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669高考议论文写作基础
全文共 1386 字
+ 加入清单论文是以议论和说理为主的文章,其主要表达方式是议论。论点、论据、论证是议论文的三要素。论点是统摄全文的观点,是全文的灵魂,也是其它两个要素围绕的核心。论据是用来证明论点正确性的材料——足够的事实或正确的道理,它必须服从并服务于中心论点。论证是运用论据来证明论点的过程,它是论点和论据之间的逻辑联系纽带。论据和论证必须指向明确,且有说服力,才能形成整体合力,从而影响别人的想法,接受文中的主张。这就要增强议论的“向心力”。
一、中心论点
“向心力”原来是个物理学概念,是指使质点(或物体)作曲线运动时所需的指向曲率中心(圆周运动时即为圆心)的力。这里我们借用这个概念来形象说明一下议论文的写作吧。这个“心”就是中心论点,这个“向心力”指的就是论据、论证的说服力;增加“质点质量”——材料或加大“速度”——论证即可增加“向心力”。为了证明自己的论点的正确,我们常常要从不同的角度,多方面地给出论据,并运用多种论证方法来证明论点。如果这些论证和论据是有系统的、有说服力的(当然是正确的),那议论的向心力就会增强,中心论点就能使人信服。反之,则会弱化向心力,甚至还会产生离心现象,将极大地削弱论证力度,最终使论点“立不住”,甚至“不可信”,达不到使人信服的目的。
二、论据
对论据而言,首先要增强论据的真实性、典型性和新颖性。真实性是基础,不能随意捏造,因为议论文要靠论据来支撑,如果有一个论据是假的,那读者就会“窥一斑而见全豹”,推而广之,进而全盘否定你的观点。对于引用名人名言,一定要写明谁说的,否则就会减少可信度,读者大都有“因其人而信其言”的思维定势,所以平时是要“牢记”一些名人名言在脑中的。典型性是“公信力”的保证,家长里短、道听途说当不得论据,所举论据应该是众所周知、公认的事实或定理原理,而且是最典型的,这样才能以一当十,增强说服力。新颖性是在前两者基础上,突出论据的新鲜感和时效性。其次要扩大论据的覆盖面。一般来说,文中所举论据应避免重复,尽可能兼顾不同领域、范围(有时同一领域的多数量也能增强说服力)。“古今中外”、“社会科学、自然科学”、“个人、集体、国家”是思考的几个常见维度。第三要注意论据的表述。对道理论据一般表述为“某人说过某话”就可以了,对事实论据的表述则要注意内容表述的指向性。要在陈述事实的同时,鲜明地将与中心最密切的关联处清晰地表达出来,而不是淹没在材料中让读者猜测、揣摩,而且还要着重对事实的结果进行交待,以增强说服力。一般在叙述时要关注四个要点:“人、事、果、倾向性词语”(某人做某事最终结果怎样)。“倾向性词语”是指能清晰表明与论点一致性的“醒目”的词语或语句,使论据与论点保持逻辑上的高度一致性。当然,无论是举例还是引用,在这之后最好加上分析说理的句子,以使论据与论证紧密结合形成合力,共同有力地证明论点。例文很好地体现了这些特点。
三、论证
对论证而言,要增强论证的严密性,这需要学习一些逻辑知识。可以说,逻辑性是议论文的“生命”。我们一般总会用到归纳法和演绎法。归纳是由个别到一般,演绎是由一般到个别;归纳法限于“已知”,指向“温故”,演绎法助人探求“未知”,指向“知新”。运用归纳法时注意不要“以偏概全”,把话说死说绝了,需要辩证、全面;运用演绎法时注意“推论”的合理性,要符合逻辑。特别要注意语言的准确性和严密性,用语要恰当,造句求精密。
更多相似作文
篇1:最有用的商务英语写作技巧
全文共 921 字
+ 加入清单在今日全球化的经济环境下,有效地用英语(精品课)交流已经变得至关重要。
然而如何清晰地表达你的想法却是门大学问。太多时候人们只是简单地照抄他们眼中同事,尤其是上级写出来的“漂亮英语”。你每天都能在收件箱里看到很多例子——那些难懂的需要你读好多遍才能理解的邮件。
一个巨大的错误就是用一些不必要的单词和词组让你的文章变得冗长。你要牢记你写作的目的是为了更清晰地交流你的想法。
总是尽可能减少你句子中使用的字数,避免使用可以用更短的词代替的长词。以下是一些例子:
Instead of "prior to" use *before*
用“before”代替“prior to”
Instead of "subsequent" use *after*
用“after”代替“subsequent”
Instead of "in order to" use *to*
用“to”代替“in order to”
Instead of "in the event that" use *if*
用“if”代替“in the event that”
Instead of "with reference to" use *about*
用“about”代替“with the reference to”
Instead of "state of the art" use *latest*
用“latest”代替“state of the art”
Instead of "due to the fact that" use *since*
用“since”代替“due to the fact that”
Instead of "not later than 2pm" use *by 2pm*
用“by 2pm”代替“not later than 2pm”
Instead of "at the present time" use *now*
用“now”代替“at the present time”
同时也要记得文章有组织性。第一句话就要开门见山地点出你每一段要讲什么。除此之外,要控制你邮件的长度。没人想读一条长达10段的邮件。
通过使用简单的单词和易懂的词组,你就能最终提高你信息的清晰度。
篇2:微型小说的写作基础指导
全文共 2697 字
+ 加入清单微型小说又名小小说,超短篇小说,一分钟小说。过去它作为短篇小说的一个品种而存在, 后来的发展使它已成为一种独立的文学样式,其性质被界定为"介于边缘短篇小说和散文之 间的一种边缘性的现代新兴文学体裁"。阿·托尔斯泰认为:"小小说是训练作家最好的学 校。"(《论文学》)
日本作家星新一指出:"很久以前就存在着类似超短篇小说的作品。……但是,超短篇小说 这个名字的正式出现,是源于美国。"多数人推崇美国作家欧·亨利(1862-1910) 是创始人。他的近三百篇作品,情节生动,笔调幽默。其中《麦琪的礼物》脍灸人口。可以 这么说,超短篇小说具有立意新颖、情节严谨、结局新奇三要素。即在1500字以内,要概 括出普通小说应具有的一切。也可以说,微型小说是一种敏感,从一个点、一个画面、一个 对比、一声赞叹、一瞬间之中,捕捉住了小说--一种智慧、一种美、一个耐人寻味的场景, 一种新鲜的思想。
微型小说在写作上追求的目标是四个字:微、新、密、奇。
一、微。指的是篇幅微小,不超过一千五百个字。因此,构思和行文时必须注意字句的 凝炼,不允许作品中有赘词冗句。如马克·吐温的《丈夫支出帐本中的一页》。全文只有七 行字,却具有长篇小说的全部情节。
二、新。指的是立意新颖,风格清新。星新一写作一分钟小说,就极力追求"新"。他写道: "有些评论家把我的小说与美国的超短篇小说(Short-Short)混为一谈,这是不妥当的。 我是受了美国超短篇小说的影响。但是没有完全依靠,而是发挥了自己独特的风格和技巧。 我的小说强调一个新字,给读者以新题材、新知识,甚至让他们感到惊讶!"(星新一《一 分钟小说选》)为此,他常常借助于童话、寓言、科幻、推理等手法,通过非现实的题材或 现实题材的非现实笔法,反映他在现实生活中的独特的感觉,表现清新的主题,如他的《保 修》。 当然,微型小说的立意和其它形式的小说作品一样,有时并不是一眼能看出的,有时主题并 非一个,是多元化的,这都是可以的。例如美国著名科幻作家弗里蒂克·布朗写的一篇被称 为世界上最短的科学幻想小说:"地球上最后一个人独自坐在房间里,这时忽然响起了敲门 声……"就写得十分别致而耐人寻味。
三、密。指的是结构严密。微型小说的作者在结构上,应力求时间、场所、人物都尽可 能地压缩、集中,使作品结构简练、精巧,如同微雕工艺品那样。因此,特别要在选材、剪 裁和布局上下功夫。
四、奇。指的是结尾要新奇巧妙,出人意料。微型小说的特点多半在于一个"奇"字。 中外作家的许多优秀作品就常在结尾处使人拍案叫绝。如邵宝健的《永远的门》的结尾就出 人意料。
对待微型小说的特点及技巧,一要弄通掌握, 争取在理论指导下站在较高起点上进行实践,二要灵活运用,甚至不去联系,让它们在潜意识中随时起到作用。还可以摹仿。照搬形式、技巧, 发扬精华,受到感应,并力求创新,出自己意。上述特点, 特别是"博采众长"中已经具备了微型小说的一些结构要求。以下再列出一种模式,供初学者学习。
模式如下:
【开头】要使人"一见钟情"。方式有三种:
1.造成悬念,引起兴趣。如《那团云雾》,开头就写不知怎的没了游兴,连山顶上也罩上一团云雾。
2.开门见山,进入情节。往往开头就是人物对话。
3.含蓄蕴藉,曲径通幽。往往描写景物, 烘托铺垫并有照应和伏笔。
【中间】结构主要有三种基本类型:
1.曲折生致式。
①单线曲折,一波三折。如王任叔的《河豚子》,写一农民在二三十年代的社会背景中,因穷困而自杀的过程:弄回毒鱼, 却看到孩子们兴高采烈;怕见惨象而出外, 回来后却见妻儿欢笑等待;吃后等死,却因鱼失去毒性,死不成仍要受苦。
②双线交叉,内在联系。一人两事,或两人一事;可以是两条明线,也可一明一暗,互为陪衬。如《小星的暑假日记》, 父亲编造假材料,儿子编写假日记。父亲打骂儿子后, 再要写材料时只好苦笑。
③反复回环,同中见异。如《奇妙的循环不等式》,车上只有一个空位,售票员不让老太太坐,却让"首长"坐。 司机上车后赶开"首长"请经理坐,经理的丈母娘正是老太太。 又如《他们都是瞎子》,写一对青年热恋、结婚、离婚时都看见一对瞎子相搀相扶。
④前后对比,双峰对峙。 如《变化》写一个业余作者先后发表两篇稿件后,单位领导不同的态度。
(5)欲扬先抑,欲抑先扬。前者,"扬"是主体, 却先在"抑"上着笔,突然一转归于"扬"。后者相反。这样,产生了情节发展的意外性,加强了相反相成的艺术效果。
2.重旨复意式。微型小说应以小暗示大,达到意义的升华;要讲象外之旨,言外之意,引起读者想象。主要采用:①象征。 用具体物象寓示概念或另一形象,但只起结构作用, 不是象在诗歌中着力描写的中心形象那样。如《枪口》, 写一官复原职的领导用别人送的枪打下猎物时,得知走后门的"枪口"也对准了他。 ②双关。如《向不通》, 写大学生向不通十年勤恳工作反不如工作差的升得上去,因而"想不通"。③比喻。如《"炮"炸宴席》, 写小孙子在酒宴上放炮仗捣乱, 又在爷爷不满新经理四十来岁年纪轻时放"炮":"你不是十八岁就当县长!爸爸三十出头就当厂长了! "④省略。这是一种具象化的空白。如《落果》, 老门卫退休后门口枣树上果子不熟就被打光,他写信给厂长:"连几十张馋嘴都管不住,还管厂。"接着省略了厂长感奋、整顿厂风的情节, 而写第二年老师傅收到一包红枣。
3.采用其它文体和艺术体裁的特长。
【结尾】结尾宜巧,要"回眸一笑"。主要有三种:
1.画龙点睛,首尾呼应。如《那团云雾》,开头败了游兴,峰顶似乎有团云雾,结尾那团云雾也不见了。
2.戛然而止,含蓄隽永。如二百来字的《书法家》,局长在书法展览会上应邀不过写了两个拿手的好字是"同意", 面对惊叹和要求只好无奈地说?quot;能写好的数这两个字……"这样结尾, 韵味无穷,艺术容量很大。
以上两种结尾方法只能撩起读者短暂的激动,最佳结尾是:
3.出人意外,扣人心弦。即"欧·享利式结尾",其特点是"巧"。整个布局为结尾服务,读者以为情节东向演进, 结果却西向而行,抖包袱,亮底牌。这种结尾, 打破了情节发展惯用的结构手法,给人以新奇感,深化了主题,增加了容量。大家熟知的《麦琪的礼物》就是这样,一对穷困夫妻为在节日时互送礼物而煞费苦心,最后礼物拿出来却没用:一个卖掉金表为妻子买了梳子, 一个剪掉长发为丈夫买了根表链。又如澳大利亚的《窗》,靠窗的病人每天为角落病人描述窗外美景,为苍白的生活增光添彩。 但是角落病人却见死不救,图谋到了靠窗的好位置,抬头望见窗外只是一堵高墙。
篇3:英语写作经典常用句型精选
全文共 4217 字
+ 加入清单the + 形容词最高级 + n. + (that) + S(主语) + have ever seen / known / heard / had / read, etc
例句:Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.(海伦是我见过的最美丽的女孩。)
Nothing is + 形容词比较级 + than to + V(谓语)
例句:Nothing is more important than to receive education. (没有比接受教育更重要的事。)
S cannot emphasize the importance of sth. too much:再怎么强调……的重要性也不为过。
例句:We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much. (我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。)
There is no doubt + that + 句子:毫无疑问,……
例句:There is no doubt that the economy is recovering. (毫无疑问,经济已经逐渐复苏。)
It pays to + V + O(宾语):……是值得的。
例句:It pays to help others. (帮助别人是值得的。)
An advantage of + 名词结构+ is that + 句子:……的优点是……
例句:An advantage of using solar energy is that it wont create any pollution.(使用太阳能的优点是它不会产生任何污染。)
There is no denying that + 句子:不可否认……
例句:There is no denying that the quality of our life has gone from good to better. (不可否认,我们的生活质量日益改善。)
On no account can we + V:我们绝对不能……
例句:On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge. (我们绝不能无视知识的价值。)
It is universally acknowledged that + 句子:全世界都知道……
例句:It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable[不可或缺的] to us. (全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。)
The reason why + 句子 + is that + 句子:……的原因是……
例句:The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air. (我们必须种树的原因是它们能给我们提供新鲜空气。)
be closely related to sth.:与……息息相关
例句:Taking exercise is closely related to health. (做运动与健康息息相关。)
So + 形容词 + be + S + that + 句子:如此……以致于……
例句:So precious is time that we cant afford to waste it. (时间是如此珍贵,它经不起我们浪费。)
It is time + S + 动词过去式:该是……的时候了。
例句:It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems. (有关当局是时候采取适当措施解决交通问题了。)
S + enable + O + to + V:……使……能够……
例句:Listening to music enables us to feel relaxed. (听音乐使我们获得放松。)
be + forced / obliged / compelled + to + V:不得不……
例句:Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports. (既然考试迫在眉睫,我不得不放弃做运动。)
a. + as + S + be, S + V + O:虽然……, 但是……
例句:Rich as our country is, the quality of our life is by no means satisfactory. (虽然我们的国家富有,但我们的生活质量仍差强人意。)
It is conceivable / obvious / apparent that + 句子:可想而知/明显/显然……
例句:It is apparent that knowledge plays an important role in our life. (显然,知识在我们人生中扮演着重要角色。)
The + 形容词比较级 + S + V, the + 形容词比较级 + S + V:……愈……,……愈……
例句:The harder you work, the more progress you make. (愈努力,愈进步。)
Since + S + 动词过去式,S + 现在完成式: 自从……,……一直……
例句:Since he went to senior high school, he has worked very hard. (自从上了高中,他一直很用功。)
By + V-ing, S can V:通过……,……能够……
例句:By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy. (通过做运动,我们能够保持健康。)
be based on sth.:以.……为基础
例句:Progress in society is based on harmony. (社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。)
That is the reason why +句子:那就是……的原因
例句:Summer is sultry[闷热的]. That is the reason why I dont like it. (夏天很闷热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。)
There is no one but + V + O:没有人不……
例句:There is no one but longs to go to college. (没有人不渴望上大学。)
Due to / Owing to / Thanks to + sth. / V-ing:因为/ 多亏……
例句:Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream. (因为他的鼓励,我终于实现了梦想。)
For the past + 时间, S + 现在完成式: 过去的……来,……一直……
例句:For the past two years, I have been busy preparing for the examination. (过去两年来,我一直忙着准备考试。)
What a + a. + n. + S + V!= How + a. + a + n. + V!:多么……!
例句:What an important thing it is to keep our promise! / How important a thing it is to keep our promise! (遵守诺言是多么重要的事!)
get into the habit of + V-ing = make it a rule to + V:养成……的习惯
例句:We should get into the habit of
keeping good hours. (我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。) leave much to be desired:令人不满意
例句:The condition of our traffic leaves much to be desired. (我们的交通状况令人不太满意。)
Those who + V + O:那些……的人
例句:Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished. (违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。)
have a great influence on sth.:对……有很大影响
例句:Smoking has a great influence on our health. (抽烟对我们的健康有很大影响。)
spare no effort to + V:不遗余力地……
例句:We should spare no effort to beautify our environment. (我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。)
do good / harm to sth.:对……有益/有害
例句:Reading does good to our mind.(读书对心灵有益。)
pose a great threat to sth.:对……造成很大威胁
例句:Pollution poses a great threat to our existence. (污染对我们的生存造成很大威胁。)
bring home to + S + O:让……明白……
例句:We should bring home to people the value of working hard. (我们应该让人们明白努力的价值。)
do ones utmost to + V = do ones best to + V:尽全力去……
例句:We should do our utmost to achieve our goal in life. (我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标。)
篇4:初中英语作文写作方法技巧
全文共 2935 字
+ 加入清单英语作文怎么写?写不好作文是很多初中生存在的问题。而作文是初中英语考试的重要内容,怎么才能写一篇高分英语作文呢?下面是星火小编给大家总结的一些英语写作经验,大家可以看看。
要写好作文,首先要写好开头,怎么写开头呢?下面是一些不同的开头表达方式,大家可以参考看看。
“开门见山”式开头
即要用简单明了的语言引出文章的话题,使人一开始就能了解文章要说明的内容。
①.对于叙事类的文章,可以在开头把人物、时间、事件和环境交代清楚。
如“A Trip to Huangshan(黄山之旅)”的开头就可以是:Last month, my family went to Huangshan by train. It took us ten hours to get there. What a long and tiring journey! We were tired but the beautiful scenery excited us.
②.对于论述性的文章,可以在开头处先阐明自己的观点,接着展开进一步的论述。
如“The Time and the Money(时间和金钱)”的开头可以是:Most people say that money is more important than time. But I don’t think so. First, when money is used up, you can earn it back,but?
这样就将自己想要谈到的话题表达清楚了,接下来再继续论述就可以了。
回忆性开头
在描述事件或游记类的文章中,采用回忆性的开头往往更能吸引人的眼球。这种类型的开头中通常含有描述自己心情或情绪的词汇,如never forget (永远无法忘记), remember (记得),unforgettable (难以忘怀的), exciting(令人激动的),surprising(令人惊讶的), sad (难过的)……如“A Trip to Huangshan(黄山之旅)”的开头还可以这样写:I will never forget my first trip to Huangshan. 或It was really an unforgettable experience I had.
疑问性开头
在叙事类或论述性的文章中,都可采用疑问型开头,这样既可以吸引阅卷者的注意又容易抓住中心。
如“Planting Trees(种树)”的开头可以是:Have you ever planted trees? Don’t you think planting trees is ……
再如“Traveling Abroad(出国之旅)”的开头可以是:If you have an opportunity to travel abroad, why not consider Singapore?
倒叙式开头
在有的文章,特别是叙事类的文章中,可以采用倒叙的写作手法,先写出事件的结果,再陈述过程。
如“Catching Thieves (捉贼)”的开头可以这样写:I lay in bed in the hospital. I smiled at my friends even though my legs hurt. Do you want to know what happened to me? Let me tell you. It’s a … story.
倒叙式的写法有一些难写,并且在写作过程中很有可能出现时态混淆的问题,在此建议大家在写作过程中尽量不要倒叙式的方式,避免犯错。
开了一个好头之后,当然要开始写文章的主体部分了,那就是文章的正文。
文章的正文应以文章的开头为线索,具体地叙述、说明或论证文章的主题。文章不论长短,每个段落都必须为主题服务。像说明文和议论文这一类的文章,一个主题还常分成几个小主题,每个小主题要用一个段落处理,另起一段时,应是一层新的意思。每一段的开头,要放一个表示段落小主题的主题句,这样可使文章条理化,易于阅读,便于读者抓住主题。段内的所有句子应围绕主题句的意义加以阐述或论证,为中心思想服务。句子之间应衔结自然,有条不紊,而且还要合乎逻辑,段落中不能出现任何与主题无关的句子;英语写作比较重视主题句的作用,缺少它段落意义就会含糊不清。主题句也可放在段落的中间和末尾等部位,但对初学者来说,以放在段首为好。
在记叙文中,段的结构有时可以很简单,不需要有主题句,叙事一气呵成,中途没有停顿。段与段之所以分开,只是为了起修辞作用,以便把某一细节置于显著的地位。
分段是文章组织上重要的一步,在写一篇文章的时候,一般都会将文章分为3段,第一段也就是文章的开头,第二段是主体部分,第三段自然就是结尾了。当然也可以分成4段等,不管怎么分段,都请大家要记住,在写一篇作文的时候,一定不可以不分段。
接下来就是文章的结尾了,以下是一些写好结尾的方法
1.自然结尾,点明主题。随着文章的结束,文章自然而然地结尾。
如“Helping the Policeman(帮助警察)”的结尾可以是:The two children were praised by the police and they felt happy.
再如“The Tortoise and the Hare(龟兔赛跑)”的结尾可以是:When the hare got to the tree, the tortoise had already been there。
2.首尾呼应,升华主题。在文章的结尾可以用含义较深的话点明主题,深化主题,起到“画龙点睛”的效果。
如“I Love My Hometown(我爱家乡)”的结尾可以是:I love my hometown, and I am proud of it.
3.反问结尾,引起深思。这种方式的结尾虽然形式是问句,但意义却是肯定的,而且具有一定的强调作用,可引起他人的深思。
如 “Learning English can Give us a Lot of Pleasure (学英语能为我们带来许多乐趣)” 的结尾可以是:If we learn English well, we can …Don’t you think learning English is great fun?
4.表达祝愿,阐述愿望
这种方式的结尾常出现在书信或演讲稿的文体中,表示对他人的祝福或对将来的展望等。
如“A Letter to the Farmers(给农民们的一封信)”的结尾可以是:I hope the farmers’life will be better and better. 另外,书信的结尾常有以下形式的祝福语:Best wishes;I wish you a merry Christmas and a happy new year;I wish you have a good time等。
第四种方法在中考作文中并不会太常用到,中考作文一般都不会要求写关于书信方面的文章,大家可以只是稍加了解。
[初中英语作文写作方法技巧
篇5:英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分
全文共 45713 字
+ 加入清单下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言,考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章,然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。
对于素材中用黑体字的部分,特别建议你熟读,背诵,因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白,表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累,潜移默化。从某种意义上说,提高英语写作能力无捷径可走,你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关,没有任何人能代替你过。
因此,建议你下点苦功夫,把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况,并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心:你可以这个星期背,下个星期忘。这没有关系,相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后,你会惊讶的发现:I can think in English now!
1.?????? Proverbs
1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.
2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.
3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.
4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.
5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.
6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.
7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.
8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.
9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.
10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.
11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.
12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.
2. Damaging Research
A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.
3. Education and Citizenship
An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.
Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.
Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.
Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.
4. The Teacher’s Role
Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.
Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.
5. Education Philosophy
For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.
Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.
In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.
This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.
6. Student Life
To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.
Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.
Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)
What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.
Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.
7. Adult Education
After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”
So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.
8. Moral Relativism in American
Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.
Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.
In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”
Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.
In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”
The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.
The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.
At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.
The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.
But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.
There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.
9. Schools Should Teach Values
People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”
There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.
As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”
This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.
We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.
What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.
These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.
After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.
10. College Pressures
Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.
What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.
My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.
I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.
“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”
Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.
It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.
The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.
Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.
Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.
Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.
I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.
“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.
“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”
“Then why are you going?”
“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”
Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”
But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.
I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.
Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.
“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”
The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”
Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.
Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.
“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”
Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.
To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.
If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.
Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.
“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”
“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”
I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.
Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.
This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.
They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.
If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.
I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.
I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.
11. To Err Is Wrong
In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?
Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.
Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:
Right over 90% of the time = “A”
Right over 80% of the time = “B~”
Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.
From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.
Playing It Safe
With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.
I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.
Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.
Different Logic
From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.
Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.
Errors as Stepping Stones
Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.
The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.
Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.
Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.
[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分
篇6:会计专业毕业论文写作基础
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+ 加入清单什么是学术论文?中华人民共和国原国家标准局发布的《科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式(GB7713-87)》中指出:“学术论文是指某一学术课题在实验性、理论性或观测性上具有新的科学研究成果或创新见解的知识和科学记录;或是某种已知原理应用于实际中取得新进展的科学总结,用以提供学术会议上宣读、交流或讨论;或在学术刊物上发表;或作其他用途的书面文件。”简而言之,学术论文就是用来进行科学研究和描述科研成果的文章,它既是探讨问题进行科学研究的一种手段,又是描述科研成果进行学术交流的一种工具。一般意义上的学术论文,应当具有四方面的特点:
1.学术性。它指研究与探讨的内容具有专门性和系统性,是以科学领域里某一专业性问题作为研究对象。从内容上看,学术论文的专业性较强;从语言表达上看,学术论文很多是采用专业术语、专业性图表和专门符号表达内容的,它的读者主要是专业上的同行。因此,为了把学术问题表达得简洁、准确和规范,文中即会涉及较多的专业用语。
2.科学性。它指研究与探讨的内容要准确、思维要严密、推理要合乎逻辑。要求作者在立论上必须从客观实际出发,不得带有个人好恶与偏见,不得主观臆造,在相关基础上得出符合实际的结论。因此,在论据上,应当尽可能多地占有资料,以最充分的、确凿有力的论据作为立论的依据;在论证时,必须经过周密的思考,并进行严谨地论证。
3.创新性。它要求作者有自己独到的见解,能提出新的观点和看法。创新性是科学研究的生命,学术论文的科学价值就表现在其具有创新性上。创新性表现是填补空白的新发现、新发明和新理论,是在继承基础上发展、完善和创新,是在众说纷纭中提出自己的独立见解,是推翻了前人的某种定论,是对已有资料作出创造性综合等。有时在论文中,所体现出的新思路、新方法、新体系和新因素等,也可视为一种创新。
4.理论性。它指论文中体现出作者思维的理论性、论文结论的理论性和论文表达的论证性。学术论文与一般议论文不同,它必须有自己的理论论证,不能只是材料与文献的简单罗列,应当是在对大量的事实、材料和文献进行分析、研究的基础之上,使感性认识上升到理性认识。
学术论文按内容的学科性质,可分为自然科学论文和社会科学论文。会计专业论文是社会科学研究论文的一种,它是系统地阐述、讨论或研究、探讨某个会计专业问题的文章。会计专业论文按撰写要求可分为学术论文和一般论文;按用途可分为会计科研成果论文、会计业绩考核论文和会计专业学位论文等。
(二)会计专业论文写作的基本要求
1. 会计专业论文写作的内容要求。所撰写的会计专业论文,在内容上应当力求做到:(1)准确性,即论文的内容从实际出发,正确地反映客观事物的性质、发展过程和规律。写作中要充分运用逻辑思维:要准确地运用各种概念,概念的定义(或内含定义)和外延要准确,不得模棱两可,似是而非;判断要明确,对客观事物的分析要揭示其性质和规律,明确肯定或否定、真或假、正确与错误、广度和深度,或不同程度等之间的界限;推理要科学,根据已知的判断(前提)引出新的判断(结论)是科学的,论证清楚,认识正确。(2)鲜明性,即论文能以简明的语言,表明作者明确的观点。(3)生动性,即论文的内容要采用生动的语言和具体的事实来反映事物的发展变化和趋势。(4)合规性,即论文既要在内容上符合国家的路线、方针、政策、法律和制度,也要在形式上符合国家有关部门论文学术的规范要求。(5)理论性,即论文的观点和论证要符合科学原理。(6)创新性,即论文要具有一定的新内容,如新建议、新措施、新方法、新公式、新模型、新资料、新证明、新概念、新设想、新理论和新体系等。(7)层次性,即论文的层次结构要合理,同一层次的篇幅基本均衡。(8)精细性,即论文中要避免出现常识性错误,如立论不当、资料不实、分析绝对化、概念不准确、判断不科学、推理不合理、结构不严、内容前后矛盾不协调、字句含糊和标点符号不准确等。(9)完整性,即论文的学术要素齐全与规范。
2. 会计专业论文写作的法律要求。应当做到:(1)要有尊重他人知识产权的意识。即对论文中引用和借鉴他人的研究成果时,应当严格遵守《中华人民共和国著作权法》的要求,按照国家有关规定中所确定的著录规范要求,列出注释与参考文献的详细信息。(2)要有保护自己知识产权的意识,对凡是属于自己独创性论文中所形成的观点、材料和数据等形式的成果,发现他人的论著借鉴运用,但未用规范方式加注与列作参考文献时,应当保留根据《中华人民共和国著作权法》所赋予的权利追究使用者相应法律责任的权利。(3)应当透彻理解《中华人民共和国著作权法》中有关侵权行为的界限,如根据该法第五条规定的精神,在论文中使用法律、法规,国家机关的决议、决定、命令和其他具有立法、行政、司法性质的文件及官方正式译文、时事新闻、历法、通用数表、通用表格和公式等,不属于剽窃和抄袭他人作品的行为。
二、会计专业论文的基本撰写程序
(一)选定论题
1. 正确选定论题意义重大,它关系到能否完成研究任务。如果论题过大,到时可能会因多种因素影响而难以完成;如果论题过小,不能达到研究的水平。选定论题的前提是选择研究主题,它是确定研究对象,选择所要解决的问题。狭义地说,是指选定写文章或者著作的题目。广义地说,是选择科研领域,确定科研方向。
2. 需要注意与选定论题有关概念内涵上的区别。(1)课题。它是指某一学科重大的科研项目,它的研究范围比论题大得多,如“面对经济全球化环境的中国会计规范体系建设问题”。(2)论题。它指在研究过程中所确定的论述范围或研究方向,也就是解决前面说的“写什么”的问题,属于内容要素,如“关于会计委派制的问题”。(3)标题(题目),它是准确概括文章内容的一句话或一个词组,它是根据内容来确定的,属于形式要素,它可以在文章写成后加上去,也可据内容改换,具有较大的弹性。有的文章标题可以明显地揭示出论题,如“会计委派制利大于弊”。有些文章从标题上是看不出论题的内容,如“浅谈会计委派制”、“会计委派制的若干分析”。在选定论题时有一个思路问题,就是把小题做大?还把大题做小?20世纪80年代初期,著名语言学家王力教授在中国社会科学院的一个演讲中曾经强调,研究生论文写作时尽量把小题做大。他曾经举例说,汉语中的一个字都可以做成一篇论文。
3. 选定论题时需要思考以下六个因素。(1)我应该研究什么问题?这要与个人的专业方向相结合,有大问题、中问题与小问题之分。各个专业领域里的问题非常多,只要处处留心就有值得研究的问题。(2)我喜欢研究什么问题?这要与个人兴趣结合起来,既有长期性跟踪的专业性问题,也有临时性需要研究的热点问题,还有完成任务性的命题式问题,如课题研究。(3)我能够研究什么问题?这要与自身的研究能力结合起来,在确定目标时要量力而行,把长期研究、中期研究和短期研究进行组合。(4)了解别人已经研究了什么问题?这就要提倡广泛搜集资料并追究根底,兼听则明,偏听则暗。(5)了解别人从什么角度研究此问题?它的研究视角是什么。因为从同一个研究问题的不同研究视角出发,会有不同的研究结论,这里要注重切入点选择与学科交叉性的研究。(6)了解别人是怎样研究这个问题的?同样问题的研究,由于研究方法不同,就会有不同的研究结论,因此要注重研究方法与研究技术的掌握。
4. 选定论题阶段应当注意的主要问题。(1)要掌握选题原则,即要有创新精神,又要从实际出发;(2)要明确选题范围,可包括会计实务工作、会计管理体制、会计基础理论研究和会计教育等方面的内容;(3)要优化选题方法,既可在命题中选(如根据相关的《论文选题指南》选定),也可自行选定。在选定论文题目时,要避免一般化、表面化、雷同化、陈旧化、宽泛化和琐细化。
(二)搜集资料
按照确定的选题和内容,通过各种方法搜集大量的资料,能为科学研究打下坚实的基础。有了丰富的资料,才能研究客观事物的历史发展和现实状况,揭示其影响因素、发展趋势和规律,并预测未来可能出现的变化。通过各种方法搜集大量的资料,能为科学研究提供可靠的依据。科学研究需要占有的大量资料,不仅是数量要求,而且要有质量的标准。只有搜集的资料是真实的,才能为研究成果也具有真实性提供可靠的依据。
搜集资料的要求:1.搜集的资料要全面,要有针对性;2.搜集的资料要真实,要有客观性;3.搜集资料的方法要广泛,可采用资料法、观察法、调查法和实验法等。
(三)拟定提纲
1. 拟定提纲的作用很关键。现实中,有不少会计专业研究人员都有这样的感受:当某种思想在头脑中奔涌,感觉已经酝酿成熟,满怀激情地拿起笔想写出来,但是一旦动笔,思想却在笔头上凝固起来,写不出来或写不下去;或者是在一项科研任务行将结束时,脑子里装着许多材料,观点已经形成且有价值,想写但就是无从下手。凡此种种,并非由于“懒”,而是由于感到“难”。由于遇到了难题,多少影响了写作论文的信心。拟定论文写作提纲就是解决“开头难”的一个重要步骤。拟定提纲就是确定论文的总体布局,先设计后施工,开始对客观事物进行研究。有了论文提纲,才能对搜集的资料进行加工,形成规律性的认识;才能安排论文的结构,形成全面的观点;才能排列问题的顺序,使观点鲜明。撰写论文如果没有提纲,下笔千言,实际上可能离题万里,是为大忌。
2. 拟定提纲可分为两个步骤。首先,是拟定粗纲(一层结构),即以中心论点(主题或主题思想)为纲展开的各种论点(观点),作为大的部分,并按顺序确定大的标题。这种提纲只有大标题这一个层次,是体现论文题目的中心论点的各种论点。它是在对搜集的资料进行深入研究的基础上形成的,往往要经过多次思考才能确定。其次,才是拟定细纲(多层结构),在粗提纲的基础上,在每个大的部分、大论点之下,形成相互依存的多层的小论点;也就是在大标题之下有小标题,小标题之下有论点或论据或资料来源。细提纲是粗提纲的细化,大论点中有小论点,层次分明,便于写作。根据研究任务和论文题目的内容来看,提纲可以是两层结构,或三层结构、四层结构、五层结构(如上例格式)等。
3. 拟定提纲的构思逻辑。(1)构思论文主题,即拟传递的主要信息;(2)构思论文形式,即拟以什么方式传递信息,是论文、调查报告还是实证分析报告等,是写纯理论性、普及性还是应用性论文;(3)构思(确定)研究方法,即采用规范法还是实证法;(4)构思论文范畴,即怎样写,写多宽,大致涉及哪几个方面的问题;(5)构思论文布局,即其论述与表达的逻辑关系;(6)构思论文的写作技巧,即文章如何切入与如何切题;(7)分析读者对象,即考虑论文读者的不同的需求与供给均衡关系;(8)分析不同论文要求上的特点,以提高创造性劳动的效率。
4. 拟定提纲的基本要求。拟定提纲时,应当做到:要以中心论点(主题或主题思想)为纲;要注意结构完整,以全面论证中心论点;要注意内容前后的顺序,以反映论文结构的层次关系;要注意内容的逻辑性以反映事物的必然联系;要注意文章的体裁,以反映不同特点;要注意逐步形成提纲,并经过多次修改确定。
(四)撰写初稿
论文的初稿要按照论文的组成部分和拟定的提纲分层次(部分)编写,原则上要按照论文的先后逻辑顺序完成论文引论、本论和结论(或结尾)的拟稿工作以及主要参考文献的列示工作。撰写初稿时要求做到:尽量提高撰写初稿的质量,切实做到以论为纲、观点与材料统一、逻辑思维严谨、论文层次清晰、文字表达精炼。初稿的写作方式有手写与机写两种,目前一般均采用机写方式,但不同的方式各有其优势与不足。
因此,在论文初稿写作时,需要做到:集中主要精力,抓住灵感不放;围绕主要线索,细节不须纠缠;行笔信马由缰,篇幅不受约束;随记相关联想,争取一气呵成;及时补充遗漏,格式稍加整理。而且需要注意的是,为了集中精力完成初稿,标题可以暂不考虑,内容可以信马由缰,拦路虎可暂时搁置,数据可以暂不测算,篇幅可以暂不限制,出处可以暂不查实,要尽快搭起论文框架。
(五)修改初稿
修改初稿是提高认识和提高论文质量,以便更好地完成科研任务的一个重要程序。修改初稿的步骤为:1.通读初稿,以找出存在的问题和缺点;2.修改与调整结构;3.进行内容上的修改、补充与调整;4.进行语言修饰,逐一审读和修饰论文内容的段落、句子、字、词和数码等,以使其符合相应论文规范的要求。
(六)论文定稿
编写的初稿在按照拟定提纲的要求反复修改、补充与校核对后方可定稿。作者判断定稿的标准,是论文的观点(中心论点、基本观点和具体论点)正确,论据(理论和实践依据)合理,结构(文章体系)严谨,文字通顺,资料真实。论文定稿后,还要认真做好誊正、校对和署名等技术性工作。
三、会计专业论文的主体学术要素
根据国家标准委员会发布的《中华人民共和国国家标准——科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式》(GB 7713—87)的要求,一般的会计专业论文应当具有如下十项基本的学术要素。
(一)标题与署名
论文标题是论文内容的高度概括,它的一般要求是概括全文、吸引读者、便于检索、意明简短(20个字以内)、避免空洞、少用问题型标题。在特殊情况下,可以用以下两种方式:一是分段标题的方式,如“会计诚信:永恒理念下的沉重话题”、“会计信息·会计意识·会计环境”和“无形资产保护:类型·层次·目标”等。二是主副标题的方式,如“论我国会计科学研究学术规范的建设与运用问题——基于100篇会计学研究生学位论文学术规范遵循情况调查结果的分析与思考”。论文作者的中文署名置于中文标题下一行。作者姓名的译名署名置于外(英)文标题下一行,中文译名一般用汉语拼音:姓前名后,中间为半角逗号并空格(即“, ”);姓氏的第一个字母大写,复姓连写;名字的首字母大写,双名中间空一格;名字不缩写;斜体。如:Zhang, Ying(张颖);Wang, Xi lian(王锡联);Zhuge, Hua(诸葛华)。
(二)摘要
摘要是论文内容的简要陈述,它要尽量反映论文的主要信息,应当包括研究意义、目的、方法、成果和重要结论,以及论文内容中最重要的部分,以供读者了解论文全貌并吸引其通读全文。摘要具有相对的独立性和完整性,其间不应含图表和注释。若论文摘要中需分层次表述内容时,一般应采用文字表达的方式,而不宜使用数字表达的方式。论文的中文摘要字数一般控制为按照论文总字数的5%,即200~800字。摘要放在论文之前,但其撰写应当是在论文完成之后。注意在摘要中要适当地运用一些过渡性和串连性语言,以避免句子的结构过于呆板。外文摘要项的英文标示词用“Abstract”,其摘要内容应当与中文基本一致。
(三)关键词
关键词是反映论文主题内容的名词,是供文献检索使用的重要信息。关键词的词条应为通用词汇,一般要求使用《世界汉语主题词表》中所罗列的专有名词,不得自造关键词。关键词一般为3~5个,每个关键词为2~6个字,按其外延层次(学科目录分类)由高至低顺序排列。中文“关键词”应当排在“摘要”正文下一自然段,每个关键词间用分号“;”分隔。外文关键词排在外文摘要正文下一自然段,且与中文关键词严格一致。英文关键词用“Key words”,后接英文状态下的冒号“:”,其间用英文状态下的分号“;”分隔。第一个关键词的第一个字母可大写。
(四)目录
目录是论文内容的主要线索,它的功能是为了帮助阅读者极快地了解论文的主体结构。一般论文不需要目录,但是较长的论文在必要时可以考虑加一个目录。按照现在学士以上学位论文的篇幅要求,需要增加一个目录。目录内容应当层次清晰,并与正文题序层次、标题内容与所处论文的页序完全一致。主要包括引论(或导论、绪论)、正文主体(一般只到二级标题,即条次与款次)、结语(或结论)、主要参考文献、附录和后记等项。若论文中专设目录时,目录应单设一页。目录下各项内容应标明与论文正文中相应内容相互对应的页序,标题与页序之间的空格应当用中圆点填充。
(五)正文
论文正文部分包括引论(或导论、绪论)、论文主体及结语(或结论)三个主要部分,各部分的基本要求如下:
1. 引论(引言)。论文的引论部分主要说明论文选题的目的和意义、国内外相关文献的简要评述,以及论文所拟研究的主要内容。“引论”可作为一个单独条(如“一、”)次排列,但在标题前不加题序。一般情况下,论文应当有“引论”项,但其内容不宜分设款(如“(一)”)和目(如“1.”)来表达作者观点,但可用文字表达必须的层次。如果引论内容不长,也可不列“引论”字样作为标题,只用一个自然段综合表达即可。引论的内容一般包括:研究目的和背景;前人已取得的成果,尚未解决的问题,目前研究态势;研究的理论意义、政策意义与现实意义。引言要开门见山,言简意赅并揭示主题;不要云遮雾障,不见天日,难见主题;避免自我吹嘘,贬低别人。
2. 本论。它亦称正文,是论文的主体与主干,是论文的主要组成部分,要求紧扣主题,层次清楚,逻辑性强,文字简练,表达通顺,标点符号使用得当,文法规范,图表规范、整洁、美观,引注准确,重点突出。在本论写作中,要依据拟定的提纲和搜集的资料,围绕主题和论点安排材料,按照提出问题——分析问题——解决问题的思维方式,进行充分的论证,表明所取得的研究成果。本论一般有三种结构:一是并列式,即各个大层次(大标题)之间,在论述问题的若干方面为并列、平行关系;二是递进式,即各个大层次(大标题)之间,在对所论述的问题呈层层递进、步步深入的递进关系;三是总分结合式,即各个大层次(大标题)之间,对所论述的问题,先总体论述、后作分别论述的总——分结合式,或先作分别论述、后作综合论述的分——总结合式。由于本论内容丰富,若篇幅较长时,可以采用多层结构,内部划分若干部分,再列明几级标题(大标题、小标题)或用层次级别顺序号来表示;内容简单,篇幅较小时,也可以采用一层结构,只划分大的部分,仅列明大标题,或用一级顺序号来表示即可。
3. 结语。对于内容丰富、篇幅较长的学术论文,可以在本论之后写结语。它是整个论文的总结,应以简练的文字说明论文所做的工作以及所得到的主要结论,也可涉及论文存在的研究局限和需要进一步研究的问题等。结论是论文创造性研究的结晶与精华,要以严肃的态度,准确的文字和适当的词语来如实表达。结语一般不宜过长。它可以作为一个单独条次排列,但在标题前不加题序。如果结语内容不长,也可不加“结语”字样,而只是在正文后另起自然段写出结语类的文字即可(如:综上所述……),但宜在段前空一行。对于一般性篇幅不长的学术论文,可以不写结论,仅视与前言和本论的需要相衔接而写相应的结尾。
(六)注释
在学术论文写作中,注释项目作为一种文化现象的历史源远流长,它体现了对他人研究成果的一种尊重与知识产权保护意识。早在我国古代,对典籍的注释就曾采用了注、解、传、笺、疏、章、句等多种形式,在现代学术论著中的注释项虽然已经相对简化,却仍然是论著文本的一个重要附属部分。论文中在运用注释方式时,要注意如下问题:
1. 注释范围。论文中的注释主要用于以下三个方面:一是直接引文注释,即文中引用他人原话和相关资料所载数据时对出处的交待;二是间接引用注释,即文中吸收他人观点时对出处的交待;三是内容说明注释,即对文中需要补充说明而在正文中又不便详细阐述的其他问题所做出的解释。一般情况下,不能采用转引方式。
2. 注释形式。注释的形式有三种:一是脚注(置于每页页脚,可每页重新编序号或者全文总编序号);二是尾注(置于全文末尾,全文总编序号);三是旁注(用括号说明前面的某一内容)。但现代论文中的注释一般采用随文加注,并多以脚注形式标注。
3. 注释序号。注释序号一般以带圈的数字用上标编号,如“XXXXX①,……”(提倡用word软件的“插入”——“脚注”中的自动编码功能)。注释的序号每页从“①”起重新编号,且不宜直接置于单列一行的条、款、项、目上,也不宜直接置于相关表格名、插图名以及公式之后,而应当置于相应的导入性文字中。除直接引注外,注释序号一般宜插于文尾的标点符号内。
4. 注释格式。注释的内容用小五号宋体(即通用word软件的默认标准)。注释中凡是涉及引用相关文献时,其标示内容及格式规范与后述参考文献的要求相同。
(七)主要参考文献
在论文篇后附参考文献,表明作者在研究过程中参阅其他资料情况,表明学术界对该论文题目的研究情况,为他人继续研究提供线索。论文中的参考文献项,需要注意以下问题:
1. 涉及范围。主要参考文献是指与论文内容有密切关系,且在写作中部分参考或者借鉴了他人文献的观点和材料时,为了对其成果表示尊重,同时也为了指明主要资料出处并便于检索而列出的一项论文要素。其范围不仅包括注释中已涉及的文献,还可包括论文写作过程所涉及的其它文献。但不能列示阅读或者是与其没有多大关系的文献,因此,要避免出现列示参考文献时的充门面等不正常现象。
2. 列示数量。主要参考文献应当列于文末,可另起页。一般情况下,论文后附主要参考文献的列示数量应当没有规定限额。但有时有些学位论文的学术规范要求有一定的数量。如,有的学校现行本科学士学位论文的参考文献就要求不少于15项(其中至少应包括3部以上的著作,还应当至少包括2项以上的外文文献)。
3. 列示顺序。主要参考文献列示顺序一般为中文在前,外文在后。中文文献按第一作者姓氏的拼音增序排列,外文文献按第一作者名的字母增序排列,第一作者相同的文献则按发表时间增序排列。
4. 列示格式。主要参考文献的字号一般小于正文半号字体。各条参考文献首行缩进两个字符后列序号(如果没有特殊要求,也不必列示序号),序号一般在方括号(即“[ X ]”)内列示,括号后空一格,再接相应的文献信息。一项文献的信息列示超过一行时,宜采用“悬挂缩进”格式。中文文献各要素之间的小圆点宜用全角状态下的圆点符号(即“.”),外文文献中的论题宜用斜体标示。著作类文献凡属第1版时则不必标明版次信息。
5. 著者列示。主要参考文献的主要责任者列示方法为:中文著者先姓后名,外(英)文著者先名后姓。列示时不须标明编著形式(如:“张光明著”只标“张光明”,但译者需要注明,并用逗号“,”分隔,如:“李有明,译”)。一项文献涉及多个责任者时,应分别处理:外文著者只需标注第一个著者的姓名,空一格后附“etc.”;中国著者应标注至第一、二、三著者的姓名,三位以后的著者则以“等”字省略,各作者姓名之间以及所列示的最后一位作者姓名与“等”字之间均用逗号“,”分隔。
6. 列示格式。主要参考文献一般可分论著图书类、译著图书类、学术刊物类、学术会议类、学位论文类、报纸、在线文献和其他文献等不同类型,不同类型的文献主要项目均包括作者、文献名、文献类型及载体类型标识(如期刊类为“[J]”)、版(期)次(第1 版不必标注)、出版地、出版者、出版年和引用部分起止页等基本信息,但据文献特点在列示方式上有所差异。除此之外,在论文写作中,若还涉及到科技报告和专利等其他类型的文献时,可以根据需要自行参考国家标准管理委员会2005年10月1日发布的中华人民共和国国家标准——《文后参考文献著录规则》(GB/T7714-2005)的要求作相应处理。
(八)附录
附录为论文的非必选项,它的主要内容可包括放在正文内显得过于冗长的公式推导、复杂的数据图表、论文使用的专门符号内涵释义、计量单位缩写表、专有名词缩写表和检索表,以及软件程序的有关说明等。若无需要,也可不单列此项。附录应另起一页。附录编序前应当冠以“附录”两字(如:“附录一”、“附录X”)。
(九)后记
后记为非必选项,它的主要内容可以是作者对论文过程的记录与写作感悟,也可以是对给予指导或协助完成论文工作的组织与个人表示感谢。后记文字要简洁、得体、实事求是,切忌浮夸和庸俗之词。后记应另起页。后记内容的版面要求与正文相同,文内顺序宜用文字表达。
(十)鸣谢
论文中的鸣谢部分主要体现三层意思:一是对论文写作过程支持者和指导者的感谢,如国家自然科学基金课题立项资助的感谢等;二是对论文写作中所引用或者参考文献作者的感谢;三是对论文编辑与发表过程匿名审稿者和编辑的感谢。在表达方式上,有文题“鸣谢”方式和文末 “鸣谢”方式。文题“鸣谢”一般用“*”脚注方式;文末“鸣谢”有的单列,也有与“后记”结合在一起。论文中是否有该项,由作者自行决定。若从学术礼节的角度,一般宜有此项内容。
四、会计专业论文的主要表达规范
(一)行文
1. 用字规范。论文中所用汉字必须使用国家语言文字工作委员会公布的规范汉字,在文本状态下,所有文字必须字面清晰,若必须更改,要使用国家新闻出版总署规定的标准校对符号,不能随意涂抹。
2. 段首规范。论文的每一自然段、每一层次单行列示的题序和标题前均按汉字书写习惯缩进(即首行缩进两个字符,专门规定“居中”的除外),而不宜按英文格式悬挂缩进。一般情况下,英文文字的首段左边应顶格,但从第二自然段开始左边需空两个半角字符。
3. 字符规范。论文中所有中文表述内的标点符号应当统一用全角状态下的字符;论文中所有英文大、小写与标点符号一般宜用“新罗马体(Times New Roman)”半角字符。而所有英文间的标点符号则统一用半角字符,但均应在标点符号后加一空格。论文中凡是涉及阿拉伯数字的宜用半角字符(如12345),而不宜用全角字符(如12345)。
4. 避免背题。论文中凡是单列一行的各级标题均不得背题(即标题出现在某页的最后一行,内容在次页),必要时应强制使用相关软件中另起一页的排版功能。
(二)正文文本
论文中除“引论(或导论、绪论)”部分和“结语(或结论)”部分不需列出题序外,其他表明论文层级的内容应当统一由题序数字和标题表明相应的层次。正文的标题序号一般可用中文(一级标题与二级标题)和阿拉伯数字(三级标题与四级标题)混合标示(或者仅用阿拉伯数字)。在格式上有文科格式和理科格式两种,不论采用哪种格式,均需要注重全文的规范性与统一性。论文中的级次,一般宜以四级为宜。若无特别需要,文中不宜用特殊符号来标示论文的各级层次(如:“●”和“■”等)。除章节之外的论文层级的具体要求如下:
1. 条次格式。条次是正文的第一层次,在标题前以“一、”、“二、”等表示题序。如第一条则标示为:“一、XXXXXXX”。题序和标题占一行,一般居中,题序和标题之间用顿号间隔(而非下圆点“.”),结尾处无标点符号。
2. 款次格式。款次是正文的第二层次,在标题前以“(一)”、“(二)”等表示题序。如第一条第一款则标示为 :“(一)XXXXXXX”。题序和标题占一行,行首空两格,题序和标题之间不加标点,结尾处无标点符号。特殊情况下,可接着“(一)XXXXXXX”后空一格,要接着叙述内容亦可。
3. 项次格式。项次是正文的第三层次,在标题前以“1.”、“2.”等表示题序。如第一条第一款第一项则标示为:“1.XXXXXXX”。题序和标题占一行,题序和标题之间用下圆点(用英文全角“.”)间隔(而非顿号“、”),结尾处无标点符号。
4. 目次格式。目次是正文的第四层次,在标题前以“(1)”、“(2)”等表示题序。如第一条第一款第一项第一目则标示为:“(1)XXXXXXX”。题序和标题占一行,行首空两格,题序和标题之间不加标点,结尾处无标点符号。若题序和标题不单独占一行时,则在标题后加句号,后面接着叙述内容即可。
5. 其他格式。当条、款和项次下不单设层次时,也可在正文的同一段落中用“(1)…………;(2)…………;(3)…………。”等的行文方式列举事项,显示层次。但若在条(或款、项)次下不设单列的层级(或者在目次下还要分层次)时,可在正文的同一段落(或者分段)中采用文字顺序词,如 “一是…………;二是…………;三是…………。”等类似的行文方式。若在文中使用“首先”、“其次”或“第一”、“第二”或“其一”、“其二”等顺序词时,其后不能使用顿号:“、”,而必须使用逗号:“,”,且其编序一般以五号为宜。
(三)表格
表格是会计专业论文写作中必须运用的一种专门技术。在论文中凡涉及表格运用时,应当满足六方面的基本要求:
1. 表格编序。论文中的表格应当统一编序(如:表1;若论文分章的情况下,则分章编序,即“表章序——表序”,下同),采用方式应与插图和公式的编序方式统一。表序用阿拉伯数字,且必须连续,不得重复或跳跃。每个表格应拟表名,如“XXXXXX表”。
2. 表格导入。论文中凡导入表格时,均应使用类似“见表X所示”的导入语,不宜用“见下表所示”。表格导入语不宜直接用于论文各层级的标题中,如:“1.XXXXXX(详见表1)”。
3. 表序表题。表序和表题间空两格,置于表格上方,居中,标为“表XXXXXXXX表”。
4. 表格设计。表格形式全文应当统一,可选用上下有线而左右无线的开口式表格、四边有线的封闭式表格或三线式表格等,设计上应当尽量简洁且排列整齐美观(如表内出现换行时,即可考虑取消页面设置定义的“间距”限制)。表格中各栏都应标注相应的计量单位,或者在表头靠右边注明相应的主要计量单位(如“计量单位:元”),右缩进两格。
5. 表内内容。表内文字或数字须上下对齐,相邻栏内的数值相同时,不能用“同上”、“同左”或其他类似用词,应一一重新填注。表格内各项目栏内容(或数据)的字号可根据需要适当调小(宜用小于正文半个字号),但全表的字号应当统一。一般情况下,表内数据来源的交待用注释形式提供即可,若有特别需要时,也可于表底另设一段专列“资料来源:”项(首行缩进,小于正文半号楷体,内容转行时则悬挂缩进两个空格)。一般情况下,表序、表题、表格与表底所附必须的“资料来源”项最好同页,若表格实在需要分页时,表格标题行应当重复。
6. 表格运用。论文中凡运用表格数据时,均应使用“见表X所示”的使用语,不宜用“见上表所示”。
(四)插图
图示是表达论文观点的一种重要形式,它在会计专业论文写作中必不可少。论文中凡涉及图的运用时,应当满足四个基本要求:
1. 插图编序。论文中的插图要精选。图序方式应与表格和公式的编序方式统一。图序统一用阿拉伯数字(如:图1;若论文分章的情况下,则分章编序,即“图章序——图序”,下同)且必须连续,不得重复或跳跃。若全文仅有一个插图时,亦可在图题前加“附图”字样。论文中的插图以及图中文字符号要绘制清晰。
2. 插图导入。论文中凡导入插图时,均应使用类似“见图X所示”的导入语,不宜用“见下图所示”。插图导入语不宜直接用于论文各层级标题中,如:“3.XXXXXX(详见图1)”。
3. 图序图名。插图的结构设计上应简洁且排列美观,线条之间的关系清楚(选用箭头)并尽量减少交叉。图序和图题置于插图下方,标为“图XXXXXXXX图”,居中。若某插图由若干个分图所组成,则各分图用“图Xa”、“图Xb”、“图Xc”……标出。插图内有关文字的字号可据需要适当调整。一般情况下,插图来源的交待用注释形式提供即可,若有特别需要时,也可于图序和图题下另设一段专列“资料来源:”项以及“图标说明项”(首行缩进,小半号楷体)。插图、图序、图名及必须的“资料来源”和“图标说明项”必须排于同一页内。
4. 插图运用。凡在论文中运用插图资料时,均应使用“见图X所示”的使用语,不宜用“见上图所示”。
(五)公式
公式也是会计专业论文写作中经常遇到的问题之一。在论文中凡涉及公式运用时,应当满足五个方面的基本要求:
1. 公式编序。论文中的公式应标注序号并加圆括号,序号一律用阿拉伯数字连续编序,编序方式与表格和插图统一,如:“(式1;若论文分章的情况下,则分章编序,即“式章序——式序”,下同)”。公式的序号“(式X)”排在公式版面内容居中并靠右侧,且全文所有公式的右边页距应当相等(可统一右缩进两个字符处理)。
2. 公式导入。论文中凡导入公式时,均应使用类似“见式X所示”的导入语,不宜用“见下式所示”。公式导入语不宜直接用于论文各层级标题中,如:“3.XXXXXX(详见式1)”。
3. 公式格式。公式格式编排时,凡是数学类公式均应使用word软件或其它软件中附带的“公式编辑器”进行编辑,文本类公式亦可采用其它方法编辑。公式主体应当单列一行,居中,具体公式与表示序号的“(式X)”之间不需要加虚线连接。
4. 公式运用。论文中凡是运用公式时,或者是对公式的某值内涵进行解释时,均应采用“式X中”的使用语,而不宜用“见上式”、 “上式中”、“(式X)中”和“式(X)中”。
(六)数字
1. 年代标示。公历世纪、年代、年、月、日和时间均应采用阿拉伯数字,如“2000年”、“2007-03-18”和“20世纪50年代”等,但模糊的年代数可用汉字表示,如“二十世纪五六十年代”等。避免使用“本世纪”和“上世纪”,可用“下世纪”。公历年份不能简写,如“2000年”不能写成“00年”。
2. 数值标示。各种计数、计量以及确切的数字均采用阿拉伯数字,如“10位专家”和“30个项目”等,但模糊的数字须使用汉字,如“十多位专家”和“三四十个项目”等。数值的有效数字应全部写出,如“5%~8%”不能写成“5~8%”等。
3. 数码标示。数码千分位使用空格(国际标准),不宜使用逗号(美国标准),如“123456元”应写为“123 456元”,不宜写成“123,456元”。负数一律写成“-123”(负号用宋体)。两组以上的阿拉伯数字组之间如果没有计量单位,就不宜直接使用顿号,必须用逗号连接,如“三种产品的产量分别为200,250和300件”,但如果有计量单位时,则可使用顿号,如“三种产品的产量分别为200台、250套和300件”。
4. 数区标示。数字和时间的区间不得使用连字符“-”或一字线“—”,而应使用“标点符号”中的波浪线“~”。如:“x的取值范围为0~30”不能写成“x的取值范围为0—30”,“论文写作时间为2001年11月28日~2002年5月28日”不能写成“论文写作时间为2001年11月28日—2002年5月28日”。但若仅表示年份区间可用连字符“-”(如:“2005-2006”)。参考文献页码的区间范围用英文状态下的连字符“-”表示,而不用中文中的一字线“—”与波浪线“~”。
5. 其他标示。其他特殊要素的标示方法按原国家技术监督局1995年12月13日发布的中华人民共和国国家标准——《出版物数字用法的规定》(GB/T 15835-1995)的要求执行。
(七)软件
软件设计中的流程图和源程序清单,一般应当按软件文档格式作为“附件”在论文后列出,不列入论文内。特殊情况下不便列出时,可另外展示。
(八)其他
1. 规范用词。行文时要注意:区分“必须”与“必需”等类似的近似词组;区别“帐”与“账”等类似相形字使用时的微妙差别;统一使用“其他”、“人才”和“惟一”等词组,不得使用“其它”、“人材”和“唯一”)。具体用法可参照中华人民共和国国家语言文字工作委员会2001年12月19日发布的《第一批异形词整理表》(2002年3月31日起试行)的要求。
2. 标点符号。标点符号的使用方法按原国家技术监督局1995年12月13日发布的中华人民共和国国家标准——《标点符号用法》(GB/T15834-1995)执行。
3. 计量单位。计量单位的定义和使用方法按中华人民共和国国务院1984年2月27日发布的《中华人民共和国法定计量单位》及国家计量局的有关具体规定执行。
4. 英文简称。论文中有关国际性组织的专有名词英文缩写首次出现时,要用中文写出全称,并在括号内注明英文全称及简写的英文大写字母符号组合,后文才能用英文简称。例如:“2001年,中国加入世界贸易组织(World Trade Organization,简称WTO)后……。根据WTO规则要求……”。
5. 英文人名。注意区别外国人名中的分隔符(如马克·吐温)与英语中的缩写符(如A. C. Littleton)使用上的区别。如:卢卡·帕乔利(Luca Pacioli)、罗伯特·S. 卡普兰(Robert S. Kaplan)。
6. 其他事项。其他未涉及的论文写作中的有关事项,可参照原国家技术监督局1987年发布的GB/7713-1987——《科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式》执行。●
【主要参考文献】
[1] 教育部社会科学委员会. 高等学校哲学社会科学研究学术规范(试行). 2004.
[2] 王力,等. 怎样写学术论文. 北京大学出版社,1981. P1-10.
[3] 许家林.毕业论文的基本要素与规范. 中南财经政法大学学报, 2004. 第154-157期.
[4] 许家林.会计学专业研究生学位论文学术规范遵循情况研究.学位与研究生教育,2005,5:4-11.
[5] 许家林. 中国大陆17所高校100篇学位论文调查结果的分析与思考. 载:中南财经政法大学会计学院编.会计·审计·财务管理前沿问题研究——第八届海峡两岸会计与管理学术研讨会论文集.北京:中国财政经济出版社,2005.526-563.
[6] 许家林. 论本科生论文写作训练的几个基本问题. 财经政法资讯, 2005,2:3-14.
[7] 于玉林. 现代会计方法学. 上海:立信会计出版社,1997.P87-254.
[8] 于玉林. 新编会计操作方法全书. 沈阳:辽宁人民出版社,1994. 1307-1320.
[9] 赵德馨,周秀鸾.社会科学研究工作程序. 北京:中国财政经济出版社,1987. P4.
[10] 中华人民共和国国家标准局. GB7713-87:科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式. 1987.
[11] 中华人民共和国国家技术监督局. GB/T 15835-1995:出版物数字用法的规定. 1995.
[12] 中华人民共和国国家技术监督局. GB/T15834-1995:标点符号用法. 1995.
[13] 中华人民共和国国家质量监督检验检疫总局,中国国家标准化管理委员会. 国家标准GB7714-2005:文后参考文献著录规则. 2005.
[14] 中华人民共和国国务院. 中华人民共和国法定计量单位使用方法. 1984.
[15] 中华人民共和国著作权法.2008-01-29.
[16] 中南财经政法大学教务处. 中南财经政法大学本科生毕业论文(设计)撰写规范(试行),2008-01-29.
篇7:2024年小学英语写作方法指导
全文共 3972 字
+ 加入清单在我们当前的小学英语教学中,教师往往只组织大量的听、说、读的活动,而忽视对写的有效训练;就是在训练“写”,也只是写写单词、写写句型和课文,并没有深入到培养学生“写”的综合技能。部分教师甚至还存在着一些错误的认识,认为写作教学和训练过于费时,影响教学进度;写作作业难批改;写作教学枯燥,易降低课堂的活力;英文写作对小学生而言太难了等等。但是,儿童语言能力的发展是综合的,听、说、读、写各项能力之间互相制约,互相促进,任何一项能力的滞后都会影响到其他能力的发展。我们应该更新教学观念,设计一些符合学生认知规律、实效性较高的写作活动,促进学生英语技能的全面发展。下面是我对小学英语写作教学一些浅显的看法。
一、 由易到难,培养学生的写作兴趣
对于小学生来说创造性地运用语言确实有一定的难度,所以在写作教学中,教师应针对儿童的年龄特点和语言水平,设计难易适中且充满童趣的写作任务。俗话说得好,兴趣是最好的老师。要培养学生对英语写作的兴趣,首先就要有对英语学习的兴趣。而且要将低、中年级学生的直接兴趣慢慢培养成高年级学生的间接兴趣。尤其是对于低年级的学生词汇量有限,教师更要根据教材的主题或语言内容设计学生易完成的写作任务。如对于中年级的学生,教师可能将阅读材料中的一些关键词或词组挖空,让学生联系上下文猜词填空。如通过填词练习让学生描述动物:
My pet
I have a _______. It is _______ and ________. It has got _____. It has got _______ and ________. It can ________. It can _______, too. It eats _______. My parents like _______ very much. We are ______ friends.
这种填词的练习,既能训练学生的阅读能力,又能培养学生初步的语篇意识,并为高年级的写作打下了基础。循序渐进的学习,既能让学生体验成功,也能让学生建立写作的信心和兴趣。
二、抓好课本教学,夯实英语基础
要想写好一遍好的英语作文,离不开单词的积累。单词是一篇作文最基础的部分,过分强调它是不妥,但却也不能忽略。强大的单词积累是写好一篇作文的后盾。所以,不管在课堂上,还是在课后,都要强调学生掌握好单词的拼写和单词的运用,夯实英语写作的基础。
在小学,学生的主要学习时间是课堂学习时间。学生的主要知识来源于课本,课本是学生学习的根本。课本给学生提供基本的句型,语法知识,词汇等。所以,对于课本中的内容,可适当要求学生背诵,小学生善于模仿,通过背诵课文,一些句子就会在学生心中生根发芽,学生就会有意无意地模仿这样的句子进行写作。课文中的句子一般来说是很规范的,学生的写作也会较规范。记忆中的课文也是学生写作时句子处理的依据。凭语感和课文结构,利用个人的智慧和对作文题目及要求的理解,学生会写出语法正确,句意通顺,结构严谨规范的作文。
三、 广泛阅读,拓展知识面
古人云“读书破万卷,下笔如有神” , 阅读是写作的基础,大量的、广泛的阅读,才能加强学生理解和吸收书面信息的能力,有助于巩固和扩大学生词汇量,增强语感,丰富学生的语言知识,了解英语国家的文化背景。实践证明,学生平时课外阅读面越宽,语言实践量越大,运用英语表达自己的能力就越强。通过日积月累的积累,学生在自然的习得中学得大量了的英语单词、句子,形成较好的语感。为学生更好地写作打下了坚实的基础。但在选择课外阅读材料时,还要注意:文章太易,不利于知识的提高,文章太难会挫伤学生阅读英语的积极性。这就需要教师做好充分的阅读准备,选择好难易适中的文章
广泛的英语阅读还可以让学生尽可能地了解英汉差异。许多学生写英文短文,都习惯用汉语去思考。写出来的句子,读起来很拗口,句意生硬,令人费解。甚至有的学生将汉语句子逐一对照译成英语单词,拼凑成句子。如:上个星期天,我爸爸坐船去了上海。译文成了:Last Sunday ,I father sit ship go to Shanghai. 令人啼笑皆非。究其原因是学生不明白英汉两种语言表达上的差异。如,汉语中没有时态和语态的复杂变化,只借助于助词“着,了,过”。而英语则有复杂的时态和语态变化以及动词短语,介词短语等一些固定搭配,动词与其主语的一致,称谓的一致等等。让学生进行广泛的英语阅读可以降低这样尴尬的机率,在不断的阅读中拓展知识面。这样才能在实际运用中应用地恰到好处,英语写作才能更规范,更标准,更符合英美人的表达习惯。
四、培养学生的写作热情
众所周知,写作和口语都是语言输出的重要方面。写作是人们学习、运用英语的综合技能的表现,教授学生英语写作能够检验和巩固学生综合的语言知识,在写作过程中,学生有一定的时间去思考、组织、修改、判断,有利于培养和提高学生的语言综合能力;能让学生去辨别口语语体和书面语体的异同,尤其是不同的句型、表达方式和选词造句;能增强学生的自信心,哪怕正确地写出一句、两句话或一小段,一旦受到鼓励,学生都会欣喜若狂,学习英语的兴趣会更加强烈;有利于培养学生直接用英语思维的习惯,尤其是限时写作,学生必须在规定的时间内完成规定的内容,他们就不可能先用母语思考,再译成英语,而是直接用英语来思考;写作可给予学生发挥自己的想象力和创造力,作为老师应仔细观察并珍惜学生的每一次创举,并能及时地对该同学给予肯定和高度赞扬,鼓励他大胆地、尽情地去想象,那么学习英语就没那么枯燥了,写作的热情也会日渐高涨了。
积极带领学生参加教育在线,让他们把自己的作品放在网络上,一方面向别人学习的同时也可以感受到众人欣赏自己作品的那种欣喜;选择优秀的学生作品进行投稿,如《双语阅读》和《小学生英语报》等这些学生常见的刊物,对作品发表的同学进行奖励,这样更能够激发他们的写作欲望。
五、由浅入深,开展扎实的写作训练
写作和任何形式的知识一样都是可以通过训练加以提高的。基础知识和能力并重,听、说、读和写并举。在平时的教学中可应充分利用一切可以利用的机会启发、引导学生提高自己的写作水平。如遇到优秀的句、段或篇提示学生注意欣赏作者的表达法,把它们作为范例,在自己写作中加以模仿和运用。又如遇到英汉表达方法不同之处,提示学生注意英语的正确表达法,切忌出现汉语式的英语。要帮助学生养成正确运用标点符号的好习惯,切忌一点到底的错误方法。
1、坚持循序渐进的训练原则。
用学过的词、短语或句式,模仿课文中的表达法造句。换课文中的人物、时态、语态或体裁等改写课文。将打乱顺序的句子按事件发展的时间顺序或逻辑关系等整理成一篇完整的短文。总而言之,写作要先易后难,先短后长,先写好正确的句子逐步过渡到围绕一个人、一件事、一个观点去写有中心的文章,由不限定时间到限定时间,由限定字数少到多,由一句话日记到一段话日记,由看图作文到命题作文,经过日记,看图写作的训练,学生在写作能力上有了一定的提高,英语表达能力也有很大的进步。这时,可根据学生的教材,就每个单元不同的学习内容提供一个命题作文给学生练笔。这些题目紧扣他们学习的内容,书本上的内容给他们写作提供了模仿的对象,而且跟他们的生活也息息相关。
2、分层要求,注意讲评,鼓励优秀,耐心帮助差生。
对学生的要求不能一刀切,对学习好的要求要高,对学习差的要求要适当低一些。充分利用板报、专栏进行优秀作文展览,经常帮助差生树立信心,掌握写作方法和技巧。英语作文讲评过程中要经常指出优点,以利模仿,指出缺点,警示避免。在训练写作时,要少给学生完整的范文。因为如果经常给学生范文,很容易让学生产生依赖性,不愿意自己动手去写。而是等着老师念范文,自己去背。长此以往学生肯定会背烦的,背烦了就更不愿去写了。会造成一个恶性循环。不利于提高学生的写作水平,更不用说培养语言能力了。
3、小组合作,共同提高
对于一些难度较大、范围较广的写作内容,可以通过开展合作写作来完成。在合作写作的过程中,他们有机会互相交流,集思广益,取人之长,补已之短;他们可能学习写作,指导写作,分享作品。例如:在六年级教学My favourite festivals 这一主题时,让学生以小组形式搜集各节日的有关资料,然后集体讨论,一人执笔写作,最后交流。在合作中写作,既给学生留有独立思考的空间,又可促进他们互相帮助与学习。
4、适当指导
学生动笔写作前,教师要给予必要的指导,不是给个题目或者一幅图,就要求学生动笔写。为了使他们少犯错误。教师还要经常性地列举错误的表达法,提醒学生注意避免。在批阅作文时教师要随时标出学生错误之处,并要随时记录学生所犯错误,把学生的错误加以归类总结,把普遍性的错误提出来,让学生集体改错,使他们的语言表达尽可能的正确规范。
六、鼓励学生资源共享,共同进步
在平时的教学中,我鼓励学生大胆地阅读课外英语资料,鼓励学生搜索网上的英语资料,学生的作品通过不同的方式与读者交流,读者包括教师、同学和家长。让学生各自交流作品的方式有朗诵、出墙报、制作英语小卡片,制作手抄报,写好读书笔记等,将全班学生的手抄报装订成册,搜集全班学生的各种作品,本班学生的作品互相交流,同年级不同班的学生作品也互相交流阅读,集中群体的智慧,内容丰富多彩,五花八门,既适合他们的年龄特征又能供学生课余阅读,拓展视野,达到交流学习的目的,我还设想将学生的电子手抄报发送到我校校园网,以供更多的学生欣赏。除此之外,在评价学生的写作作品时,做到有的放矢,灵活有序,实施本人评价、小组评价,家长评价和老师评价,对学生的进步及时充分的肯定。
总之,英语写作需要平时一点一滴的积累,每一步都不能少,持之以恒的训练。作为英语教师,需要不断的探索和总结。
篇8:英语书信的常见写作模板
全文共 364 字
+ 加入清单开头部分:
How nice to hear from you again. Let me tell you something about the activity. I’m glad to have received your letter of Apr. 9th. I’m pleased to hear that you’re coming to China for a visit. I’m writing to thank you for your help during my stay in America.
结尾部分:
With best wishes. I’m looking forward to your reply. I’d appreciate it if you could reply earlier.
篇9:介绍信写作基础知识
全文共 932 字
+ 加入清单介绍信是介绍派出人员的身份和任务的专用信件。下面是小编为你带来的介绍信写作基础知识,欢迎阅读。
一、单位介绍信的相关概念
介绍信是介绍派出人员的身份和任务的专用信件。
二、单位介绍信的作用
1.介绍信主要用于联系工作、洽谈业务、参加会议、了解情况时的自我说明。
2.对于持信人而言,介绍信具有介绍、证明双重作用。
三、单位介绍信的种类
介绍信有两种形式:一种是便函式的介绍信,一种是带存根的介绍信。
四、单位介绍信的结构和写法
其一是便函式介绍信。
用一般的公文信纸书写。包括标题、称谓、正文、结尾、单位名称和日期、附注几部分。
1.标题
在第一行居中写“介绍信”三个字。
2.称谓
另起一行,顶格写收信单位名称或个人姓名,姓名后加“同志”、“先生”、“女士”等称呼,再加冒号。
3.正文
另起一行,开头空两格写正文,一般不分段。一般要写清楚:(1)派遣人员的姓名、人数、身份、职务、职称等。(2)说明所要联系的工作、接洽的事项等。(3)对收信单位或个人的希望、要求等,如“请接洽”等。
4.结尾
写上表示致敬或者祝愿的话,如“此致敬礼”等。
5.单位名称和日期
6.附注
注明介绍信的有效期限,具体天数用大写。
在正文的右下方写明派遣单位的名称和介绍信的开出日期,并加盖公章。日期写在单位名称下方。
其二是带存根的介绍信。
这种介绍信有固定的格式,一般由存根、间缝、本文三部分组成。
1.存根
存根部分由标题(介绍信)、介绍信编号、正文、开出时间等组成。存根由出具单位留存备查。
2.间缝
间缝部分写介绍编号,应与存根部分的编号一致。还要加盖出具单位的公章。
3.正文
本文部分基本与便函式介绍人相同,只是有的要标题下再注明介绍信编号。
五、单位介绍信的写作要求
1.接洽事宜要写得具体、简明。
2.要注明使用介绍信的有效期限,天数要大写。
3.字迹要工整,不能随意涂改。
介绍信范文
范文一:
_______银行_______支行:
我公司由于工作的需要,特派出我司工作人员李XX(身份证号:_______工作证号:_______)、_______(身份证号:_______工作证号:_______)等前来贵行办理______________工作事宜,望贵行给予协助办理。
特此证明
单位名称:_______
____年____月_____日
篇10:英语写作素材积累:50句经典句子
全文共 4203 字
+ 加入清单下面是由语文迷网小编精心为大家整理提供的英语句子,供大家写作参考。
1、Time flies.
时光易逝。
2、Time is money.
一寸光阴一寸金。
3、Time and tide wait for no man.
岁月无情;岁月易逝;岁月不待人。
4、Time tries all.
时间检验一切。
5、Time tries truth.
时间检验真理。
6、Time past cannot be called back again.
光阴一去不复返。
7、All time is no time when it is past.
光阴一去不复返。
8、No one can call back yesterday;Yesterday will not be called again.
昨日不复来。
9、Business neglected is business lost.
忽视职业便是放弃职业。
10、One today is worth two tomorrows.
一个今天胜似两个明天。
11、The morning sun never lasts a day.
好景不常;朝阳不能光照全日。
12、Christmas comes but once a year.
圣诞一年只一度。
13、Pleasant hours fly past.
快乐时光去如飞。
14、Happiness takes no account of time.
欢娱不惜时光逝。
15、Time tames the strongest grief.
时间能缓和极度的悲痛。
16、The day is short but the work is much.
工作多,光阴迫。
17、Never deter till tomorrow that which you can do today.
今日事须今日毕,切勿拖延到明天。
18、Have you somewhat to do tomorrow,do it today.
明天如有事,今天就去做。
19、To him that does everything in its proper time,one day is worth three.
事事及时做,一日胜三日。
20、To save time is to lengthen life.
节省时间就是延长生命。
21、Everything has its time and that time must be watched.
万物皆有时,时来不可失。
22、Take time when time cometh,lest time steal away.
时来必须要趁时,不然时去无声息。
23、When an opportunity is neglected,it never comes back to you.
机不可失,时不再来;机会一过,永不再来。
24、Make hay while the sun shines.
晒草要趁太阳好。
25、Strike while the iron is hot.
趁热打铁。
26、Work today,for you know not how much you may be hindered tomrrow.
今朝有事今朝做,明朝可能阻碍多。
27、Punctuality is the soul of business.
守时为立业之要素。
28、Procrastination is the thief of time.
因循拖延是时间的大敌;拖延就是浪费时间。
29、Every tide hath ist ebb.
潮涨必有潮落时。
30、Knowledge is power.
知识就是力量。
31、Wisdom is more to be envied than riches.
知识可羡,胜于财富。
32、Wisdom is better than gold or silver.
知识胜过金银。
33、Wisdom in the mind is better than money in the hand.
胸中有知识,胜于手中有钱。
34、Wisdom is a good purchase though we pay dear for it.
为了求知识,代价虽高也值得。
35、Doubt is the key of knowledge.
怀疑是知识之钥。
36、If you want knowledge,you must toil for it.
若要求知识,须从勤苦得。
37、A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
浅学误人。
38、A handful of common sense is worth a bushel of learning.
少量的常识,当得大量的学问。
39、Knowledge advances by steps and not by leaps.
知识只能循序渐进,不能跃进。
40、Learn wisdom by the follies of others.
从旁人的愚行中学到聪明。
41、It is good to learn at another man’s cost.
前车可鉴。
42、Wisdom is to the mind what health is to the body.
知识之于精神,一如健康之于肉体。
43、Experience is the best teacher.
经验是最好的教师。
44、Experience is the father of wisdom and memory the mother.
经验是知识之父,记忆是知识之母。
45、Dexterity comes by experience.
熟练来自经验。
46、Practice makes perfect.
熟能生巧。
47、Experience keeps a dear school,but fools learn in no other.
经验学校学费高,愚人旁处学不到。
48、Experience without learning is better than learning without experience.
有经验而无学问,胜于有学问而无经验。
49、Wit once bought is worth twice taught.
由经验而得的智慧,胜于学习而得的智慧;一次亲身的体会,胜过两次的教师教导。
50、Seeing is believing.
百闻不如一见。
拓展阅读:段首万能句子
1. 关于……人们有不同的观点。一些人认为……
There are different opinions among people as to ____ .Some people suggest that ____.
2. 俗话说(常言道)……,它是我们前辈的经历,但是,即使在今天,它在许多场合仍然适用。
There is an old saying______. It"s the experience of our forefathers,however,it is correct in many cases even today.
3. 现在,……,它们给我们的日常生活带来了许多危害。首先,……;其次,……。更为糟糕的是……。
Today, ____, which have brought a lot of harms in our daily life. First, ____ Second,____. What makes things worse is that______.
4. 现在,……很普遍,许多人喜欢……,因为……,另外(而且)……。
Nowadays,it is common to ______. Many people like ______ because ______. Besides,______.
5. 任何事物都是有两面性,……也不例外。它既有有利的一面,也有不利的一面。
Everything has two sides and ______ is not an exception,it has both advantages and disadvantages.
6. 关于……人们的观点各不相同,一些人认为(说)……,在他们看来,……
People’s opinions about ______ vary from person to person. Some people say that ______.To them,_____.
7. 人类正面临着一个严重的问题……,这个问题变得越来越严重。
Man is now facing a big problem ______ which is becoming more and more serious.
8. ……已成为人的关注的热门话题,特别是在年青人当中,将引发激烈的辩论。
______ has become a hot topic among people,especially among the young and heated debates are right on their way.
9. ……在我们的日常生活中起着越来越重要的作用,它给我们带来了许多好处,但同时也引发一些严重的问题。
______ has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life.it has brought us a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.
10. 根据图表/数字/统计数字/表格中的百分比/图表/条形图/成形图可以看出……。很显然……,但是为什么呢?
According to the figure/number/statistics/percentages in the /chart/bar graph/line/graph,it can be seen that______ while. Obviously,______,but why?
篇11:2024英语写作素材:植树节的意义
全文共 3848 字
+ 加入清单Each years Arbor Day across the country will be massive tree-planting activities, because of afforestation greening and beautifying the home, not only can also at the same time expanding forest resources, prevent water loss and soil erosion, protecting farmland, regulating climate, and promote economic development, and so on, is a grand project of contemporary, benefiting future. But the meaning of the Arbor Day is not everyone want to plant a tree in the Arbor Day this day, but through the Arbor Day again come, make us more attention of greening, the problems of environmental protection.
As we all know: the earth is in arid and desert area covered are increased year by year, but we seem to feel these are far from us, but in our side have such a group of people: they are quietly for planting green the earth, they are called "hero", some are called "contemporary yu gong", some even are foreign friends... They plant trees in their practical action to tell us, was the event of all mankind, is benefiting future generations of the ten thousand.
Hundreds of millions of years ago, the earth belongs to the animals with lush plants, everywhere full of vitality, full of green, however, IQ is far more human than the other animals, plants like enchanted decreased dramatically. That is because the human in order to build houses, caused by the cutting down trees. Have a plenty of because business needs, large teams of cut down the trees to set aside space, used to build the building. Because many people without authorization, cut down trees and trees, so nature was damaged.
The disadvantages of cutting down trees a lot. We all know trees can be recycled carbon dioxide, if a large number of cut down trees, trees will sharply reduce the number of, we cant get exhaled carbon dioxide cycle. Lush trees can stop the sandstorm, two years before Beijing encountered sandstorms, the entire city was shrouded by sand that is because of the lack of protection in the trees.
Trees are the earths lungs, I hope everyone can protect the forest, protection of trees, green make urban life add a minute! Protect trees is to protect the earth is to protect our humanity!
But for all of us, the meaning of the Arbor Day is not just as simple plant a tree. Arbor Day to express meaning not only for us is to plant more trees, but to cultivate citizens to take good care of our natural, low carbon a philosophy of life.
Arbor Day if there are no conditions to plant trees, we can do from daily life and the same effect to plant trees. Such as a piece of paper with a pair of disposable chopsticks, less waste less and less an air-conditioner and so on. The concept of low carbon, saving itself is beneficial to the progress of the society, the protection of the trees. Only our demand for trees, trees cut down will be less, then the love will be more and more trees. Arbor Day, what are you waiting for, from now on, since you have come together to love nature, low carbon a day!
每年的植树节全国各地都会大规模开展植树活动,因为植树造林不仅可以绿化和美化家园,同时还可以起到扩大山林资源、防止水土流失、保护农田、调节气候、促进经济发展等作用,是一项利于当代、造福子孙的宏伟工程。但是植树节的意义不是在于每个人都要在植树节这天去种一棵树,而是通过植树节的又一次来临,使我们大家更加的关注绿化、环保的问题。
众所周知:地球正在沙化,沙漠的覆盖面积正在逐年的增加——可我们似乎觉得这些离我们还很远,但是在我们的身边有这样的一群人:他们在默默无闻地为这片大地播种着绿色,他们有的被称为“英雄"、有的被称为“当代愚公”,有的甚至是外国友人……他们用他们的实际行动告诉我们,植树是全人类的大事,是造福子孙万代的伟业。
几亿年前,地球归动物所拥有的时候植物繁茂,到处生机勃勃,充满了绿色,但是,智商远远高出其他动物的人类出现后,植物像被施了魔法一样的急剧减少。那是因为,人类为了建造房屋,砍伐树木所造成的。有的是因为商业需要,大批大批的砍伐树林留出空地,用来建造大楼。正因为许多人擅自砍伐树林和树木,所以大自然被破坏。
砍伐树木的坏处很多。大家都知道树木可以循环二氧化碳,如果大量砍伐树木,树木的数量就会急剧减少,我们呼出的二氧化碳无法得到循环。茂密的树木可以阻挡沙尘暴,前两年北京遭遇沙尘暴,整个城市被沙子所笼罩这也是因为缺少树木的保护所造成的。
树是地球的肺,我希望每个人都能保护树林、保护树木,让都市的生活添一分绿色!保护树木就是保护地球就是保护我们人类!
但是对于我们大家来说,植树节的意义并不仅仅是种一棵树那么简单。植树节向我们表达的意义不仅是要多种植树木,而是要培养我们广大市民爱护自然、低碳生活的一种理念。
植树节如果没有条件去种树,我们从日常生活中也可以做到和种树一样的效果。比如少用一双一次性筷子、少浪费一张纸、少开一次空调等等。这些节约低碳的理念,本身就有益于社会的进步,树木的保护。只有我们对树木的需求少了,树木的砍伐才会少,那么爱护树木的人就会越来越多。植树节,大家还在等什么,从现在开始,从你开始,都来一起爱护自然吧,低碳的过一天!
篇12:写作基础知识
全文共 724 字
+ 加入清单想要写好一篇作文,对于写作基础,就应该要有所了解,下面小编为大家带来了写作基础知识,欢迎大家阅读,希望对大家有所帮助。
一、表达方式:记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论?
二、表现手法:
象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、联想、想象、衬托(正衬、反衬)
三、修辞手法:比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互文、对比、借代、反语?
四、记叙文六要素:时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果
五、记叙顺序:顺叙、倒叙、插叙?六、描写角度:正面描写、侧面描写?
七、描写人物的方法:语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌
八、描写景物的角度:视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉?
九、描写景物的方法:动静结合(以动写静)、概括与具体相结合、由远到近(或由近到远)?
十、描写(或抒情)方式:正面(又叫直接)、反面(又叫间接)
十一、叙述方式:概括叙述、细节描写
十二、说明顺序:时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序
十三、说明方法:举例子、列数字、打比方、作比较、下定义、分类别、作诠释、摹状貌、引用?
十四、小说情节四部分:开端、发展、高潮、结局
十五、小说三要素:人物形象、故事情节、具体环境
十六、环境描写分为:自然环境、社会环境
十七、议论文三要素:论点、论据、论证
十八、论据分类为:事实论据、道理论据
十九、论证方法:举例(或事实)论证、道理论证(有时也叫引用论证)、对比(或正反对比)论证、比喻论证
二十、论证方式:立论、驳论(可反驳论点、论据、论证)
二十一、议论文的文章的结构:总分总、总分、分总;分的部分常常有并列式、递进式。
二十二、引号的作用:引用;强调;特定称谓;否定、讽刺、反语
二十三、破折号用法:提示、注释、总结、递进、话题转换、插说。
[写作基础知识
篇13:计划文书的写作基础和注意事项
全文共 2865 字
+ 加入清单计划类文书,是机关团体为达到某一目标或完成某一任务,对目标达到、任务完成前特定时段工作的设计和安排类文书。计划类文书包括规划、纲要、计划、安排等文种。小编收集了计划文书的写作基础和注意事项,欢迎阅读。
一、计划文书的种类与作用
计划一类的文书,有计划、规划、方案、纲要、要点、打算、设想、预测和意见等,这些文种的内容都是写的未来,即还没有发生或将要发生的东西。但是,它们之间有范围、时间、粗细、远近等方面的差别。一般地说,规划、纲要的时间跨度大、范围广,带有全面性和长期性;方案、预测的时间跨度小,多指专项工作,思考得较细;计划的时间有长有短,内容可全面可单项,如五年计划、年度计划、季度和月度计划,其内容有国民经济发展计划、工业生产计划、教育工作计划等;设想、打算属于初步的或非正式的东西,设想的时间较长,打算的时间较短,思考不很周密,带有粗线条的想法。因此,作者可以根据内容、时间、重要程度等多种要求,确定选用哪一个文种。例如,考虑未来的十年可用规划,考虑未来的三、五年可用计划、考虑近期的要做的某项工作可用方案、意见、打算等。
计划文书在工作中有着很重要的作用:一是可以明确奋斗的目标和方向;二是对人们的行为可以作指导性的规范;三是可以激励人们的热情和斗志。
二、计划文书的基本特点
写计划一类的文书,必须了解其基本特点:
1、超前性。做任何工作都要有超前思想,而写计划文书这一点尤为突出。因为,规划、计划必须事前制定,所以,在制定规划、计划前,必须有超前思想,才使规划、计划立于不败之地。
2、创新性。不论是中、长期计划,还是近期计划,其内容都要有新意。如果每年的计划都是老套套,那么这个计划可以不要。对一个地区来说,在发展的规划、计划中,要有新项目、新指标、新措施、新的增长点。否则,这个地区的经济建设望洋兴叹能前进,甚至倒退。对一个企业来说,在发展的规划、计划中,要有新产品、新技术、新的经营战略,否则,这个企业不仅不能发展,而且连生存也难以为继。所以,写计划文书一定要坚持创新精神。
3、指导性。规划、计划、方案等经过上级机关审批以后,就具有权威性。它既是行动的方向,又是指导工作的根据。所以,写计划文书前一定要认真调查研究,落笔慎重,防止失误。
4、客观性。计划文书虽然是人们主观意志对未来的设想,但是,这种思想并不是幻想,或者胡思乱想,而是有依据、有实现可能的设想,符合客观事物发展的规律。一般地说,在写规划、计划前,先要深入调查,充分占有资料,了解各种因素,在此基础上,综合分析研究,提出切实可行的任务、指标和措施。因此,计划文书是主观和客观的统一,不是纯主观的产物。
三、计划文书的一般写法
计划文书的结构,大体可分为:
标题:计划文书的标题直截了当,是什么规划、计划就是什么名称,不转弯抹角,不需要文采式的或形象生动的标题;一般也不分正副标题。例如,某某市国民经济第九个五年计划,某某县“九五”农业发展规划,某某乡2000年植树造林计划。有时在地区或单位下面插入“关于”介词,如某某局关于2000年工作计划,有点类似公文标题。总之,计划文书的标题,应该按照规划、计划的时间和内容来确定。
正文:计划文书在通常情况下,分为四个部分:
第一部分,导言。它介绍写此规划或计划的背景,交待其依据,说明目的及其重要意义。按照意思分层次写,不一定用一二三四等序数词来排列。(这部分的篇幅不要太长,如中长期的计划可以多说一些,年度工作计划或忖项工作计划用几句话交待一下根据就行),使人知道这个规划、计划是有依据的,不是凭空写的。
第二部分,任务(含指标)。这部分是计划文书的核心,也是奋斗的目标和方向。计划文书中如果不提任务、指标,那就没有制定规划、计划的必要。任务包括两个方面:一是总的任务和指标,说明本地区本单位在计划期内,经济增长的总体水平,达到怎样的规模,经济总量的发展要求;二是具体任务,比如农业、工业、交通、财政、金融、科技、教育、文化、卫生等行业的任务和指标,以及发展的程度。总的任务要概括写,具体任务应分项分条写。这样使人看了一目了然,知道在规划或计划期间,该地区该单位的总任务是什么,各行各业的具体任务是什么,做到心中有数、目标明确。
上述任务部分是指大的全面的计划而言,至于短期计划和某项工作计划,不必要这样分开写,总的任务和具体任务可合并起来,可分条写,也可不分条写。因为这类计划比较简单,内容又不太复杂。
第三部分,因素分析。这部分是对完成任务的各种有利因素和不利因素的分析,也可以说对完成任务的可能性进行评估,说明完成任务的有利条件有哪些,不利条件或困难有哪些,从而充分利用有利条件,正视不利因素与困难,达到趋利避害,完成与超额完成计划任务。写这部分时可梳理成几条写写,即有利条件几条、不利条件几条,对于那些不稳定的可变因素还要估计在内。既不要把各种因素写得过分具体,也不能写得空洞抽象,点明了,说到为止。因为因素分析,毕竟属于依据客观情况推断出来的认识,难免不含有个人的意志,决不能把话说死了。
第四部分,措施和步骤。这部分是计划文书的重点,也是任务部分的延伸。没有任务,就谈不上措施;没有措施,任务就是空中楼阁。所以,写计划文书两大部分最重要:一个是任务,一个是措施。这是相互依存、不可缺少的两部分。写措施可梳理几条写,可用一二三四序数词,亦可用小标题,使措施之间隔开,重要的放前面,将要的放后面,尽可能写细写实,便于执行单位操作。至于不太重要的措施,可概括写,一笔而过,也可省略不写。
计划文书的四个部分,在内容上是有机的联系,是一环套一环的。即使结构有改变,或写三个部分,或写五个部分,也是四部分内容的某一部分的展开或浓缩。不管如何调整,这样三个问题是要回答的,即写计划文书的依据是什么,它的任务要求是什么,怎样来完成这个任务。只要掌握这些原则,就能驾驭自如,写好计划文书。
四、写计划文书应注意三点
1、基础材料要准确。计划文书中的设想是建筑在各种材料基础上的,是科学的设想,符合客观事物发展的规律,并不是毫无根据的天方夜谭。因此,写计划文书的各种基础材料,包括数据、信息、资源情况、历史资料等凡是需要参考的资料,一定要准确、真实、不能有假。如果以假材料为依据,推测出来的设想,将使规划、计划很难实现,还会造成重大失误。
2、任务指标有余地。计划文书里所提出来的任务、指标和各种措施要求,一定要实事求是,既不能脱离现实、好高骛远,也不能因循守旧、停滞不前。否则,不是保守,就是冒进。所以,在任务、指标、措施上应留有余地,允许上升的空间。就是说,在充分调动群众积极性的基础上,经过努力,可以实现和超额完成计划。
3、使用朴实的语言。计划文书与总结、调查报告不同,不需要生动、形象的语言,也不要更多的修辞方法,一般使用相实、庄重的语言。因为计划文书的内容,都是要求人们未来做的,只有理解明白,才能做,才能执行。所以,语言要朴实无华,不能似是而非、模棱两可,特别是任务指标决不能含糊,一定要清清楚楚,表达准确,这是计划文书对语言的要求。
篇14:英语写作技巧
全文共 1545 字
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1、你想说的最重要的事是什么?如果已经说出来了,在草稿中找出这段话,并在句子下面划线。如果还没有说出来,现在就写。
2、文章里所写的每件事都同主旨相关吗?哪个部分你不需要?如果你写的是当你在银行实习时,意识到自己宁愿成为一名核物理学家,那么坐公交上班这段话就显得十分没有必要了。
3、你做到具体化了吗?如果发现自己只是泛泛而谈,那么就把一般变为具体。
4、你有没有思考并回答读者最想问的问题?
5、你的文章是否像你的人?有没有在陈述自己时过于正式?是不是过于随意?寻找一种适合主题的语调(乏味的语调会毁了一个好故事)。
6、文章中最令你满意的是什么?
7、文章中最令你不满的是什么?哪一部分还不对头?要使它和文章其他部分一样好,你能做什么?
趣味
1、你开头的第一个句子能否抓住读者的注意力?如果你是读者,它能吸引你吗?“我14岁时,我家搬到了吉隆坡”是否同“他们把大货车开过来,上面装着各种各样的箱子。我的东西被他们无情地扔进里面,直到空荡荡的房间里只剩下我一个人。我们又搬家了。”一样吸引人?
2、你的文章是否需要更多的细节?举例来说,如果你已经写了在你志愿服务的野营地里,孩子们教会你“欣赏生活中简单的事情”,你还需要再多写一到两句话,详细描述一下这种教育意味着什么。
3、结尾能让读者们感觉文章已经写完了吗?结束语听上去像是结束语吗?在一篇写自己从错误中汲取教训的文章里,一个总结性的概括,不如某些发自内心的简单写法具有感染力。
4、大声地读你的文章,相信自己的耳朵。你认为这篇文章有趣吗?如果自己都觉得它令人厌倦,想想读者的感觉!
清楚
1、是否每个段落在文章中都有明确的位置?如果不是,就需要做些删除或改写一下。
2、你的读者能轻松地跟上你的思绪吗?有没有需要填充的裂缝或者需要删除的不必要的迂回?
3、有没有一些词或句子显得粗糙或模棱两可?如果有,删除模棱两可的词,加工粗糙的地方。
简洁
1、你的文章到底是从哪里正式开始的?能否把那些引导性的句子删除,直接进入主题?
2、有没有和主题无关的细节?如果有,删掉它们。
3、是否用了很多的词语,其实用一到两个词就可以完全代替?“我要告诉你们的非常重要的一点是,我申请的只有贵校一所学校,那是我从童年开始形成的一生的渴望。”这是一个无比冗长的句子,不如改为:“我只申请了艾莫利大学,因为我一直都想进这所学校。”记住,在一篇短文里,每一个字都要有意义。
用法和风格
1、你把所有的旧词、过时的词都删掉了吗?
2、你用没用主动语态和动作性很强的动词?
3、对句子的长度和结构进行过修改吗?
4、有没有用到描述性的词和比喻的手法?
5、是否避免了使用空洞的修饰语,如“very”,“rather”,“somewhat”等等?
6、如果使用了缩略语,它们是否和文章的风格统一?省略号的位置对不对?
语法
1、主语同动词单复数是否一致?
2、代词与先行词是否一致?
3、代词指代明确吗?(尤其要注意的是“this”和“that”)
4、修饰词的位置是否靠近被修饰词?
5、有没有悬垂结构或放错位置的修饰语?
6、动词的形式同时态及语态一致吗?
7、有没有逗号重叠的情况?
8、有没有发现不完整的句子?
标点符号
1、标点符号是否明确地划分开句子结构?
2、所用的标点符号,如省略号、冒号、波折号、分号、逗号、括号、连字号、引号等是否正确?
3、是否尽量不使用惊叹号?(合适的词语比惊叹号在表达上更为有效)
1、大写字母是否用得正确并前后呼应?
2、数字使用是否相互对应?(十以前的数字最好用拼写的方式,十以后的数字用符号代替。如果搞不清楚,就全用符号表示。)
3、每个词都拼写正确吗?
4、因篇幅所限需要分开的词分得是否正确?
5、你的文章是否打印得整洁?版式是否吸引人?
较对
1、有没有丢掉的词或行?
2、有没有单词错误?
篇15:大学论文的写作基础要求
全文共 4359 字
+ 加入清单它既是探讨问题进行学术研究的一种手段,又是描述学术研究成果进行学术交流的一种工具。小编收集了大学论文的写作基础要求,欢迎阅读。
一、坚持理论联系实际的原则
撰写毕业论文必须坚持理论联系实际的原则。理论研究,特别是社会科学的研究必须为现实服务,为社会主义现代化建设服务,为两个文明建设服务。理论来源于实践,又反作用于实践。科学的理论对实践有指导作用,能通过人们的实践活动转化为巨大的物质力量。科学研究的任务就在于揭示事物运动的规律性,并用这种规律性的认识指导人们的实践,推动社会的进步和发展。因此,毕业论文在选题和观点上都必须注重联系社会主义现代化建设的实际,密切注视社会生活中出现的新情况、新问题。
坚持理论研究的现实性,做到理论联系实际,就必须迈开双脚,深入实际,进行社会调查研究。这也是我们正确认识社会的基本途径。人们只有深入到实际中去,同客观事物广泛接触,获得大量的感性材料,然后运用科学的逻辑思维方法,对这些材料进行去粗取精,去伪存真,由此及彼,由表及里的加工制作,才能从中发现有现实意义而又适合自己研究的新课题。在我国改革开放的实践中,新情况、新问题、新经验层出不穷,需要研究的问题遍布社会的方方面面,只要我们对现实问题有浓厚的兴趣和高度的敏感性,善于捕捉那些生动而具有典型性的现实材料,通过深入的思考和研究,就能从中引出有利于社会主义现代化建设的规律性认识,提高毕业论文的价值。当然撰写毕业论文可选择的课题十分广泛,并不只限于现实生活中的问题,也可以研究专业基本理论,中西方比较研究等。但无论选择什么研究课题,都必须贯彻理论联系实际的原则,做到古为今用,洋为中用,从历史的研究中吸取有益于现实社会发展的经验教训,从对外国的研究中,借鉴其成功经验和失败的教训,或为我国的对外政策提供某些依据。
贯彻理论联系实际的原则和方法,必须认真读书,掌握理论武器。李瑞环同志指出:“强调联系实际,绝不意味着否定读书的重要,恰恰相反,更要认真地读,反复地读,深钻苦研,做到真正读懂弄通。否则,没有掌握理论,怎么谈得上理论联系实际?”(《求是》杂志1989年第24期)认真读书包括两个方面的内容,
一是学好专业课,具备专业基础知识。这是写好毕业论文的前提和必要条件。经验告诉我们,只有具备了相应水平的知识积累,才能理解一定深度的学术问题;同时,也只有具备了某一特定的知识结构,才能对某学科中的问题进行研究。正如黑格尔所说,在讨论学术问题之前,必须“先有具备某种程度的知识”,否则,“没有凭借作为讨论出发的根据,于是他们只能徘徊于模糊空疏以及毫无意义的情况中”。(小逻辑》第三版序言)
二是要认真学习马克思主义的基本原理,学会运用马克思主义的立场、观点和方法分析问题、解决问题。马克思主义正确地揭示了自然界、人类社会和思维发展的最一般规律,成为无产阶级和革命人民认识世界和改造世界的强大思想武器。马克思主义作为伟大的认识工具,虽然并不直接提供解决各种具体问题的答案,但它对我们如何正确地发现问题,分析和解决问题提供了正确的立场、观点和方法,因此,大学毕业生在撰写毕业论文时,应当努力学习和掌握马克思主义基本理论,自觉地用马克思主义的立场、观点和方法来指导毕业论文的写作。
二、立论要科学,观点要创新
(一)立论要科学
毕业论文的科学性是指文章的基本观点和内容能够反映事物发展的客观规律。文章的基本观点必须是从对具体材料的分析研究中产生出来,而不是主观臆想出来的。科学研究作用就在于揭示规律,探索真理,为人们认识世界和改造世界开拓前进的道路。判断一篇论文有无价值或价值之大小,首先是看文章观点和内容的科学性如何。
文章的科学性首先来自对客观事物的周密而详尽的调查研究。掌握大量丰富而切合实际的材料,使之成为“谋事之基,成事之道”。
其次,文章的科学性通常取决于作者在观察、分析问题时能否坚持实事求是的科学态度。在科学研究中,既不容许夹杂个人的偏见,又不能人云亦云,更不能不着边际地凭空臆想,而必须从分析出发,力争做到如实反映事物的本来面目。
再次,文章是否具有科学性,还取决于作者的理论基础和专业知识。写作毕业论文是在前人成就的基础上,运用前人提出的科学理论去探索新的问题。因此,必须准确地理解和掌握前人的理论,具有广博而坚实的知识基础。如果对毕业论文所涉及领域中的科学成果一无所知,那就根本不可能写出有价值的论文。
(二)观点要创新
毕业论文的创新是其价值所在。文章的创新性,一般来说,就是要求不能简单地重复前人的观点,而必须有自己的独立见解。学术论文之所以要有创新性,这是由科学研究的目的决定的。从根本上说,人们进行科学研究就是为了认识那些尚未被人们认识的领域,学术论文的写作则是研究成果的文字表述。因此,研究和写作过程本身就是一种创造性活动。从这个意义上说,学术论文如果毫无创造性,就不成其为科学研究,因而也不能称之为学术论文。毕业论文虽然着眼于对学生科学研究能力的基本训练,但创造性仍是其着力强调的一项基本要求。
当然,对学术论文特别是毕业论文创造性的具体要求应作正确的理解。它可以表现为在前人没有探索过的新领域,前人没有做过的新题目上做出了成果;可以表现为在前人成果的基础上作进一步的研究,有新的发现或提出了新的看法,形成一家之言3也可以表现为从一个新的角度,把已有的材料或观点重新加以概括和表述。文章能对现实生活中的新问题作出科学的说明,提出解决的方案,这自然是一种创造性;即使只是提出某种新现象、新问题,能引起人们的注意和思考,这也不失为一种创造性。国家科委成果局在1983年3月发布的《发明奖励条例》中指出:“在科学技术成就中只有改造客观世界的才是发明,……至于认识客观世界的科学成就,则是发现。”条例中对“新”作了明确规定:“新”是指前人所没有的。凡是公知和公用的,都不是“新”。这些规定,可作为我们衡量毕业论文创造性的重要依据。
根据《条例》所规定的原则,结合写作实践,衡量毕业论文的创造性,可以从以下几个具体方面来考虑:
(1)所提出的问题在本专业学科领域内有一定的理论意义或实际意义,并通过独立研究,提出了自己一定的认识和看法。
(2)虽是别人已研究过的问题,但作者采取了新的论证角度或新的实验方法,所提出的结论在一定程度上能够给人以启发。
(3)能够以自已有力而周密的分析,澄清在某一问题上的混乱看法。虽然没有更新的见解,但能够为别人再研究这一问题提供一些必要的条件和方法。
(4)用较新的理论、较新的方法提出并在一定程度上解决了实际生产、生活中的问题,取得一定的效果。或为实际问题的解决提供新的思路和数据等。
(5)用相关学科的理论较好地提出并在一定程度上解决本学科中的问题。
(6)用新发现的材料(数据、事实、史实、观察所得等)来证明已证明过的观点。
科学研究中的创造性要求对前人已有的结论不盲从,而要善于独立思考,敢于提出自己的独立见解,敢于否定那些陈旧过时的结论,这不仅要有勤奋的学习态度,还必须具有追求真理、勇于创新的精神。要正确处理继承与创新的关系,任何创新都不是凭空而来的,总是以前人的成果为基础。因此,我们要认真地学习、研究和吸收前人的成果。但是这种学习不是不加分析地生吞活剥,而是既要继承,又要批判和发展。
三、论据要翔实,论证要严密
(一)论据要翔实
一篇优秀的毕业论文仅有一个好的主题和观点是不够的,它还必须要有充分、翔实的论据材料作为支持。旁征博引、多方佐证,是毕业论文有别于一般性议论文的明显特点。一般性议论文,作者要证明一个观点,有时只需对一两个论据进行分析就可以了,而毕业论文则必须以大量的论据材料作为自己观点形成的基础和确立的支柱。作者每确立一个观点,必须考虑:用什么材料做主证,什么材料做旁证;对自己的观点是否会有不同的意见或反面意见,对他人持有的异议应如何进行阐释或反驳。毕业论文要求作者所提出的观点、见解切切实实是属于自己的,而要使自己的观点能够得到别人的承认,就必须有大量的、充分的、有说服力的理由来证实自己观点的正确。
毕业论文的论据要充分,还须运用得当。一篇论文中不可能也没有必要把全部研究工作所得,古今中外的事实事例、精辟的论述、所有的实践数据、观察结果、调查成果等全部引用进来,而是要取其必要者,舍弃可有可无者。论据为论点服务,材料的简单堆积不仅不能证明论点,强有力地阐述论点,反而给人以一种文章拖咨、杂乱无章、不得要领的感觉。因而在已收集的大量材料中如何选择必要的论据显得十分重要。一般来说,要注意论据的新颖性、典型性、代表性,更重要的是考虑其能否有力地阐述观点。
毕业论文中引用的材料和数据,必须正确可靠,经得起推敲和验证,即论据的正确性。具体要求是,所引用的材料必须经过反复证实。第一手材料要公正,要反复核实,要去掉个人的好恶和想当然的推想,保留其客观的真实。第二手材料要究根问底,查明原始出处,并深领其意,而不得断章取义。引用别人的材料是为自己的论证服务,而不得作为篇章的点缀。在引用他人材料时,需要下一番筛选、鉴别的功夫,做到准确无误。写作毕业论文,应尽量多引用自己的实践数据、调查结果等作为佐证。如果文章论证的内容,是作者自己亲身实践所得出的结果,那么文章的价值就会增加许多倍。当然,对于掌握知识有限、实践机会较少的大学生来讲,在初次进行科学研究中难免重复别人的劳动,在毕业论文中较多地引用别人的实践结果、数据等,在所难免。但如果全篇文章的内容均是间接得来的东西的组合,很少有自己亲自动手得到的东西,那也就完全失去了写作毕业论文的意义。
(二)论证要严密
论证是用论据证明论点的方法和过程。论证要严密、富有逻辑性,这样才能使文章具有说服力。从文章全局来说,作者提出问题、分析问题和解决问题,要符合客观事物的规律,符合人们对客观事物认识的程序,使人们的逻辑程序和认识程序统一起来,全篇形成一个逻辑整体。从局部来说,对于某一问题的分析,某一现象的解释,要体现出较为完整的概念、判断、推理的过程。
毕业论文是以逻辑思维为主的文章样式,它诉诸理解大量运用科学的语体,通过概念、判断、推理来反映事物的本质或规律,从已知推测未知,各种毕业论文都是采用这种思维形式。社会科学论文往往是用已知的事实,采取归纳推理的形式,求得对未知的认识。要使论证严密,富有逻辑性,必须做到:(1)概念判断准确,这是逻辑推理的前提;(2)要有层次、有条理的阐明对客观事物的认识过程;(3)要以论为纲,虚实结合,反映出从“实”到“虚”,从“事”到“理”,即由感性认识上升到理性认识的飞跃过程。
此外,撰写毕业论文还应注意文体式样的明确性、规范性。学术论文、调查报告、科普读物、可行性报告、宣传提纲等都各有自己的特点,在写作方法上不能互相混同。
篇16:写作基础:技巧总汇
全文共 718 字
+ 加入清单导语:小编给大家总结了所有的写作技巧,如果需要详细说明,请到www.ruiwen.com上交流学习,希望对大家有所帮助。
一、表达方式:
记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论?
二、表现手法:
象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、联想、想象、衬托(正衬、反衬)
三、修辞手法:
比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互文、对比、借代、反语?
四、记叙文六要素:
时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果
五、记叙顺序:
顺叙、倒叙、插叙?六、描写角度:正面描写、侧面描写?
七、描写人物的方法:
语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌
八、描写景物的角度:
视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉?
九、描写景物的方法:
动静结合(以动写静)、概括与具体相结合、由远到近(或由近到远)?
十、描写(或抒情)方式:
正面(又叫直接)、反面(又叫间接)
十一、叙述方式:
概括叙述、细节描写
十二、说明顺序:
时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序
十三、说明方法:
举例子、列数字、打比方、作比较、下定义、分类别、作诠释、摹状貌、引用?
十四、小说情节四部分:
开端、发展、高潮、结局
十五、小说三要素:
人物形象、故事情节、具体环境
十六、环境描写分为:
自然环境、社会环境
十七、议论文三要素:
论点、论据、论证
十八、论据分类为:
事实论据、道理论据
十九、论证方法:
举例(或事实)论证、道理论证(有时也叫引用论证)、对比(或正反对比)论证、比喻论证
二十、论证方式:
立论、驳论(可反驳论点、论据、论证)
二十一、议论文的文章的结构:
总分总、总分、分总;分的部分常常有并列式、递进式。
二十二、引号的作用:
引用;强调;特定称谓;否定、讽刺、反语
二十三、破折号用法:
提示、注释、总结、递进、话题转换、插说。
篇17:英语作文写作指导:中考英语作文万能句子
全文共 3202 字
+ 加入清单下面是语文迷网小编为大家整理的中考英语作文万能句型,欢迎大家阅读参考。
一、开头句型选择
1. 关于……人们有不同的观点。一些人认为……
There are different opinions among people as to ____ 。Some people suggest that____。
2. 俗话说(常言道)……,它是我们前辈的经历,但是,即使在今天,它在许多场合仍然适用。
There is an old saying______。 Its the experience of our forefathers,however,it is correct in many cases even today.
3.现在,……,它们给我们的日常生活带来了许多危害。首先,……;其次,……。更为糟糕的是……。
Today, ____, which have brought a lot of harms in our daily life. First, ____ Second,____。 What makes things worse is that______。
4.现在,……很普遍,许多人喜欢……,因为……,另外(而且)……。
Nowadays,it is common to ______。 Many people like ______because ______。 Besides,______。
5.任何事物都是有两面性,……也不例外。它既有有利的一面,也有不利的一面。
Everything has two sides and ______is not an exception,it has both advantages and disadvantages.
6.关于……人们的观点各不相同,一些人认为(说)……,在他们看来,……
People’s opinions about ______ vary from person to person.Some people say that ______。To them,_____。
7.人类正面临着一个严重的问题……,这个问题变得越来越严重。
Man is now facing a big problem ______which is becoming more and more serious.
8.……已成为人的关注的热门话题,特别是在年青人当中,将引发激烈的辩论。
______ has become a hot topic among people,especially among the young and heated debates are right on their way.
9.……在我们的日常生活中起着越来越重要的作用,它给我们带来了许多好处,但同时也引发一些严重的问题。
______ has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life.it has brought us a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.
10.根据图表/数字/统计数字/表格中的百分比/图表/条形图/成形图可以看出……。很显然……,但是为什么呢?
According to thefigure/number/statistics/percentages in the /chart/bar graph/line/graph,it can be seen that______while. Obviously,______,but why?
11、Recently, the problem of … has aroused people’s concern.
最近,…问题已引起人们的关注。
12、Internet has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life. It has brought a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.
互联网已在我们的生活中扮演着越来越重要的角色。它给我们带来了许多好处,但也产生了一些严重的问题。
13、Nowadays,(overpopulation) has become a problem we have to face.
如今,(人口过剩)已成为我们不得不面对的问题了。
14、With the development of science and technology, more and more people believe that…
随着科技的发展,越来越多的人认为…
二、结尾句型
1、Taking all these factors into consideration, we naturally come to the conclusion that…
把所有这些因素加以考虑,我们自然会得出结论…
2、Taking into account all these factors, we may reasonably come to the conclusion that…
考虑所有这些因素,我们可能会得出合理的结论…
3、Hence/Therefore, we’d better come to the conclusion that…
因此,我们最好得出这样的结论…
4、There is no doubt that (job-hopping) has its drawbacks as well as merits.
毫无疑问,跳槽有优点也有缺点。
5、All in all, we cannot live without… But at the same time we must try to find out new ways to cope with the problems that would arise.
总之,我们没有…是无法生活的。但同时,我们必须寻求新的解决办法来对付可能出现的新问题。
6、It is high time that we put an end to the (trend)。
该是我们停止这一趋势的时候了。
7、It is time to take the advice of … and to put special emphasis on the improvement of …
该是采纳…的建议,并对…的进展给予特殊重视的时候了。
8、不用说…… It goes without saying that = It is obvious that …
例:不用说早睡早起是值得的。It goes without saying that it pays to keep early hours.
9、……是必要的 It is necessary (for sb.) to do / that … ……
是重要的 It is important(for sb.) to do / that … ……
是适当的 It is proper (for sb.) to do / that … ……
是紧急的 It is urgent (for sb.) to do / that …
例:It is proper for us to keep the public places clean.
It is proper that we (should)keep the public places clean. 我们应当保持公共场所清洁。
篇18:英语写作技巧一、词汇——用高级词汇取代低级词汇
全文共 1002 字
+ 加入清单写作词汇提升是把“阅读词汇”转化为“写作词汇”的过程。举个例子,当我在课堂上问及大家“害怕”这个词英文表达的时候,很多同学不加思维的就告诉我是“afraid”,我再问大家这个词是什么时候学的时候,很多人恍然大悟,原来词汇早在初中甚至是小学的时候就学过了。那么,考研阅卷的老师如何以“afraid”这个词判断你到底是一个合格的大学毕业生还是一个仅仅上过初中的同学呢,现在我们就不难理解为什么考研写作的平均分只有满分的一半了。
当我们翻开大学的英语课本我们会发现,在大学的四年中(甚至只是大一大二的两年中)我们就学过很多表示“害怕”但却比“afraid”要高级的多的词汇,比如:horror,scared,astonished 等等。这当中的任何一个词都会比afraid得的分数要高,这就是所谓的高级词汇取代低级词汇的过程。
现在,我们就要树立一个思想,写作的最小组成单位是词汇,词汇有低级的(baby words)也有高级的(advanced words),想要得到考研写作高分的第一步就是要有意识的在写作中用高级词汇去取代相对低级的词汇,从而反映出自己的词汇表现能力(lexical resource)。
英语写作技巧二、句型 —— 学会自创简单句
考研写作最基本的句式称之为“自创句”。“自创句”是根据所要表达的含义完全自主创作的英文句子,其基础是语法知识。阅读时不理解某些语法现象仍然能理解文章,而写作要求精确,是和语法联系最为紧密的语言功能。其中,简单句是一切句子的基础,简单句的创作可三步走:
1. 根据句义确定唯一的谓语动词。
2. 根据动词种类(无宾、单宾、双宾、宾补或系动词)补全句子成分,如主语、宾语、宾语补足语和表语等。
3. 注意谓语动词和主语在人称和数上的一致。
英语写作技巧三、构思 —— 学习英文独特的思想表达方式
当我们有了高级的词汇和复杂的句型之后,是不是就一定能写出高分的作文了呢?不一定。写作是一个人思维的理性表达,因此,对于写作来说,思维方式的优劣更是一篇文章好与坏的根本性的指向标。
英文有自己独特的思想表达模式,要学会用英文的表达模式写作。所以建议大家在夯实词汇、句型之后多读多背多写,练习地道的英文写作思维方式。阅读和背诵是积累语言素材的关键,《新概念》序言中甚至提到“只写读过的语言”。在此基础之上,“纸上得来终觉浅,绝知此事要躬行”,阅读背诵素材之后,写作提高需要大量的实战演习
篇19:写作基础之什么是互文
全文共 622 字
+ 加入清单什么是互文,今天小编告诉你。
互文是一种修辞手法,又叫互辞,互参。
在古代汉语中,上下两句或一句话中的两个部分,看似各说一件事,实则是互相呼应,互相阐发,互相补充,说的是一件事。解释时要把上下句的意思互相补足,否则就会理解出错。
比如:
“将军百战死,壮士十年归”。——《木兰诗》
如果翻译成“将军经过百战之后都战死了,回来的都是久经战场的壮士”,我们明显可以感觉到逻辑上讲不通,就是因为它用了互文的修辞手法。这一句是说:“将军和壮士经历了很多年征战,有的战死,有的归来”
应该翻译成“将军和壮士们经过多年征战,有的光荣殉国,有的载誉而归”
互文的表现形式:
同句互文。即在同一个句子里出现的互文。
比如:
1.朝晖夕阴。 ——《岳阳楼记》
意思是“朝晖夕阴”和“朝阴夕晖”。“朝”和“夕”、“晖”和“阴”是互文。
以下句子也都一样。
2.“秦时明月汉时关” 。“秦”和“汉”是互相补充。
3.“主人下马客在船”
4.“东船西舫悄无言”
5.“东犬西吠”
二、邻句互文。即在相邻的句子里出现互文!
比如:
1.不以物喜,不以己悲。——《岳阳楼记》
意思是 不因“物”﹝所处的环境﹞或“己”﹝个人的遭遇﹞而喜,也不因“物”或“己”而悲。)
2.将军百战死,壮士十年归
补充材料。
古代汉语中对互文修辞的解释是:“参互成文,含而见文。”具体地说,互文的特征是“文省而意存”,主要表现在两个方面:
一、结构特征:互省。比如上面例子。
二、语义特征:互补。比如“当窗理云鬓,对镜贴花黄”——《木兰诗》。
篇20:高考写作基础指导:写作基础训练
全文共 2716 字
+ 加入清单快速作文训练的中心是“快”,这种训练是在学生具有一定的写作基础和掌握了一定的写作技巧的基础上求“快”、求“好”的训练,如果写作素质太差,就没法进行快速训练。达到下列目的:
1、提高写作兴趣,培养写作情感
心理学告诉我们,兴趣是获得知识、形成技能技巧、开发智力的动力。因此,任何形式的教学都必须严格遵循兴趣性原则。只有当学生对写作文产生了浓厚的兴趣时,快速作司文训练才会有成效。心理学同时告诉我们,兴趣与当前的需要有关,因此提高学生写作兴趣的办法虽然是多种多样的,但是其中重要的一条便是向学生进行快速写作目的教育,如果学生认识了快速作文的必要性,他就会对作文产生浓厚的兴习趣。另外,出作文题要紧跟形势,与时代同步,要切合学生的生活实际,命题要尽量新,能激发学生的写作兴趣,使学学生有话可写。
2.积累写作材料
这一点要贯穿到整个快速作文训练的始终,但在基础训练阶段要重点抓。“巧妇难为无米之炊”,没有写作材料,再好的写作高手也难以完篇。因此,一定要求学生分专题记住;一些典型材料,譬如有关爱国主义,党的领导,尊重知识,改革开放,廉政建设,学雷锋等等,每个方面都要记住一两个典型材料。材料的积累,教师只能做指导,要让学生自己去找,不要全班统一,全班统一了,写作的论据就会雷同。所积累的材料要注意三点:一要典型,二要准确,三要记牢。要强调用脑记,要背,不能光靠笔记本。材料越充足,写作速度就越快。
3.丰富写作语言
如果学生语言贫乏,写作时搜索枯肠也找不到一句恰当的话来表达自己的意思,往往写了涂,涂了又写,就无法提高写作速度。如果词汇不丰富,写到中途某个字不会写或者没有一个恰当的词来表达自己的意思,这样写作就会“卡壳”,当然也就达不到快速作文的目的。因此,写作语言的训练和词汇的积累是十分重要的。丰富写作语言的方法之一是,背书和加强课外阅读,书读得越多,背得越熟,作文就会越通顺,语言就会有文采,不会老说口水话。再就是指导学生学习群众生动活泼的语言,克服学生腔。另外,要指导学生积累词汇,词汇丰富,写起作文来就能得心应手,速度也就快了。
4.训练书写能力
书写能力的高低直接影响写作速度。因此进行快速作文教学,必须强化书写能力训练。作文不是书法竞赛,并不要求铁画银钩,但也不能龙飞凤舞,我们要求学生养成良好的书写习惯,把字写得清楚、规范、工整。具体做法主要是临摩字帖,每个学生应备有两本字帖,一本正楷,一本行书,先练正楷,后学行书,逐日临摩,坚持不懈,定能收到良好的效果。总之,通过素质训练,要使学生想写作文,爱写作文,并且有东西可写,话写得通顺。
(二)思维训练
快速作文的关键是快速思维训练。思维是人脑对客观事物本质特征和规律性的认识。快速思维则要求学生在分析、综合,比较、抽象、概括和具体化的整个思维过程中,思维活动应具有广泛性、独立性、敏捷性和创造性。一见到作文题能立即做出反应,要求审题、立意、谋篇、布局的全过程不超过五分钟。抓好快速作文思维训练主要从三个方面入手:
1、树立正确的世界观
思维是人脑对客观事物的概括的、间接的反映。要正确反映客观世界,首先必须具有正确的世界观。因此,要和政治课相配合,组织学生学习马列主义、毛泽东思想,掌握辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义的基本原理,要了解当前党的各项方针政策。正确的政治观点、思维观点是快速思维的定向器和指示灯。因此,必须教育学生关心国家大事,树立远大理想,加强政治修养,提高政治觉悟。
2.加强抽象思维训练
议论文的构思过程,实际上就是抽象思维的过程,因此,必须教给学生分析、概括、综合、判断等基本逻辑方法和纵向思维、逆向思维、反向思维、辐射思维等思维方法。训练抽象思维的方法是多种多样的,我认为最有效的方法是组织学生进行讨论和辩论。课堂讨论应允许学生和老师唱“对台戏”,要鼓励学生在课外争论问题,学生争得面红耳赤的时侯,也就是思维最活跃、最敏捷的时候。
3.进行形象思维训练
写记叙文离不开想象、联想、幻想等形象思维活动。要求学生在很短的时间内写好一篇记叙文,没有扎实的形象思维训练是不行的。训练形象思维的方法之一是有目的地指导学生观察事物的基本形象,牢记心头,并组织学生参观、访问。要重视写回忆录,回忆录的写作过程实际就是训练形象思维的过程。
总之,通过这一步训练,要达到开拓学生思维的目的,使学生变得思维敏捷,对作文题反应迅速,想象力丰富,要改变学生中普遍存在的思维迟钝、思想涣散的不良习惯。
(三)写作速度训练
第一步素质训练是基础,第二步思维训练是关键,这第三步的速度训练则是目的。整个快速作文训练的最终目的就是要求学生能够快速写作。如果第一、二步训练都抓得扎实,速度训练就会见效。基本做法是严格要求,限时作文。为了提高速度,每次作文都只能安排一个课时,一定要严格要求,当堂完卷。要求学生做到快速审题,快速立意,快速布局谋篇,快速写作,快速修改。总之,一切都要立足于一个“快"字。40分钟的时间分配大致是这样的:审题、立意(确定中心思想)和谋篇布局(编写作提纲)不超过5分钟,写作30分钟,修改5分钟。通过训练,这个要求一般学生都能做到。另外,在班内开展快速作文竞赛也是个提高写作速度的好办法,一搞竞赛,学生的兴趣就来了。刚开始进行速度训练时,有些学生是跟不上的,40分钟怎么也写不完。怎么办呢?二是多加鼓励,切忌指责;二是暂时迁就,但绝不放松要求。时间一到,一律收卷,没写完也要收卷。这样,学生下次写作文就有一种紧迫感和时间观念。有些学生,一讲快速作文,字就乱涂乱画。碰到这样的学生怎么办呢?不能操之过急,分两步走,先要求写完800字,再要求字迹清楚。作文不是书法竞赛,不要求铁画银钩,只要字体工整,文字规范就行。个别字迹潦草的学生,要加强教育和书写指导。
(四)技巧训练
第三步训练要求解决写作速度问题,这一步训练便是"快”中求巧,同时,也是对速度训练成果的巩固和提高。基本方法是专题指导,讲练结合。如果前三步抓得扎实,这一步训练往往水到渠成。通过这一阶段的训练,不但要使学生熟练地掌握各种文体的写法和技巧,更重要的是要掌握快速写作的技巧。比如快速审题、快速立意、快速谋篇布局、快速写作、快速修改等技巧,都要分专题进行归纳,总结和指导,还要能快速应付写作中随时出现的“卡壳”现象,诸如走题、空洞、松散、结构混乱、词不达意、字不会写等毛病的纠正和意外情况的应付办法。至于这些快速写作的具体技巧和方法,我在下面将作专门介绍,在这里就不一一赘述。
(五)综合训练
通过以上四步训练,学生基本掌握了快速写作的方式与技巧,具备了快速写作的基础。为了全面提高快速作文的能力,必须进行综合训练。