英语四级写作方法(精选20篇)

一.概念

记叙文也称叙述文，是一种以记叙/叙述的手法来表述人物、事件的文体。常见的属于记叙文文体的作品有：故事、游记、通讯、新闻报道、历史、 人物传记、日记和回忆录等。记叙文大致可以分为两大类：以记人为主的记叙文和以叙事为主的记叙文。前者主要是对人物的经历、活动或者性格特征进行叙述;后者则是对某一事件的发生、发展过程和结果进行叙述。前者重在描述人物的活动，而后者则重在表述事件的发生发展过程。

二.六大要素

记叙文的写作要注意交待清楚六大要素，即时间(time)、地点(place)、 人物( character)、事件的原因(cause)、经过(process)和结果( effect)。

由于记叙文中所涉及的要素比其他文体相对要多、要复杂，所以整篇文章的结构安排就显得尤其重要，安排不合理就会使读者产生混乱的感觉。

记叙文的展开一般都是以时间为主线来组织所要叙述的内容，使读者对文章中的人物或事件有一个比较清晰的了解。记叙文的结构安排通常有三种形式:正叙、倒叙和插叙。正叙是英语叙述文中最常用的一种结构，即以人物出现、活动或事件开始发生的时间点作为记叙的起点，然后按照人物活动的展开、事件发生发展的自然顺序进行叙述。倒叙则是在文章的开头就交待人物活动或事件发展的结果。插叙这一结构在我们的英文写作中很少用到。

三.时态

记叙文讲述的大多是过去已经发生的活动或事件，因此用过去时态(一般过去时、过去进行时、过去将来时、过去完成时)的作品比较多。但有时为了使文章显得更加真实、亲切和生动，也可以使用现在时态(一般现在时、 现在进行时、现在将来时、现在完成时)。

四.人称

记叙某个人物的经历、活动或某件事情的经过离不开叙述的主体，即 “人称”。记叙文中的人称大多采用第一人称或第三人称的形式。第一人称的叙述主观色彩较浓，可以增强文章的真实感，有利于表述细腻的情感和细节的过程;第三人称的叙述可以超越时空的限制，更加真实、客观地表述某一人物活动或事件的全过程。

无论采用第一人称，还是采用第二人称，都要保持全文叙述主体的人称的一致性。注意：句式尽量要多变，不要通篇文章的句子都以人称代词开头，否则文章会显得单调沉闷。例如: I loved the book first because of its beautiful heroine. Then I found it a romantic love story which greatly moved me. I now find that it is better taken as the growth story of a naive girl into a strong-willed woman. I realize that it is the essence of the book that attracts such big number of faithful readers.

这一段描述在用词、内容、逻辑上都不错，但过多地使用了以“I”开头的句子，使文章略显单调乏昧，给读者的印象大打折扣。

五.措辞与表达

在全国大学英语四级考试的各种作文体裁中，记叙文需要应试者具有更全面的语言技能与篇章组织能力。四级考试中常见的议论文和说明文分别要求语言的准确性和论证的合理性、可信性;而记叙文的语言则以生动、真实、 贴切为准则。同一个记叙文题目，不同的人会描述不同的人物经历或事件，又很少有固定的表达或句式可供参考，这时作者的综合语言水平就会表现出来，对能否取得高分起到了相当重要的作用。 这就要求考生平时要多注意语言的磨练和积累。

六.记叙文写作技巧

1. 仔细审题，明确主题，选准素材，罗列提纲。

2. 写好第一段

最好能采用一个复句并且用上几个四级水平的单词或词组。这样的文章开篇方式会使读者或阅卷人确信接下来的文章也一样精彩。

我们来看这样一段文章的开头:

The results of the college entrance examination came. I tore open the envelope. As soon as I saw the score，tears streamed down my face. I fell into my bed and did not get up the whole day. All was over. What is the meaning to live on earth? For the first time， I thought of death， of being a vagrant and of being single all my life. I was only seventeen. Wasn’t it cruel to me? My father was hurt and he could not stand it that his son was a disgrace. He was angry beyond words. My mother kept silent，and often I saw her in tears. Horror filled the house.

怎么样，你自己是否也被一种失落与绝望的气氛所笼罩，并且期待着看到作者接下来会做些什么呢?

3. 结构要清晰

下笔之前一定要对整篇文章的结构有一个完整的构想，作文的框架、主题和脉络是最重要的采分点。要清楚每一段要陈述哪些内容，这样不仅可以增强文章的逻辑性和可接受性，还可以使整篇作文的行文水到渠成，不会有凑字数的烦恼。

4. 尽量多使用表示转折、顺接、因果和时间的连接词

如first、second、moreover、for one thing…for another、on the one hand…on the other hand等。这样既可以显示语言功底，又增强了记叙内容的连贯性和生动性。

5. 文章不要写得太长

有的考生遇到触动自己内心情感的记叙文题目时就“一发不可收拾”，但由于时间有限，结果草草收尾，甚至没有结尾。四级作文毕竟是应试作文， 只要充分发挥出自己的英语语言水平，表述出所规定的内容就可以了。

6. 要多用四级词汇，要使句式多样化

没有语言错误并不是高分作文的保障(基本没有语言错误只是8分的基本要求) ;作文想达到11分以上，四级词汇和句型必须达到一定的比例。如，表示“重视”的词汇有stress，emphasize等，但选用短语attach importance to更能吸引阅卷人的注意;disagree和frown on sth. 都表示反对或不赞成，前者就平淡，后者表达意思很生动，更能引起阅卷老师的注意。

简单句和复合句合理搭配，长短句交替使用，会增强文章的节奏感，使描写更生动，给阅卷老师留下深刻印象。如：

(1) 名词化手段：用名词或名词词组替换一个句子或句子的主要部分，然后使这个名词或名词短语成为另外一个句子的组成部分，以达到合并句子的目的。如：

We were very much surprised. Mary refused the invitation.

We were very much surprised at/by Mary’s refusal of the invitation.

(2) 定语化手段：根据语义关系，可以把其中一句转换成形容词或形容词性成分、分词短语、定语从句等，如：

The winnerwas in no mood for speeches. The winner was hot and tired.

Thewinner，hot and tired，was in no mood for speeches.(转换成形容词短语) 7. 字迹清楚，卷面整洁。尽量不涂抹。 8. 最后的2—3分钟，进行修改检查。

检查的内容不是“大处着眼”，而是“小处着手”;不是考虑作文的框架结构，而是留心细枝末节。

导语：学生怎样记叙好一件简单的事呢?怎样安排记叙顺序才能使文章条理清楚呢?下面就来看一下。

一、怎样记叙好一件简单的事

1、要交代清楚事情发生的地点、时间;要把事情的经过、因果写明白。一件事，总离不开时间、地点、人物、事件、原因、结果等六个方面的内容，因此，只有把这些方面写清楚了，才能使别人明白你写了一件什么事。

然而，交代这六个方面内容不应该呆板，要根据文章的需要灵活掌握。时间、地点也并不是非要直接点明不可的，有时候可以通过描述自然景物的特征及其变化，将它们间接表示出来。如“鸡喔喔叫了起来”，就是指天将亮了;“西边的太阳就要落山了”，指的是傍晚，等等。

2、要把事情经过写具体，并做到重点突出。在记叙文六个方面的内容中，起因、经过和结果，是构成事情最主要的环节。为了把事情写得清楚、明白，在记叙中一定要写好事情的起因、经过和结果，特别要把事情的经过写具体，给人留下完整而深刻的印象。

3、记叙的条理要清晰。一件事都有发生、发展和结果的过程，按照事情发展的顺序记叙，文章的条理就会清楚明白。

确定记叙的顺序以后，还要安排好段落层次。适当地分段，可以使文章眉目清楚。要做到记叙的条理分明，必须在动笔之前，仔细地想一想，文章应该先写什么，再写什么，然后写什么，把记叙的轮廓整理出来。写记叙文，必须考虑哪些先写，哪些后写，安排好记叙的顺序，否则就会头绪杂乱，条理不清。

二、怎样安排记叙顺序才能使文章条理清楚

1、运用顺叙。

顺叙，是按照事物发生、发展的先后次序进行叙述。这样写，可以将事物的发展过程，有头有尾地叙述出来，来龙去脉，十分清楚。运用顺叙写成的文章，它的层次、段落和事物发生、发展的过程是基本一致的。

顺叙有以时间为顺序的，有以事物发展规律为顺序的，也有以空间变换为顺序的。在叙事性的文章中，大多是以时间为顺序和以事物发展规律为顺序的。

按时间顺序进行叙述时，必须严格地安排好顺序，写清楚叙述的时间。现实生活中任何事情都不会突然发生，它总有一个发生、发展的过程。因此，作者常常要根据事情发生、发展、高潮、结局这一事情发展的规律来进行叙述，文章的层次也是清楚、明了的。

当然，有的文章事情比较简单，因而不一定非要写出事情过程的四个层次(发生、发展、高潮、结局)。

2、运用倒叙。

倒叙，就是把事件的结局或某个最突出的片断提在前面叙述，然后再从事件的开头进行叙述。

需要指出的是，运用倒叙的写法，必须注意交代清楚倒叙的起讫点，顺叙和倒叙的转换处要有明显的界限、必要的文字过渡。这些地方处理不好，会使文章脉络不清，头绪不明，影响内容的表达。

3、运用插叙。

插叙是指在叙述中心事件的过程中，由于某种需要暂时中断叙述的线索而插入的关于另一件事情的叙述。

需要指出的是，在运用插叙时不能打乱原来的叙述线索，要注意与上下文的衔接。这样，文章的结构不仅富有变化，而且叙述事情的条理非常清楚。

1) 例证法。利用典型事例进行论证就是例证。运用例证时要注意就事论理，揭示所举例子包含的道理;要揭示论据与论点之间的内在联系。切忌例子加论点，没有具体分析。

2) 引证法。引用名言(还可以用公认的道理、原则等)来阐明观点就是例证。运用例证时要注意所引道理与论点吻合，切不可生搬硬套，还要对引用的道理进行评析，挖掘它的涵义。另外在平时学习中多积累一些古典诗词中名句，它一方面能加强论证的力量，另一方面，它还可以丰富文章的内容，增强议论文的文学性。

3) 喻证法。用打比方的方式来论证观点就是喻证。运用喻证要注意比喻的确切、精巧、含意深刻。其目的就是为了增强文章论证的形象性。

4) 对比法。通过两种或两种以上的不同事物，或者同一种事物的两种不同情况的对比，来论证观点的方法就是对比法。这种方法可以增强论证的鲜明性，使读者清楚作者赞成什么，反对什么。

三、议论文写作的思维准备

(一)发散思维——定立意

举例：西方人吃铁蚕豆，吃了壳，吐了豆，摇头说：“肉薄、核大，什么好吃?”西方人煮茶吃，倒去茶水吃茶叶，皱眉说：“涩而无味，有什么好?’

这个事例告诉我们什么道理呢?

至少包含如下道理：1、看问题切忌片面化 2、不能死板硬套，搞经验主义 3、不要自以为是，凡事想当然 4、切莫盲目排外 5、孤陋寡闻会误事 6、不可轻率下结论 7、客观事物的价值不以人的主观意志为转移

(二)逆向思维——定立意

举例：

1) 近墨者黑：身正，近墨未必黑。

2) 知足常乐：不自满是永远向上的车轮。

3) 言者无罪：因言获罪者比比皆是。

4) 后生可畏：激情四射，才华横溢的同时别忘了沉淀，否则江郎也会有才尽的一天。

5) 艺高人胆大：但是也要看到“大意失荆州”“河里淹死的多是会水的人”，因此艺高也要谨慎。

6) 开卷有益：好书有益多多，坏书则未必。

7) 班门弄斧：弄斧到班门方可有长进。

8) 勤能补拙：勤奋也要讲究方式方法，否则徒劳。

9) 守株待兔：老师和家长在教育学生时这种“等待”最为需要。

10) 识时务者为俊杰：一味迎合世俗岂不让人平庸。

(三)辩证思维——定立意

引言：培养小学生的英语写作能力,应从培养良好的书写习惯、扎实的词汇句型开始。接下来小编给各位读者总结了一些小学英语写作必备句型，希望大家认真打好基础，不断提高写作水平。

一、~~~ the + ~ est + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)~~~ the most + 形容词 + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

例句：Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

海伦是我所看过最美丽的女孩。

Mr. Chang is the kindest teacher that I have ever had.

张老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。

二、Nothing is + ~~~ er than to + V

Nothing is + more + 形容词 + than to + V

例句：Nothing is more important than to receive education.

没有比接受教育更重要的事。

三、~~~ cannot emphasize the importance of ~~~ too much.

(再怎么强调…的重要性也不为过小学英语写作必备句型小学英语写作必备句型。)

例句：We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。

四、There is no denying that + S + V …(不可否认的…)

例句：There is no denying that the qualities of our living have gone from bad to worse.

不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。

五、It is universally acknowledged that + 句子~~ (全世界都知道…)

例句：It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable to us.

全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。

六、There is no doubt that + 句子~~ (毫无疑问的…)

例句：There is no doubt that our educational system leaves something to be desired.

毫无疑问的我们的教育制度令人不满意。

七、An advantage of ~~~ is that + 句子(…的优点是…)

例句：An advantage of using the solar energy is that it won’t create (produce) any pollution.

使用太阳能的优点是它不会制造任何污染。

八、The reason why + 句子 ~~~ is that + 句子(…的原因是…)

例句：The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air.

The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can supply fresh air for us.

我们必须种树的原因是它们能供应我们新鲜的空气。

英语四级成绩在500分及以上可以报考口语; 六级成绩在425分及以上可以报考口语。

大学英语四级考试425分可以报考大学英语六级考试。

◆英语四级多少分算过?及格线是多少?

全国英语四级改革之后，报道成绩满分为710分，凡考试成绩在220分以上的考生，由国家教育部高教司委托“全国大学英语四六级考试委员会”发给成绩单，不设及格线。但全国英语四六级规定“英语四级成绩达到425分以上(含425分)者，可以报考英语六级”。一般认为英语四级的及格线是425分。对于招聘企业来说，分数越高自然更受青睐。

◆英语四级多少分属于优秀呢?

四级考多少分算高分?每个人的看法不同,满分是710，肯定分越高，越优秀， 有网友也说道：起码要550，550可以参加口试。但是小编这里建议是目标要按照自己水平定，别给自己太大压力。将目标定得比实际水平略高，这样比较好。

◆四级要考多少分才能参加口试?

2005年6月及以后的纸笔或网考四级成绩为500分以上(含500分)。

英语写作想要拿高分，经典的句型不可少。下面是语文迷整理的8种英语句型，供大家阅读参考。

一.开头句型

1.As far as ...is concerned 就……而言

2.It goes without saying that... 不言而喻，...

3.It can be said with certainty that... 可以肯定地说......

4.As the proverb says， 正如谚语所说的，

5.It has to be noticed that... 它必须注意到，...

6.Its generally recognized that... 它普遍认为...

7.Its likely that ... 这可能是因为...

8.Its hardly that... 这是很难的......

9.Its hardly too much to say that... 它几乎没有太多的说…

10.What calls for special attention is that...需要特别注意的是

11.Theres no denying the fact that...毫无疑问，无可否认

12.Nothing is more important than the fact that... 没有什么比这更重要的是…

13.whats far more important is that... 更重要的是…

二.衔接句型

1.A case in point is ... 一个典型的例子是...

2.As is often the case...由于通常情况下...

3.As stated in the previous paragraph 如前段所述

4.But the problem is not so simple. Therefore 然而问题并非如此简单，所以……

5.But its a pity that... 但遗憾的是…

6.For all that...对于这一切...... In spite of the fact that...尽管事实......

7.Further, we hold opinion that... 此外，我们坚持认为，...

8.However , the difficulty lies in...然而，困难在于…

9.Similarly, we should pay attention to... 同样，我们要注意...

10.not(that)...but(that)...不是，而是

11.In view of the present station.鉴于目前形势

12.As has been mentioned above...正如上面所提到的…

13.In this respect, we may as well (say) 从这个角度上我们可以说

14.However, we have to look at the other side of the coin, that is... 然而我们还得看到事物的另一方面，即 …

三.结尾句型

1.I will conclude by saying... 最后我要说…

2.Therefore, we have the reason to believe that...因此，我们有理由相信…

3.All things considered,总而言之 It may be safely said that...它可以有把握地说......

4.Therefore, in my opinion, its more advisable...因此，在我看来，更可取的是…

5.From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that….通过以上讨论，我们可以得出结论…

6.The data/statistics/figures lead us to the conclusion that….通过数据我们得到的结论是，....

7.It can be concluded from the discussion that...从中我们可以得出这样的结论

8.From my point of view, it would be better if...在我看来……也许更好

四.举例句型

1.Lets take...to illustrate this.2.lets take the above chart as an example to illustrate this.3. Here is one more example. 4.Take … for example. 5.The same is true of….6.This offers a typical instance of….7.We may quote a common example of….8.Just think of….

五.常用于引言段的句型

1. Some people think that …. 有些人认为…To be frank, I can not agree with their opinion for the reasons below. 坦率地说，我不能同意他们的意见，理由如下。

2. For years, … has been seen as …, but things are quite different now.多年来，……一直被视为……，但今天的情况有很大的不同。

3. I believe the title statement is valid because…. 我认为这个论点是正确的，因为…

4. I cannot entirely agree with the idea that ….我无法完全同意这一观点的… I believe….

5. My argument for this view goes as follows.我对这个问题的看法如下。

6. Along with the development of…, more and more….随着……的发展，越来越多…

7. There is a long-running debate as to whether….有一个长期运行的辩论，是否…

8. It is commonly/generally/widely/ believed /held/accepted/recognized that….它通常是认为…

9. As far as I am concerned, I completely agree with the former/ the latter.就我而言，我完全同意前者/后者。

10. Before giving my opinion, I think it is essential to look at the argument of both sides.在给出我的观点之前，我想有必要看看双方的论据。

六 表示比较和对比的常用句型和表达法

1. A is completely / totally / entirely different from B.2. A and B are different in some/every way / respect / aspect.3. A and B differ in…. 4. A differs from B in….5. The difference between A and B is/lies in/exists in….6. Compared with/In contrast to/Unlike A, B….7. A…, on the other hand,/in contrast,/while/whereas B….8. While it is generally believed that A …, I believe B….9. Despite their similarities, A and B are also different.10. Both A and B …. However, A…; on the other hand, B….11. The most striking difference is that A…, while B….

七 演绎法常用的句型

1. There are several reasons for…, but in general, they come down to three major ones.有几个原因……，但一般，他们可以归结为三个主要的。

2. There are many factors that may account for…, but the following are the most typical ones.有许多因素可能占...，但以下是最典型的。

3. Many ways can contribute to solving this problem, but the following ones may be most effective.有很多方法可以解决这个问题，但下面的可能是最有效的。

4. Generally, the advantages can be listed as follows.一般来说，这些优势可以列举如下。

5. The reasons are as follows.

八 因果推理法常用句型

1.Because/Since we read the book, we have learned a lot. 2. If we read the book, we would learn a lot. 3. We read the book; as a result / therefore / thus / hence / consequently / for this reason / because of this, weve learned a lot. 4. As a result of /Because of/Due to/Owing to reading the book, weve learned a lot. 由于阅读这本书，我们已经学到了很多。

5. The cause of/reason for/overweight is eating too much.6.Overweight is caused by/due to/because of eating too much.7. The effect/consequence/result of eating too much is overweight. 8. Eating too much causes/results in/leads to overweight. 吃太多导致超重。

求职最关键的一环就是投自己的个人简历，简历写得漂亮可以给HR一个比较亮眼的前期展现，也有助于获得HR的好感。下面是小编收集的个人简历写作技巧，希望大家认真阅读！

自荐自评

1、说明个人情况，介绍自己的基本情况和基本信息。

2、说明应聘原因，主要表达你有何能力，能胜任何工作，有何经验，有何专业技能，有何性格特点等。

3、突出优势，在哪些领域获得过专利或者奖励，在哪些方面有过研究等。

4、附上材料和文件，一般为学位、学历证书，获奖证书，如果有学校推荐信或者其他推荐信也附上。

5、表达希望得到回应。

教育背景

简单来讲，就是写你的教育程度和所学的专业，最好与你的工作挂钩，如果不挂钩，也写比较突出的。

工作经历

包括获得过哪些奖，在公司或者学校做过哪些贡献，有怎样的工作经历；

个人特色

有怎样的性格特点，拥有怎样的自我定位，在领导力和配合度上有怎样的优势，有何种工作技能与专长，获得过哪些方面的证书，有怎样的人脉资源；

在工作中拥有怎样的风格，擅长在工作中处理什么，具备怎样的工作条件；

证书及相关资料

可以证明自己工作能力的各种证书和各种资料。

自荐范文（简历一部分）

本人经过三年多扎实的工作实践，现已能够独立操作整个外贸流程.工作踏实、细致、认真。具有较好的文字组织能力，有一定的英语听说读写能力，能都熟练操作windows 平台上的个类应用软件，动手能力较

强。本人具有较强的责任心和工作主动性，较好的组织协调能力和应变能力，可以和各个部门的同事相处融洽，配合顺利地完成工作任务。为人诚实并得到领导的认可！ 曾去广州、上海等地参加国际性展会，有翻译和外贸经验及出国参展经验！ 本人性格 开朗，善于沟通，谦虚，自信。虽然新的工作和环境与以往的有所不同，但我相信通过自己的努力和已有的工作基础可以很快胜任，对此我很有信心！

游记既是文学体裁名也是记述游览经历的文章，是描写旅行见闻的一种散文形式。以下是小编给大家整理的小学生游记作文写作方法的内容，欢迎大家查看。

一、 按游览的顺序描写景物。

写作时，要在认真观察和记忆游览的景物的基础上，按照见到景物的次序，来写所看到的景物。这样才能做到条理清楚、自然、明白，不致于杂乱。观察景物，通常有两种方法。一种就是定点观察。如站在公园某一角，对公园进行由远及近的观察。又如我们登上塔顶，从东南西北四个方向对塔下景物进行观察。二就是移动观察，它又叫移步换位法。就是随着脚步的移动变换位置，一处一处地进行观察。选好了观察点，就是确定好了写作的顺序。

二、 抓住游览重点，详写过程。

一次参观游览活动，看到的景物很多，我们不能记流水帐。要把看到的景物中印象较深的写下来，其余地可以写得简略些。我们要一边参观游览，一边要抓住景物的特点，进行仔细观察。比方说，我们要写游览看到的景物为主的记叙文，写作的重点就是把看到的景物重点写下来。对于我们看到的特别好的景物，我们要进行具体地描写，突出重点。对于重点的景物，要注意详细描写出它们的位置、大小、动态、静态、颜色等。如我们写菊花，颜色就有红的如枫叶、白的如冰霜、黄的如麦穗等等，菊花的形状就有像小姑娘的卷发，毛茸茸的小鸡，绣球等等。我们要把过程写详细、具体，做到主次分明，详略得当，写出来的文章才能突出重点，清楚明白，才能写出游览的意义，才有教育意义。

三、略写前后，情、理、景相结合。

我们在写游记时，应把开头和结尾写得简略些，作文指导《小学生游记作文范文写作技巧》。开头要交待清楚时间、地点和人物。如《游善卷洞》的开头我的故乡江苏宜兴有一处著名的游览胜地——善卷洞。结尾应用议论或抒情的方式写下自己的感受。如《天然动物园漫游记》的结尾写道‘哈哈……’我们在欢笑声中结束了这次愉快的野游。朱库米天然动物园行的乐趣是无穷的，无怪乎世界各地前去游览的人络绎不绝。这样，写的文章有头有尾，读起来给人一个完整的印象。我们要把感情融化于景物中，写出真意。写作时，我们要倾注自己的思想感情。还有，我们在写景的同时，或探索人生真谛，或谈论思想问题，治学精神，使读者在领略自然风景的同时，受到启迪和教育。

切忌：

一、游记作文不要写成旅游路线图;

二、针对你游览的某一地留下深刻印象的景点来作文;

三、必须考虑游记的顺序，空间，时间，角度(远到近);

四、描写不必面面俱到，要懂得删减枝叶;

五、选着留有深刻印象的点来做发挥，其中一定要有详略，那几个略写哪几个详写要想清楚;

六、注意历史事物和历史事件，传说的巧妙结合，更能凸显出游览的意义和文章的深度;

七、借景抒情的手法应该运用;

八、人文景观的描写中，环境烘托是必要的，选着恰当的景色进行烘托;

九、自然景观的描写中，修辞手法应该运用，但是不要落俗套，好好自己去用心感受，最好有些贴切的修辞创新。

传记。亦单称传。是一种常见的文学形式。主要记述人物的生平事迹，根据各种书面的、口述的回忆、调查等相关材料，小编收集了人物传记的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

人物传记是通过对典型人物的生平、生活、精神等领域进行系统描述、介绍的一种文学作品形式。作品要求“真、信、活”，以达到对人物特征和深层精神的表达和反映。人物传记是后人或人物资料的有效记录形式，对历史和时代的变迁等方面的研究具有重要意义。人物传记是人物志的主体，是地方志中的重要内容。人物传记的特征有二个：其首要特征是真实，另一个显著特征是生动。(即真实性和文学性)

基本内容

人物传记必须坚持实事求是的科学态度，一是一，二是二，功是功，过是过，不虚构渲染，不隐恶扬善，不拔高溢美，不贬责降低，据事“直书”，做到人真、事真、言真、情真、形象真，以真取信，以真感人。只有做到“情真而不诡”，“事信而不诞”，才能有益于人，传之久远。

内容要求丰富翔实。要使传记真实可信，首先必须全面搜集、占有丰富翔实的资料，使传记所反映的人物生平事迹准确无误，完整无缺。这些资料一般包括五个基本方面的内容：

(1)人物的姓名、性别、籍贯、民族。

(2)人物的生卒年月

(3)人物的学历、简历、党派、职务。

(4)人物的贡献功绩、科技成果、著作。

(5)能反映人物思想风貌本质特征的典型事件。对于收集的大量资料，又要细心鉴别，严格选材，作一番“弃粗取精”，“去伪存真”的分析、研究、考证工作，严格坚持史实的可靠性、准确性。这样，才能为社会所公认，才能经得起历史的检验。如果史实错了，立论也就不正确了。因此编写传记时，一定要占有丰富、翔实、真实可靠的资料后，方能动笔。梅林为了写作《马克思传》，用了几乎二十年时间，搜集并深入钻研有关马克思的资料。司马迁写《史记》，经历了十年，如果加上他搜集史料，调查研究所花去的时间，可以说一部《史记》倾注了他的毕生精力。

注意事项

要写好人物传记，要把握以下几点：

人物本质

抓住人物本质，从环境中说明人。撰写人物传记，应把所写的人物放到他所处的社会关系中去，从表面现象深入到人物和各种社会关系的内在联系，抓住人物的本质进行记述。马克思指出：人的本质“是一切社会关系的总和。”任何人的思想和行动都受一定的社会关系的制约，人物传记就是要写出一定的社会关系造就了一定的人，而这个人又怎样对当时的社会关系施加一定的影响。马克思的论点为人物传记的创作提供了最重要的指导思想，也为真实地描述人物的本质特征指明了正确的方向。一些杰出的思想家和作家也曾经指出过，编写人物传记必须把人物放在他所处的历史环境中来描述，不能脱离当时的历史环境，这是历史唯物主义的基本观点。德国工人运动领导人罗·卢森堡，希望梅林在写作《马克思传》时，能做到从环境中说明人，从历史中说明环境。如果不顾人和社会关系的内在联系，不把人放在当时所处的历史环境之中，就不能写出具有真实感的人物，甚至歪曲历史人物的真实面貌。即使象杰出的法国作家维·雨果，他的《小拿破仑》，由于不理解法国当时的阶级斗争造成一种社会局势，使得一个平庸可笑的人物路易·波拿巴有可能扮演英雄的角色。马克思说雨果没有觉察到：“当他说这个人表现了世界历史上空前强大的个人主动作用时，他就不是把这个人写成小人而是伟人了”。而这，也就是背离了历史的真实了。可见，要写好人物传记，必须了解人物所处的历史环境与时代背景，把人物置于一定的历史环境和时代背景之中，论其世知其人，才能写得典型真实。

公允评价

从人物的复杂性中对人物作出公允的评价。历史是绚丽多彩的万花筒，历史人物有其复杂性。在错综复杂的历史条件下，大量的历史人物功过渗合，斑瑜互见。有的人功大于过，有的人过大于功。因此，我们对历史人物要全面研究，具体分析，一分为二地看人物的好与坏，功与过，决不能因为一个人后期不好，就把前期的功劳一笔勾销，也不能因为做过一些错事，就把其他方面的贡献全部抹煞，而是要尊重事实，尊重历史。司马迁写《淮阴侯列传》对韩信的军事才能是满怀激情的描写，但对韩信早年的“无行”、“不能治生商贾”、“食从人寄食饮”、“俯出胯下”却并没掩盖而是直书，读者读后反觉真实可信。所以我们写人物传记，一定要从当时社会历史的客观条件出发，实事求是地记载和评价历史人物，真实地反映历史人物的本来面目。

叙述生动

所谓生动，就是要把人物写活。写成既具有鲜明的个性，又能体现时代特征和阶级特征，栩栩如生的血肉之躯，而不是干巴枯燥的偶像或只有动作没有思想的机器人。司马迁的《史记》雄视百代，卓然独立于千古，不是偶然的，而是由于他刻划了许许多多个性鲜明的人物。马克思也曾为十八世纪末到十九世纪上半叶的军事活动家政治家写作小传。他写的《贝尔蒂埃》、《贝尔纳多特》、《布律恩》、《布里昂》，生动记述了拿破仑一世时期法国军事活动家和政治活动家的群象，其中有贪得无厌、追名逐利之徒;有渴求官职、封号和王位的野心家;有愿为任何制度效劳的不择手段的钻营者。这些小传，既描述人物的特有个性，又提供了拿破仑一世帝国资产阶级上层人物的本质特征，成为传记文章的典范。恩格斯也写过不少人物小传，恩格斯写人物传的杰出之处和马克思一样，在于紧紧抓住人物的个性，同时突出人物所代表的阶级特征。所以，在他笔下，马克思、燕妮·马克思……等人物形象，被活生生地再现出来。所以一部成功的人物传记，既要体现人物的阶级、职业、文化素质、信仰、经历、遭遇及其产生影响等方面的不同，又要体现同阶级、同职业、同素质、同信仰、同遭遇、同影响而在性格上的差异。要突出人物个性，体现人物个性形成发展的必然性。只有这样，写出的人物才能鲜明生动。

选材典型

要达到上述要求，一要选材典型。编写人物传要在概括人物全貌的同时，选择重大的有代表性的最能反映人物特征的事件详细记述，把不能表现人物特征的事件摒弃或一笔带过。从各种素材中加工、提炼，选择最能表现人物主要性格特征的典型事件来写。这些典型事件，往往是人物一生的关键所在。写好这些关键之处，不仅可以表现人物一生的主要功罪，而且可以显示历史发展的进程及其特点。司马迁的《史记》在这方面有不少地方值得我们借鉴，如《史记·廉颇、蔺相如列传》。廉颇和蔺相如都是赵国封建统治集团中举足轻重的人物。司马迁为了要表现廉颇、蔺相如的主要性格特征，不是给他们各开一张履历表，而是选择了“完璧归赵”、“渑池之会”、“负荆请罪”三件事来写。这三件事反映了两种矛盾，一是秦赵两国之间的矛盾，一是廉蔺两人之间的矛盾，前一个矛盾发展的后果，是构成后—个矛盾的原因。通过这两对矛盾冲突，廉颇、蔺相如的主要性格特征得到了充分的展示。同时秦赵争夺和氏璧以及渑池之会两件事，实质上是秦赵两国统治阶级两次实力较量，是秦国大举进攻赵国的前奏，所以选择这两件事情，也显示了历史发展进程的特点。写大事固然重要，但对细节描写也不可忽视，有时人物的性格特点往往在一些细节中表现出来。茅盾税：“善于描写典型的作家，不但用大事来表现人物性格，而且不放松任何细节的描写。”恰当地记述小事，能见微知著、增强传记的可信性和感染力，甚至预示着人物日后的发展。如《史记·陈涉世家》，开头写了这样一个细节：陈涉为人佣耕时，曾对同伴说：“苟富贵，无相忘”，并十分自负地说：“燕雀安知鸿鹄之志哉!”这个细节，看来或许并非必要，其实对描写人物来说，却有助于展示人物思想脉络，写出人物前后一贯的性格史。写陈涉少时就有鸿鹄之志，所以后来才发展到大泽乡起义。写陈涉少时就把别人比作微不足道的燕雀，所以称王后严重脱离群众，甚至把早年同过患难的老朋友也杀了。这是他最后失败的一个重要原因，可思想根子却早就种下了。

叙行录言

思想支配行动，行动表现思想。人物思想性格不同，所表现出来的行动也就不一样。记叙人物行动，是揭示人物内心世界和性格特点的重要方法。因此记叙人物，要选择那些最典型，最能表现人物思想性格的行动来写。例如在《吉鸿昌传》中，作者记述吉鸿昌在1931～1932被迫出国期间，为了反对美国歧视华人，特意在自己胸前佩带“我是中国人”的牌子。这个细节的描写，表现了吉鸿昌高尚的民族气节，也体现了他的个性特点。又如《史记·项羽本纪》写项羽在巨鹿之战的巨大胜利之后，叱咤风云，诸侯惧服。作者通过项羽召见侯将，侯将“无不膝行而前，莫敢仰视”的动作描写，反衬出项羽骄横不可一世的性格。可见动作的描写对记叙人物来说是非常重要的。人物有了具体的行动，才能生动感人。“言为心声”。人物的思想、感情、愿望、要求，无不表现在他们的语言中，因此选择人物的典型语言，来表现人物的性格，也是一种非常重要的方法。如《史记·项羽本纪》写项羽见秦始皇出游的壮观时说：“彼可取而代之”。而《史记·高祖本纪》写刘邦看到这种壮观时却说：“嗟呼!大丈夫当如此。”尽管他们两人的话意思都是羡慕帝王，但却体现了两种不同性格。人物的诗作、著述(包括文章、书信、日记)和话语一样，是人物思想境界的高度凝结和表露。无不凝聚着人物对客现事物的认识、主张以及所持的态度。恰到好处的引用一些人物的诗作著述，对写活人物，突出性格也是不可少的。

讲究文采

人物传虽不能偏向华丽的词藻，繁琐的描写，多余的形容，曲折的情节。但语言生动形象，用词精当贴切，句子流畅，层次分明，布局合理，一句话，文采还是必须讲究的。虽说史志中的人物传记与文学中的人物传记有区别，前者完全是根据历史事实，不允许任何虚构，后者在符合历史真实的基础上允许一定程度的虚构。但是，在需要生动因而需要文采这一点上是共同的。因为传者，传也。立人物传记就是为了传于后世，为了“记一方之言，激千秋之爱憎”为了“鉴人明事”。孔子曰：“言之无文，行而不远”。可见讲究文采，也是史志中编写人物传记应高度重视的一个问题。马克思要求人物传记应当写得有“强烈色彩”、“栩栩如生”。恩格斯认为人物形象应当“光芒夺目”。《史通》说：“夫史之称美者，以叙事为先，至若书功过，记善恶，文而不丽，质而非野，使人味其滋旨，怀其德音，三复忘返，百遍无致”。在不影响历史真实性的情况下，史志崇尚文彩，文史并茂，引人入胜，还是必要的。因此，在写人物传记时，应当重视文字锤炼，讲究艺术手法。

人物传记共同特点

人物传记，虽然形式多样，但是大体上还是前面提到的形式。它们在写作方法上千差万别。然而一切优秀的人物传记，仍是具有共同性的。其相同之处是：

人物的真实性

我国几千年的历史变革，出现过许多不同类型的人物。既有推动历史向前发展的伟人，也有逆历史激流而动的罪人，并有出身、地位、经历、思想、性格等方面的不同。这些人物在历史上起过一定作用，有过一定影响，就会在历史上留了他们的影子。作者，为这些人树碑立传的目的就是要抑恶扬善，“表彰以劝世道，贬斥以戒人心”， 两千多年以来，传记作者把崇高的荣誉给予那些热爱祖国，不畏强暴，视死如归的英雄，同时对奸臣逆子也进行了无情地诛伐与鞭打。一切优秀的人物传记在内容表达上都力求真实，忠于历史，忠于事实，并且是非明断，褒贬准确。

人物的时代性

优秀的传记作者由于做到了“其文直，其事核，不虚美，不隐恶”，所以留在传记中的人物都具有时代的特色。例如同是处于封建社会中的知识分子，由于时代不同，传中所表现出的特点是不相一致的。《五柳先生传》中的五柳先生(即陶渊明)，他那种“不戚戚于贫贱，不汲汲于富贵”的精神，与他那个时代知识分子特点——尚清谈和以清高自愉相一致的;而袁宏道的《徐文长传》则是一篇奇人的传略。尽人皆知，明代社会黑暗，特务横行，文字狱大兴，知识分子“动辄得疯”，所以徐文长的一生只能是从不得志到疯，从疯到坐牢至死。他的悲剧是社会造成的，是时代的悲剧。以上二例，传主同是文人，由于时代不同，他们的性格不同，遭遇者不一样。

人物的个性

读优秀的人物传记，犹如参观罗汉堂。众多泥塑，面目不一，神态各异。一些传记所以达到这么高的水平，是由于传记家们懂得和善于处理人物的共性与个性的辩证关系的结果。

一、例证法

例证法是用相应的、确凿的事例作依据、直接证明所持论点的论证方法。例如《反对党八股》中，为证明“无的放矢，不看对象”这一论点，举了延安城墙上标语中把“工人”的“工”写成了“互”的实例。《将革命进行到底》中为论证人民解放战争在1949年7月至12月间所发生的一个极有利于我方的“根本变化”，列举我人民解放军歼灭党兵力的一系列数字，运用此法，应注意所举事例的确凿性和代表性，以保证论断的科学性。

二、引证法

引证法是引用马克思主义经典作家、有关学科权威性理论家的有关言论、某理论体系中无须论证的公理、已被确认的原理、以及流传久远而素被公认为是真理的格言与谚语等，来做论据以进行论证的方法。它实际是理论论证的一种形式，它和一般的理论论证的区别只是在于它引用的是有出处的现成的话。例如《人民的愿望，人民的力量》《人民日报》(1978年11月16日)一文中，在阐发1976年清明节前后出现于北京天安门广场和全国许多城市的亿万人民群众沉痛悼念周恩来同志、愤怒声讨“江青反革命集团”的伟大革命运动的意义和实质时，引用了恩格斯这样一段论述：“应当注意的，与其说是个别人的、即使是非常杰出的人物的动机，不如说是整个阶级行动起来的动机;而且也不是短暂的爆发和转瞬即逝的火花，而是持久的、引起伟大历史变迁的行动(《路德维希·费尔巴哈和德国古典哲学的终结》，《马克思恩格斯选集》第四卷，人民出版社1972年版，第245页)。在这里的论证方法就是引证法，文章以这样的经典性的论述来进行阐发，几乎无需借助其他说明和发挥，就已经取得了极其深刻、极为雄辩的论证效果。此论证方法虽具有独特效用，但却不可滥用，只有在非常必要的关键处才应运用;而且在运用时必须注意以下三点：

1、所引用的话必须是被公认的真理，如非真理，则不能起到论据作用，整个论证就失败而不成其为论证;

2、所引用的话在原著作中得出此结论的前提条件，必须和引用文章使用此结论的前提条件一致，否则，引用就成为一种诡辩，一种实用主义，而非科学的论证;

3、要从论证实际需要出发，引证比其他论证方法简便、明确而更有说服力时才使用。一篇文章中不可引证过多，要坚决反对炫耀博学而滥用引证的不良文风。

三、对比法

对比法是运用两个类别相同而有关方面又不相同的事物的比较，从其相异点上揭示各自的是非、真伪、善恶、美丑，从而达到证明所持论点的论证方法。例如毛主席的《改造我们的学习》中，为说明学习应采取什么样的态度，将“主观主义的态度”与“马克思列宁主义的态度”各自的表现、实质及其截然不同的结果作了对比，从对比中得出了应当反对主观主义的态度，采取马克思主义的态度的结论。这一论证使用的即对比法。运用此法，须注意所选择的用以进行对比的例子必须典型。可比点集中、确当、行文上也应注意对其对比事物的叙述方式有相对应的特点，以期取得更好的论证效果。

四、类比法

类比法是运用与论证对象具有同类性质、作用的另一对象与论证对象比较，从其已知的另一对象的有关结论中得出所要论证对象的结论的写法。例如，恩格斯《在马克思墓前的讲话》中的“正象达尔文发现有机界的发展规律一样，马克思发现了人类历史的发展规律……”，即以达尔文发现生物进化规律的历史性贡献来揭示马克思发现人类历史发展规律在全部人类文明史中的巨大历史意义。

运用此法，须注意：

1、被引用的另一对象(如达尔文)。应为确有定论的、众所周知的;

2、被引用的另一对象和用以相比较的这一对象间，应具有鲜明的、切实的可比性。否则，将因犯有类比不伦的错误而使论述不能成立。

五、设喻法

借用比喻手法，把被论证对象做为被比喻体，通过对另引入的比喻体的有关分析得出被论证对象的有关结论，从而达到论述目的的论证方法就是设喻法。例如鲁迅的《拿来主义》，论证如何正确对待外国文化时把面对外国文化比作是“一个穷青年”“得了一所大宅子”，然后又写了对这宅子的几种态度：一是“徘徊不敢走进门”者，一是“勃然大怒，放一把火烧光”者，一是“接受这一切，……大吸剩下的”者，一是“占有，挑选”利用者，运用人们共知的显而易见的常识，否定了前三种态度，肯定了后一种态度。这样也就不言而喻地论证了，对待外国文化应采取拿来辨别、批判地继承的态度。由于比喻体是具体的、形象的，所以用此设喻来论证抽象的深刻的道理，不但通俗易懂，而且鲜明、生动，具有很好的论证效果。

设喻法的使用，需认真选取比喻体，比喻体与要论证的问题间的比喻关系，须十分贴切而明确，对比喻体的有关解释要比对论证对象的相应解释简明易懂，(不然设喻就成了舍本求末)这样才能收到设喻论证的效果。

六、排除法

排除法就是对有关问题可能出现的所有论点一一列出，通过对作者所持论点之外的其他观点逐一论证其谬误性、虚假性，从而间接确立所持论点的立论方法。

例如《拿来主义》中，通过设喻方式，列出了对待文化遗产的可能出现的所有态度──不敢接触的，全盘否定的，通体接受的，批判地继承的。通过对前三种态度一一指出其为“孱头”、“昏蛋”、“废物”，逐个予以否定，即排除，从而确认了“占有，选择”是唯一正确的态度。这里采用的就是排除论证法。

运用此法，应注意所举各类对象综合起来要具有全面性，这是运用此法的基础和前提;还应注意所取被排除对象的各自特点，不容其间相互含有类同或混淆之处，否则，排除过程将拖泥带水，以致模糊了被确立对象的鲜明性，削弱了间接立论的逻辑力量。

七、正名法

通过指出被驳斥的论点在有关事物的概念上的虚假与错误，来否定被驳斥论点的一种反驳方法。常用于驳论中。

例如《什么是知识》一文，为驳斥一些人自以为自己是知识分子，自以为自己有知识，就通过给知识下科学的定义，再阐明那些人拥有的所谓“知识”，其实并非真正的知识，从而达到驳斥那些人自以为自己号称知识分子就是有知识的论点，其所采用的驳论方法，就是正名法。

八、归谬法

归谬法就是故意循着对方错误的论述逻辑，推导出明显的荒谬结论，从而达到否定对方论点的间接反驳方法。是驳论文章中常用的一种方法。

例如，《许战犯求和》一文中引述蒋介石“要知道政府今天在军事、政治、经济无论哪一方面的力量，都要超过共产党几倍乃至几十倍”，单就“军事力量”一方面算了一笔颇留有余地的细账：“人民解放军现在有三百万”，“几十倍是多少呢?姑且算着二十倍吧，就有六千多万人”;“拿六千多万人压下去，……当然一概成了粉末”!六千万人的军队，这是谁也不信的荒谬数字。这一按蒋介石本人的话推导出的这一荒谬得令人发笑的结果，有力地否定了蒋介石自吹强大的谬论。这种写法，具有特殊的逻辑力量和论战格调，往往能取得机智、幽默的表达效果，也常表现出真理在握的自信力。

应当注意的是，运用此方法推导出的结论，其荒谬性必须是异常显著的，否则，不会取得应有的驳斥力，甚至会弄巧成拙。

九、二难法

运用两组由选择句同假设句相套的多重复句形式，构成无论哪种选择下的假设一旦成立，都会推导出置对立论者于被动或失败境地的结论的间接论证方法。这种论证其推理结果造成使对方持论者陷于进退两难的地位，故名“二难法”，又因给对方持论者如两面刀，故又称“两刀论法”。

如恩格斯的《论权威》一文中，批驳了有些所谓“社会主义者”反对无产阶级革命所必须的政治权威的谬论，在指出政治权威的客观存在和反政治权威的危害性后，以这样一段话做结：“总之，二者必居其一。或者是反权威主义者自己不知所云，如果这样，那他们只是在散布糊涂观念;或者他们是知道的，如果是这样，那他们就是在背叛无产阶级运动。在这两种情况下，他们都只是为反动派效劳。”(《马克思恩格斯选集》第二卷，人民出版社1972年版，第554页)其中两组“或者是……”与“如果这样……”，每组推出的结论都是不利于“反权威主义者”的;而“在两种情况下……”这一判断则指明其反权威言行的客观政治效果“都只是为反动派效劳。”使得这种持论者进退维谷，其反权威主义的论点被反驳掉了。这里采用的就是“二难法”。

运用此种方法，须严格遵循选言、假言推理的逻辑法则，并在语言上采取相应的选择句套假设句的多重复句，以相套并两两对应的形式加以表述，令其逻辑方法同语言形式相谐调，以保证其论证力的发挥。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

2016年中考已经进入倒计时，作文对语文成绩十分重要，一定要加强作文练习，多多积累，下面是小编收集中考议论文的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

1悬念式开头

也称倒装式开头或直接切入式开头。即开篇以特写镜头写出事件的某个最富有吸引力的片段或事情的结果，以设置悬念，吸引读者。

例：以“空间”为话题写的一篇作文(开头)

“李轶凡自杀了!”“不会吧，他平时那么听话，学习成绩又是这么好，怎么可能呢?”“是呀。他的爸爸妈妈是那么地关心他……”

接着作者追叙了李轶凡自杀的原因及经过，从而表现像李轶凡那样的学生们对拥有自己的心灵空间的渴望。

例：“人生之桥”为题的作文开头：

楚子涵狠狠地踢了一下桥栏。

已经是离家出走的第三天了，三天中他就一直露宿在这座桥上，口袋里的几块零钱早已花光了，饥肠辘辘的他无力地坐在桥上。

(接着作者交待了楚子涵离家出走的原因，叙述了在桥上与一位老人的交谈，写出从中悟出一些深刻的道理)

2开门见山法

开门见山，就是直截了当的落笔扣题，总领全篇，纲举目张。

如：朱自清《背影》一文开头：“我与父亲不相见已二年余，我最不能忘记的是他的背影”。

又如：学生习作《生活需要笑声》开头：“笑一笑，十年少”，生活需要欢乐，生活需要笑声……

两篇文章直截了当的开头，直接进入主题，就更容易使中心突出，读者读起来也容易抓住要领，掌握内容，深刻了解主题。

3景物描写开头法

用景物描写可渲染气氛，推动情节发展;可以铺垫情节，导出下文。

如：“山，好大的山!起伏的青山，一座挨一座，延伸到远方，消失在迷茫的暮色中……”这里渲染了哀牢山中深远迷茫的气氛，对后文边疆助人为乐的感人事迹起了很好的衬托作用。

又如：《金黄的大斗笠》中开头：“干干净净的蓝天上，偷偷溜来一团乌云，风推着它爬上山头”，此处写景暗示有雨将至，为下文送伞作了很好的铺垫。

4诗词、歌词、格言等引用开头法

如：《人生需要挫折》开头：“不经历风雨，怎能见彩虹，没有人能随随便便成功”，在通往成功的道路上，不是一帆风顺的，磨难挫折必不可少。

这里小作者巧妙引用歌词，诗词开头既增添了文章的生动性，也起到了文眼的作用。

5抒情式开头法

这种开头的语言常常抒发某种感情、或赞美、或悲痛、或激动、或欢乐……在抒情过程中，也常常运用许多修辞手法。

如：《春》一文开头中“盼望着，盼望着，东风来了，春天的脚步近了。”开头就运用反复拟人手法表达了作者盼望春天的强烈感情。

又如：《我爱秋天》开头：“一年四季，春的姹紫嫣红，夏的绿满枝头，秋的丰盈充实，冬的银装素裹，都宛如一幅幅画卷，但我更钟情于秋天”，这样开头既写出四季特点，又巧妙抒发了作者对秋天的独特情怀。

6设问法

作文开头，提出疑问，既能总起下文，又能吸引读者，激起读者好奇心理，以致于急切地读下文。

如：《秋魂》中秋味篇开头：“你品味过秋吗?它是什么滋味?”秋色篇中开头：“秋是什么颜色?”

7诗意式开头法

也称整句式开头，即运用排比、比喻、拟人等修辞手法，采用骈句、整句的形式开头，来议论点题、抒发感情或点题、总领全文，以达到引人入胜的效果。

例如，《轻轻落地的一滴水》的开头：“一滴水轻轻落地，是森林中叶片上滚下的露珠，还是峭壁岩石间的清流?是云的哭泣还是雾的叹息?答案是丰富多彩的。你喜欢小桥流水的温馨，还是大漠孤烟的雄浑?你偏爱银装素裹的北国风光，还是热烈浪漫的南国风情?我想，答案也是因人而异的。”

再如《回家》开头：“远去的飞鸟，永恒的牵挂是故林;漂泊的船儿，始终的惦记是港湾;奔波的旅人，无论是匆匆夜归还是离家远去，心中千丝万缕、时时惦念的地方，还是家。”用三个结构相近的句子组成排比句，用“飞鸟”、“船儿”、“旅人”类比来点题，形象生动而富有吸引力。

再比如《感谢“挫折”》：“未经历坎坷泥泞的艰难，哪能知道阳光大道的可贵;未经历风雪交加的黑夜，哪能体会风和日丽的可爱;未经历挫折和磨难的考验，怎能体会到胜利和成功的喜悦。挫折，想说恨你不容易……”议论抒情相结合，并开篇点题。

高考中的写作部分既限制字数，又要包含所有要点，且不能逐条翻译。如果写作方法运动得当，会有明显的提分效果。下面来看看小编为大家带来的方法吧。

一、 从词汇入手，强化短语写作

有研究表明，词汇学习可以促进英语水平的提高(文秋方，1998)。培养和提高学生的英语写作能力应从词和句入手，抓好基础训练。英语是结构语言，具有其自身的固定搭配、习惯用语和基本句型(陈立华，2003)。而《牛津高中英语》教材大量的词汇和地道的生活语言、任务型编排体系以及文本体裁的多样性，为“写”提供了基本素材。教师可根据不同话题的写作要求，采用不同形式的方法对学生进行写作基础训练。比如：关键词和短语写作训练法，即教师根据本单元的写作话题，每天精心选择2～3个词组或句型，让学生做翻译和造句练习;一周之后，让学生运用这些词组和句型进行写作。通过这种训练方法，既可以培养学生的写作能力，又可以提高写作的效率，还可以帮助学生掌握一些习惯用语和句子结构，从而提高学生遣词造句的能力。

二、抓好基本句型的训练，促进写作

书面表达题是由许多句子组成的，句子是写文章的基础。要完成书面表达题，首先要从句子入手，指导学生如何用句子表意。从语言形态学的角度看，英语属于分析型的语言，它有较为固定的基本句型、稳定搭配、俗成短语等，要想在写作中用好它们，必须加强这方面的基本训练。

首先，要加强五种基本句型的教学训练。几乎所有的英语句型都是这五种句型的扩大、延伸或变化，因此训练学生“写”就要抓住五种基本句型，熟练掌握这五种基本句型。五种基本句型是：S+V，S+V+O，S+V+O+O，S+V+O+C，S+V+P。五种基本句型虽然能表达一定的意思，但无法比较自由地表达思想，因此还必须对学生进行扩句训练，在课堂上充分发挥学生的想象力。

其次，加强句型教学，要对一些句子进行分析，增强学生利用各种句子进行一意多种表达的训练。

最后，充分利用教材，对学生进行基本语感的训练。

三、从阅读入手，培养写作表达技巧

阅读与写作密不可分，阅读是写作的基础，是搜集素材、学习词汇句型和新颖表达方式的源泉。因此，教师应想方设法把阅读与写作结合起来，利用教材训练学生的写作技能，在阅读能力的培养过程中融入多种形式的写作技能训练，将写作教学贯穿于阅读教学中。笔者采用了如下方法：

1.利用教材，开展改写

在完成阅读教学，学生基本掌握文章内容的基础上，笔者进一步指导学生改写文章。改写要求学生注意人称、时态、直接引语、间接引语、遣词造句和谋篇布局等方面的变化，充分理解课文内容，认真思考，写出语言得体、内容完整的文章。例如：《牛津高中英语》模块6 Unit 2What Is Happiness to You?的Reading部分是一篇以对话采访形式出现的课文，在采访过程中，嘉宾Dr.Brain以体操运动员桑兰的经历为例，谈到他对幸福的理解。在完成阅读教学后，笔者要求学生用第三人称写一篇介绍桑兰的作文，并鼓励学生引用课文中描述桑兰的经典词汇和例句。如：hard?鄄working, energet?鄄ic, stay optimistic/positive, in good spir?鄄its; She was happy to devote herself to gym?鄄nastics等。通过这些训练，学生既加深了对课文的理解，又运用了所学重点词汇，同时学生的写作技能得到了实际的锻炼。

2.模仿范文，鼓励仿写

写的过程实际上是模拟读者阅读的过程;而阅读也是模拟写作的行为(戴军熔，2002)。教师可给学生一篇与书面表达体裁和题材相同的范文，让学生通过阅读完成类似话题的写作任务。例如：《牛津高中英语》模块1 Unit 3 Looking Good，Feeling Good的写作话题是保持健康。笔者从英文报刊上选择一篇有关如何科学合理地减肥、健身的报道，先让学生在课堂上进行限时阅读，然后提问学生：Which do you think is more important，looking good or feeling good? How would you keep fit?Why?等。学生通过模仿阅读材料的结构进行写作。通过阅读带动写作，由知识的输入到知识的输出，提高了学生表达的条理性和连贯性，为学生提供了写作策略和技能。

四、培养学生用英语写作的习惯

“临渊羡鱼，不如退而结网。”如果仅仅掌握了写作技巧，熟背了大量文章，不亲自动手实践还是不行的，没有一成不变的文章让你照搬。《英语课程标准》指出：基础教育阶段英语课程的总体目标是培养学生的综合语言运用能力。因此，我们要遵循“一切为了运用”的原则，提倡和鼓励学生亲自实践，动手写作，用英语给亲人、朋友、老师写信，用英语写日记，或用英语写便条，写留言短信，还可以用英语与老师谈心或反映情况，或给老师写每周情况报告或总结。只有将所学内容适时地运用于实际生活，才能内化成自己的能力。

五、重视写作的规范化训练

起始阶段的写作训练，培养学生良好的写作习惯非常重要。首先，书写和文体格式要规范。严格要求学生正确、端正、熟练地书写字母、单词和句子，注意大小写和标点符号，养成良好的书写习惯。同时对各种文体特点、格式要清楚，使学生熟悉规范的书面表达形式，用正确的标准评析和规范自己的书面表达。其次，写作过程要规范。一般来说，短文写作都要有以下步骤：审清题目要求;确定写作要点;选好动词，搭好句子骨架;有效连接，使短文结构紧凑;认真检查，保证卷面整洁。对学生进行写作模式的训练，这样看起来比较麻烦，但避免了反复，养成了好的写作习惯。

总之，随着新课改的实施和近几年高考(微博)评分标准的完善，对学生的书面表达能力提出了新的要求。作为高中英语教师，在教学中要根据不同时期学生的具体情况采取相应的教学方法，灵活多样地开展英语写作教学，有效调动学生的积极性，定能使学生厚积薄发，写出行文通顺、流畅、有文采的佳篇妙作来。

高中各科目的学习对同学们提高综合成绩非常重要，大家一定要认真掌握，小编为大家整理了高一语文学习方法：写作的习惯，希望同学们学业有成!

1、积累素材。素材的积累宜从以下几个方面入手：一是自己的亲身经历和体验(含自身周围环境见闻)，这是极为丰富而行动的材料来源;二是学过的课文内容，这也是一个可观的材料库;三是课外阅读(书籍、报刊、影视等)中发现的反映社会生活的典型材料、精彩片断、名言警句等。

2.要注意文体的选择。现在高考作文在文体上几乎对考生没有限制，但文体影响着评卷老师对一篇文章优劣的认定，所以考生千万不能掉以轻心。

3.要注意材料的运用。引用材料宜概括，不要原文照抄。

4.要注意文章的模仿。

5.要注意文章的主题不要偏离社会的主流价值观。

6.要注意在平时多观察、多思考，强化文句表达训练。

7.要注意追求独特的构思，但不为追求而追求。独特的构思吸引人，尤其在许多模式化、公式化的文章中。独特的构思必须用丰富的内容来支撑，丰富的内容必须紧扣中心。

我们审题的目的就是根据不同体裁确定不同的写作方法。通过审题，我们可以看出四级作文大都是三段式。如上例第一段为议论体，第二段为说明体，地三段为描述体。而各种文体又不同的写作方式：

议论文；要有论点和论据，而且往往从正反两方面来论述。例如上面第一段的思路是：做合格大学生，会怎末样（这是从正面论述）；不能做合格的大学生，会怎么样（从反面论述）；所以我们要做合格的大学生（结伦）。

说明文：可以从几方面或几条来说明一个问题，就上作文而言，可以从方面（德智体）来说明合格大学生的必要性。

描述文：一“人”为中心描述一个“做”的过程。与上两段相比，本段的主语多为人称代词，他要与第二段相互应进行描述。

现在许多的学生觉得作文难写，不知从何下手，下面是小编整理的中小学生作文写作方法，欢迎阅读。

作文，是语文综合水平的体现。但是，对于好多同学来说，总觉得作文很深奥，不好写。其实不然，我觉得，要写好作文，只要注意下面这几点，并持之以恒，经常练习写作，写出一手好作文也是不难的。

第一，就是词语积累。作文，要有佳词妙句才有文采，才能吸引人。一篇文章，假如没有佳词妙句，无论这件事情多么精彩，你写出来的文章也是平淡无味，怎么能够吸引人，让人去欣赏呢?你写的这篇文章也就等于白写。在平时的学习中，我们班的黎老师就很注重在这方面对我们的教育和引导。我在看文章、阅读时也很注意这点。

第二，就是注意留心观察。写作文，不是在屋子里憋出来的，而是要到实际生活中去观察、去体验。因为，生活是写作的源泉嘛!有些人，他是出去“观察”了，可是他只是走马观花，忽略了细节。所以写出来的作文只是条条纲纲，根本没有要点、细节。所以，在观察时要留心，要仔细，才能写出与众不同的好作文。记得外出时，爸爸经常会指这指那，问这问那，以引起我的注意与思考。

第三，就是多看课外书。这是积累词语的重要渠道，也是写作文的关键所在。包括家里订阅的书籍和书店的各种图书。只要有空，我就会到书店看看各种各样的课外书。当然，不是只看就能写出完美无缺的作文的，关键还要注意积累、牢记和运用。才能实现“人为我用”，这样在写作文时，才能做到随心所欲、挥笔自如。

一、作文要学会积累

“读书破万卷，下笔如有神”，“巧妇难为无米之炊”古人这些总结，从正反两方面说明了“积累”在写作中的重要性。“平时靠积累，考场凭发挥”，这是考场学子的共同体会。

(一)语言方面要建立“语汇库”。语汇是文章的细胞。广义的语汇，不仅指词、短语的总汇，还包括句子、句群。建立“语汇库”途径有二：第一是阅读。平时要广泛阅读书籍、报刊，并做好读书笔记，把一些优美的词语、句子、语段摘录在特定的本子上，也可以制作读书卡片上。第二是生活。平时要捕捉大众口语中鲜活的语言，并把这些语言记在随身带的小本子或卡片上，这样日积月累、集腋成裘，说话就能出口成章，作文就会妙笔生花。

(二)要加强材料方面的积累。材料是文章的血肉。许多学生由于平时不注意积累素材，每到作文时就去搜肠挂肚，或者胡编或者抄袭。解决这一问题的方法是积累素材。平时有条件的可带着摄像机、录音机、深入观察生活、积极参与生活，并与写生 、写日记、写观察笔记等形式，及时记录家庭生活、校园生活、社会生活中的见闻。记录时要抓住细节，把握人、事、物、景的特征。这样，写出的文章就有血有肉。

(三)要加强思想方面的积累。观点是文章的灵魂。文章中心不明确，或立意不深刻，往往说明作者思想肤浅。因此，有必要建立“思想库”。方法有二：第一要善思。“多一份思考，多一份收获。”平时要深入思考，遇事多问问“为什么”、“是什么”、“怎么样”。这样就能透过现象看本质。还要随时把思维的“火花”、思索的结论记录下来。第二要辑录，也就是要摘录名人名言，格言警句等。

总之，作文要加强积累，建立好“语汇库”、“素材库”、“思想库”这三大写作仓库，并要定期盘点、整理、分门别类，且要不断充实、扩容。

二、写好作文先学会观察

鲁迅先生在回答文学青年“如何才能写出好文章”的问题时强调了两点：一是多看，二是多练。这里的“多看”即指多观察。这就说明：要写好文章，要掌握娴熟的文章写作手法，就要多观察，学会观察，观察是写作的必要前提和基础。

俄国小说家契诃夫就这样谆谆告诫初学者：“作家务必要把自己锻炼成一个目光敏锐永不罢休的观察家!——要把自己锻炼到观察简直成习惯，仿佛变成第二个天性。”把观察锻炼成习惯，锻炼成第二天性，这是一种很需要时间去磨练的功夫，是很有作用，很了不起的功夫。

要留心观察身边的人、事、景、物，从中猎取你作文时所需要的材料：你要对一些看似不大实则很有意义的事情产生兴趣，注意观察起因、过程和结果;你要留意校园花坛里的植物一年四季如何变化它的颜色，学会刨根问底，弄清这些变化的来龙去脉;你要走向社会，同更多的人接触，观察他们的一言一行，要思索一些东西，随时将它们汇入自己思想的长河。这就是观察的过程，观察过程中要注意以下几点：

(一)观察决不要仅仅局限于“用眼看”。广义的更有实际意义的观察是指要将人的五官全部调动起来：用耳朵去聆听，用身体去感受，更重要的是要用心、用脑去思索，这样的观察才会更加细腻、深刻。

(二)观察过程中要注意运用好“烂笔头”。俗语说得好：好记性不如烂笔头。好多同学每天看到的挺多，思索的也挺多，但是不善于随时记下来，这样就会使观察到的材料付之东去，许多有价值的东西也会白白浪费掉。

(三)观察尤其要注意持之以恒。别犯“脑热病”，三分钟的热度对与写好作文是没有益处的，你要将观察生活、思索生活贯穿于你生活的每一天，这样你才会写出妙文佳作来。

学会观察对于写好作文有着巨大的奠基和推动作用，离开了观察，你往往会感到难以下笔。愿你学会观察，不断培养，提高赞成的观察能力，在写作实践中取得得大的进步。

三、意高则文胜

立意，就是确立文章的中心和意图。那么文章在立意时要注意哪些问题呢?

(一)立意要正确

正确是文章立意的第一要义，所谓正确就是要保证文章的感情和思想观点正确，符合客观事物的本质和规律，符合我国基本政治原则，符合人的基本道德要求，能给人以积极的启发。

(二)立意要专一

“作文之事，贵于专一，专则生巧，散乃人愚。”无论多么复杂的事情，主旨不能分散。一篇文章如果既想说明这个问题，又想阐述那个观点，东拉西扯，必然立意不明确。其实，想面面俱到肯定会面面不到位，况且一篇文章只能有一个中心，与其“贪多嚼不烂”，不如集中笔墨表现一个中心，即使是通过数件事来表现中心，也要做到紧帖中心行文，目标始终如一，着墨于材料与中心的结合点，使材料蕴涵的力量全部直指中心。

(三)立意要新颖

文章最忌随人后，人云亦云，新颖的角度是作文创新的核心。立意新颖要求跳出陈旧的框框、不按顺向思维、习惯思维或原有的心理定式进行立意构思，而是以独到的视角去审视题目中所蕴涵的另类内容，避开他人所常写，写别人所未写。即使同一写作对象，总是可以从许多角度切入，只要我们打破思维的定式，站在时代的高度，避“俗”求“异”，多角度、多侧面思考，或联想、或扩展、或类比、或逆向，发人之所未发，就能在五颜六色的天空里构筑属于你的最美的彩虹。

(四)立意要深刻

立意的深刻是指确立的主题不是人所共知的肤浅的道理，而要透过现象看本质，挖掘出更深层的意蕴。

(五)立意要巧妙

在习作有限的文字内，要表现较为深刻的思想，就只能一粒沙里看世界，从生活中的一斑一点、一枝一叶去再现生活的全貌，从一个点、一个片段、一个瞬间、一个现象入手，对社会、对人生进行描述和深思，即立意要大处着眼，小处落笔，角度虽小，却能小中见大，平中见奇。

首先，高老师就开门见山就指出了新闻的首要原则就是忠于事实。新闻讲求真实性时效性，生动还原事件发生现场就是一个新闻工作者的最大追求。

其次，高老师对之前的新闻内容进行了详细的分析，向宣传小组的成员传授了体现新闻真实性的几个方法。

第一，现今的工作重点，是面向人与人之间沟通交流的。要做到真实性，首先要完整而且深刻的把握事件现场人物的心理活动。全面准确的分析当事人所讲所说，所行所动，进而从较高的角度把握当事人要表达的内容。

第二，就是在把握当事人心理活动的基础上，抓住当事人所表达的重点。这样就可以在撰写新闻的时候，做到祥略分明，条理清晰，让读者用较短的时间准确了解事件发生的动态。突出重点是新闻真实性的重要原则。

第三，高老师还从实际行动方面为我们提出了一系列建议。对于新人来说，可以采用现代媒体技术。一个初学者可能很难在当场就把握住事件的关键，就可以用录音录像设备记录现场。过后再系统分析。可以找有工作经验的资深新闻工作者进行指导，这样可以快速提高。

最后，高老师对我们今后的工作提出了更高的要求，希望我们能快速高，成为一个有经验有能力的新闻工作者。

拿到英语试题不知道从哪里下手吗?那么下面这套英语写作流程对你会有一定的帮助。

一.审题。

拿到题目后，手中拿铅笔，手脑眼嘴并用，开始审题。看题目的要求是什么，要点是什么，特殊要求是什么。譬如你是叫李华，还是随便一个名字? 要议论文还是记叙文?对分几段写有无要求?等等。诸如此类的硬性要求信息，都最好用铅笔划下来，以免出错，也许你一开始会记得，可随着时间的流逝，你会不会因紧张而遗忘这些信息呢?还是小心为妙。边看最好边张嘴默读，这样就不会遗漏或忽略任何一个字了。

二.草稿。

有的同学怕出错，全文都打草稿再誊写，我姑且认为不太可取，毕竟考场时间宝贵，即使我有四十分钟时间写作文也不敢贸然这么做，更何况考场时我们留给作文的时间往往一再被压缩。有的同学不打草稿，我认为更不太可取。一来容易出错，二来边写边想思维不连贯，即使思维连贯也无法审词酌句，展现自己最好的一面，容易后悔。

草稿怎么打?

1.结构就是你打算分几段写，每段都写什么?哪段转哪段承哪段起合?心里都要是有谱的。

2.关键词：结构拟定后，迅速在草稿纸上写下自己这篇作文可能用到的一些关键词。包括一些漂亮的词和自己可能会忘记的词。主要是动词和名词。

譬如一省作文题： 假设你的名字是李华，亚洲冬季运动会将在你居住的地方举办，现招募志愿者。你希望成为志愿者。申请信的格式已经写好了，你直接写内容就可以。你的个人情况：年龄性别学历，个人条件。英语好，爱好体育，擅长交际，乐于助人。承诺提供最佳服务。

关键词就是学历、爱好、擅长、乐于、承诺，和你对这篇作文初步构思时想到的一些词。先把这些词(指词的英文表达)写在纸上。有一些词的拼写，譬如学历，可能你本身就记得不是特别清楚，这时一定要在开始写作文前先把它写下来，以免一会因干扰而遗忘。

可能看到聪明这个关键词时，你最初写下的往往是clever，再仔细想想，你是不是又想到了smart,deligient好多词，挑个漂亮和合适的用吧。再比如转折，你写了but，这会再想想，是不是又有一堆表示转折的词在你脑里打转呢?挑一个吧。千万别用but.

3.句式：词写下来了，其实你构建这篇作文的建筑材料就到位了，下步就是要把它们盖成漂亮的作文。先用最普通的陈述句把它们在头脑中过一遍，然后看看都能改成什么句式。能不能把一句陈述句改成问句?能不能用上一个双重否定句?能不能用一个主语从句套定语从句的长句?能不能用一个插入语?等等。把你高中三年的英语积累展示出来。在草稿纸上同样标注。

三.正式写。

这样的草稿打完后，就要快快写了。注意，英语作文的卷面简直太重要了，一定要把字写整齐，写大。没有把握的词和句子不用。别忘了遵守你最初用铅笔划下的题目的规定。

四.检查。

注意，最最重要的一步来了。尽管很小心，可是我们写英语作文还是会犯下很多错误。单词拼写的，大小写的，等等。这些错误会极大破坏我们在阅卷老师心目中的形象，一定要坚决誓死消灭。即使时间再紧，请务必留下1——2分钟检查作文的时间，消除隐性错误。

需要说明的是，英语的开头和结尾是最关键的，尤其是开头。基本上，不跑题，遵守题目要求，一个漂亮的开头，一个还过得去的结尾，2-3个高级词汇，1-2个漂亮的句子，加上整齐的字迹，作文的分就不会低了哦。所以，精心为你的作文想个漂亮的开头吧。

围绕话题，充分展开想象，用自己的语言对课内事例进行铺写，从中透出自己的见识。这种方式在议论文中使得引用更显自然，论证更加贴切。不是为堆积材料，凑足字数而引用事例，而是能恰到好处的说明观点;在记叙文中则能使材料“旧话题出新色彩”，形成新见解，新思路，好文章。

例如：话题作文《距离》

归园田居

我家房后有榆柳成荫，房前有桃李缤纷。鸟儿在天空鸣叫，细水在山前长流……在这个远离世事的乡村，我体味到了生活的美。

很多人都不理解我，说我空学了一肚子学问却远离政坛，空有一身清高却不能为国家做多少贡献。然而我却另有苦衷。

正是世俗，把我拒于千里之外;正是这样，我才选择离开。然而幸运的是这距离让我感受到生活的美好。

三十年前，我误入歧途，坠落尘网。那时战争纷乱，社会混乱不堪。我也曾想过为国效力，我也曾想过为百姓尽绵薄之力，但是，一个文弱书生又能做什么?官场被一大堆势利小人把持着，为了五斗米的官奉，我要对那些宵小折腰;为了“尽职”，我不得不拿手中的鞭子去逼迫那些交不上捐税的百姓……

这不是我当初的理想，这更不能是我未来要走下去的路!看着百姓痛苦的眼神，看着官场上的污泥浊水，看着日益混乱的时局……我的心碎了，我距离我当初的理想越来越远了。在理想与现实的落差中，我无法坦然：难道没有一条路，既能为民谋福，又不至于触怒权贵吗?没有。

于是，我选择离开。

远离世俗，走近田园。我再也不必去看世俗的种种丑恶，我看到的是嗳嗳的远人的村庄，看到的是依依的墟里的炊烟。东篱下，我悠然采菊;南山中，我游目骋怀……

人是渺小的，身在江湖，很多时候身不由己。人生路上的沉浮很多时候我们无法决定的。为什么要为不可能的事撞得头破血流呢?如果距离能带给你轻松，为什么不选择离开呢?

以一颗平淡的心体味田园风光，品味农家乐趣，你会发现，距离的变化令你欣喜，在这里，你能找回自我，你能找回人生的真谛，找到灵魂的家园。

我站在田园中，绿草的气息夹杂在阵阵微风中，夕阳的余辉铺洒在朵朵菊花上。我微笑着，感觉到了从未有过的幸福。

久在樊笼里，复得返自然……

这篇文章完全取材于陶渊明的《归园田居》，写得灵动智慧，思想深刻。对陶渊明远离官场，回归田园，回归自我本性的分析颇见功力。

建议：在平时学习或复习背诵经典篇目的时候要吃透挖深课文，一篇《归园田居》道出了陶渊明回归田园后的轻松和喜悦，老师在讲解文章的时候必然会补充一些背景材料，在学习中有意识的把这些东西收集起来，贯串起来，深入思考，灵活运用就能取得事半功倍的效果。做学习中的有心人，从课本中可以开掘出很多这样的材料。

下面是小编为大家整理的毕业论文写作方法。欢迎阅读，希望文章对大家有帮助!

一、毕业论文写作意义

1、撰写毕业论文是检验学生在校学习成果的重要措施，也是提高教学质量的重要环节。大学生在毕业前都必须完成毕业论文的撰写任务。申请学位必须提交相应的学位论文，经答辩通过后，方可取得学位。可以这么说，毕业论文是结束大学学习生活走向社会的一个中介和桥梁。毕业论文是大学生才华的第一次显露，是向祖国和人民所交的一份有份量的答卷，是投身社会主义现代化建设事业的报到书。一篇毕业论文虽然不能全面地反映出一个人的才华，也不一定能对社会直接带来巨大的效益，对专业产生开拓性的影响。实践证明，撰写毕业论文是提高教学质量的重要环节，是保证出好人才的重要措施。

2、通过撰写毕业论文，提高写作水平是干部队伍“四化”建设的需要。党中央要求，为了适应现代化建设的需要，领导班子成员应当逐步实现“革命化、年轻化、知识化、专业化”。这个“四化”的要求，也包含了对干部写作能力和写作水平的要求。

二、毕业论文写作要求

(一)论文——题目科学论文都有题目，不能“无题”。论文题目一般20字左右。题目大小应与内容符合，尽量不设副题，不用第1报、第2报之类。论文题目都用直叙口气，不用惊叹号或问号，也不能将科学论文题目写成广告语或新闻报道用语。

(二) 论文——署名科学论文应该署真名和真实的工作单位。主要体现责任、成果归属并便于后人追踪研究。严格意义上的论文作者是指对选题、论证、查阅文献、方案设计、建立方法、实验操作、整理资料、归纳总结、撰写成文等全过程负责的人，应该是能解答论文的有关问题者。现在往往把参加工作的人全部列上，那就应该以贡献大小依次排列。论文署名应征得本人同意。学术指导人根据实际情况既可以列为论文作者，也可以一般致谢。行政领导人一般不署名。

(三)论文——引言 是论文引人入胜之言，很重要，要写好。一段好的论文引言常能使读者明白你这份工作的发展历程和在这一研究方向中的位置。要写出论文立题依据、基础、背景、研究目的。要复习必要的文献、写明问题的发展。文字要简练。

(四)论文——材料和方法 按规定如实写出实验对象、器材、动物和试剂及其规格，写出实验方法、指标、判断标准等，写出实验设计、分组、统计方法等。这些按杂志 对论文投稿规定办即可。

(五) 论文——实验结果 应高度归纳，精心分析，合乎逻辑地铺述。应该去粗取精，去伪存真，但不能因不符合自己的意图而主观取舍，更不能弄虚作假。只有在技术不熟练或仪器不稳定时期所得的数据、在技术故障或操作错误时所得的数据和不符合实验条件时所得的数据才能废弃不用。而且必须在发现问题当时就在原始记录上注明原因，不能在总结处理时因不合常态而任意剔除。废弃这类数据时应将在同样条件下、同一时期的实验数据一并废弃，不能只废弃不合己意者。

实验结果的整理应紧扣主题，删繁就简，有些数据不一定适合于这一篇论文，可留作它用，不要硬行拼凑到一篇论文中。论文行文应尽量采用专业术语。能用表的不要用图，可以不用图表的最好不要用图表，以免多占篇幅，增加排版困难。文、表、图互不重复。实验中的偶然现象和意外变故等特殊情况应作必要的交代，不要随意丢弃。

(六)论文 ——讨论 是论文中比较重要，也是比较难写的一部分。应统观全局，抓住主要的有争议问题，从感性认识提高到理性认识进行论说。要对实验结果作出分析、推理，而不要重复叙述实验结果。应着重对国内外相关文献中的结果与观点作出讨论，表明自己的观点，尤其不应回避相对立的观点。 论文的讨论中可以提出假设，提出本题的发展设想，但分寸应该恰当，不能写成“科幻”或“畅想”。

(七)论文——结语或结论 论文的结语应写出明确可靠的结果，写出确凿的结论。论文的文字应简洁，可逐条写出。不要用“小结”之类含糊其辞的词。

(八)论文——参考义献 这是论文中很重要、也是存在问题较多的一部分。列出论文参考文献的目的是让读者了解论文研究命题的来龙去脉，便于查找，同时也是尊重前人劳动，对自己的工作有准确的定位。因此这里既有技术问题，也有科学道德问题。

一篇论文中几乎自始至终都有需要引用参考文献之处。如论文引言中应引上对本题最重要、最直接有关的文献;在方法中应引上所采用或借鉴的方法;在结果中有时要引上与文献对比的资料;在讨论中更应引上与 论文有关的各种支持的或有矛盾的结果或观点等。

(九)论文——致谢 论文的指导者、技术协助者、提供特殊试剂或器材者、经费资助者和提出过重要建议者都属于致谢对象。论文致谢应该是真诚的、实在的，不要庸俗化。不要泛泛地致谢、不要只谢教授不谢旁人。写论文致谢前应征得被致谢者的同意，不能拉大旗作虎皮。

(十) 论文——摘要或提要：以200字左右简要地概括论文全文。常放篇首。论文摘要需精心撰写，有吸引力。要让读者看了论文摘要就像看到了论文的缩影，或者看了论文摘要就想继续看论文的有关部分。此外，还应给出几个关键词，关键词应写出真正关键的学术词汇，不要硬凑一般性用词。

写作是语文的半边江山，我们都很重视它，也在不断地探讨提升其水平的方法。但就具体操作和实际效果来看，可谓各具千秋、难分伯仲。我也曾想过：语文的写作教学能不能总结出一种实际可运用的模式呢？现实告诉我，那是可能的。写作教学，系统性与灵活性相结合，方能有持久的生命力。

曾经走过的困惑之路

一、不知该让学生写些什么，临阵随便定一个题目让学生写。

平时总是觉得没有话题可供学生写，因为选个学生感兴趣又能让学生有话可说的话题真的很难，即使选了一个觉得不错的话题给学生写，学生写出来的东西往往又不合己意。快到写作课了，对写作的内容，没有预想的系统的构思，“临上轿了现包脚”，匆忙找几个话题，上网查查，有没有例文范文，有的话就用，没有的话就放弃另找。因为自己也不知道怎么立意怎么写，所以就借助于网络，网络上怎么说的自己也跟着怎么立意、怎么讲评。

二、不知道作文该怎么指导。

大多数情况下是给学生一个话题接着就让学生写，而且因为按照课标要求，高中生45分钟要写600字，高考对作文的要求则是800字左右，所以学生每次正规作文练笔大约要60分钟。我上作文一般是两节连堂，这样带上课间一共是100分钟。全给学生觉得有些浪费，所以就在一开始的半个小时里进行点其他内容，然后再给学生六七十分钟的时间去写作，要求当堂上交。可想而知，当堂上交的往往只有少数。

这样的写作课，让我很疲惫，让学生很厌倦。我觉得对不起学生，也对不起自己。想一想，老师疲于应付的课，学生又怎么会感兴趣呢？我们又有什么资格去要求学生感兴趣呢？于是一直想改变这种写作的窘态。

实际总结出的方法

一、写作要有系统性。

临时才确定话题的方式，使得学生完全没有规律可循，老师在讲解时也缺少连贯性与层次性，效果可想而知。其实，写作是需要打好基础、逐步提高的。比如我们高一一般会先训练学生写记叙文，那我们不能一开始就让学生写“母亲”、“老师”、“同学”等等，分层次引导，学生水平才能逐步提高。我在实际教学时，在第一阶段会先让学生进行人物外貌的刻画，提前让学生细致全面地观察自己要写的人物，做好准备后再进行课堂限时练笔。这样学生课前有了一定的准备，课堂上也就不会再愁眉苦脸了，而且有了目标性，他们的作文写得也的确不错。接下来，我依次训练语言动作、神态心理等的刻画。学生逐步把握了刻画人物的方法与技巧后，我再统一确定话题，让他们运用学过的所有方法来全方位刻画一个人物。就实际效果来看，比随意给个话题就让学生写要好很多。

二、写作方式多样化，鼓励学生坚持写日记、周记。

新课改后我们语文一周才四节课，我们一般两周（有时还会更久）才上一次两节连堂的大作文课，仅仅依赖于此，作文是很难提高的，我们必须引导学生要坚持随时随地练笔。学生们每天的生活可谓大同小异，可人是一个有情感的主体，每天的所思所想是不同的，而且有些奇思妙想会稍纵即逝，所以我们要引导学生及时地把这些“灵感”写下来。写的多了，思的多了，写作水平必有提高。鉴于学生的时间是有限的，所以我要求他们每周的周记必须写，而日记则可灵活处理。而且我对他们的这些随笔不做统一要求，字数、体裁都不限。可能有些老师会质疑:字数不限，那学生岂不偷懒，能少写就少写吗？对于这个问题，我是这样想的：发自内心、经过精心润色的一句话，也胜似搜肠刮肚、硬生生地凑起来的一篇文章。在这方面，我要明确一点，那就是学生的日记、周记，老师要定期批阅，并给出贴切的评价与修改意见，这是对学生比较有效的认可鼓励措施。

三、巧借新闻大事，引导学生自由讨论。

语文的课堂是需要激情的，作文课尤其如此。虽然我们的训练是系统性的，但偶尔我们也不妨变换方式，吊吊学生的胃口。现实生活中有利于我们语文学习的媒介其实很多，我们不一定非要局限于课本上的固定内容与要求。学生们每天只能在校园内过着比较封闭单一的生活，他们还渴望了解外面的世界。而外界每天都在发生剧烈的变化，其中的一些有价值的新闻大事，其实是学生们非常感兴趣的。那我们就可以利用这一点，在课堂上拿出点时间组织学生自由讨论发言，学生只有有了说的冲动，才会诉诸笔端，写出更好的文章。记得前段时间日本发生事件时，我便搜集了一些资料，在课堂上展示给学生，让他们就这一事件发表自己的看法。一开始，有些学生还有所顾忌，在几个学生的带领下，大家都放开了胆量，畅所欲言。结果本来准备用时十分钟的，到了二十分钟，学生的情绪依然高涨。于是，我临时调整教学计划，趁热打铁，让学生把自己说过的话写成文字，进一步表达自己的观点，体裁不限，字数不限。大多数学生当堂就把文章写完了，而且写作水平都高于平常的一般练笔。在这方面，也必须明确一点，口头的表达必须与笔头的落实相结合，效果才能显现。

未尽的路

写作的提高，是语文教学的一个重点也是一个难点，我总结出的也只能算是不成熟的个例。语文各方面的教学都不能模式化、死板化，我们要根