英语论文写作格式模板【精品20篇】

一、审题要清

看到考题后，先不要急于动笔，要仔细看清题目要求的内容。在自己的头脑中构思出一个框架或画面，确定短文的中心思想，不要匆匆下笔，看懂题意，根据提供的资料和信息来审题。审题要审格式、体裁、人物关系、故事情节、主体时态、活动时间、地点等。

二、要点明确

要点是给分的一个重要因素。为了防止写作过程中遗漏要点，同学们要充分发挥自己的观察力，把情景中给出的各个要点逐一罗列出。

三、列出提纲

为写作做好准备。根据文章要点短文的中心思想将主要句型、关键词语记下，形成提纲。

四、写顺全文

写短文时要做到五个方面：

1.避免使用汉语式英语，尽量使用自己熟悉的句型。

2.多用简单句型，记事、写人一般都不需要复杂的句型。可适当多使用陈述句、一般疑问句、祈使句和感叹句。不用或少用非谓语或独立主格结构等较复杂的句型。

3.注意语法、句法知识的灵活运用。语态、时态要准确无误;主谓语要一致，主语的人称和数要和谓语一致;注意冠词用法，例如：It takes Tom half an hour to go to school by bus.中的an不能写成a;注意拼写，例如：fourteen，forty，ninth等不要写成forteen，fourty，nineth等;注意标点符号和大小写。

4.描写人物时，要生动具体，可以选择使用下列词汇，例如：外形：tall，short，fat，thin，strong，weak，pretty等;颜色：red,yel-low，blue，white，green，brown，black等;心情：glad，happy，sad，excited，anxious，interest-ed等;情感：love，like，hate，feel，laugh，cry，smile，shout等。

5.上下文要连贯。同学们应把写好的句子，根据故事情节，事情发生的先后次序(时间或空间)，使用一些表示并列、递进等过渡词进行加工整理，使文章连贯、自然、流畅。同学们应注意下面过渡的用法：并列关系：and,as well as,or…;转折关系：but,yet,how-ever…;时间关系：when,while,after,before,then,after that…;因果关系：so，there-fore，asaresult…;目的：in order to，in order that，so as to,so that…;列举：for example ,such as…;总结性：in general,in all,in a word,generally speaking…

五、没有病句

中考作文时，由于时间紧、内容多，同学们出错在所难免。因此，改错这一环节必不可少。中考作文评卷是根据要点、语言准确性、上下文的连贯性来给分，根据错误多少来扣分。因此中考时花几分钟时间用来检查错误显得尤为重要。检查错误应从以下几个方面入手：(1)看字数是否达到要求，看有无遗漏要点。

(2)看文体格式是否正确规范。

(3)看有无语法或用词上的错误。

(4)看单词拼写、字母大小写是否有错，标点符号有无遗漏或用错等等。

(5)注意时态、语态、人称是否上下文一致。

六、先打草稿

考试中，书面表达应做到先打草稿，写完后多读几遍，检查是否有误，然后再抄到试卷上，注意字迹要工整，不涂、不画、不勾不抹，避免不必要的扣分。

撰写前，明确写出目的、方法、结果和结论四部分。目的要求简明指出此项工作的目的,研究的范围。方法要求简要说明研究课题的基本做法,包括对象(分组及每组例数、对照例数或动物只数等)、材料和方法(包括所用药品剂量,重复次数等)。统计方法特殊者需注明。结果要求简要列出主要结果(需注明单位)、数据、统计学意义(P值)等,并说明其价值和局限性。结论要求简要说明从该项研究结果取得的正确观点、理论意义或实用价值、推广前景。

医学论文是推进医学科学发展的重要方面，是医学科学研研和临床工作总结;是促进医学科研成果的交流和提高医疗技术水平的重要工具，小编收集了医学论文的写作指导，欢迎阅读。

一、科学性：

一篇医学论文的首要条件是必须具有科学性。所谓科学性、是指论文所介绍的方法、论点，是否可以使用科学方法来证实，多次实验具有实验结果的重复性。这就要求： ⑴ 进行科研设计时具有周密的考虑，排除一切对实验结果可能干扰的不利因素; ⑵ 设立必要的对照组，甚至双盲对照研究; ⑶ 对实验和观察的数据，要进行统计学处理; ⑷ 无论理论研究和实验研究，对其结果的分析要从实际资料出发，得出正确的结论，切忌空谈假设。

二、先进性：

医学论文的先进性，实际上指这篇论文是否达到一定的科学水准，一篇论文尽管具备了科学性，但不一定具备先进性，对医学论文的先进性，我们可以从两个方面来衡量，一是医学理论水平，如原理探讨，疗效机制等是否有新的突破;二是实践水平，如诊断水平及治疗水平高于一般的医疗技术。

三、实用性：

与临床诊断及治疗的紧密联系，具有可重复性。最终目的解决临床上的疑难病症、如：对癌症发病机制、及对癌症的诊断治疗具有相当的指导作用。

四、医学论文的类型：一般医学刊物中刊用的文章，大致可分为以下几种类型：述评、论著、病例报告、临床病例讨论、学术交流、综述、专题笔谈、经验介绍、讲座、简讯等。

五、医学论文的基础结构：

医学论文的具体撰写，一般可分为题目、序言、材料与方法、结果、讨论、参考文献等项。题目：医学论文的题目必须符合内容而简明扼要、突出重点，能够明确表达论文的性质和目的。题目一般都采用主要由名词组成的词组来表达，且标题不宜过长、一般少于 20 字。摘要：全文必须描述通过什么方法，得到什么结果，资料及数据来源，提出的结论。具体按四要素来书写中、英文摘要：目的方法( Methods )、结果( Results )、结论( Results )、中英文内容要一致。字数控制在 200 字左右。关键词或主题词 3 ～ 5 条。 英文摘要应包括文题、作者姓名(汉语拼音)、单位名称、所在城市名及邮政编码。作者应列出前3位， 3 位以上加 "et al" 。序言：过去研究的情况、方法、目的和所获得的主要成果或特点。文字不宜超过 100 ～ 200 字。 材料和方法：这是执行科研的关键部分， 对于要进行的科学研究工作，必须按照实际情况，在事先： ⑴ 选择好合适的即合乎一定条件的、一定数量的研究对象; ⑵ 采用一定的实验、诊断或治疗方法(包括实验步骤、方法、器材试剂、药品); ⑶ 经过一定时期的观察，相同条件下的对照组，与他人结果比较并综合分析。这部分内容要求简明准确、材料完整及可信。 结果：把全部原始资料集中起来加以分析，在处理这些原始资料时，应是随机地，客观地加以分析。讨论：是一篇论文中十分重要的部分，其主要任务是探讨 “结果 ”的意义。讨论的主要内容包括： ⑴ 主要的原理和概念; ⑵ 实验条件的优缺点; ⑶ 本人结果与他人结果的异同，突出新的发现及新发明; ⑷ 解释因果关系，说明偶然性与必然性; ⑸ 尚未定论之处，相反的理论; ⑹ 急需研究的方向和存在的主要问题。“讨论”的内容也以精简为原则，要能讲清楚主要的论点，已经谈过的不宜在这一节里予以重复。在结论的问题中避免以假设来 “证明”假设，以未知来说明未知，并依次循环推论。参考文献：列出参考文献的目的，在于引证资料的来源，不可从别人的论文中转抄过来。内部资料，非经正式发表者，一般不作文献引用，为此一般要求引用文献者必须用阅读过的重要的、近年的文献为准。论著 10 条左右，论著摘要 3 ～ 5 条，综述 20 条左右。

六：医学论文的产生过程：

选题阶段：论文的选题，也即是科研的选题，有时一项科研可产生多篇论文。选题过程一般可分为三步：初拟题目：在这项工作之前必须手中有资料和设想，当然可以是前瞻性研究或回顾性总结，大致可有以下几个方面： ⑴ 临床遇到的罕见病例和疑难病例;⑵ 危重病人的诊治经验; ⑶ 阅读国内外文献、参加学术会议受到的启发，进行技术和方法的移植研究; ⑷ 新药、新仪器的临床应用，新的诊断方法及治疗经验; ⑸ 上级布置或招标的题目。在初步考虑拟选题目之后，应进行全面的文献检索，避免题目类同、结论陈旧和不符合客观事实。在别人研究成果基础上寻找尚未解决的问题作为自己的研究题目。实验研究阶段：这包括应用国外或国内的先进手段、药物、手术方法、检测等进行临床试用、观察和随访调查，并用动物或正常人作对照试验，要求详细记录各种数据及资料，作为论证和评价成果的依据。整理、分析资料和总结阶段：对以上资料进行统计分析，绘制图表，临床分析和比较，得出显效、有效和生存率、死亡率、发病率等结论，并分析其相互关系，引证文献作对比。分析成功和失败的原因及制约因素，并对病因学、流行病学、发病机制进行论证，包括预后的估价。最后对论文作出自我评价，提出有待进一步探讨的问题。撰写论文阶段：该详则祥，该简则简，文字简练，用语准确，恰如其氛，切忌浮夸和虚构。当然，在产生论文以前，每位作者必须学会文献检索，统计学的基础知识的 X2 检验、 T 检验、 F 检验、相关分析、回归运算、如何选择样本大小等，努力阅读医学情报信息和文献积累，在实践中不断总结，逐步提高写作水平，这样才能水到渠成写出真正好的论文。

七：医学论文撰写中的常见问题：科研设计的选题与立题问题标题太长，主题不突出。标题与内容不符，或题目太大而内容贫乏。 标题单调，主题不明确。 关于题目要求： ⑴ 可检索性; ⑵ 特异; ⑶ 明确; ⑷ 简短。命题方法： ⑴ 方法; ⑵ 结论; ⑶ 探讨。关于把 " 构成比 " 当 " 率 " 的概念问题：在医学文献中，我们发现有些作者对患病率、发病率、死亡率、感染率等概念混淆不清。关于疗效的确切评价问题：只有观察组没有对照组，有比较才能有鉴别，医学研究结果如无适当的对照比较，就难结论。即使有了对照组，若两者之间没有可比性，同样不能得出确切的结论。以上可见，对照组与实验组一定在性别、年龄、病情、病期、病型、部位、疗程等条件大致相同的情况下，才有可比性，其结果才有科学价值。

病例资料经过有意无意的挑选：有些论文，对所谓 “资料不全”、 “疗程未满 ”、“未随访到”的病例剔除不计，这样所得的结果往往比实际疗效高，因为若如此剔除，其结果的科学性必然成问题。更有甚者，对一些数据，主观臆断地以某种原因为理由加以剔除，完全失去了这次研究的意义。考核方法和考核指标的科学性不够： ⑴ 无明确的客观指标、仅凭患者主诉进行考核;⑵ 观察、研究人员的主观偏面性; ⑶ 考核标准过低; ⑷ 数据未经统计学处理; ⑸ 考核方法不够科学。统计学分析的差错。 ⑴ 对照组的设立(随机同期对照、历史性对照、不同地区或医院的对照交叉对照); ⑵ 随机化分组(简单、区组、分层); ⑶ 盲法(非盲、双盲)。以上资料，说明了在考核疗效时一定要注意： ⑴ 病例资料的可比性; ⑵ 客观数据要经统计学处理; ⑶ 考核指标要有严格的科学性(可比性、指标不能过低，不能有主观偏面性等)。

图表的应用问题：图表是表达研究数据，使之一目了然的最简洁方法。一般来说 “图”是从 “表”来的，可以使读者从图中看出一个大概趋势和实验内容。在图表应用上，可用文字表达的就尽可能不用图表，必需用的也不宜过多，一般在 4 幅以内。

八：写作技巧问题：论文要使读者喜爱就必须求 “新”、 “精”、“全”。文字简练达到“量体裁衣”的水平，力争达到“少一句不够，多一句嫌罗嗦”的要求。一般论著字数在 2500 ～ 5000 字左右，摘要在 1500 ～ 2001 字左右，病例报告在 1000 字左右。字迹要端正。简化字要规范，不用自选字及自选简化字。各种符号亦要符合规范。其他当有医学名词、药物名词、数字、统计学符号、缩略语、基金资助、著作权法等问题，一切均按国家及中华医学会规定的标准执行。计量单位请按法定计量单位书写。

1、论文题目：要求准确、简练、醒目、新颖。

2、目录：目录是论文中主要段落的简表。(短篇论文不必列目录)

3、提要：是文章主要内容的摘录，要求短、精、完整。字数少可几十字，多不超过三百字为宜。

4、关键词或主题词：关键词是从论文的题名、提要和正文中选取出来的，是对表述论文的中心内容有实质意义的词汇。关键词是用作机系统标引论文内容特征的词语，便于信息系统汇集，以供读者检索。 每篇论文一般选取3-8个词汇作为关键词，另起一行，排在“提要”的左下方。

主题词是经过规范化的词，在确定主题词时，要对论文进行主题，依照标引和组配规则转换成主题词表中的规范词语。

5、论文正文：

(1)引言：引言又称前言、序言和导言，用在论文的开头。 引言一般要概括地写出作者意图，说明选题的目的和意义, 并指出论文写作的范围。引言要短小精悍、紧扣主题。

〈2)论文正文：正文是论文的主体，正文应包括论点、论据、 论证过程和结论。主体部分包括以下内容：

a.提出-论点;

b.分析问题-论据和论证;

c.解决问题-论证与步骤;

d.结论。

6、一篇论文的参考文献是将论文在和写作中可参考或引证的主要文献资料，列于论文的末尾。参考文献应另起一页，标注方式按《GB7714-87文后参考文献著录规则》进行。

中文：标题--作者--出版物信息(版地、版者、版期)：作者--标题--出版物信息

所列参考文献的要求是：

(1)所列参考文献应是正式出版物，以便读者考证。

(2)所列举的参考文献要标明序号、著作或文章的标题、作者、出版物信息。

1、重视增加阅读量是提高英语写作的途径之一

目前，考生在进行大量阅读的同时，应注重所读材料的文章结构以及连接词的运用(ontheotherhand，however，furthermore)、作者的表达方式(词汇、习惯用语和典型句子的使用)、作者是如何进行叙述和议论的。

2、在教师的指导下，平时应勤写多练

练习写作应从基本功抓起。在中译英翻译训练过程中，加强积累适量的词汇、词组和增加各种类型句子的运用。把握好各种句型和词汇的搭配，并从各类题材和体裁着手，多阅读好的范文。然后模仿写作，作文写好之后，一般都要修改。

第一遍收笔后，先看一看结构，然后从字词上推敲，使文章“充实”起来。更重要的是经老师修改过的作文一定要仔细地看一至两遍，然后再认真地抄写一遍，收获将会很大。

3、英文写作“四步走”

由于时间限制，考试时必须在所限定的时间内完成英语作文。英语作文步骤如下：

（1)作文动笔之前一般都要先打腹稿。在确立中心上、运用材料上、篇章结构上，充分酝酿。

（2)考虑好想写多少句子，该用哪些动词和词组等。

（3)边写边思考内容的连贯性，语言和句子的准确性。

（4)写完后一定要再细看一遍。

会计学论文是对会计科学和会计工作领域中某些现象、问题进行深入的调查研究和科学的分析阐述，小编收集了会计论文的选题与写作要求，欢迎阅读。

一、会计论文的概念

会计学论文是对会计科学和会计工作领域中某些现象、问题进行深入的调查研究和科学的分析阐述，指出这些现象、问题的本质特征及其发展规律，用以丰富人们对于会计科学和会计工作的知识，促进会计科学的发展和会计工作的开展。会计论文的读者对象主要是会计工作者。会计学论文与一般议论文的共同之处在于两者都是理论性文章。

二、会计论文的要求

会计论文的一般要求，可以概括为“四性”，即正确性、客观性、创见性、平易性。

正确性 会计论文的观点要正确，符合四项基本原则，符合党和国家现行政策以及各项法律法令法规，言之成理，文以载道。要求作者必须用辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义的观点观察问题、分析问题、解决问题，提出合乎客观规律的观点。

客观性 会计论文作为学术性论文，特别要注重实事求是，对所研究的问题进行周密的调查研究，忠于客观实际，尊重事实，从客观实践中验证自己观点的正确性。切忌带着框框找材料，或凭空捏造，主观臆想，面壁虚构。

创见性 会计论文要有独特的见解，不能人云亦云。论文作者应对研究的现象或问题进行长期深入的观察、分析，以便从中发现别人没有发现或没有涉及过的问题。创见是会计论文的生命。时下某些论文之所以毫无价值，原因就是没有创见，或拾人牙慧，或抄袭拼凑，没有一点新东西。

平易性 会计论文是阐扬会计科学、指导会计工作实践的，要求通俗易懂，不仅会计专家懂，而且有一般会计知识的人也能懂。做到这一点，就要求会计论文语言明白准确、浅显通俗。

三、会计论文选题

选题是会计论文写作的第一步，也是十分重要的一步。会计学科无论作为理论还是作为应用，值得研究的内容都很广泛，可以提炼出的论文题目很多，但“弱水三千，只饮一瓢”，每次论文写作只能选择确定一个最恰当的题目。

(一) 会计论文选题的方向

1.针对自己最有兴趣的现象、问题选题。作者对选题涉及的问题或现象有一定的研究基础，或有强烈的研究欲望，才有可能在选题确定之后，孜孜以求，最终写出有质量的会计论文。

2.围绕会计工作实践选题。理论研究是指导实践的。因此，会计论文选题决不可以脱离会计工作的实践。

3.立足会计科学的发展选题。会计科学在发展中，在它前进的每一步都会有新问题、新现象发生，都需要解决和解释。会计论文只有立足于会计科学的发展选题，才能写出有新意的好文章。

初写会计论文者易犯的毛病是选题过于宽泛，大而不当，论述起来面面俱到，很难作深入研究，写不出独到的东西。这一点在选题时应避免。

(二) 会计论文选题的方法

1.选前人没有研究过的问题。这类题目具有探索性、拓荒性，难度较大，但并非不可为，尤其是工会会计研究。比如《中国工会财会》近年开展的关于工会会计科目改革的讨论等即属此类。

2.前人已经做过的题目，有的结论不对，或者还有探讨的余地。这类题目是对前人研究成果的发展性研究。如关于工会经费属性及特点的研究，已有多篇会计论文予以探讨，但尚未成定论，还可作为继续研究的选题。

3.有的题目已有别人讲过，但说法不一，甚至分歧很大。这类题目带有争鸣性质，如对于以实物抵顶工会经费当否问题的讨论等。对这类题目进行研究时，要在众说纷纭的基础上，提出自己的意见，应有新见解、新突破。

(三) 会计论文选题的禁忌

1.忌脱离个人业务专长选题。只有在自己最熟悉的领域选题，才能充分依靠坚实的业务基础，结合工作实际进行深入的调查研究，把问题谈深谈透。

2.忌选题过大。小题目容易说透，大题目则很难说透。

3.忌选题不看文献资料。不看文献资料就不知道某个题目的来龙去脉，不了解前人是否已经作过，取得哪些成果，自己的意见前人是否已经说过。

四、会计论文格式结构

会计论文格式中最常见的结构类型是三段式，即序论、本论、结论。各部分内容大致如下：

会计论文——序论部分：作者在这一部分应说明为什么要研究这个题目，这一题目的现实意义。内容要极其简明扼要，文字宜短不宜长。

会计论文——本论部分：这一部分应详细阐述自己研究的过程、内容，提出新的见解。这是会计论文的核心部分，要着力写好。

上述只是一般的会计论文格式结构，作者可从自己论文的实际需要出发加以变通，也可分为四段式或多段式。

说明文是阐述事物的特征、本质、性能、结构、用途或科学原理的一种文体。其说明的对象可以是具体的，如：自然环境，仪表设备等；也可以是抽象的，如概念定律等。以下是小编整理的初中英语说明文写作要点，欢迎阅读！

说明文的写作相对于论说文来说，有一定的套路可循，因此不是十分复杂。说明科技方面的内容常用定义法、比较对比法、分类法、因果法等；说明自然环境方面的内容常用时间次序法、分类法等。当然，随着对象的不同，具体应该采用的方法也会有所不同。

说明文的写作应该注意的事项有下面几点：

1.语言简明扼要，通俗易懂，避免夸张华丽的辞藻，要把真实的一面展现在读者面前。

2.说明时一定要把握一个中心主题。说明文中细枝末节较多，但不能喧宾夺主。

3.说明的次序非常重要。合理的次序会使文章条理清楚，脉络明晰。因此，练习时可以尝试不同的次序进行写作，找出最合理的一种。

4.由于说明文写实性较强，有时难免会让人感到没有生气。因此，可以适当使用一些比喻、拟人等修辞手段，来增加文章的色彩。

下面是一篇说明一所医院布局的文章。文章虽短，但需要说明的内容却达11处之多。平均一句话就要描写一处，如果组织得不好，便会给人凌乱的感觉。

为了避免这一点，文章把整个布局图分三部分来写：

贯彻医院的是main road，第一部分以大门为参照物，介绍了靠大门且通过main road东西相对的急诊楼和门诊楼。

第二部分以湖为参照物，中心线还是main road，介绍其他分诊楼、实验室、放射室等。

第三部分写main road尽头的建筑物。

这样，繁多的细节显得井井有条。因此，选择好主线及参照物是决定文章成功的关键。

Directions：For this part，you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition about“THE LAYOUT OF A HOSPITAL”. Locate some important departments in the hospital based on the information given below.Your composition should be no less than 120 words.

（1）the Emergency Department

（2）the Out-patient Department

（3）the Surgery Department

（4）the Dispensary

（5）the Physician Department

（6）the Eye，Ear，and Throat Department

（7）the Dental Department

（8）the Laboratory

（9）the X-ray Department

（10）the Administrative Building

（11）the Ward

例文：

The Layout of a Hospital Near the gate，on the westside of the road is the Emergency Department. Opposite the Emergency Department across the Main Road is the Out-patient Department. The building to the southwest of the lake is the Dispensary，which face the Surgery Department lying on the other side of the road.Along the west wall，from south to north，stand three buildings：the Physician Department，the Eye，Ear，and Throat Department，and the Dental Department.

The Laboratory is to the northwest of the round about，and beside the Laboratory，the X-ray Department is located on the same side of the road. A winding road by the lake leads to the Ward.

Near the end of the Main Road，the Administrative Building is situated on the east side.The hospital is nicely and conveniently laid out.

从世界各地来看，读书节已成为当代社会的文化景观，而且是最近20年的新风潮。不过，现代意义上的第一个“读书节”，最早可追溯到1926年西班牙国王首次设立的“西班牙自由节”，并把伟大作家塞万提斯的生日10月7日作为这个节日的庆祝日。

From all over the world, Reading Festival has become the cultural landscape of contemporary society, and it is a new trend in recent 20 years. However, the first "Reading Festival" in the modern sense, the earliest can be traced back to 1926, the king of Spain for the first time to set up a "Spanish freedom festival", and the great writer Cervantess birthday in October 7th as a celebration of the holiday.

1930年庆祝活动移到4月23日――塞万提斯的忌日，碰巧这一天也是加泰罗尼亚地区大众节日“圣乔治节”。传说中勇士乔治屠龙救公主，并获得了公主回赠的礼物――一本书，象征着知识与力量。每到这一天，加泰罗尼亚的妇女们就给丈夫或男朋友赠送一本书，男人们则会回赠一枝玫瑰花。由此相沿成习，如今每到这一天，书籍减价10%，玫瑰花的价格则陡然上涨。

Celebration on 1930 to April 23rd -- the anniversary of the death of Cervantes, to this day is also the Catalonia area public holiday "St. Georges day". The legend goes that the knight George slew a dragon and saved a princess, and was granted a gift in return: a book, representing knowledge and power. Every year on this day, Catalonia women will give a book to their husband or boyfriend, the men will give a rose. Thus become a custom through long time usage, and now every day, the book price by 10%, prices rose sharply rise.

世界读书日就来源于此。巧合的是，这天是著名作家塞万提斯、莎士比亚、维加3位著名文学大师的辞世纪念日，又是美国作家纳博科夫、法国作家莫里斯・德鲁昂、冰岛诺贝尔文学奖得主拉克斯内斯等多位文学家的生日。巧合之外，则是人们对书籍的热爱和对阅读重要性的深层认识。主旋律都是一样的：无论是年老还是年轻，无论是贫穷还是富有，无论是患病还是健康，都能享受阅读的乐趣，都能尊重和感谢为人类文明作出巨大贡献的文学、文化、科学思想大师们，都能保护知识产权。

World Book Day comes from this. Coincidentally, this is the famous writer Cervantes died, Shakespeare Vega, 3 famous literary masters of the day, and Nabokov, French writer USA writer Maurice de Rouen, Iceland Nobel prize winner Laks Ness and many other writers day. Coincidentally, is that people love of books and a deep understanding of the importance of reading. The main theme is the same: whether old or young, whether rich or poor, whether it is sick or healthy, can enjoy the pleasure of reading, respect and gratitude can make great contributions to human civilization, literature, culture, scientific thinking gurus, can protect the intellectual property rights.

1. According to a recent survey， four million people die eachyear from diseases linked to smoking.

依照最近的一项调查，每年有4，000，000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children haveunpleasant associations with homework.

最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.

没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

4. People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.

人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。

5. An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete withgraduation.

越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。

6. When it comes to education， the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.

说到教育，大部分人认为其是一个终生的学习。

7. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.

许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

8. Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great effortsshould be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful effects of internationaltourism.

应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量，努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。

9. An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on constructionof city. However， this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents， whocomplain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.

越来越多的专家相信移民对城市的建设起到积极作用。然而，越来越多的城市居民却怀疑这种说法，他们抱怨民工给城市带来了许多严 重的问题，像犯罪和卖淫。

10. Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend muchmore time waiting for a bus， which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.

许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少，以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车，而车上可能已满载乘客。

导语：英语在小升初入学考试中的作用越来越大，小六的学生英语水平差距不大，如何才能在小升初英语考试中脱颖而出，小升初英语写作成为关键，下面是小编收集的如何写出高分英语作文方法，欢迎大家阅读!

书面表达是考查学生英语综合水平的一个重要途径，很多孩子英语口语好，却无法写好英语作文。而现实情况却是从初一甚至从小学开始就已经有了对书面表达的考查，所以练习英语写作也是我们学而思小升初课程的重要环节，帮孩子们打好基础。

1、语法：这是现在孩子们在英语写作中丢分最多的一项。

(1)写完作文后要记得检查：语法知识需要靠我们平时一步步积累，但是孩子们要注意在写完作文之后一定要细心检查自己的作文，一些学过的语法点不要再错了。

(2)避免使用自己拿不准的句子：很多孩子喜欢用长句、复合句等。可是又对这些句子掌握得不是很牢固，所以很容易出错。一切拿不准的词和句子，都应该使用自己会的简单句和简单词，这样才能给考官留下好印象。

2、格式：拿到作文题，一定要把握好题目的要求，看清是哪种类型的题目，确定好相应的格式。

常考的题如日记，日记的格式就是需要在第一行左方顶格写上日期和星期，右方写上天气，然后再开始写正文。需要提醒大家的是，日记基本上都是描写已经发生过的事情，所以孩子们注意一定要用一般过去时哦!

还有一类常考的作文题型就是书信，书信的格式更需要大家注意：

3rd April 2008

Dear Mr. I

How are you these days? I will go to shanghai for my holiday.

Yours truly，

Nancy

3、词汇：如果在文章中能够正确使用一些高级词汇和词组，而不再是简单词汇，这会让老

师耳目一新。例如：如果要孩子们来写holiday。很多孩子们一开始就会写I went to …… last year. 用went就很大众化了，但是如果用take a trip这个词组就会显得你的英语水平跟其他人不一样了!对于词汇这个点，我向孩子们提两点建议：

(1)词汇需要平时积累，但是大家积累的时候一定要注意灵活使用学过的词。大家已经学过很多词组和单词了，可是大家都不会拿出来用，原因就是在于大家学的时候只记得了它的意思，没有认识该怎么使用，该在什么情况下使用。所以大家以后学习词汇的时候一定要翻翻词典学习例句，自己也拿来造个句子，要知道自己以后该怎么用。

(2)学习语言并不是纸上谈兵，练习写作也应该要多加练习。熟能生巧，练得多了，自然也就会知道什么时候用什么词，该怎么写作文了。

4、书写：这一点看似不重要，却最影响老师对你作文的整体评价。我们不要求要做到美观，但那是一定要整洁、认真。这样老师也能很快读懂你的文章，更能对你作文产生好的印象。

在多年的雅思教学中，我发现学生在实际考试中面临着不同的写作障碍，影响了考试成绩，雅思英语考试中应该如何克服写作障碍。归纳起来大致有以下几个方面：

一、真情流露，无从下笔

有的考生在考试时见到作文题，顿感思路塞车，好像有许多话要说，但又不知究竟应从那里写起。明智的做法是“投其所好、尽情发挥。”考生不妨把作文的要求量化到每一个段落，一篇250词左右的作文一般不会超过15句话，把这15句话根据题目要求分配到各段中去，每一段大概只说那么几句话，事实上往往是说得越多错误越多。因此，每句话紧扣提纲，见好就收,这才是最稳妥的对策。

二、心里明白，难以表达

在考场上有的考生题目看得懂，提纲也明白，就是不知道该说什么，头脑里一片空白。这是在雅思写作考试中的一种常见的现象，针对这一现象，最有效的办法就是要善于联想到一些具体的事实，具体的例证和具体的现象。事实上，雅思的作文题目一定是一个具有社会普遍型话题，其目的是让不同教育背景的考生都有话可说。因此，考生一定能就题目联想起具体细小的事情再形成观点。把看得见摸得着的事物带来的思考变成作文里的实质内容，这不失为一种很好的策略。

因此，当头脑出现空白时，应该由具体细小的、琐碎的、微不足道的事物所引发的思考形成观点，再进行论述。这种定式思维的形成需要多下功夫多练习。

三、一味追求标新立异，导致无从下笔

考试时通常发现有的考生聚精会神的坐在那里冥思苦想，非要想出一个与众不同的观点。陷入这种境地的考生，显然犯了一个根本性的错误，参考时间为40分钟的作文，一般应在35分钟之内完成,再用几分钟的时间检查语言错误。可有的考生十几分钟一句话都写不了，就是因为他太进入角色了，这是考试中一个很大的误区。

考作文的目的纯粹是通过这一命题形式，考查考生的英语水平如何，雅思英语《雅思英语考试中应该如何克服写作障碍》。命题人关注的是书面表达能力，而不是看一个人有没有内容，思想有没有深度，所以“一味追求标新立异”是没有必要的。

四、构思、写作不统一，落实有困难

实事求是的讲，要求考生完全运用英语思维来写作文是不现实的。很多考生在实际写作过程中，脑子里想的是中文句子，然后再把中文句子译成英文。因此采用“得其意，忘其形”的方法，忘掉中文的语法结构，句法形式则可能要整个地打乱，“钻进去，跳出来”。所谓“钻进去”就是要看意思是否到位了，“跳出来”就是要忘记中文的语言形式。实际上把英文译成中文，关键是要在转换中把意思表达出来。

针对构思、写作不统一，落实有困难情况。必须摒弃翻译中追求一一对应的关系，并机械地把中文译成英文的方法，应该把中文句子结构彻底地忘记，然后用比较简单的“万能”英语表达。平时不妨做一做这样的练习，通过阅读不认识词条的英文注解，然后试着把单词译成中文词，再去对照英汉词典的汉语释义，慢慢地就会开始领会用英语表达的门道了。

五、被动心态压抑新构思

尽管雅思考试作文为规定式命题，但考生仍可积极主动地发挥。其主动性在于采取回避的策略，表达上采取迂回的方式，即运用不很复杂的语言。内容的取舍上避重就轻地写比较易于表达的内容。很多人在写作过程中从头至尾都处于被动状态，当有内容想要表达清楚的时候，却又发现种种途径都不可能表达好，只好硬着头皮把自己意识到没把握的东西勉强写上去。连自己都意识到可能是错误的东西，只会产生于己不利的负面影响。所以，当有的内容感觉一点找不着，英语实在表达不清楚的时候，就应该彻底地放弃。单词拼写错误也是雅思考试作文写作的一大问题。常用单词是不能拼错的，有的单词平时会拼写，考试时突然没把握了，不妨换一下或许还能想起另外一个难度大一点、拼写有把握的来代替。应该回避明确知道自己不会拼写的词。如果没法换一个词，将句子改换一种说法亦未尝不可。有的考生在考卷上没把握的地方标上问号，或者把两种可能都写上，让判卷老师选择，这个方法是不可取的。

总之，不能让自己陷人被动，想说什么，用什么方式说。说多少，说到什么程度。一切都应由考生主动把握，这样才会减少心理上的压力，

Grasp all, lose all. 贪多必失.

Whats lost is lost. 失者不可复得。

Waste not, want not. 不浪费,不会穷.

Tomorrow never comes. 切莫依赖明天. / 我生待明日,万事成蹉跎.

No man is infallible. 没有人不犯错误。

Alms never make poor. 施舍穷不了人.

Love will find a way. 爱心所至,金石为开.

Manners make the man. 举止见人品。

Patience is a virtue. 忍耐是一种美德.

Pity is akin to love. 怜悯生爱.

Call a spade a spade. 是啥说啥，难听不怕。

Delays are dangerous. 因循出危险.

Diamond cuts diamond. 强中自有强中手.

Counsel is no command. 劝告不是命令.

Poverty tries friends. 贫穷考验朋友.

Once bitten,twice shy. 吃一次亏,学一次乖.

Pain past is pleasure. 痛苦过去即欢乐.

Leal heart lied never. 心诚无谎言。

Hot love is soon cold. 过热的爱情冷得快.

As good lost as found. 有得必有失. /得失同喜.

Every dog has his day. 瓦块也有翻身日，人人都有运来时。

Wise fear begets care. 懂得担心,就会小心.

"Never”is a long word. 不要轻易说“决不”。

After wind comes rain. 风是雨的头。

Nurture passes nature. 教养胜过天性.

Time tries all things. 时间检验一切.

Boys will be boys. 男孩子总是男孩子.

No song, no supper. 不出力,不得食.

The truth will out. 真相总会大白.

Time works wonders. 时间能创造奇迹.

To think is to see. 思考就是明白.

Truth will prevail. 真理必胜

A lie begets a lie. 谎言生谎言。

Years bring wisdom. 年岁带来智慧.

In love is no lack. 爱情不会感到缺乏.

Easy come, easy go. 来得容易去得 . /悖入悖出.

Every little helps. 点滴都有用.

Forgive and forget. 恢弘大度，勿念旧恶。

Manners maketh man. 举止造人品.

Laugh and grow fat. 心宽体胖 。

Knowledge is power. 知识就是力量.

Let the world slide. 人世沧桑,听其自然.

Love me,love my dog. 爱屋及乌.

Life means struggle. 生活就是斗争.

Fair plays a jewel. 比赛风格好,胜过珠宝.

Early sow,early mow. 种得早,收得早.

1 人活着 总是要得罪一些人的 就要看那些人是否值得得罪

When alive ,we may probably offend some people.However, we must think about whether they are deserved offended。

2 命里有时终需有 命里无时莫强求

You will have it if it belongs to you,whereas you dont kveth for it if it doesnt appear in your life。

3 没有谁对不起谁，只有谁不懂得珍惜谁。

No one indebted for others,while many people dont know how to cherish others。

4 永远不是一种距离，而是一种决定。

Eternity is not a distance but a decision。

5 在回忆里继续梦幻不如在地狱里等待天堂

Dreaming in the memory is not as good as waiting for the paradise in the hell。

6 哪里有真爱存在，哪里就有奇迹

Where there is great love, there are always miracles。

7 爱情就像一只蝴蝶，它喜欢飞到哪里，就把欢乐带到哪里。

Love is like a butterfly. It goes where it pleases and it pleases where it goes。

8 假如每次想起你我都会得到一朵鲜花，那么我将永远在花丛中徜徉。

If I had a single flower for every time I think about you, I could walk forever in my garden。

9 有了你，我迷失了自我;失去你，我多么希望自己再度迷失。

Within you I lose myself, without you I find myself wanting to be lost again。

10 每一个沐浴在爱河中的人都是诗人

At the touch of love everyone becomes a poet。

11 看看我的眼睛，你会发现你对我而言意味着什么。

Look into my eyes you will see what you mean to me。

12 距离使两颗心靠得更近。

Distance makes the hearts grow fonder。

13 如果没有相等的爱，那就让我爱多一些吧。

If equal affection cannot be, let the more loving be me。

14 爱是长在我们心里的藤蔓。

Love is a vine that grows into our hearts。

15 因为你，我懂得了爱。

If I know what love is, it is because of you。

16 爱情是生活最好的提神剂。

Love is the greatest refreshment in life。

17 有了你，黑暗不再是黑暗。

The darkness is no darkness with thee。

18 如果没有人爱我们，我们也就不会再爱自己了。

We cease loving ourselves if no one loves us。

18 治疗爱的创伤唯有加倍地去爱。

There is no remedy for love but to love more。

20 如果爱不疯狂就不是爱了。

When love is not madness, it is not love。

21 有爱的心永远年轻。

A heart that loves is always young。

22 爱情就像月亮，不增则减。

Love is like the moon, when it does not increase, it decreases。

23 灵魂不能没有爱而存在。

The soul cannot live without love。

24 生命虽短，爱却绵长。

Brief is life, but love is long。

25 爱比大衣更能驱走寒冷。

Love keeps the cold out better than a cloak。

26 没有了爱，地球便成了坟墓。

Take away love, and our earth is a tomb。

27 我的爱与你同在。

My heart is with you。

28 尽管还不曾离开，我已对你朝思暮想!

I miss you so much already and I havent even left yet!

29 我会想你，在漫漫长路的每一步。

Ill think of you every step of the way。

30 无论你身在何处，无论你为何忙碌，我都会在此守候

Wherever you go, whatever you do, I will be right here waiting for you。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

1.1词汇方面

如果把写英语作文比作建楼房的话，英语词汇在英语写作中起着砖、瓦的作用，是句子的最基本的组成部分，所以词汇是我们高中英语教学中的重点，单词听写是课堂教学必不可少的一个环节，但学生的词汇量毕竟有限，遇到问题时，便会用汉语词汇去补充英语词汇的空缺。

例如：交通十分繁忙。误：The traffic is busy. 正：The traffic is heavy.

她和一位教授结婚了。误：She married with a professor.

正：She married a professor.

英语词语的词义往往比较复杂，并和汉语有着一定区别。这种不同就会会导致学生仅把写作当作一词一句的翻译来做，结果是事倍功半。

1.2语法方面

英语中难点就是时态，语态的掌握。英语中常用时态共十六种，语态分为主动语态与被动语态，语气有陈述语气与虚拟语气之分。不同的时态有它特有的句法结构。如现在进行时态使用be＋v－ing形式来表示。现在完成时则用have／has ＋p．p来表示。一般将来时则用shall／will／be going to＋v来表示。英语中时间意义的表达是通过动词的时和体来加以反映，而汉语中不存在时、体等，汉语则依靠表示时间的副词（如“曾经”、“正在”、“已经”、“将要”）作状语，或利用虚词“了”、“着”、“过”等作补语这一语法手段来体现，动词本身无任何变化。在英语中，“already”和“ever”常常用在完成时态之中，不能与表示过去的时间状语连用。学生常常把上述句子错译成“Yesterday I have been to the park．”“Five years ago，they have known each other．”又如在英语中，我们常常用否定前置来

导语：好的句子正确运用能给作文带来意想不到的效果，下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的英语作文，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

1. According to a recent survey， four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.依照最近的一项调查，每年有4，000，000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

4. People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。

5. An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。

6. When it comes to education， the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.说到教育，大部分人认为其是一个终生的学习。

7. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

8. Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful effects of international tourism.应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量，努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。

9. An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However， this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents， who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.越来越多的专家相信移民对城市的建设起到积极作用然而，越来越多的城市居民却怀疑这种说法，他们抱怨民工给城市带来了许多严重的问题，像犯罪和卖淫。

10. Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus， which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少，以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车，而车上可能已满载乘客。

11. There is no denying the fact that air pollution is an extremely serious problem： the city authorities should take strong measures to deal with it.无可否认，空气污染是一个极其严重的问题：城市当局应该采取有力措施来解决它

12. An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward retirement.一项调查显示妇女欢迎退休。

13. A proper part-time job does not occupy students too much time. In fact， it is unhealthy for them to spend all of time on their study. As an old saying goes： All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.一份适当的业余工作并不会占用学生太多的时间，事实上，把全部的时间都用到学习上并不健康，正如那句老话：只工作，不玩耍，聪明的孩子会变傻。

14. Any government， which is blind to this point， may pay a heavy price.任何政府忽视这一点都将付出巨大的代价。

15.Nowadays， many students always go into raptures at the mere mention of the coming life of high school or college they will begin. Unfortunately， for most young people， it is not pleasant experience on their first day on campus.当前，一提到即将开始的学校生活，许多学生都会兴高采烈。然而，对多数年轻人来说，校园刚开始的日子并不是什么愉快的经历。

论文常用来指进行各个学术领域的研究和描述学术研究成果的文章，简称之为论文，小编收集了大学毕业论文的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

目 录

一、明确任务………………………………………………1

(一)经济论文的概念

(二)经济论文的种类

(三)论文的必备条件

二、确立选题………………………………………………5

(一)选题的重要意义

(二)选题的原则

(三)选题应考虑的因素

(四)选题的方法

(五)可供选择的论文题目类型

(六)选题要注意的几个问题

三、搜集资料………………………………………………16

(一)、材料――论文写作成功的基础

(二)搜集资料的途径

(三)资料的选取

四、拟定提纲………………………………………………26

(一)、编写提纲的意义

(二)做好编写提纲的准备

(三)编写写作提纲

(四)提纲的基本要求：

五、撰写初稿………………………………………………34

(一)执笔顺序

(二)撰写初稿

(三)对初稿的基本要求

六、修改定稿………………………………………………38

七、毕业论文的项目与装帧………………………………41

(一)论文的基本型

(二)毕业论文论文写作技巧视频的构成项目

(三)毕业论文的装帧

八、毕业论文答辩…………………………………………46

毕业论文写作指导

一、明确任务

(一)经济论文的概念

经济论文是用来进行经济科学研究和描述经济科学研究成果的文章。毕业论文写作，是应届毕业生总结性的独立作业。它的目的在于总结学生在校学习期间的学习成果，培养其具有综合运用所学知识,解决实际问题的能力，使他们得到经济科学研究规范的基本训练。要搞好毕业论文的写作，首先要弄清经济论文论文写作有技巧的概念是什么?

理解经济论文这一概念，要把握两点：第一，经济论文是探讨经济问题，进行经济科学研究的一种手段;第二，经济论文又是描述经济科学研究成果，进行学术交流的一种工具。

我们知道，经济科学的研究是一种相当复杂的思维活动，并且又需要描述出来为别人所了解。人们进行科学研究、思考问题，只凭脑子想，是想不清楚的，而要在思考的过程中，不断地记录、整理、推敲、修改，这才能使创造性的思考一层层展开，一步步深入，逐步至于完善，达到课题的解决。这个研究过程离开写是办不到的。而研究成果的发表、交流以及作用的发挥、产生的效益，又必须写经济论文把它描述出来。所以，经济论文论文写作入门技巧既是进行科学研究的一种手段，又是描述科研成果的一种工具。

(二)经济论文的种类

由于研究角度和撰写论文论文写作小技巧的目的不同，经济论文论文写作秘籍可分成很多种类，从研究角度上划分，大体可以分为宏观经济论文和微观经济论文两大类;由于论文十大论文写作技巧的作者不同，又可以分为毕业论文和学位论文等等。

1.宏观经济论文。所谓宏观经济论文，即凡是描述国民经济中带有普遍性、整体性的经济问题研究成果的文章，诸如有关国民经济有计划按比例发展的规律和计划工作的论述，有关按劳分配规律问题的论述等等。

宏观经济论文总是试图用一定的经济模式说明道理，而这些模式体现的是不同的经济基本特征，而不考虑复杂的细节，它要求的是思想明确，而不是数字精确。

2.微观经济论文。即凡是描述国民经济中带有局部性、具体性的经济问题研究成果的文章。例如物流、电子商务、商业、外贸等部门的某些生产技术或经营管理方面的论述，有关物资供应、产品销售问题的论述等等。

微观经济论文也可以说是对经济活动中具体的方式方法的论述。它要求论述具体，资料、数据、图表都是具体的。

3.毕业论文。即高等学校应届毕业生总结性的独立作业。它是学生运用在校学习的基本知识和基础理论去解决一、两个实际问题的实践锻炼。是学生在校学习期间学习成果的综合性总结，是整个教学活动中不可或缺的一个重要环节。

毕业论文和平时的考试虽然都是对学生学习成绩测验的手段，但它们又有很大的区别。这是因为，平时考试是学生被动地接受知识和技能的训练，而毕业作业却是学生运用所学知识，主动地去解决一两个实际问题。整个毕业作业的写作过程——从选题、搜集资料(包括调查)、整理分析资料、筛选使用资料、确立论点、拟定提纲、执笔写作，一直到修改完成，都是同学们在指导老师指导下，自己亲自动手完成的。因此，毕业论文实用的论文写作技巧的写作，又是同学们第一次进行科学研究的尝试和训练。而培养同学们科学研究能力，也同样是我们的教学任务之一。

4.学位论文论文写作的基础与技巧。学位论文分为学士学位论文、硕士学位论文、博士学位论文三级。学士学位论文是写得合乎要求的大学论文，即能对研究的课题有一定的心得，能通过论文的写作反映出作者有从事科学研究的能力。硕士学位论文论文写作的技巧是攻读硕士学位研究生写的论文，它要求对所研究的课题有新的见解，能从论文的写作中反映出作者有独立从事科学研究的能力。博士学位论文是攻读博士学位研究生写的论文,它要求在科学或专门技术上做出创造性的成果，能从论文论文写作技巧的写作中反映出作者有渊博的理论知识和相当熟练的科学研究能力。论文写作各种技巧

(三)论文的必备条件

论文是议论文中的一类，它是专门对科学领域中的某些现象(问题)进行研究、探讨的文章。因此，论文有以下一些必备条件。

1.科学性

论文必须具备科学性，这是由科学研究的任务所决定的。科学研究的任务是揭示事物发展的客观规律，探求客观真理，成为人们改造世界的指南。无论自然科学还是社会科学都必须根据科学研究这一总的任务，对本门科学中的研究对象进行深入探讨，揭示规律。

论文的科学性，在立论上要求作者不得带有个人好恶的偏见，不得主观臆造，必须切实地从客观实际出发，从中引出符合实际的结论。这一点与一般议论文论文写作方法和技巧归纳可以表达作者各种各样的观点是不相同的。论文写作技巧学习

论文的科学性，在论据上要求作者花大气力，经过周密的观察、调查、试验，尽可能多地占有资料，以充分，确实有力的论据作为立论的依据。这一点与一般的议论文可以在占有部分的资料的基础上，从中选取可资证明自己观点的材料作论据是不相同的。论文写作有什么技巧

论文的科学性，在论证上要求作者经过周密的思考，严谨而富有逻辑效果地论证。这一点与一般议论文论文写作秘笈可以比较自由地展开议论是不相同的。

要达到这些要求，使论文具有科学性，作者必须有良好的科学素养，能以马列主义的理论观点方法来研究问题;同时需要一定的专业理论知识;还需要有对科学工作的热爱和责任感，而且经过不断努力才能达到的。

2.创造性

科学研究是对新知识的探求，要求作者在论文里表述自己的见解。如果研究工作者只能继承不能创新，那么人类的文明和历史就不会有所前进了。英国《自然发展史》一书的作者斯蒂芬.梅森说：“科学总要发展，并有新发现，……科学方法主要是发现新现象、制定新理论的一种手段……。”从事经济科学研究总是要有所创造，对经济现象经过周密的观察、调查、分析和研究，从中发现别人没有发现过或没有涉及过的问题，或者是在综合别人认识的基础上进行创新。

发现就是创造。创造是一切科学研究，包括经济科学研究的生命。只有创造，才能提出新问题，解决新的问题，从而推动经济科学的发展。但是创造并不是轻易就可以做到的，无论是一种经营思想还是一种管理方法，每前进一步，都是要付出艰巨的劳动的。因此，发挥我们的创造力进行新的探索和创造，既要认真谨慎，又要勇于进取。学习论文写作技巧

3.平易性

经济论文是进行经济科学研究和描述经济科学研究成果的文章。这种成果的发表是为了应用于经济活动，指导人们的经济活动实践，因此，它就要求容易为人理解。无论是宏观的经济思想，还是微观的具体方法，在表述上都要本着“易懂”的原则。无论用哪种表达方式，都要写得易于理解，不仅专家能看懂，具有一定文化知识的人也能看懂。做到这一点并非容易。因为经济论文讲的是复杂的、多样的、抽象的经济现象和理论，因此，要写得平易近人，深入浅出，是要经过刻苦的训练的。

二、确立选题

(一)选题的重要意义

写一般文章，不外乎两个问题，一是写什么，一是怎样写。写经济论文也是如此，一是确定研究什么问题，一是怎么研究。没有明确的研究对象及如何研究的内容，是无法动笔的。因此有人说选择好一个研究题目，论文就成功了一半，从上述意义上理解，这是有道理。

从写作的角度来看，写什么和怎么写都是很重要，如果从文章写出之后产生的效果、起到的作用来看，那么写什么，也就是研究什么就尤为重要了。因为只有研究了有意义的课题才会有意义，否则，精力花费再大，研究得再好，论文表达再完美无缺，也是没有价值的。

(二)选题的原则

选题要依据这样的原则：在客观上有科学价值的，在主观上有利于展开的。

客观上有科学价值的，我们可以从下述这些方面开考虑：

1.亟待解决的课题

在经济学科的各个领域，总有一些亟待解决的问题。这样的问题有的是关于国计民生的重大问题;有的是科学发展中的关键问题;有的虽然是一般性问题，但迫切需要解决。经济科学研究应该首先注重到这些亟待解决的问题。

2.经济科学上的新发展、新创造

在经济科学研究中，新的发现，新的创造是有科学价值的，这也是每个经济科学工作者努力追求的目标之一。因为每一项新的发现和创造，都将使经济的发展向前推进一步。

3.空白的填补

科学的发展有其不平衡性。从学科建设上来看，由于某一时期侧重于某些学科的研究，而忽视了另外一些学科的建设，就出现了学科上的短缺、空白。而发展这些新的学科将会有助于我国的社会主义建设，这就需要填补。在一个学科范围内，也存在着发展的不平衡性。一定时期，对某些问题的研究是注重的，研究的成果也比较显著，而对另一些项目却很少接触，于是就出现了需要填补的部分。从客观需要，从科学发展的全局需要来看，这是应该成为研究重点、选题对象的。

4.通说的纠正

通说是通行的看法，这是已有的研究成果，也包括现在提出来的一般的流行观点。纠正通说中不正确的观点，使人们得到正确的认识，这自然是有科学价值的。例如，有些谈到文艺批评的文章，喜欢引用马克思的一句话：“人民历来就是作家‘够资格’和‘不够资格’的唯一判断者。”有的借它来论断“人民群众历来是文艺作品唯一判断者”;有的借它来论断“人民群众是文艺作品最权威的评定者”;有的用它来强调“开展文艺批评，要走群众路线”等等，都认为这句话表述的是马克思在文艺批评问题上历史唯物主义的一个“基本观点”。这是很流行的一个通说。游离的《一个应该澄清的问题》一文，对这个从马克思原著中割裂出来的论断加以纠正，指出：第一，它把马克思的话解释错了;第二，它会在文艺批评的实践上引起混乱;第三，它也并不符合马克思、恩格斯创立的历史唯物主义。这个对通说的纠正是很有科学价值的。

5.前说的补充

这是对前人研究的发展性研究，使它更为丰富、完整。富有创造性成果，在科学发展中固然十分重要，但是在多数情况下，总是先提出某种假说或论断，而要经过不断的验证、补充、丰富之后，才能成为完整的理论观点。所以补充前说是有科学价值的，也是应该成为我们选择课题考虑的方面之一。

选题，首先要考虑选择有科学价值的题目，这是一个基本原则。但是，仅仅从这个客观需要来考虑选题是不够的。每个研究者还必须考虑到自己的主观条件才能选出适应的题目。所以，从客观上考虑是否有科学价值的同时，还必须从自己的主观上，即本人条件上考虑选择的题目是否有利于展开研究。

(三)选题应考虑的因素

一般说来，要选择有利于展开的题目，须考虑这样几个方面：

(1)要有浓厚的兴趣

兴趣是人们力求认识客体的特殊心理倾向，认识倾向相对持久地稳定下来，构成人的兴趣。在科学研究中，它往往表现为人们对某个课题始终如一、坚持不懈的探究精神。“兴趣是最好的老师”，有兴趣的课题能牢牢地吸引着研究者执著地研究下去，直到达到目的。它可以使研究者的工作变得更积极、更自觉、更有热情，从而更具有创造力。

兴趣并不是与生俱来，也不是一成不变的。它有着产生和变化的客观基础。了解这一点，就会有意识地培养起个人与社会需要相一致的兴趣。

(2)能发挥业务专长

选择能发挥业务专长的题目是有利于展开的。这是选题中作者考虑自己的研究能力如何得以充分发挥的问题。论文写作技巧全攻略

无论专业水平的高低，每个研究者都有自己的业务专长。从大的方面看，各个学科领域都有其独立的研究对象，研究内容。此一学科领域的研究者，都很难解决彼一学科领域中的问题。

选题要扬长避短。选己之所长，避己之所短，从自己的研究能力出发，选取能发挥出业务专长的题目，这样研究工作才能很好的展开，并获得优秀的成果。这就像一个举重运动员，万万不可去参加跳高比赛一样，在非己之所长的项目中是决不会发挥出优势的。

(3)有占有资料的条件

图书资料是进行科学研究的基础。缺少资料的研究者很难写出有分量的论文，就像两手空空的厨师难于烹调出美味佳肴一样。所以，选题还要考虑资料条件，如果选择能获得丰富资料的题目，是会有利于研究工作展开的。

为什么提出这个问题?因为人们所处的环境不同，能够获得资料的多寡、优劣的程度是很不相同的。

譬如，以文献资料来说，最好是身边有藏书十分丰富的图书馆，甚至连比较稀少的资料也能很容易地查到。有这样良好条件的总在少数。而在一般情况下，资料条件就较差，即使身边有图书馆，图书资料也往往残缺不全，虽然有些资料可以靠馆际互借来加以解决，但我们选择一个偏偏身边无法得到的资料的题目，那搜集资料的工作就会困难重重，致使我们的研究工作无法进行。

这样，我们就不得不在选题时考虑资料条件的问题。我们要尽可能选择有资料条件的，也就是易于获得所需要的资料的题目，这会有利于研究工作的展开。

(4)能得到指导

刚开始搞研究的同学虽然学习、掌握了一般的基本理论与基础知识，但怎样运用所学到的这些理论、知识解决实际问题，还仅仅是个开始。对如何选题，乃至如何展开研究，还缺少经验，有条件的话，要找导师指导。

在导师的指导下选择的题目是有利于展开的。一方面，因为导师对本学科有广泛的见识，深刻的了解，有丰富的科学研究经验，知道什么是本学科中亟待解决的问题，什么是应该填补的，在什么问题上可以创造性地发展。另一方面，导师对对学生也很了解，知道已经学习、掌握了哪些理论、知识，有何程度的研究能力以及处理课题上的欠缺。这样，他们就会帮助考虑选择适合学生研究能力的题目。

(四)选题的方法

首先，选题要查阅文献资料，要了解本学科、本专业，特别是我们已经确定研究范围部分的历史与现状。了解了研究对象的历史与现状，就会知道在过去与现阶段的研究达到了什么程度，以及哪些问题尚未得到解决。这样就可以避免选题的盲目性。否则，即使是偶有所得，自以为是个好的题目，但很可能是前人早已经解决了的，已经没有研究价值了。

了解自己研究内容的历史与现状，要查阅大量的资料，这不是坐在家里靠手边的一点书和杂志所能办到的。要到图书馆里去，要查阅有关的专业目录、报刊杂志目录卡片，不断丰富、积累这方面的资料。这不仅是一次选题所需要的，而且是今后从事本学科研究工作的选题基础。

做文献目录卡片，有经验的作者是先从最近发表的新的文献资料调查开始的，按年一项一项写出来。从最近的开始调查，逐步再调查过去的，这是做文献目录卡片的一种好办法。因为调查近的、新的既容易入手，又会有兴趣。如果从过去的开始，对初学者说来往往不了解该从什么时候开始，好多是从中途入手的。论文写作技巧的方法

卡片的写法是，记上作者、标题、杂志名、卷号、页码。若是单行本，要写上出版单位，报纸要写上发行的年月日。一套完整的文献目录卡，能使我们掌握本学科研究的全部成果的线索。以它来检索资料，能使小编们了解某些项目、某些问题的研究现状。这些工作虽然花费了很多时间，但它是有意义的，它是开始做研究工作重要的基础工作，必须耐心细致地做好。

在查阅文献资料，做目录卡或对目录卡进行分类整理的过程中，大脑的思维就已经开始工作了。有时，某些题目会触发我们确定某一课题。当然，这个思考过程不是消极地、被动地接受那些资料的触发，而是充分运用自己的思考力，对它积极进行加工，这是一种创造性想像，是会探索出新的课题的。

在这个思考过程中，我们要不断地把想到的记下来，怎么想就怎么记。这样就不致于使就突然来临的、又是瞬间即逝的灵感过后忘记，而且它会进一步触发你的思考，获得新的想像。正确认识论文写作技巧

(五)可供选择的论文题目类型

根据以往同学选题的情况，归纳一下论文题目可能采取的类型有以下几种：

1.就实际工作中存在的问题提出改进意见。如根据当前经济体制改革的需要，提出改革的设想。这是比较典型的一类论文题目，同时，也有一定的难度。选择这类题目时，要阅读有关的规章制度，对企业工作的有关情况、经验和问题有一个大致的了解。

2.对本专业中某些理论问题进行探讨。通常要对传统的观点提出一些商榷的意见。研究这类问题要有针对性，要阅读已发表的有关争论文章，了解各方面的不同看法。

3.对有关业务方法问题加以研讨。这类问题比较具体，面比较窄，但要有细微的分析，尽可能多了解一些实际工作情况，不宜作笼统的议论。

4.总结实际工作中的新鲜经验。写这类题目，可以对某一个企业进行重点调查，从个别到一般，提出一些共同性的问题来。我们提倡同学们多写一些理论同实际相结合的调查报告，把实际工作的经验从理论上加以概括。

5.现代化管理方法的应用。在这方面同学们可以把已经学过的一些相关课程同专业问题结合起来加以研究。

上述几个方面的问题，并不是绝然分开的，它们往往是相互交叉的，除此之外还会有一些其他可供选择的方面。

(六)选题要注意的几个问题

1、选题要尽可能早一些

论题选得早，时间充分，准备也会充分。这样工作起来就不至于忙乱，可以从容地、有条不紊地去准备。与此相反，如果论题选得较晚，总会有一种紧张的感觉。思维活动，尤其是创造性思维，是不可能在突击中很好地发挥的。同时大家知道，论题的选择，有时并不是一次就最后定下来的。有些时候，刚刚选定题目时，觉得能够写好，有把握完成，但在写作过程中，往往会遇到各种困难，或因资料不足，或因论述困难等等，都会迫使自己不得不放弃原来的论题而重新选择。这时，如果第一次选题较早，时间还来得及;如果第一次选题就较晚，那么，重新选择论题的机会就不多了。

一般地说，同学们读完二年级，就应该考虑毕业作业的问题了。二年级之后，基础课和专业课已大部分开过，个人的专长与兴趣已经形成，在这时考虑毕业论文的论题，应该说是合适的了。

2、选题与主、客观的条件

这个问题是说，在选题之前，对个人的主观条件以及客观上能为自己提供的条件要有充分的了解和认识,这包括自己的业务专长，对所选题目的兴趣以及客观上能够为自己提供的资料、经费、时间等等。

我们知道，专长特长是科学研究的前提条件，只有具有坚实的专业知识，才能在科学研究中发现真理，有所建树。那么，我们在选题的时候，就要充分考虑自己的专业特长。比如，平时对企业管理注意得比较多，自己在生产实践过程中又有一些体会，那么在选题的时候，就应该考虑在企业管理及其改革中的一些问题上确定选题。刚开始写论文论文写作技巧大全的人，往往都有一种对自己把握不定的困惑，觉得很多问题都可以成篇，而又都不尽满意,这就是对自己缺乏了解,而了解自己的专长在选题中尤为重要。

在主观条件中还有一条就是自己对选题的兴趣。对专业有兴趣的人，才能保持一种旺盛的钻研热情，促进专业的长进，而对专业不断的了解和积累，又会激发自己对专业的兴趣。只有对选题有浓厚的兴趣，才能产生强烈的研究欲望，容易出成果。对选题的兴趣，直接关系到论文最常用的论文写作技巧的质量。因此要求同学们在选题时千万不要赶“时髦”、凑“热闹”，一定要扎扎实实地在自己的业务专长和有强烈研究欲望的范围内选择论题。怎样提高论文写作技巧

客观条件就是指客观上能够为我们的研究所提供的可能性,包括资料、时间等。论文写作技巧指南

资料，包括原始资料，已经发表过的论文、专著、统计数据、观察记录等。第一手资料是非常重要的，如果自己没有掌握这种资料，客观上又没有提供的可能性，那么对这个选题的研究就有困难。对已发表过的论文论文写作的要点与技巧和专著情况的掌握，也就是对选题研究的历史与现状的把握，这是避免选题盲目性的重要保证。

时间，与我们作业写作的难度和篇幅直接相关。因此，选题的难度和长度一定要适中，要保证能够在允许的时间里完成。

3、选题应以专业课的内容为主

这是因为毕业论文是高等学校教学过程的一个有机的环节。它的教学目的是：使学生总结在校期间的学习成果，培养学生具有综合运用所学的理论知识，解决实际问题的能力，使他们受到科学研究的基本训练。所以，要求他们选择的课题应以专业课的内容为主，不要超出这个范围，如果仅凭个人的兴趣爱好，选择一个脱离专业课的题目，是达不到运用所学的理论知识解决实际问题的训练目的的。

4、选题类型多样化

毕业论文是论文论文写作技巧有哪些写作的基本训练，它具有习作性质。所以课题研究类型是多样化的，也就是可以以多种形式来进行课题的研究，写出各式各样的学术文体的文章。例如，可以写专题论文、文献综述、调查研究报告，也可以搞实验设计和实验技术研究等等，范围是很广的。因为通过这些实践，都可以达到科学研究基本训练的目的。

课题类型之所以多样化，同时也由于毕业论文主要是在校内学习期间完成的，势必受到图书资料、仪器设备、经费等等条件的限制，不能不从实际出发，以多种样式进行。这也是一个重要的原因。

5、选题的三种方式

目前高等学校毕业论文的选题，是以下述三种选题结合的方式进行。

(1)命题与自选题结合的方式

题目先由指导教师拟定，经教研室讨论确定，然后向全体学生公布，由他们选作。对多数同学来说，这是一种合适的办法。

(2)自选题

少数学习成绩优秀并有一定科研能力的同学，能独立地选题，他们可以自己选。

(3)引导性命题

这是对少数学习成绩较差、缺乏科研能力，不能独立选题的同学所采用的方法。当指导教师拟出的题目公布之后，这样的同学望着揭示的题目，感到迷惑，心中无数，难以确定下来。这时指导教师就要给予一定的帮助。有经验的教师不是简单地为他们圈定了事，而是要很好地了解学生专业课的学习情况，他们的兴趣爱好及所关心的方面，逐步引导他们确定一个题目。这么做是要花费一些时间的，但对提高学生的选题能力是一种很有效果的方法。

就学生本人来说，无论学习成绩，科研能力如何，在选题过程中，除了自己独立地进行探索之外，都要主动地争取得到教师的指导。好多写过毕业论文的同志都有这种经验：在写论文论文的过程中，有三个环节特别需要得到教师的指导，第一个是选题，第二个是制订研究计划，第三个是拟定写作提纲。抓住这三个关键环节，对论文的写作是最有益的。

6、选题要考虑适中

这是个如何掌握分寸的问题。要把课题选得恰到好处是不大容易的。所以要注意掌握分寸，要适中。

(1)选题的时间要适中

选题要尽可能早一些，因为早做准备，时间充分。但是，也不是越早越好，这要视作者的专业课的学习情况如何而定。从专业课的进行情况来看，一般的要从二年级就开始考虑，确定研究方向或选定题目，慢慢地准备，读书，查阅资料，积累材料。过早，因缺少必要的专业基础知识，很难发现自己在哪个方面可以深入地钻研一下;过晚，若到最后一个学年才考虑选题，就显得太迟了，对完成论文是不利的。

(2)选题的难度要适中

选题的难易程度要合适。既不可过难，又不可过易。过难的课题，当然是很有科学价值的，如果能解决会对科学的发展有较大的贡献，这当然是很好的。可是，我们刚刚开始做研究工作，处理难度高的课题有困难。这就如让一个刚刚学会游泳的人创造记录一样，是他能力所不及的。不过，课题也不可过易，课题太简单又难于达到锻炼自己的科学研究能力的目的。一般说来，选题太难、过于特殊，想一举解决，处理一个难度很高的课题是主要的倾向，应注意防止。

(3)选题的大小要适中

选题既要量力，又要考虑到难度，有分量又能拿得起来;还要考虑到题目的大小要适中，能有足够的时间来处理它。在大学里学习，支配时间是个很复杂的问题，每个人都有自己的情况，是各不相同的。譬如，选修科目的多少，专业课学习的理解程度与所需要的复习、钻研时间等等，这些都必须考虑到学习时间安排里去。所以，在选题时，必须根据自己的实际情况，精打细算地考虑好究竟能用多少时间来研究一个课题，再根据这个时间来选择一个大小适中的研究项目。这一点，在选题时不考虑到也会麻烦的。选题过大，必要的资料没有到手，计划时间很快用完了，草草收束，是写不出像样的论文的。选题过小，虽然时间从容，写得轻松，但又没能把力量充分发挥出来，这也是最遗憾的。

修辞手段一般主要用于文学性写作中。但在大学英语的英文写作中有时也需要运用一定的具有英文特征的修辞手段，而且运用得好，会使语句生动从而增添语句亮点。因此，掌握一些一般常用修辞手段对于实现语句亮点也是非常必要的。对于大学英语写作来说，主要应该掌握以下修辞手段，又称语句辞格，包括结构辞格与语义辞格。对比、排比、重复、倒装等为结构辞格，转义、双关、矛盾等则为语义辞格。

1.对比正反对比就是要巧妙地运用对称的英文句式来表达互为补充的意思，因此恰当地运用反义词语往往是必不可少的。如果一旦所要表达的内容具有这种情况，就应尽力选用这种对称的句式并选用适当的反义词语来加强语句，实现语句的亮点。

1)如“很多人很快就会发现，他们在物质上是富裕了，精神上却很贫乏”，可以这样达：

Many people will soon find themselves rich in goods，but ragged in spirit.(注：句中rich in与ragged in，goods与spirit具有正反对比的关系和效果。)

2)如“利远远大于弊”，可以这样表达：

The advantages for outweigh the disadvantages.(注：句中the advantages与the disadvantages具有正反对比的关系和效果。)

3)如“他们注意到了这些说法中的一些道理，但他们却忽视了一个重要的事实”，可以这样表达：

They have noticed a grain of truth in the statements，but have ignored a more important fact.(注：句中have noticed与have ignored，a grain of truth in the statements与a more important fact具有正反对比的关系和效果。)

4)如“这样做既有积极效果也有消极效果”，可以这样表达：

It will have both negative and positive effects by so doing.(注：句中negative与positive具有正反对比的关系和效果)

5)如“我们既有与我们很为相似的朋友，又有与我们很为不同的朋友”，可以这样表达：

We have friends similar to us and friends different from us.(注：句中similar to与different from具有正反对比的关系和效果)

2.排比英文中有时也使用排比句式，这种句式整齐而有气势，又不会使人感到单调。例如，如“读书使我们聪明，锻炼使我们强健”，可以这样表达：

Reading makes us wise while exercises make us strong. 3.重复英文一般讲求简洁，因此为表达强调偶尔使用重复可以使语句的强调内容得到突出。英文的重复又根据被重复词语在语句中的位置分为句首重复、句尾重复、首尾重复、尾首重复等。

1)如“现在是忘掉过去一切的时候了。现在是言归正传的时候了。现在是为未来而奋斗的时候了”，可以这样表达：

Now is the time to forget everything in the past. Now is the time to get down to the business. Now is the time to work hard for the future.(注：此句为句首重复，重复部分为句首的now it the time to)

2)如“我们渴望成功，而且正在为成功而努力工作”，可以这样表达：

We long for success and we are working hard for success.(注：此句为句尾重复，重复的部分为句尾的for success.)

3)如“我相信我们能够成功，我相信我们也一定会成功”，可以这样表达：

I am convinced that we can succeed，and Iam convinced that we must succeed.(注：and所连接的两个语句的句首与句尾部分同时重复，重复的部分为句首的I am convinced that与句尾的succeed)

4)如“我们现在生活在一个新的时代，而一个改革充满着风险与机遇”，可以这样表达：

We are now living in a new era，and a new era of reform is always full of ventures and chances.(注：and之前的句尾与and之后的句首重复，重复部分为a new era.)

4.倒装这里说的倒装不同于前述非修辞性的语法结构倒装。非修辞性的语法结构倒装是语句的语法结构所限定的，没有自由选择的余地，只要运用需要倒装结构的句型就要采用倒装结构。这里所说的倒装是指修辞性语义结构倒装，是进行强调的一种手段，它利用了语句句首(或句尾)的特殊位置。例如，如“充满着风险与机遇的改革的新时代正向我们走来”，可以这样表达：

Now on coming to us is the new era of reform full of ventures and chances. 5.转义转义是一种对词语灵活运用的修辞手段，主要有比喻、拟人、夸张、反语、婉转等，比喻又包括明喻、暗喻、换喻、提喻等。

1)如要表达“过去的经历就像图片一样总是在脑海中萦绕”，英文可为：

What had been experienced in the past was always looming in memory like a picture.(注：此句采用明喻，明喻的特点是使用了like一词)

2)如要表达“我们的英语老师就是我们最好的英语辞典”，英文可为：

Our English teacher is our best English dictionary.(注：此句采用暗喻，暗喻的特点是利用事物之间的相似之处进行比喻，与明喻不同之处在于不使用like一词)

3)如要表达“我正在读莎土比亚的书呢”，英文可为：

I am reading Shakespeare.(注：此句采用换喻，换喻的特点是直接借用一事物的名称宋代替另一事物的名称，使用通过联想理解其含义，但不是所有的事物都是可以用换喻来表达的)

4)如要表达“这里需要一个帮手”，英文可为：

A hand is needed here.(注：此句采用提喻，提喻的特点是用一个事物的部分来代表事物的整体或用一个事物的整体来代表事物的部分。这里用hand一词代表整个人)

5)如要表达“巨大的不幸笼罩着整个城市”，英文可为：

A great misfortune crept over the whole city.(注：此句采用拟人。拟人的特点是将事物人格化)

6)如要表达“这种想法可真是伟大的愚蠢”，英文可为：

This is really a great stupid idea.(注：此句采用反语。反语的特点是故意将话反说，具有讽刺意味)

7)如要表达“我太渴望成功了。听到成功的消息我欣喜若狂”，英文可为：

I was mad for success and on the news of success I went mad with joy.(注：此句采用夸张。夸张的特点是为表现事物的特征故意夸大其词)

导语：音乐是门艺术，写好音乐论文是门技巧，下面小编就跟大家介绍下写音乐论文的写作基础吧！

一、选题

1、选题的意义——选题是论文写作的基础，是确定自己研究的课题将要解决什 么问题的基础，需要明确研究目标和研究范围。选题确定的早，就等于早给自己 明确研究的任务和方向赢得了研究时间。

2、选题的原则

(1)适宜性原则——选题要根据的主观条件，选择自己专业范围内的、难易适 中、大小适宜的课题。

(2)创新性原则——选题应判断课题是否具有学术价值，是否是本学科研究领 域的“前沿课题” ，是否填补了本学科或研究领域的一项空白。

(3)价值性原则——是指选题是否有学术价值、科学价值。

(4)把握性原则——选题应该建立在自己最擅长的学科上，这样对所需要研究 的问题才会有更深刻的认识。如果脱离所学专业，对自己研究的论题没有把握， 就不能充分发挥自己的才能写好论文。

3、选题的途径

(1)自主选题——通过自己的努力，发现有价值的课题，或根据自己的需 要选择研究课题。

(2)借鉴选题——即被动选题，就是借鉴外界因素获得适合自己的选题。

4、选题的方法 选题的方法多种多样，因人而异，因专业方向而已，很难概括，但常用的有 以下四种：

(1)综合寻找法——就是对自己所占有的材料广泛阅读，对已有课题进行 综合选择，寻找出有研究价值的一种方法。

(2)主观设定法——就是先有主观设定，然后沿着一定的方向，查阅文献 资料，并进行必要的调查验证，证明自己的选题价值。

(3)借鉴深入法——广泛地研究、分析各种成功的课题，对他人已经研究 的有关论题进行反复咀嚼，看看还有哪些问题值得继续深入研究，从而确立研究 课题的一种方法。

(4)实践总结法——从自己的实践中发现有研究价值的论题，把自己掌握 的理论知识应用在解决现实问题的研究中。

二、资料的搜集与梳理 资料的搜集与

1、搜集资料的意义——选题一旦确定下来，很重要的一个工作就是搜集和积累 资料。它们是写好论文的基础。有人初步统计过，一个研究者在科研项目中的时 间分配是：搜集材料时间占 50.9%，思考计划占 30%，撰写论文只占 19.1%。 因为资料是创造的源泉，是形成论文观点和表达主题的基础。撰写论文需要摆事 实、讲道理，事实即材料。

2、搜集资料的方法

(1)确定方向——确定好搜集的方向，才不会将自己置身于资料的“汪洋大海” 里，以至于淹没在一大堆与论题无关的资料中。

(2)文献检索——是指从储放文献资料的库房里找出自己所需要的文献资料的 操作过程和方法。

3、资料的梳理

(1)阅读资料

(2)分类组合

(3)选择资料

三、撰写提纲

1、撰写提纲的意义

(1)明晰构思

(2)贯通文脉

2、提纲的基本内容

(1)标题(题目)

(2)中心论点

(3)分论点

(4)层次段落与所用的资料

3、提纲的常见形式

(1)简略提纲

(2)详细提纲

四、论文的写作

1、写作格式

(1)标题

(2)署名

(3)摘要——摘要是对论文研究方法和研究成果的客观表述，是论文的缩影， 文字要简练、明确、不加注释，不做评论，一般在 300 字左右。摘要既要写得短 而精，又能包含与论文等量的主要信息。

(4)关键词——是从论文中选出来的，最能体现文章内容特征、意义和价值的 单词或术语。一般是 3——6 个。写在“摘要”之下，词与词之间用分号隔开。

(5)主题部分 A、引言 B、正文 C、结论 D、致谢 E、参考文献

五一劳动节，始于美国工人在19世纪90年代为争取8小时工作日而进行的斗争。自那以后，世界人民便开始庆祝这一天 - 国际劳动节。这个日子在全球所扮演的角色体现了它的力量：正是在这一天，全世界所有的工人们宣布为了共同的目标而一起奋斗。

Labor Day, began in USA workers for the 8 hour day struggle in nineteenth Century 90s.. Since then, the people of the world began to celebrate this day, international labor day. It plays role in the world embodies its strength: it is in this day, the whole world all workers announced strive together for a common goal.

在许多个五一劳动节里，工人们都受到镇压，他们的活动被禁止，流血事件还时常发生。五一节逐渐失去它原来的意义，成为了独裁者和集权统治的政权对抗工人运动的一种标志性装饰;又或者就是一个平平安安的法定假日。尽管事实如此，工人们仍然满怀信心地庆祝劳动节，因为大家都知道这个社会是靠着我们的力量、眼睛、双手和智慧而不断地发展和强壮，还需要我们不断地支持。

In many Labor Day, workers are suppressed, their activities were banned, the bloodshed has often happened. Five one Jie gradually lost its original meaning, become a kind of decoration workers movement against dictator and symbol of power centralization rule; or is a peaceful holiday. Despite the fact that, workers are still full of confidence to celebrate the labor day, because we all know that this society is relying on our strength, eyes, hands and wisdom and constantly development and strong, we also need to continue to support.

正是在这一天，我们坚持体面的工作、工人健康、饮食和住房、教育和文化表达，都是我们应得的权利，而不是特权。我们志在获得这些权利。然而在这一天，我们从未胆怯卑微地去找法官和狱卒，从未守在财长们进行会议的地方，从未说服他们工会是有益于做生意，也从未要求进行更多的对话。正是在这一天，我们大声地说出：你们的银行，你们的买断、买回，给我们带来了痛苦和大量的失业工人;你们的贸易协定和专利制让工人们无法谋生，更破坏了所有人类获得食物、水和药物的权利。正是在这一天，我们大声地说出：我们不仅要建设一个更加美好的世界，而且，我们也坚决不会让世界越变越差。

It is in this day, we adhere to the expression of decent work, health, diet and housing, education and culture, we are right, not a privilege. Were aiming to acquire these rights. However, on this day, we never fear to the judge and the humble, never keep in the finance ministers meeting place, never persuade their union is beneficial to do business, never asked for more dialogue. It is in this day, we say: your bank, you buy, buy back, causing pain and a large number of unemployed workers to our trade agreements and patent system; you let the workers were unable to make a living, even destroy all humans for food, water and medicine to the right. It is in this day, we say out loud: we not only need to build a better world, moreover, we also determined not to let the world become worse.

五一劳动节是大家庆祝过去、庆祝现在和庆祝未来的日子。我们庆祝的方式就是争取应有权利和向全世界表达我们争取权利的决心。让我们一起大声又自豪地庆祝五一国际劳动节吧。

Labor Day we celebrate the past, now and future day celebration to celebrate. We celebrate the way is to fight for their rights and express our determination to fight for the rights of the whole world. Let us loud and proud to celebrate International WorkersDay.

学生在指导教师的指导下分析和研究所采集的资料的基础上，撰写英语毕业论文提纲。毕业论文提纲应尽量做到全面缜密，理顺所要论述内容，避免以后反复修改。纲要可以使作者一目了然地看出他的论文是否前后一致。主题是纲要的关键，因为它简明地陈述了作者的目的。正式纲要(哈佛纲要)中，各级纲目的格式依次为：I，A，1，a，(1)，(a)。任何纲要如不严加遵守则毫无用处。在确定了英语毕业论文选题，撰写了英语毕业论文提纲后，学生应对毕业论文的质量标准有一定的了解。英语毕业论文质量标准:

1)选题恰当、与毕业生的知识水平与认识能力相当;

2)内容丰富、资料翔实、论证充分有力;

3)观点正确、逻辑性强、无违反国家大政方针的观点;

4)叙述清楚、层次清晰而丰富;

5 )语言表达正确，无拼写错误、语言错误控制在20-25%00(万分之二十到二十五);

6)用词、造句、谋篇、布局等方面无明显失误，修辞错误率控制在2%。

英语毕业论文内容要能反映社会和时代特征，具有理论价值或实践意义，有新颖性。毕业论文可以对某个理论问题的探讨，也可以是实践问题的解决。毕业论文不仅要反映学生的综合能力，而且要反映他们对相关问题的较为正确的论述，要有一定的独立见解。论文必须做到主题明确、论据清晰、内容具体而充实，切忌空谈。写翻译的英语毕业论文，除实例分析外，还要提供原文的译文，以便弄清译论的依据。如果英语毕业论文是实践性的，它必须提出一定的解决途径、方案。