应有尽有。其次,写作者可以自由、灵活地选用各种体裁来写,赋铭、速写、游记、书信、日记、序跋、偶感、随笔、回忆录、读后感……,任人选择,因人而异,都能写成佳作。 (四)形散神收,博而不杂宋代大散文家、诗人苏轼在《文说》中说:“吾文如万斛泉涌,不择地而出。在平地,滔滔汩汩,虽一日千里无难。及其与山石曲折,随物赋形而不可知也。所可知者,常行于所 当行,常止于不可不止,如是而已矣。”
“形散神不散”,这是许多散文作家的经验之谈。散文必须“散”,必须“博”,也就是说从表面上看,从形式上看,它运笔如风,不拘成法,似乎散漫无章,行文时断时续,时而勾勒描绘,时而倒叙联想,时而感情迸发,时而侃侃议论,既有天文地理,又有伦理人情,这段写甲地,那段却写乙地。但是,它的“神”却是始终不散的,是首尾一贯的,是表现作者一定的思想、感情的。“神收”、“不杂”,就指的是文章始终紧紧围绕一个中心,贯穿一条红线,做到结构紧凑,层次分明,详略得当,重点突出。例如秦牧的散文《社稷坛抒情》,是既“散”又“博”的,然而,尽管它天上地下,古今中外,包罗万象,却始终围绕着“歌颂赞美养育我们的土地和创造我们伟大民族文化历史的劳动人民”这一主题思想。因此,从形式上说,散文贵“散”,而在构思上、组织上,则散文忌“散”。散文写作具有的这一辩证统一的特点,使得它与其它文体区别开来。
(五)直抒胸臆,自具风格文学作品都是带有感情的,但小说、戏剧的作者,往往把自己强烈的感情倾注在人物形象的塑造上,作者对生活的感受、对人物的爱憎褒贬,一般是通过间接的方式表现出来的。而散文则不一样,它常常象诗歌一样,每每用直接抒情的方式抒写胸臆,不仅使读者知其理、晓其事,而且悟其心、感其情,因此,散文要求作者写真情实感。真情是散文的生命,只有直抒胸臆,把真情实感捧给读者,才会赢得读者的喜爱。作家贾平凹在回答“散文创作要不要绝对真实”的问题时说:“这个问题争论很多,又都没有一定结论。我个人的体会,还是倾向于‘绝对真实’四个字。所谓真实,主要是指在感情以及运用环境和事件上。古人写的散文,题材也是很广泛的,但古人写散文,都是有感而发。今人写散文,多多少少存在着一些为写而写的现象,所以在绝对真实问题上就出现了所谓‘理论与实践上的不一致。’也正因为如此,这些散文就写得不那么成功了。当然,作为文学作品应该生活化,生活也应该作品化,散文尤是这样。”(《怎样写好散文》)
写作要“文如其人”,散文更是这样。名家都有自己的风格,他们的作品即使不署名,读者也能从风格上看出作者。如鲁迅的散文深刻、精炼、峭拔,虽然他写文章经常改换笔名,然而“何家干”的文章,明眼人一看就看出是鲁迅。郭沫若的散文气势浩荡,又清丽、缠绵。茅盾的散文与郭沫若的浩荡相反,表现为深刻而细微。还有,老舍的散文诙谐,冰心的散文慈爱,叶圣陶严谨畅达,方纪潇洒俊逸,等等。初学写作者一时不可能形成自己的散文风格,但是必须向这些各有风格的散文作家学习,经过多次的实践、创造,努力形成自己的散文风 格。
(六)惨淡经营,文采斐然优秀的散文不可能是“掉以轻心”写出来的,它们都是作者惨淡经营、刻意加工的结晶。秦牧指出:“一篇小小的散文也许写作时间仅仅是一两个小时,但却要求作家深厚的素养,而且不断扩大和丰富这种素养。把散文当作是‘小功夫’,‘掉以轻心’的写作态度,是很不利于我们散文创作的繁荣发展的。即使是怎样熟练的名作家,我们也要求他们在写作一篇小文章时,采取‘大象搏狮用全力,搏兔也用全力’的态度。”有些散文家提倡散文的“整体 美”,也是要求作者在内容和形式上都“惨淡经营”。整篇文章是惨淡经营、刻意加工写成的,它的语言就是精炼的,文采斐然的。这是由于作者运用的是散文笔调。那么什么是“散文笔调”呢?可以说,散文笔调一方面表现在它的行文灵活自如,另一方面则表现在它十分讲究文采。散文的文采不仅有华丽的,而且有朴素的。
学习散文写作,既要掌握华丽的文采,也要掌握朴素的文采。写得华丽并不容易,写得朴素更难。徐迟的文章是很有文采的,他常用赋的方法兼用比、兴修辞,使得文采华美。但是他说:“只有写得朴素了,才能显出真正的文采来。古今大散文家,都是这样写作的。越是大作家,越到成熟之时,越是写得朴素。而文采闪耀在朴素的篇页之上。”我们还要看到,不管是华丽的还是朴素的,散文的富有文采的语言都是从新鲜、活泼的口语中来的,也是对优秀的古代散文创造性的继承,也是作者仔细选择、锤炼和加工的结果。
第二节 散文的写作
一、精于立意
“凡文以意为主”。散文的“意”是存在于深厚的生活土壤和浩瀚的生活海洋中的。要获得它,必须依靠我们对生活的深入观察、感受、理解。因此,散文立意只要从生活实际出发,凭着鲜明的感受,锋锐的观察能力,同人民同时代共同跳动的脉博,深厚的感情,丰富的想象,深沉的思索,就会感到我们生活中洋溢着的诗意。这诗意,就是使我们心灵受到触动的东西,使我们眼睛豁然开朗的东西,思想突然升华的东西,感情更为纯洁的东西,它就诗的灵感。我们要为自己的散文立意就要赶紧捕捉住它。因为这里面有心灵的颤动,思想的闪光。刘白羽说:“哪怕是微弱的闪耀也比没有闪耀要好,这才不是一般的照相,这才是文 学。”(《早晨的太阳》序)
譬如,一个作家去看茶花,品种繁多,美不胜收的茶花引起了他的思索:“茶花是美啊。凡是生活中美的事物都是劳动创造的。是谁白天黑夜、积年累月,拿自己的汗水浇着花,象抚育自己儿女一样抚育着花秧,终于培养出这样绝色的好花?应该感谢那为我们美化生活的人。”这就是思想的闪耀,作家十分宝贵它,就及时把这个意思记下来。后来,他听一位花匠介绍一种茶花说:“这叫童子面,花期迟,刚打开骨朵,开起来颜色深红,倒是最好看的。” 并没有引起思索,但他是记住这种茶花的名称的。过了一会,恰巧一群小孩也来看茶花,这事引起了作家的注意,他看见孩子们一个个仰着鲜红的小脸,甜蜜蜜地笑着,唧唧喳喳叫个不休,心灵猛然一颤,不禁脱口说出:“童子面茶花开了。”而花匠听了这话省悟后说:“真的呢,再没有比这种童子面更好看的茶花了。”这话使得一个念头突然跳出他的脑海,他说:“我得到一幅画的构思。如果用最浓最艳的朱红画一大朵含露乍开的童子面茶花,岂不正可以象征着祖国的面貌?”于是,作家就把看茶花引起的感受、思索写成一篇文情并茂的散文《茶花赋》。这个作家就杨朔。而读者、评论者通过阅读就可以悟出作家写此文的立意:歌 颂如花的祖国,歌颂美化祖国的劳动人民。
二、善于构思
构思是写作者对生活素材进行去粗取精、去伪存真、由此及彼、由表及里的加工、提炼的过程。写作者要在构思中为散文的思想内容寻找尽量完美的艺术形式,使思想性与艺术性达到和谐的统一。因此,构思要解决立意、选材、创造意境、确定体裁、基本手法、布局谋篇等问题。这里着重讲讲确定体裁、寻找线索、创造意境三个问题。
第一、确定体裁。散文的体裁灵活多样。我们有了一个好的意思(思想),并且选取了表现这一意思(思想)的材料,那么就要考虑:是写成书信体,还是写成日记体?是写成随笔,还是写成偶感?是写成游记,还是写成回忆录?是写成序或跋,还是写成读后感?确定具体体裁的原则是内容决定形式,形式为内容服务。譬如到苏州旅游之后,你感到要向父母报告一下自己的游踪和观感,你就可以写成书信;你在游玩中遇到一些使你感动的人或事,你就可以写随笔、漫录;你在游玩虎丘、狮子林、寒山寺、西园、留园等地之后,觉得寒山寺的钟特别吸引人,并引起你的遐思,你就可以写成如《社稷坛抒情》那样诗意浓郁的抒情文;你如果是旧地重游,吃到苏州某种土特产而忆起往事,则可以偏重于回忆,写成《小米的回忆》那样的回忆式的散文……总之,要根据立意内容来确定表现形式——具体的体裁。
第二、寻找线索。散文的材料应该是很“散”的,每一个材料都是一颗珍珠,但这些珍珠互相之间有内在的联系,我们写作者要寻找一根线,用笔作针,将这些散乱的珍珠穿起来,成为一串光彩夺目的珠圈、项链。那末,有哪些东西可以作为线索呢?一是感情线索。我们的感情在生活中发生变化,如由厌恶到喜爱,或从喜欢到厌恶,就可以用这条感情的线索把一些似乎没有关联的材料联结起来。如杨朔写《荔枝蜜》就是利用感情线索,才把儿时记忆、从化疗养、荔枝树林、苏轼诗词、喜尝蜂蜜、参观蜂场、赞扬蜜 蜂、农民劳动和夜晚梦蜂等事串连起来的。
二是事物线索。如曹靖华在日常生活中感受到:今天仍然需要发扬延安时期“小米加步枪”的艰苦奋斗精神,就搜罗记忆中有关小米的往事,用小米把发生在不同地点、不同时间、不同情况下的事件组合在一起。许多托物咏志的散文也是以物为线索的,如冰心的《樱花赞》。
三是人物线索。如写某一个人物在不同时间、不同地点的活动,可以用这个人物作为线索串连起来,也可以用另一个人物把不同时间、不同地点、不同人物、不同内容的事物串连起来。这个人物还可以是写作者本人——“我”。
四是思绪线索。如面对某一事物、景物沉思遐想,“鹜趋八极,心游万仞”,“观古今于须臾,抚四海于一瞬”,“笼天地于形内,挫万物于笔端”。就能通过联想与想象,把有关的材料组织在一起,表达原定的主题思想。如秦牧的《土地》、杨朔的《海市》、贾平凹的《丑 石》等。
五是景物线索。“一切景语皆情语也”。通过景物描写,在写景中融进写作者的思想感情。
如《天山景物记》、《西湖即景》。
六是行动线索。如游记以游程行踪为线索。刘白羽写《长江三日》就以游程为主线来写,当然,全文还有一条哲理性的思绪线索:“战斗——航进——穿过黑夜走向黎明”。
“文无定法”,散文的线索很多,以上六种线索是较为人们常用的。
第三、创造意境。散文的意境是情和景的交融,是意和境的统一,是作者浸透了时代精神的主观感情、意志与自然环境和社会环境的统一。意是灵魂,境是血肉。意高则境深,意低则境浅。散文的这种意境应是诗的意境,即所谓“诗情画意”。它是可以捉摸的,可以感受的,是物质的,形象的,但它又是动人心弦的,震颤魂魄的,是精神的,性灵的。如朱自清写《荷塘月色》,全篇着力于“淡淡的情趣”,顺着沿路走来、伫立凝想的线索,通过描绘使小路、荷塘、花姿、月色、树影、雾气、灯光……色彩斑烂,可见可感,而叶香、蛙鸣、蝉声,又可味可闻。更加上心情的抒写,巧妙的譬喻,创造出一种淡雅、闲静、情景交融的意境。这种优美的意境,正是散文写作者要努力追求、刻意创造的。
构思方法可以向前人借鉴,更需自己创新。过去就有一个青年作者发明出一种“散文快速构思法”,为《青春》、《采石》等刊物的编辑所重视。
三、巧于布局散文一般篇幅短小,布局有方便的地方,但要布局得好,却因篇幅短小而有其难处。这犹如一座大山上有小堆的乱石,常常无损大山的壮观。但是一个小园中有一堆乱石,就很容易破坏园林之美。因此,散文的布局——结构十分重要。参观苏州园林,从它精巧的建筑布局上,我们可以得到启示,可以借鉴它的园林建筑布局来考虑散文的布局。叶圣陶在《苏州园林》中写道,苏州园林建筑的设计者和匠师们“讲究亭台轩榭的布局,讲究假山池沼的配合,讲究花草树木的映衬,讲究近景远景的层次。总之,一切都要为构成完美的图画而存在,决不容许有欠美伤美的败笔。”作为散文的写作来说,也要这样讲究材料的布局、配合、映衬、层次。苏州园林不讲究对称,但散文布局有时则需讲究对称,或对比。叶圣陶又说:“苏州园林在每一个角度都注意图画美。”那么,散文的整体布局要讲究艺术性,它的局部的布 局不是同样要讲究艺术性吗?至于布局的具体方法是很多的,前面讲的线索问题也与布局有关。这里可以着重提一下的是:不少散文的布局都要巧设“文眼”,开头往往似谈家常,结尾则加以深化,画龙点睛, “卒章显其志”,并且首尾呼应,通体一贯,有机结合。初学散文写作,不妨学习这种布局 的方法。
四、明于断续散文要“散”得起来,除了选材要有技巧之外,就是在叙写上要注意断续的技巧。明于断续,才能使散文的行文上挥洒自如。贾平凹说:“记住:越是你知道多的地方,越要不写或者写得很少;空白,这正是你要写的地方呢。”他认为,“讲究了‘空白’处理,一是散文可以散起来,断续之,续断之,文能‘飞起’,神妙便显也。二是散文可以含蓄起来,古人也讲过:意在笔先,故得举止闲暇,看似胡乱说,骨子里却有分数。”(《怎样写好散文》)我们要多阅读古人优秀的散文作品,学习他人的断续技巧,在写作实践中多次运用之后就必然 熟能生巧。
第三节 散文写作的模式
记人散文模式
【开头】①感情化语言概括叙述。我和该人,重点在后。介绍该人,如肖像描写。②两者关系及该人精神特质的议论。
【中间】▲一种情况:一件事。从开头、发展到结尾,细致叙述和描写。
▲另一种情况:几件事。每件事即每层次前,可以用对该人精神特质的一个因素领起。 以对该人的感情体验及整体议论来贯穿几件事。
【结尾】①重申特质,照应开头。②深化感情关系,发出感慨。
抒情散文模式
【开头】1叙述自己与景物的关系。2议论景物和自己。
【中间】1描写景物,分出层次,细致动人。2联想发挥,更大意义。
【结尾】感慨
散文写作--构思
散文,往往通过生活中偶发的、片断的事象,去反映其复杂的背景和深广的内涵,做到“一粒沙里见世界,半瓣花上说人情”。要达到这种境界,构思是关键。
构思,是作者对一篇作品的整个认识过程,从他对外界事物的最初感受到成篇的全过程。就是进入下笔阶段,也仍然在思考,在探索,在继续认识所要描写的对象,深入发掘其底蕴和内涵。这是一种复杂的、艰辛的、严肃的精神活动,是对作家人格、修养、功力的考验。由于事物间的联系是深邃而微妙的,作家要善于由表及里,从纷繁错综的联系里,发现其独特而奥妙的联系点,才能够从“引心”到“会心”,由“迎意”到“立意”。构思的奥妙,不同的作家有不同发现。于是就出现了种种不同的构思方法──秦牧的构思方法,有人叫做“滚雪球”。他写散文,起初的感受只是一点点,如一片小雪花,随着题材的增加,体会的深入,联想的开展,那感觉一步步膨胀起来,就象滚雪球一样。这里可贵的是最初的感觉,照秦牧的话说,它是事物的“尖端”部分,最富有“特征”的部分,一旦被作家抓住,就象一粒饱满的种子,落到肥沃的土壤里,作家用思想、感情的阳光雨露恩泽它,使它萌发成丰富的果实。这是一个核心,越滚越大,形成统一的构思。他的名篇《土地》、《社稷坛抒情》就是很好的例子。
徐迟的构思方法,叫“抓一刹那”。这“一刹那”他认为是事物的“精华”部分,最有“光彩”部分。抓住这“一刹那”,就抓住了头绪,抓住了中心,零散杂乱的材料才得以集中,才有了归宿。如他的《在湍流的涡漩中》的创作,正反两方面的教训都可以说明这个问题。
总之,一篇散文的谋篇、构思,不同的作家有不同的方法,因人而异,不可强求一律,更不能照猫画虎,每人应有每人的独特方法,但讲究构思,则对每一个作家而言,都是极重要的。
--语言
散文笔调的魅力,固然来自作家的真知、真见、真性、真情。但要将其化作文学和谐的色彩、自然的节奏、隽永的韵味,还必须依靠驾驭文字的娴熟,笔墨的高度净化。
文采,不在于文字的花哨和刻意雕饰,而在于表情达意,朴实真挚。如堆砌词藻,就象爱美而又不善于打扮的女人一样,以为涂脂抹粉,越浓越好,花花绿绿,越艳越好,其实俗不可耐,令人见了皱眉。
散文作者,要有特别敏锐的眼光和洞察力,能看到和发现别人所没有看到的事物,还需有异常严密而深厚的文字功夫。创作时,不能心浮气躁,要静下心来,挖空心思找到准确的词句,并把它们排列得能用很少的话表达较多的意思。这就是古人所说的“言简意繁”。要使语言能表现出一幅生动的画面,简洁地描绘出人物的音容笑貌和主要特征,让读者一下子就牢牢记住被描写人物的动作、步态和语气。
散文的语言美,作家们有不少独到精辟的见解。秦牧说:“文采,同样产生艺术魅力和文笔情趣。丰富的词汇,生动的口语,铿锵的音节,适当的偶句,色彩鲜明的描绘,精采的叠句……这些东西的配合,都会增加文笔的情趣。”佘树森说:“散文的语言,似乎比小说多几分浓密和雕饰,而又比诗歌多几分清淡和自然。它简洁而又潇洒,朴素而又优美,自然中透着情韵。可以说,它的美,恰恰就在这浓与淡、雕饰与自然之间。”
散文篇幅小,容量大,行文最忌拉拉杂杂,拖泥带水,容不得老王婆裹脚布,又长又臭。简洁,并不是简境,而是简笔;笔既简,而境不简,是一种高度准确的概括力。杜牧《阿房宫赋》开头写道:“六王毕,四海一。蜀山兀,阿房出。”仅仅十二字,就写出了六国王朝的覆灭。秦始皇统一了天下,把蜀山的树木砍光了,山顶上光秃秃的,就在这里,修建起阿房宫。短短十二个字,写出了这么丰富的历史内容,时空跨度又很大,真可谓“言简意繁”了。
潇洒,对人来说,是一种气质,一种风度。对散文来说,是语句变化多姿。短句,促而严;长句,舒而缓;偶句,匀称凝重;奇句,流美洒脱。这些句式的错落而谐调的配置,自然便构成散文语言特有的简洁而潇洒的美。
散文语言的朴素美,并不排斥华丽美,两者是相对成立的。在散文作品里,我们往往看到朴素和华丽两副笔墨并用。该浓墨重彩的地方,尽意渲染,如天边锦缎般的晚霞;该朴素的地方,轻描淡写,似清澈小溪涓涓流淌。朴素有如美女的“淡扫蛾眉”,华丽亦非丽词艳句的堆砌,而是精巧的艺术加工,不着斧凿的痕迹。但不论是朴素还是华丽,若不附属于真挚感情和崇高思想的美,就易于像无限的浮萍,变得苍白无力,流于玩弄技巧的文字游戏。
像生活的海洋一样,语言的海洋也是辽阔无边的。行文潇洒,不拘一格,鲜活的文气,新颖的语言,巧妙的比喻,迷人的情韵,精采的叠句,智慧的警语,优美的排比,隽永的格言,风趣的谚语,机智的幽默,含蓄的寓意,多种多样艺术技巧的自如运用,将使散文创作越发清新隽永,光彩照人。
--联想
一篇优秀的散文,几乎难以离开联想。所谓联想,是指对事物由此及彼、由表及里的想象活动。由一事物过渡到另一事物的心理过程。当人们由当前事物回忆起有关的另一事物,或者由想起的一件事物又波及到另一件事物时,都离不开联想。在这种联想活动中,事物的特征和本质,更容易鲜明和突出,作者的思想认识也能不断提高和深化。
一个作者的知识积累,储藏愈厚实,则对生活的感受愈敏锐,易于触类旁通,浮想联翩,文思泉涌。联想,在心理活动中占有重要地位。回忆常以联想的形式出现,联想还有助于举一反三的推理过程。特别是在散文创作及其它样式的文艺创作中,联想有着增强作品艺术魅力的功效。散文家的灵感,看似偶然,实则必然,迁思妙得,得自长期积累。积累愈厚,愈发敏感。散文不是贵在触发吗?由此及彼是触发,对于目前所经历的事物,发现旁的意思,既是触发,也是联想。
深厚的积累,有助于触发的深化。要将“诗魂”变为诗,要从触发达到构思,还必须发挥联想和想象。要将许多旧经验溶化、抽象、加以重新组织,假若没有一定生活积累做凭依,想象、联想的翅膀则是飞不起来的。
客观事物总是相互联系的,具有各种不同联系的事物反映在作者的头脑中,便形成了各种不同的联想── 有空间或时间上相接近的事物形成接近联想(如由水库想起水力发电机);
有相似特点的事物形成的类似联想(如由鲁迅想起高尔基);
有对立关系的事物形成对比联想(如由光明想起黑暗);
有因果关系的事物形成因果联想(如由火想到热)。
散文的联想,总是同精细的观察、细微的描述相结合。散文的画面,首先力求真实、具体,使人读之如身临其境,同时也要做到含蓄、深邃,使人读之能临境生情。作者给读者想象空间、回味余地愈大,则诗意的芬芳愈浓,这就离不开丰富而活跃的联想。
联想,实质上是观察的深化,是此时此地的观察,与彼时彼地观察的融会贯通。没有这种融会贯通,便没有感受的加深、思想的升华、诗意的结晶。如果说,精细的观察,为作者采集了丰富的矿石,那活跃的联想,则是对这些矿石的冶炼和加工。联想不是凭着个人的闪念所得,漫无边际地胡思乱想。一个作家要想让联想的翅膀飞起来,没有广博的学识,不掌握事物之间内在的联系和底蕴,没有个人的创造性和激情,没有个人爱好的广大空间,思想和幻想、形式和内容的广大空间,是高飞不起来的。只能象蓬间雀那样在草稍上徘徊,而不能象大鹏那样展翅万里,海阔天空自由飞翔。
文体写作理论知识应由定义出发,定义中的要素可以衍生出写作的各种要求和方法。但是,不论诗歌,还是散文,传统认识集中体现在一般写作教材上,对其定义的认识既不准确统一,又片面地强调社会属性。 不合乎文体本质属性的传统文学体裁定义在本书中一概不提。需要的是最终表现作者个体生命本真的文体定义。散文是一种作者写自己经历见闻 中的 真情实感的灵活精干的文学体裁。
作者在散文中的形象比较明显,常用第一人称叙述,个性鲜明,正象巴金所说“我的任何散文里都有我自己”,总之可以说是表现自我。这就需要大胆无忌。正如鲁迅所说“任意而谈,无所顾忌”,他还推崇曹操及魏晋散文的“力主通脱”。又如刘半农所说,散文要“赤裸裸地表达”。还如一些人所说,“我是怎样一个人, 就怎样写”,“心口相应,信口直说”, “反正我只是这样一个我”。写真实的“我”是散文的核心特征和生命所在。 这是定义的最大要素。
散文语言十分重要。首要的一条是以口语为基础,而文语(包括古语和欧化语)为点缀。其次是要清新自然,优美洗练。此外,还可以讲究一些语言技法,如句式长短相间,随物赋形,如多用修辞特别是比喻,如讲音调、节奏、旋律的音乐美等。
必须明确一个散文写作观念,这就是散文的唯一内容和对象是作者的感情体验。所有教材都提出了散文要写感情,但却是作为一种必备因素和一种内在线索。应当强调指出,感情不是片面的因素,也不仅仅是线索,而是散文的对象。散文写人写事都只是表面现象,从根本上说写的是感情体验。感情体验就是“不散的神”,而人与事则是“散”的可有可无、可多可少的“形”。朱自清的《背影》不是要记录回家和父子离别的琐事,而是要吐露一种对父亲及失败了的父辈的怜惜和敬爱。刘真的《望截流》,重点不是顺理成章的工程本身或建设者业绩,而是一种回归历史进步主流的内心感受。散文一开始就使自己沉浸在一种突如其来的悲喜交集的感情体验中,由此生发联想——小时候跟着妈妈赶集差一点丢失,四十年代初一度离开部队,“文革”中被迫放下笔等。最后又面对横江截流的宏伟场面,激情满怀。感情体验,是散文的内在结构。有了它,就可以天马行空地起草。这一点,不能不明朗和确定。有了散文的内在结构——感情体验,只要再明确外在结构的核心就可以写好散文。外在结构的核心是细节。散文和小说一样,建立在细节的描写和叙述的基础上,但细节的排列组合方式不同。可以说,小说组合细节是“以盘盛珠”,而散文则是“以线穿珠”。小说的“盘”是一个社会的横切面,具备冲突,各种阶层、力量的人物或隐或显。而细节只能在这样的“盘”中有机地展开。散文的“线”,就是感情体验,或多或少,随手拈来,任情挥洒——以感情体验的表现为准。由此,我们说散文(应称艺术散文),是最自由的文体,散漫如水,手法灵活。只要弄清以上四点,写真实自我及由此生发的个性口语、感情体验和细节描写,就掌握了散文写作的要领,什么意、章法(如文眼)、意境等等一般化认识都不必过于拘谨地学习,其它文体理论知识和写作基础理论都会讲到。
散文可以主要分为记叙散文和抒情散文(仍按传统的不明确的说法)两种。下面将两种散文的模式列出,供初学者和高等教育应试者选择使用。
记人散文模式
【开头】①感情化语言概括叙述。我和该人,重点在后。介绍该人,如肖像描写。②两者关系及该人精神特质的议论。
【中间】▲一种情况:一件事。从开头、发展到结尾,细致叙述和描写。
▲另一种情况:几件事。每件事即每层次前,可以用对该人精神特质的一个因素领起。 以对该人的感情体验及整体议论来贯穿几件事。
【结尾】①重申特质,照应开头。②深化感情关系,发出感慨。
抒情散文模式
【开头】1叙述自己与景物的关系。2议论景物和自己。
【中间】1描写景物,分出层次,细致动人。2联想发挥,更大意义。
【结尾】感慨
散文如何有所突破
现在散文写作比较“混乱”,谁也把握不住,好像也没有具体标准。在新时期文学中,最早诗歌曾经比较混乱,其实,换言之,最早出现百花齐放的局面。现在散文也有点百花齐放了,因此,我觉得这种混乱对写作者非常好!春秋战国,乱世出英雄,新人可以借机而出,出了诸子百家,百家争鸣,最终形成了一批大家。而孔子思想统治天下后,天才英才一代又一代,却只能是注解其思想。
一要努力在题材上有新的突破--题材
文坛已有的模式很难打破,但新的生活方式和社会的变迁,给我们的写作者提供了许多新的题材和写作机会,做“第一只早叫的公鸡”,挖掘新的体裁可以创造新的可能性,决不可拿着前人的范文来描红。我提倡个性化人生体验的表述,每个人都在与前人不同的时代与生活空间里活动,强化了个性,就也写出了新的时代特色,同时也找到了与前人的差别。
二要特殊的语言表达--语言
文学是用文字符号来表情达意的,现在的作家生在一个开放的好时代,可以随心所欲地写,要勇于推翻前人的套子。鲁迅等的成功是由于“无障碍运行”--旧的文言文刚退出了舞台,新文化运动就像一片处女地,谁先播种长出的就是谁的苗。我最初创作处于“文革”时期,言论都很受限制,又加上“三突出”、“样板戏”,文坛死气沉沉,“文革”结束后,作家首先就是“说真话”,只要说一些自己的话,很新鲜,于是,被人们记住了。现在有的年轻人不服气,说他们写的什么呀,其实,说真话也曾是很不容易的事,是一种推动社会进步的大革命。如今也是这样一种情况,中国文学在思想上、在艺术上都进入一个全面开放的时期,比方说,散文界就没有什么别人动不得的大师,也许可以说,散文的又一个“百家争鸣”的时代到来了。每个想成“大家”的人就是创造语言的人。说自己的话,把自己的话说得最个性,最艺术的人就是“一家”。
三是跨文体和新文体写作--形式
很多年轻人有自觉的意识,从事一种“另类写作”,要区别于前人的思想是存在的。网络上的语言是很多的,还出现了《计算机辞典》现在类似UP、VCD、WTO等,都是更为直接的语言方式。因此,如果完全真正保持纯洁性,散文很难写了。要尽可能地保持自己语言表述的特征。现在自由文体的写作在《人民文学》等文学杂志表现得很突出,《人民文学》版面上以小说为主转为以散文类作品为主了。《青年文学》的广义散文比例也很大,这种写作的扩张也拓展了固有的“美文”模式,这也是值得借鉴的。书本是个人思想的体现,而杂志则是在读者和作者中的一种价值取舍,所以,我请大家从杂志面貌的变化了解文坛动向。散文创作在形式上提供了类似“诸子百家”的局面和自由的空间,但写作者要明白自己在混乱中的选择和位置。
篇18:写作基础知识之基本句式
全文共 3115 字
+ 加入清单句子依据用途或语气可分为四大类即:陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句。
陈述句:说明一件事情,表示陈述语气的句子。
疑问句:提出一个问题,表示疑问语气的句子。
祈使句:要求或者希望中国人做什么或不做什么,表示祈使语气的句子。
感叹句:表示感叹语气的句子。
一、陈述句和反问句的互换:
陈述句指说明意见、叙述事实的句子。反问句是指用疑问句的形式表达确定的意思的句子。
把陈述句改成反问句有两种情况:
1 肯定语气改成反问句如:
天才来自勤奋。改为:难道天才不是来自勤奋吗?
2 否定语气改成反问句
小孩掉进河里,我们不能见死不救。
小孩掉进河里,我们能见死不救吗?
注意点:陈述句改成反问句,要把句中表示肯定的词改成表示否定的词,句末的句号改成问号,并加上“吗”、“呢”等句末的句号要改成问号。
反问句改成陈述句也有两种情况:
把反问句改成陈述句就要把“难道”和“不”等词删去,把句末的问号改成句号,并去掉“难道……吗”和“怎么……呢”语气助词。
练习 :
1、既须劳动,又长见识,这就是养花的乐趣。
2、不劳动,连棵花也养不活,这难道不是真理吗?
3、难道我们播下的种子不会在自己学生的身上开花结果吗?
4、老师对我的教导,难道我会忘记吗?
二、 肯定句和否定句的互换:
表达一个肯定的意思,也可以采用否定句式,例如,“人人都都遵守课堂纪律。”可以改写成“没有一个人不遵守课堂纪律。”改写后句子的肯定语气要比原来的句子更强。改写时要注意:双重否定是表示进一步的肯定,所以必须用上两个表示否定的词,也就是“否定+否定=肯定”。如果只用一个否定的词,句子意思就完全相反了
例:天下的人都知道秦国是从来不讲信用的。
天下的人没有一个不知道秦国是从来不讲信用的。
注意:
练习:
1)全班同学都参加了这次植树活动。
2)学好语文和输血,对青年人的成才才会起促进作用。
3)同学们都觉得书籍是我们的好老师。
4)记住“只拣儿童多处行”是会找到春天的。
5)上坡下的每一块地都被大水淹没了。
6)事情的来龙去脉得向你说清楚。
7)这里的情况你是清楚的。
三、直接引语与间接引语的改写:
我们在说话或写作中,有时需要直接引用别人的对话,有时需要转述。例如雨来摇摇头说:“我在屋子里什么也没有看见。”这是直接叙述的句子。如果要改成转述的句子,就可以改成“雨来摇摇头说,他在屋子里什么也没有看见。”
改写时应注意三点:一是改换人称,将对话中表示“谁”(如我、我们等)的人称代词改成“他”或“他们”。与引号前的人称一致起来。二是改变标点,将冒号改成逗号,双引号去掉。三是适当调整词语,需要时可作少量的文字改动,但不能改变句子的基本意思,使句子通顺。
例:贝多芬说:“我是来弹一首曲子给这位姑娘听的。
贝多芬说,它是来弹一首曲子给这位姑娘听的。
1)他轻轻地说:“我买不起,我的钱不够。”
2)蔺相如说:“秦王我都不怕,我会怕廉将军吗?
3)小华告诉我:“ 我的《儿童时代》先借给你看。”
4)妈妈对我说:“ 我今晚要加班,不回家吃饭了。”
5)小华对小丽说:“明天我们班要参加区文艺会演,我得早点到校排演。”
四、陈述句改成把字句和被字句
如:他碾死了小青虫。可改成
⒈“把”字句:他把小青虫碾死了。将陈述句改成把字句,就是将句中表示动作的对象移到表示动作的词前面,加上“把”即成把字句。在变换句式时必须保持原句的意思。
⒉“被”字句:小青虫被他碾死了。把陈述句改成被字句,就是将句中表示接受动作的词调到句首,换上“被”就成了被字句。
这两种句子的变换只要调换句中的某些词的位置就行了。
如上面句①中只需把“碾死了”和“小青虫”的位置调换一下,再在他的后面加个“把”字;句②则把“小青虫”与他“他”之间加个“被”字就行了。两个句子互相改换之后,它们原来的意思不能改变。
五、有些陈述句为了突出句中的某一部分,可交换下词语的位置。
如:“我去过北京。”与“北京,我去过。”前者突出“我去过”,后者突出了“北京”。改变说法,做到语言美。
在公共汽车上,看到一位老太太上车,一个小学生连忙让座,应怎么说呢?
应说:“老奶奶,请您坐这儿!”
注意点:如说“喂,老太婆,坐这儿来!”就很没有礼貌。我们在与人交往时,要学会使用“请”“打扰”“对不起”“谢谢”“没关系”,接电话时,要用“您好!请问……”等。
六、特殊句式的变换
1、词语位置的变换:如
常式句:亲人再见了!
变式句:再见了,亲人。把主谓语的位置进行互换
2、变换提示语的位置:如
(1)、我说:“爸爸,也许它不会死……” (提示语在前)
(2)、“爸爸!”,我说,“也许它不会死……”(提示语在中间)
(3)、“爸爸,也许它不会死……” 我说。 (提示语在句末)七、关联句
句子依据结构分类,可分为单句和复句。复句是能分成两个或两个以上相当于单句的分段的句子。复句内的各个单句形式,叫做分句。同一个复句里的分句,说是的是有关系的事,它们又是由关联词语连接起来的,因此也称作关联句。常见的关联句有七种类型,每类关联句有它们自己常用的关联词语。
1、因果关系:因为……所以 因此 既然……就
2、条件关系:只有……才 只要……就 无论……都 不管……总
3、假设关系:如果……就 要是……就 哪怕……也 即使……也4、递进关系:不但……而且 不光……还 不仅……还
5、并列关系 :既……又 一边……一边 一方面……一方面 一会儿……一会儿
6、转折关系:虽然……但是 尽管……还是
7 选择关系:是……不是 宁可……也不 不是……就是 与其……不如
运用关联词语要注意以下几点:
关联词语一般都成对出现,只有少数单独使用。(如“可是”、“而”、“因此”等)
关联词语大都有一定的搭配习惯,不能任意组合。
关联词语起连接作用,可以把两句话并为一句。
七、因果句式的改写:
因果句式,是按事物的原因和结果关系来写的。它有两种形式:一是先因后果,二是先果后因。因果句式中,原因可以是一个或几个,但结果只能是一个。改写时,可以用关联词,也可省支其中一个关联词,甚至不用。但原意一定要保持不变。
八、缩句和扩句
缩句的目的是为了更好地分析和理解句子。把句子中表示修饰或限制的词语去掉,保留原来句子的主干,缩成一个简单完整的句子。缩句不能增加和减少原句基本成分,不改变原句的意思。
缩句主要方法有以下几种:
1、分辨句式,提出问题。先看看这句话是写人还是写景物的,然后可以提出“谁是什么”、“谁干什么 ”或者“什么是什么”、“什么干什么”、“怎么样”来找出句子的主要部分。如:“这毛茸茸的在地上流动着的小绒球原来是刚孵出来的小鸡。”我们可提问:什么?--小绒球;是什么?---是小鸡。缩句后就是成 “小绒球是小鸡。”
2、进行词语比较,找出主要词语。有些句子很长,修饰的部分较多,我们就要在几个词语中选出主要的,才能正确地缩句。如“工人宿舍前的草地上开满了五颜六色的野花。”因为“野花”只能开在“草地上”。所以“草地上”是主要词,而“工人宿舍前”是修饰“草地”的。
3、如果是否定句缩句,就要把否定词一起写出来,否则就会改变句意。如“我不相信他那种骗人的鬼话。”应缩成“我不相信鬼话”,而不能缩成“我相信鬼话” 另外要提醒小朋友的是,缩句后,虽然句子十分简短,但它还是个完整的句子,所以句末必须加上原句上的标点符号。扩句恰好相反,是在句子的主干上增加一些恰当的修饰或限制性的词语,是句子的内容变得丰富、具体和生动。扩句的过程正好与缩句相反,即按一定要求给句子的主干添枝加叶,加上修饰成分,使它表达的意思更具体、形象、生动。
在具体扩句过程中,要注意以下几个方面:
1、所加的修饰词必须与主干搭配得当
2、扩句后句子的成分不变。
3、扩句后不能改变句子的结构。
篇19:英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分
全文共 45713 字
+ 加入清单下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言,考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章,然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。
对于素材中用黑体字的部分,特别建议你熟读,背诵,因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白,表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累,潜移默化。从某种意义上说,提高英语写作能力无捷径可走,你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关,没有任何人能代替你过。
因此,建议你下点苦功夫,把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况,并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心:你可以这个星期背,下个星期忘。这没有关系,相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后,你会惊讶的发现:I can think in English now!
1.?????? Proverbs
1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.
2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.
3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.
4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.
5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.
6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.
7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.
8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.
9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.
10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.
11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.
12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.
2. Damaging Research
A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.
3. Education and Citizenship
An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.
Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.
Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.
Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.
4. The Teacher’s Role
Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.
Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.
5. Education Philosophy
For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.
Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.
In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.
This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.
6. Student Life
To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.
Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.
Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)
What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.
Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.
7. Adult Education
After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”
So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.
8. Moral Relativism in American
Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.
Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.
In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”
Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.
In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”
The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.
The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.
At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.
The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.
But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.
There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.
9. Schools Should Teach Values
People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”
There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.
As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”
This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.
We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.
What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.
These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.
After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.
10. College Pressures
Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.
What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.
My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.
I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.
“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”
Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.
It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.
The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.
Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.
Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.
Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.
I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.
“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.
“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”
“Then why are you going?”
“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”
Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”
But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.
I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.
Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.
“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”
The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”
Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.
Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.
“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”
Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.
To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.
If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.
Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.
“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”
“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”
I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.
Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.
This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.
They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.
If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.
I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.
I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.
11. To Err Is Wrong
In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?
Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.
Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:
Right over 90% of the time = “A”
Right over 80% of the time = “B~”
Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.
From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.
Playing It Safe
With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.
I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.
Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.
Different Logic
From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.
Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.
Errors as Stepping Stones
Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.
The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.
Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.
Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.
[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分
篇20:锻炼思路的写作基础
全文共 1525 字
+ 加入清单(1)拓展法。目的是为了求广、求新、求异,使思维活跃而开阔。思路可作如下拓展:
一是平面拓展。平面拓展主要包括顺向、逆向、纵向和横向等。顺向是指沿着人们惯常的思维轨道来思考,反之则为逆向。纵向是指按时间顺序或事物发展过程来思考,横向则为将不同的事物加以比照联想。例如,一则手表广告词的写作,既可从“准确、耐用、美观”作正向构思,又可从“该公司在各地的维修人员闲得无聊”作反向思索;既可对其作发展、换代历史作纵向介绍,又可从它与其他牌子手表的比较中作横向说明。
二是立体拓展。立体拓展是将平面拓展重叠交叉起来,建构起立体交叉的文章框架。这种方法适用于调查报告、经济分析、专业论文一类较为大型的文章。
三是发散。发散是指由一点向四周辐射的开放式思维方式,即对一个问题从多个角度引出思路。既要从宏观上作全方位的考虑,又要从微观上找出各个零散的无系统的思考方向之间的有机联系。如写关于“如何扩大产品销路”的文章,就可围绕“如何”二字引出“运用科学管理”、“提高员工素质”、“加速品种更新”、“改善广告方式”、“做好售后服务”、“开辟国外市场”等多条辐射思路,然后再对各个思考方向之间的内在联系加以考察。这样就可以加大思维跨度,弥补单向思维没有涉及的空白,健全文章的结构,丰富文章的内容。
(2)挖掘法。
目的是为了求深,使文章有内涵、有深度。多向拓展思路之后,就应迅速将广思变为深思。深思指的是层层挖掘,寻根刨底,纵深推求,由外在到内在,由现象到本质,由具体到抽象;或由现实追溯过去,由结果探求原因,乃至更深层的缘由。例如,对“如何认识市场经济”这一问题进行思考,可以从市场经济与商品经济的关系,社会主义市场经济与资本主义市场经济的区别,计划经济与市场经济的关系,如何发展社会主义市场经济等几个方面加以论述,也可向深处挖掘。向深处挖掘的方法如下:
一是在探讨上述第一个问题时,先对两个概念分别加以解释,再进一步区别其特征,然后更进一步挖掘过去提商品经济、现在又提市场经济的原因。
二是探讨上述最后一个问题时,可先论述社会主义市场经济的提出是具有战略意义的理论突破,并分析其原因,然后深入思考如何发展社会主义市场经济。在论述“如何发展”的具体策略时,对每一个方面再进行纵深推求,在这些步步深入、层层递进的开掘中将问题论述明白,最后顺理成章地得出结论。
(3)控制法。目的是为了求得集中——对多向的、支离散乱的思维活动加以搜索,以形成一条清晰。严密、连贯的思路。控制法主要包括以下方面内容:
一是筛选。筛选是指对多种信息和大脑中闪现的种种想法进行重重筛选,然后加以归类,形成多层次的文章框架的思考方法。筛选的优点是便于先集中内容相似的材料,然后从中筛选出需用的东西并形成相应的观点。对总结、典型经验、调查报告等文书的写作构思较为适用。
二是综合。综合是指在多向思考中迅速挑出最切实际、应用性强的几项加以综合,然后从中提炼出最佳议项。综合的优点是使文章有新思想、新提议,同时又切实可行。它适用于可行性研究、决策、建议、计划等文书的写作。推测,是将盘根错节的各种信息、各类条件和多条“初步思路”按一定的规律进行多次清理和推论,从中导出由小到大的层层假说,并由此构成一幅明晰的“思路图”。三是推测。推测的优点是可直观地审视和比较有关条件及现象,推理过程一目了然。它较适用于可行性研究、市场预测、经济分析等文书的写作构思。
(4)梳理法。以拟写提纲的形式将思路理清。定型。这是锻炼思路的一种极为有效的方法,有助于快速成文。梳理法包括以下两方面内容:
一、是标明主题,用“主题句”把构思时确定的主题列在提纲首位,以统领下面各项;
二、是安排层次,用概括的文字逐层排列,由小到大。由粗到细地展开思路。