英语四级写作方法20篇

写作是运用语言文字符号反映客观事物、表达思想感情、传递知识信息的创造性脑力劳动过程。小编精心为你整理了命令的写作方法，希望对你有所借鉴作用哟。

1．命令（令）的概念

命令（令）是国家政权中特定机关发布的有强制性、领导性、指挥性的下行公文。主要适用于依照有关法律规定发布行政法规和规章，宣布施行重大强制性行政措施，奖惩有关人员，撤销下级机关不适当的决定等。

2．命令（令）的作用

命令（令）具有权威性和强制性，它是依照和根据有关法律规定，发布行政法规或规章，实施重大行政措施。例如：任免国家机关的高级领导干部；奖惩国家机关的高级干部；撤销下级政府机关不适当的决定的公文等。

3．命令的分类

命令（令）一般可分为：公布令、行政令、嘉奖令、惩戒令、撤销令、特赫令、通辑令等。

4．命令的结构

命令（令）的结构分标题、发文号、正文和落款四部分。行政令还带有附件。

第一部分标题。命令的标题有三种形式。

一是由发令机关名称、事由加文种构成。如《国务院关于贯彻保护侨汇的命令》。

二是文种前面冠以发令机关全称或领导人职务构成。如《四川某某人民政府令》等。

三是事由加文种构成。如《向全国进军的命令》。

第二部分发文号。命令（令）的发文号不同于一般公文的发文号，它不是由机关代字，年号，顺序号组成，而是只标顺序号。并且按某发令机关或某发令人在该届任期内所发的命令（令）流水编序号，直至换届再重新编号。

第三部分正文。命令（令）的类别不同，对正文的写法要求也有所不同。分述如下：

公布令适用于公布法律、重要行政法规。

包括三部分内容：①命令（令）公布的对象，即法律或行政法规的全称；②公布某项法律、法规的依据，即通过批准某项法律、法规的机关或会议；③通过批准某项法律、法规的时间和施行起始期。

5．命令（令）的实例

＜公布令＞实例

中华人民共和国主席令

第三十号

《全国人民代表大会常务委员会关于惩治侵犯著作权的犯罪的决定》已由中华人民共和国第八届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第八次会议于1994年7月5日通过，现予公布，自公布之日起施行。

中华人民共和国主席＾xx

1994年7月5日

附件：

全国人大常委会

关于惩治侵犯著作权的犯罪的决定

（1994年7月5日第八届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第八次会议通过）

为了惩治侵犯著作权和与著作权有关的权益的犯罪，对刑法作如下补充规定：

一、以营利为目的，有下列侵犯著作权情形之一，违法所得数额较大或者有其他严重情节的，处三年以下有期徒刑，拘役，单处或者并处罚金；违法所得数额巨大或者有其他特别严重情节的，处三年以上七年以下有期徒刑，并处罚金：

（一）未经著作权人许可，复制发行其文字作品、音乐、电影、电视、录像作品、计算机软件及其他作品的；

（二）出版他人享有专有出版权的图书的；

（三）未经录音录像制作者许可，复制发行其制作的录音录像的；

（四）制作、出售假冒他人署名的美术作品的。

二、以营利为目的，销售明知是第一条规定的侵权复制品，违法所得数额较大的，处二年以下有期徒刑、拘役，单处或并处罚金；违法所得数额巨大的，处二年以上五年以下有期徒刑，并处罚金。

三、单位有本决定规定的犯罪行为的，对单位判处罚金，并对其直接负责的主管人员和其他直接责任人员，依照本决定的规定处罚。

四、查获的侵权复制品、违法所得和属本单位或者本人所有的主要用于侵犯著作权犯罪的材料、工具、设备或者其他财物，一律予以没收。

五、犯本决定规定之罪，造成被侵权人损失的，除依照本决定追究刑事责任外，并应当根据情况依法判处赔偿损失。

六、本决定自公布之日起施行。

写作基础论部分从主题、材料、结构、语言等方面对文章的基本构成要素进行了全面的阐述，小编收集了以色彩为话题的作文写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、话题设计

红橙黄绿青蓝紫，是彩虹的颜色;桃红柳绿花儿笑，是春天的颜色;大树苍翠又葱绿，是夏天的颜色;金黄遍地秋收望，是秋天的颜色;皑皑白雪铺满地，是冬天的颜色。颜色是季节的服饰，是生命的体现。颜色也是人生理想的再现。不同的季节，不同的生命，不同的人生，不同的颜色。色彩，可以是一种生活元素，也可以是一种生活内容，还可以是一种生活追求……请以“色彩”为话题，写一篇作文。

要求：1、立意自定。2、文体自选。3、题目自拟。4、不少于600字。

审题：

作文题由材料、话题和要求三部分组成。

材料中的“生活元素”、“生活内容”、“生活追求”从色彩的作用入手，把色彩与生活、人生联系在一起，告诉我们，生活离不开色彩，色彩是生活中的重要组成部分，我们要追求多姿多彩的人生，或追求某种色彩的人生。

而“色彩”一词看似普通，实际上内涵丰富。它在《现代汉语词典》上的释义是：①颜色;②比喻人的某种思想倾向或事物的某种情调。①为本义，指具体的颜色，如红、黄、蓝、白、黑等;②为比喻义或象征义，如人的某种品质，某物的民族色彩、时代色彩等。那么，考生选择它的本义与引申意思来写作文都是不跑题的。然而，在立意上还是有高下之分的。最好的立意一定是在话题的比喻义或象征义上展开，而在本义上做文章则是其次了。

二、写作指导：

(一)从某种具体的色彩出发来立意：

1、“我”喜欢某种颜色及理由

从具体的颜色入题，引出其比喻义或象征义，来写自己对生活的理解与面对生活的态度，把自己的个性、好恶、追求等很好地与“色彩”结合起来。

如，喜欢红色------因为红色热情而温暖，给予人如火一样的激情，使人感到生活是美好的，光明的，从而表现“我”对生活的热爱。还可写红色耀眼夺目，让人热血沸腾，象征着火热的青春，激情燃烧的岁月，活力四射的青春年华，它给了“我”力量与信念，让“我”更富有青春的激情，燃起奋斗的欲望，从而不断挑战自我，创造奇迹。

如，喜欢蓝色------蓝色天空，广阔高远;蓝色大海，宽广包容。蓝色给予人沉静与理智，使人像蓝天、大海那样，既有宽广的胸怀，又有宏远的气魄。

此类立意在写作中容易写肤浅，建议运用象征手法，把主观情感或意志寄托在某种色彩鲜明的事物上，通过对该事物的描写，进一步揭示其象征意义，从而表达自己的人生追求。

2、把某种颜色同人的品质联系在一起

从具体的颜色入手，在揭示其象征意义时，把它和人的品质联系在一起，来歌颂人的诸多优良品质，比如珍爱生命、博爱善良、正直无私、刚正不阿、奋斗不止、刚强不屈、淡泊名利等真善美的品质，进而写这种品质在社会、时代中的重要作用，呼唤更多的人具有这种品质。在具体写作过程中，可将“色彩”巧妙地融合在各种品质中，“拉来”历史英雄、文化名人助阵，把自己对生命意义的理解作具体的诠释。如——

白色：清白，纯洁，高洁的象征。屈原的一生是追求白色的一生，白色是他的颜色。在那个斑驳陆离的时代，他是那样的清高。披发行吟，形容枯槁，白袖飘飘游于江畔。举世皆浊，而他独清，“终不能变心而从俗”。他是时代的先行者，看透政治黑暗，宁可粉身碎骨也不肯同流合污。是呀，“安能以皓皓之白，而蒙世之温蠖乎”?于是不甘与之俱黑的屈原选择了死亡，“伏清白以死直兮”，汨罗江的清流收纳了他，于是那白衣随着他高洁的灵魂徜徉在天上、人间。“宁可粉身碎骨也不肯同流合污”，屈原洁白的生命之色是那样的高洁。今天中华传统美德中正有他的精髓。

红色：可联想到丹心，象征着忠诚。

文天祥“人生自古谁无死，留取丹心照汗青”表达了对朝廷的无比忠诚。

岳飞的生命是红色的。当年的汤阴少年，一杆红缨，扫遍南北，历经“三十功名尘与土”的磨难，那红一丝没变。他用自己的生命洒下满江的红色——浓重的红。

文天祥、岳飞鲜红的生命之色，正是今天中华大地上空回荡的爱国之歌中的一个强烈音符。

(二)从“多彩”出发立意：

1、自然界多彩，人类社会某领域的发展要多元。

自然界是五彩斑斓的，正是这斑斓的色彩，才使大自然呈现出勃勃的生机与活力。社会上某领域的多元化发展，才能促使其繁荣进步，多姿多彩，而不至于风格单一，缺乏生机与活力。

这里，某领域可具体化。如：

(1)建筑风格的多样化并存，可使古老与现代、典雅与浪漫、传统与西洋等和谐地融为一体，奏出一曲优美动人的建筑交响乐，反映时代的变革与进步。

(2)服饰的色彩、式样由单一向多样化的发展、变迁，折射出物质生活水平的提高，人们思想观念的变化，反映了时代的进步，社会的包容。

(3)思想、文化等诸多领域应倡导多色彩、多元素、多风格、多流派，提倡“百花齐放，百家争鸣”。

温柔的树叶在微风中用绿色来装点大地，绵延的云朵在阳光下用白色来陪衬蓝天，无际的大海在波涛汹涌中用蓝色来表达自己的深邃……自然界就是由这多种色彩构成的。生活亦是如此，生活本身就是七色板。色彩单一是贫瘠，五彩斑斓才是生活的本质。自然容纳多种色彩，社会包容多种思想。因此，我们在思想、文化等诸多领域也应倡导多色彩、多元素、多风格、多流派，提倡“百花齐放，百家争鸣”。先秦文化的繁盛在于思想自由，诸子百家，异彩纷呈;欧洲的文艺复兴首先是解放了思想，尊重个性，倡导多元化，因而才诞生了达.芬奇、但丁等一批巨匠，使思想、文化、艺术多姿多彩，魅力无穷。

2、让心灵充满七彩阳光，努力为自己的生命调制亮丽的色彩。

有些人遭遇了挫折、不幸，于是心灵的天空满是灰色的阴霾，没有亮色。亲爱的朋友，我要告诉你：如果你嫌秋太萧条，抹一笔春的绿色带给它生气;如果你嫌冬太肃杀，勾一笔夏的粉红，带给它热情和欢快;如果你面临困境，请把“山重水复疑无路”的灰暗，调成“柳暗花明又一村”的明快，把“黑云压城城欲摧”的绝望调成“甲光向日金鳞开”的希冀。让心灵充满七彩阳光，努力为自己的生命调制出亮丽的色彩吧!

3、平凡人的人生同样可以是多彩的，我们要努力调制出属于自己的人生色彩，用自己的双手调出生活的色彩，用青春的彩笔描绘我们生命的华章。(为个性着色)

有些人认为自己太平凡、太普通了，没有出众的外表，没有傲人的才华，没有让人艳羡的职业，觉得自己的生活平淡无奇，缺少色彩。其实，平凡之人只要在自己的岗位上尽职尽责，全心投入，同样会让自己的人生绽放出绚丽的色彩。雷锋、徐虎、李素丽、许振超、王顺友等都是这样的普通人。

4、用心感受多彩的生活，不要因为社会上、生活中存在黑暗、丑陋便否定了社会、生活的美。生活中有冷色，更有暖色，有暗淡的影子，更有亮丽的色彩。我们应用心感受生活中的美，感受生活的多彩与芬芳。

5、写随着年龄的增长，生活中的色彩即乐趣越来越趋于单调，进而探寻生活的本来色彩。

(三)反向立意：不要给生命着色，要保持自己的本来色彩，活出真我风采。

一杯清水，来自高山，没有任何色彩。然而很多时候，我们为了迎合客人的口味，往这杯水中加入各种“调味剂”，使之失去本来的纯净，而我们想要恢复它的纯洁，却是万分困难。一个人，刚一出生，就如一张白纸，洁白无瑕。在这个物欲横流的世界，我们不要与世俗同流合污，而应坚持自己纯洁的操守，保持自己的本色，活出真我的风采。

当然，在立意上是可以“色彩纷呈”的。

三、写作注意问题：

1、注意材料对话题的限制作用。

在话题作文中，材料与话题的关系主要有四种：①材料引出话题。②材料解释话题。③材料限制话题。④材料拓展话题。同时这四种关系并不是单独在起作用，在很多题目中，可能是几种关系同时存在。本次作文题目，材料限制话题的作用比较明显。正如前面分析时所说，材料中的“生活元素”、“生活内容”、“生活追求”从色彩的作用入手，把色彩与生活、人生联系在一起。而通过写大自然山水的色彩变化，来谈环境污染问题，就没有吃透命题者的意图，没有注意材料对话题的限制，没把“色彩”与生活、人生联系起来，有打“擦边球”之嫌。

2、选择合适的文体，量体裁衣。

本作文不太适合写记叙文，而更适合写说理或抒情的散文。如果写记叙文就只能运用象征手法来选择某种有特殊意义的事物，还要扣住“色彩”来记叙事件，这是很难操作的。

3、表述上要紧扣话题来突出主题，而不要偏离话题。

“为了自己的人生追求，他刻苦努力，终成我国著名的数学家，人生绽放出绚丽的色彩。”这句话没能紧扣话题“色彩”，而是转移到突出“人生追求”上了。可改为：“为了给自己的生命着上五彩的颜色，他刻苦努力，不懈追求，终成我国著名的数学家，人生绽放出绚丽的色彩。”

很多时候，学生能做到扣主题，却在扣话题上不能到位，不能实现主题与话题的完美“接轨”。一般情况下，开篇与结尾都要做“主题与话题接轨”的表述，分析事例时也要注意扣住话题来突出主题、分析论证。

一、审题的“精确性”

在上篇中，笔者已经介绍了部分考题中的“绝对性”的应对措施，而根据专家对于过去2年独立写作考题的分析，发现有90%以上的题目属于“支持/反对”型：

2011.01.30

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?

Because the change of the society is so rapidly, people are less happy or less satisfied with their life than people did in the past time.

而剩下的则是由“对比论述型”构成的：

2011.03.13

Some people think children should spend most of their time in studying and playing while others think they should help their parents with the household chores. What’s your opinion?

在审题时，考生必须首先把题目通读1-3遍，彻底把握题目主旨后，方可进行段落布局。在这里，笔者结合自己的经验给考生们一些建议：首先，判断题目是否包含“绝对”含义的词，若有，则按照上篇讲过的建议布局，若没有，则对于同意或者反对的理由进行快速的brain storming, 然后根据分论点的数量及论点的可延展性来敲定立场：

Some people think that human needs for farmland, housing, and industry are more important than saving land for endangered animals. Do you agree or disagree with this point of view? Why or why not? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.

Disagree:

1) Endangered animals are valuable because of their limited quantities

2) Environment balance

3) Endangered animals sometimes stand for the country, so they are more valuable than farmlands

Agree:

1) life quality is the top priority

2) endangered animals can be raised in the zoos

经过一番考量，假如考生得出了上述的一些分论点及想法，这时候，主体段的布局基本就可以敲定大方向了。第一种就是完全反对题目的说法，采用五段式结构布局，每个主体段论证上述三个分论点中的一个;第二种也是反对题目的说法，采用五段式结构布局，但是前2个主体段从三个分论点中选二个去论证，而第三个主体段从“同意”的二个分论点里去选一个，最后的结论还是倾向于反对的。第三种是采用四段式结构布局，即第一个主体段从三个反对意见中选择二到三个分论点去写，而第二个主体段则从赞同的分论点里去选择，数量上比前一段少一个即可，最后结论还是倾向于反对多一点。这样说是不是有些同学看了会有点“晕”呢?那下面笔者就再举个简单点的例子吧：

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Television, newspapers, magazines, and other media pay too much attention to the personal lives of famous people such as public figures and celebrities. Use specific reasons and details to explain your opinion.

Disagree:

1) Most people are common, so they want to know something about famous ones

2) Famous people stand for some fashion

3) Constrain the public figures

4) Celebrities can improve the national cohesion and unity

又经过了几分钟思考，我们得出了上述的四个分论点，但是一时半会赞同的理由实在是想不出。若考试的时候遇到这种情况，千万别犹豫不决，马上从已经想好的观点里面进行挑选。于是，这个题目我们就采用完全反对的立场，以五段式结构布局全文，主体段的分论点从上述四点中挑选三个展开论述即可。这样一来，大家是不是明白一点了呢?

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Parents or other adult relatives should make important decisions for their older (15 to 18 year-old) teenage children. Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion.

Agree: Parents make decision for children.

1) Parents have more experience

2) 15-18 years old children are not adults, so they cant take responsibility

还有一种情况就是我们只能想出两个分论点，这时候考生应该果断采用四段式布局，而这一次，两个主体段都分别论述一个同意的理由，而在结尾时，可以顺便提一些反对的理由，这样也不失为一种灵活的方法，希望考生们可以借鉴。

二、分论点的排列原则

专家提醒考生们，在布局的时候我们不是随意编排分论点的先后顺序，而是需要有一定的逻辑性和合理性。一般说来，五段式的三个主体段，若都是同意或者都是反对的理由的话，一般这些分论点有两种逻辑顺序，即第一种按照“重要性”来排，将你认为最主要的理由放在第一个主体段中详细论证;第二种是按照“小到大”的原则，即个人方面的理由先写，然后再是家庭，公司，最后再是社会，国家等。倘若所有的论点都是在一个范围内的，比如都是属于个人的论点，则这个时候要看这些分论点后续的论证内容的多少，比如某一个分论点你既举得出例子，又可以进行对比或者因果论述的话那肯定应该先写这个分论点，若某一个分论点后续能够阐述的理由只有一句话的时候那就应该果断地将其排在后面写。若文章是四段式的结构，则在一个主体段中的排列顺序和前面讲的原则是一致的。

首先明确立意，即本篇习作中你决定歌颂的人物身上具有的光辉品质是什么，这是本文的中心。要求孩子将老师的品质用两个四字词语概括归纳出来，写到草 稿纸上，在写作前坐到中心明确。如：认真负责、关爱学生、教学有方、治学严谨……在动笔写作时，此环节就是文章的开头段落，一定开头点明中心，让读者知道 你要写的是谁的什么事。

第二，根据中心选取素材，通过具体事例表现人物的精神风貌。也就是根据自己刚才列在纸上的两个四字词语选取 发生在老师身上的能表现老师品质的事例。可以是发生在自己身上的，也可以是自己看到的发生在身边的同学和老师身上的。两个事例详写一个，略写一个，做到详 略得当。这一环节应注意的是：每个事例写完后，要把自己在第一段中点明的中心拿过来写一写，这种方法是“自然点题”，保证孩子在写作过程中，时时牢牢把握 中心，写作不偏离主线。

第三，文章的结尾，要求与开头相呼应。即开头点明的中心——那两个四字词语再一次出现，进一步强调你歌颂的老师的美好品质是什么。深化主题，提升立意，使得本次习作圆满结束。

这是以老师的作文为例，其他的人物写作方法基本一致。不管写同学、妈妈爸爸，还是身边的普通人都可按照这种方法进行习作。

这 是一种最基本的写作方法，因为每个孩子的阅读积累不一样，因此写作水平肯定不在一条线上。如果你有标新立异的写法，老师欢迎。但前提必须是中心明确、事例 恰当、措辞合理、详略得当。据我观察，目前我班还没有能超水平发挥的人。希望每位同学能沉下心来，扎扎实实练好每篇习作，为未来的飞跃做准备，厚积将来才 有可能薄发。

在任务驱动型作文的背景下，怎样才能把一个论题阐述深透呢?许多同学无从下手，所写的文章老是停留在肤浅的层面，得分不高，在此，介绍巧设反方，探源究底的方法，以供同学学习参考。

巧设反方就是在正面论述的基础之上，提出有可能出现的反方看法或观点，尽力预设，尽力设全，以体现你思维的周密性。

探源究底就是在预设反方的前提下，探究反方观点产生的根源以及错误的本质，甚至对反方观点进行有力的批驳，让它站不住脚，从而使自己的看法有理有力。

例如：

阅读下面的材料，根据要求写一篇不少于800字的文章。(60分)

不久前，某大学在临近期末时发生了这样一事：夜幕下，风雨中，一群大学生在校农场打着手电栽种油菜。校长对媒体说：学生必须亲手碰到泥巴，才能知道什么是奋斗，什么是劳动。农场劳动是该校的必修课，是毕业通行证。这种观点和做法得到了不少网民的支持。

然而也有人持不同意见：为挣学分冒雨挑灯夜战，是否有矫枉过正之嫌?还有人认为，大学生的首要任务是学习专业知识，此举有形式主义之嫌。

对于以上事件及不同观点，你怎么看?请表明你的态度，阐述你的看法。要求综合材料内容及含意，选好角度，确定立意，完成写作任务。

示范例文：

亲历劳动，方知奋斗

某高校开设种田必修课，学生夜里打手电种油菜，新闻一出，立刻引发热议，有支持者，也有反对者，更有抨击者，但无论何种反应都体现了大众对高校教育、对人才培养的一种关注、一种思索。

亲历劳动，方知奋斗。学校的良苦用心是值得大力称赞的。农场劳动，不单是一门必修课程，是毕业的通行证，更是一种观念、一种品质的培养。党的教育方针明确指出：教育必须与生产劳动相结合未来世界的竞争是人才素质的竞争，而劳动素质又是人才素质中极其重要的一个方面。但令人叹息的是，有许多的网民，却反对高校的这种做法，质疑这种做法的真正意图，或许是因为他们觉得大学生的首要任务是学习专业知识，应该把时间更多地放在精进自己的专业水平上，不能也没有必要去做普通农民所做的农活，然而，这个理由不过只是个幌子，是个借口，何况精进专业知识，也不是不问世事，一心只读圣贤书就能达成的，再说，闭门苦读就一定能够学好专业知识吗?更深层的原因，恐怕是大众内心对农的鄙视，是自古以来就有的对读书人的崇敬与膜拜：认为田间劳作是没有文化修养或修养较低的农民干的，文化人，既然已经跳出农门，就不要也不必再碰农活了。他们主观上认为读书人与农民是截然不同的两种身份，而这种认识，又恰恰是长期以来由阶级的差距衍生出的优越感而催生的。

爱劳动，才会生活;学会劳动，才能学会生活。高校开展农场劳动必修课，不仅可行，更有深远意义。学生在学校，不仅要学会一些理论性的东西，还需进行各种各样的实践劳动，只有二者相结合，才能更好地提升学生的综合素质。农场劳动，除了能提高学生们的动手能力、实践能力，让学生更接地气，还能让学生在获得劳动的切身体验中，认识到粒粒皆辛苦，尊重劳动人民和劳动成果，更能让学生在艰苦环境的磨炼中，培养一种吃苦耐劳、艰苦奋斗的精神。事实上，人的很多优秀的品质，都可以在劳动中形成。

发扬光大该校的这一做法，或许我们可以有更好做法，加强宣传教育，提高学生积极主动参加劳动实践的意识，鼓励学生积极参加各种各样的社会实践活动，而不局限于田间劳作，更无需用必修的形式，来强制学生，为完成学分临时抱佛脚而在临近期末时连夜冒雨打手电种油菜。

民生在勤，勤则不匮，无论时代如何变化，我们始终都要热爱劳动、崇尚劳动。

就“说明对象”而言，英语说明文可分为对“客观具体事物”的说明和对“主观抽象观念”的说明两大类，比如：对“LASER（激光）”、“Computer Problem of Year XX（计算机XX年问题）”等等的说明都是对客观或者具体事物的说明，而“The Successful Interview（谈成功的面试）”、“How to Write Good English Composition（如何才能写好英语作文）” 等是对主观抽象观念的说明。对我们中学生朋友来说，在汉语说明文的教学中似乎比较侧重前者，即解释客观具体事物的说明文。但在英语说明文中，阐述和说明 “主观抽象观念”的说明文占了很大的比重，其中有些类似汉语中的议论文。但是无论是对“客观具体事物”的说明还是对“主观抽象观念”的阐述，英语说明文从结构上看大致可分为三个部分：第一部分一般是文章的第一段，提出文章的主题，也就是说，文章想要阐述、说明的主要内容；第二部分是文章的主体，可由若干个段落组成，对文章的主题进行展开说明；第三部分是结尾段，对文章的主题作归纳总结。从英语说明文的结构可以看出，要写好英语说明文的关键在于第二部分如何对文章主题进行展开说明。在英语中，常见的用来展开文章主题的方法有下列几种：

1.罗列法（listing）

在文章开始时提出需要说明的东西和观点，然后常用first，second，…and finally加以罗列说明。罗列法广泛地使用于各类指导性的说明文之中，下面这篇学生作文就是用罗列法写成的：

Early Rising

Early rising （早起） is helpful in more than one way. First， it helps to keep us fit （健康）。 We all need fresh air. But air is never so fresh as early in the morning. Besides， we can do good to our health from doing morning exercise （做早操）。

Secondly， early rising helps us in our studies. We learn more quickly in the morning， and find it easier to remember what we learn in the morning.

Thirdly， early rising enables （使能够） us to plan the work of the day. We cannot work well without a good plan. Just as the plan for the year should be made in the spring， so the plan for the day should be made in the morning.

Fourthly， early rising gives us enough time to get ready for our work， such as to wash our faces and hands and eat our breakfast properly.

Late risers may find it very difficult to form the habit of early rising. They ought to make special efforts to do so. As the English proverb says，“Early to bed and early to rise， makes a man healthy， wealthy and wise.”

罗列法经常用下列句式展开段落，我们可以注意模仿学习：

There are several good reasons why we should learn a foreign language. First of all， …Secondly， …And finally， …

We should try our best to plant more trees for several good reasons First of all， …Secondly， …And finally，

必须指出的是，有时罗列法并不一定有明确的first， second…等词，但文章还是以罗列论据展开的。

2.举例法（examples）

举例法是用具体的例子来说明我们要表达的意思，常用for example， for instance， still another example is…等词语引出。下面这篇学生作文就是用举例法写成的：

Recreation

It is impossible to keep in good health unless we take enough recreation （娱乐）。 The mind， too， needs change to make it fresh and vigorous （有活力的） There is much truth in the old saying， All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.“

There are many games which boys and girls can play after their school work is done， for instance， football， tennis， and kite-flying. Other examples of recreation are boating， fishing， gardening， cycling， walking， chess-playing， and reading. Persons who sit much at their business should take a kind of recreation that will supply their muscles （肌肉） with exercise. Those who spend most of their time in the open air and do manual work （体力活） should adopt （采纳） reading or some other quiet form of recreation.

Cycling is said to be an important means of recreation， but many persons foolishly tire out themselves by cycling too much. The same may be said in regard to football. Tennis is a pleasant form of recreation. Many persons take great delight in boating. Fishing requires much patience， and there is much danger of taking cold by sitting still on a cold day too long. A good brisk （轻松） walk is one of the finest forms of exercise. For persons engaged in outdoor labor， chess-playing is another excellent form of recreation.

可以看出，举例法和罗列法有时可以结合使用：即用罗列法来列出例子，用例子充实罗列的说明。

3.比较法（comparison and contrast）

比较法是对两个对象进行比较，从而进行说明的写作手法。比较法又可细分为比较相同点（comparison）和比较不同点（contrast）两种方法，比如：

From Paragraph to Essay

Although they are different in length （长度）， the paragraph and the essay are quite similar in structure （结构）。 For example， the paragraph starts with either a topic sentence （主题句） or a topic introducer followed by a topic sentence. In the essay， the first paragraph sets up the topic focus （主题所在） Next， the sentences in the body of a paragraph develop the topic sentence. Similarly， the body of an essay consists of a number of paragraphs that discuss and support the ideas given in the introductory （引导的） paragraph. Finally， a concluding sentence （结束句） ——whether a restatement， conclusion， or observation——ends the paragraph. The essay， too， has a concluding paragraph which ends the essay logically and satisfactorily. Although there are some exceptions （例外）， most well written expository （说明文的） paragraphs and essays are similar in structure.

可以看出，在比较相同点的时候，常用到similarly，also，too，in the same case，in spite of the difference等这样的词语。

European Football and American Football

Although European football is the parent of American football， the two games show several major differences. European football， sometimes called association football or soccer， is played in 80 countries， making it the most widely played sport in the world. American football， on the other hand， is popular only in North America （the United States and Canada）。 Soccer is played by eleven players with a round ball. Football， also played by eleven players in somewhat different positions （位置） on the field， is played with an elongated （拉长的） round ball. Soccer has little body contact （接触） between players and therefore needs no special protective equipment. Football， in which players make the greatest use of body contact to stop a running ball-carrier and his teammates， needs special protective equipment. In soccer， the ball is advanced toward the goal by kicking it or by butting （顶） it with the head. In American football， on the other hand， the ball is passed from hand to hand or carried in the hands across the opponents （对手） goal. These are just a few of the features which distinguish （区别） association and American football.

这是一篇用比较不同点的手法写的说明文。从文章中可以看出：however，on the other hand，in contrast，but，nevertheless等表示转折的词语常用来引导对不同点的比较。

4.定义法（definition）

定义法也是英语说明文中常用的写作手法，特别是在对具体事物概念进行说明时经常使用。定义法的基本要素是定义句。英语中常见定义句的模式是：

被定义对象is所属类别+限制性定语

可以看出，定义句中限制性定语越详细，定义就越精确，比如：

A bat is a small mouse-like animal that flies at night and feeds on（以……为食品）fruit and insects but is not a bird.

其实，在英—英词典中，对英语单词的英文解释就是定义法的典型例子。比如，看看Longman词典对student和teacher的定义是很有意思的：A student is a person who is studying at a place of education or training. A teacher is a person who gives knowledge or skill to sb. as a profession （专业）。

5.顺序法（sequence of time， space and process）

顺序法是指按时间、空间或过程的顺序进行说明的一种写作手法。比如按照时间顺序介绍一个科学家的生平，用空间顺序阐述逐渐开发西部的重要意义，用过程顺序法解释葡萄酒的生产过程等等。

下面这篇学生作文就是用顺序法写成的：

Coal

Coal underwent （经受） many changes before it became the bright， brittle （脆的）， black substance which we now use. During ancient times （在上古时代）， when the earth enjoyed a very warm and wet climate， the land was covered with large forests and big plants. As time went on， the ground changed and began to sink （下沉） a little. These very large numbers of trees and vegetables received a deposit （沉淀） of sand and clay. This layer of sand and clay pressed upon the layer beneath and prevented it from contact with air. These trees and plants received the pres sure and changed its appearance.

Generations after generations （几世纪后）， as the ground kept gradually sinking， another layer of sand and clay was again deposited （积聚） above the layers already formed. A great pressure was thus exerted （作用） and the peat （泥煤） was changed into the black and brittle substance which is known as coal.

Coal is a kind of mineral which is formed by nature as above stated. It is an important industrial material and is chiefly used as fuel. It is very valuable in the industrial world. The place where coal deposit is called a coal mine （煤矿）。 In China， coal mines are largely found in the north-west part of the country. Shanxi is a famous province for producing coal. It has the most coal of China.

6.分类法（classification）

分类法是将写作对象进行分类说明的一种写作手法。比如：著名的英国哲学家弗朗西斯·培根（Francis Bacon）在其脍炙人口的《谈读书》（Of Studies）一文中就用到了分类法：

Some books are to be tasted， others to be swallowed， and some few to be chewed and digested， that is， some books are to be read only in parts， others to be read， but not curiously， and some few to be read wholly， and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy， and extracts made of them by others； but that would be only in the less important arguments， and the meaner sort of books…

参考译文：书有可浅尝者，有可吞食者，少数则须咀嚼消化。换言之，有只须读其部分者，有只须大体涉猎者，少数则须全读，读时须全神贯注，孜孜不倦。书亦可请人代读，取其所需摘要，但只限题材较次或价值不高者……

——转摘自《英汉翻译教程》（张培基等）

可见，如果能够根据具体情况，选用合适的写作手法，就可为文章增添无穷的魅力。

除了上述提到的6种展开英语说明文主题的写作方法之外，还有因果法、归纳法等其他方法。但相比之下，对于中学生来说，上述6种方法是首先值得掌握的。另外必须指出的是：在一篇文章中往往是以一种写作手法为主，同时辅以其他写作手法。有时，甚至会几种写作手法混用而不分主次。因此，必须根据具体情况，选用合适的展开主题的写作手法，才能写出优秀的英语说明文。

游记是对旅行进行记录的一种文体，现在也多指记录游览经历的文章，游记有带议论色彩的，有带科学色彩的，有带抒情色彩的。下面是小编整理的游记作文写作方法指导，欢迎阅读。

在节假日，小学生在父母和老的在节假日，小学生在父母和老师的带领下，到公园和游览区欣赏景物、陶冶性情。如果将游览时看到的景物，所听到的声音，所产生的联想，所获得的感受，按照一定的顺序，有重点、有感情地记录下来，就是一篇游记。写游记有如下一些要求。

(一)写游记必须写清游踪

要记住从什么地方到了什么地方，每个地方的名称，以及每个地方的方位。这样读者才能搞清楚你先到什么地方。后到什么地方，才能确定你所要描述的景物的具体位置以及它的特征，唤起读者对你所游览之处的神往之情。同时，也使文章福有条理，层次清晰。

(二)要留心观察

观察是写好游记的基础。游览时，不能走马观花，要仔细观察。所谓仔细观察，就是要看景物的形状、颜色、质地是怎样的，静态下什么样，动态下又是什么样，等等。只有这样，在写作时可选的材料才多，才便于把景物写具体、写出特点来。另外，在观察的时候，还要按一定的顺序，或由近及远，又远到近;或从上到下，从下到上;或从里到外，从外到里;或从中间到两边，从两边到中间;或从整体到局部，从局部到整体。按照这样顺序去观察，彩绘全面，描写时彩绘有条理。

(三)要做记录

学生游览的时候，看的东西多，去的地方也比较广，一时很难记住，就是当时记住了，过后也难免遗忘，不利于组织作文。为了避免这种情况，游览时要求学生带上笔和本，边观察、边记录，随看随记，就不会忘记了，写作文的时候还便于选择。另外，公园和修蓝区的有些景物带有介绍。

例如，辞经管是何时建造的，经历了哪些发展阶段，占地面积是多少，包含着怎样动人的故事和美丽的传说等等。这些资料很有可能成为学生作文时的宝贵材料，应该要学生记录下来。在游览之后，要求学生及时地把自己观察到的和记录的材料整理归类，看看哪些是属于作文需要的材料，哪些需要详写，哪些需要略写，做到心中有书，为下一步作文做好准备工作。可以要求学生按照下面的表格整理材料。

状物作文，是小学生作文训练中的一个重要项目。所谓状物，就是具体、形象地描写物体的特征、形态、色彩、质地等。这个物还应该包括动物、植物等类。由于不同的物有不同的特点，所以状物的方法也不一样。

[游记作文写作方法指导

怎样才能写好初中语文的作文呢?下面是小编网络整理的初中语文作文的写作方法以供大家学习。

初中语文作文的写作方法(一)

立意就是确定文章的主题。主题是文章要集中表达的思想和观点，是文章的灵魂和统帅，也是作者写作意图的集体现。因此，要写好文章，必须要确定好主题。只有 确定了主题，才能围绕要表达的主题去选择和组织材料，也才能根据表达主题的需要去安排结构，遣词造句。立意要做到正确、集中、深刻、新颖。

一篇文章只能有一个主题，不能多中心、分散、杂乱。对于学生来说，除了要考虑以上因素外，还应注意下面两点：

(1)要确定主观上有见解的主题。学生的生活经历、知识范围和思想认识水平都还有限。如果所确定的主题自己还说不清楚，把握不好，就不可能写得深刻。

(2)要考虑时间的因素。确定在限定的时间、篇幅内能充分展开论述或表现的主题。学生作文有时间上的限制，字数也不可能太多。因此，选择的主题不能过大。如果太大，在一定的时间、篇幅内难以展开，文章就会写得空洞、抽象。

文章的主题确定之后，要从全文的各个方面来加以表现。在文中可以用一句话或一个段落来加以说明，也可以用格言、警句之类的话来表现中心思想。

只有围绕着主题来写，写起作文来才能得心应手，才能写出好作文。

初中语文作文的写作方法(二)

看图作文，在原先看来是小学生才做的事情，但近几年来，高考、中考也多次出现看图作文题。怎样才能写好一篇看图作文呢?

盯住画面细观察。看画面上是人物、景物还是动物，是单幅还是多幅。不仅要把握图的全貌，而且要观察到每个部分的每一细节。审准题目，确定写什么和由哪入手。

认真分析抓重点。根据观察的结果，深入分析、判断，确定文章的中心和重点。进一步考虑哪些地方详写，哪些地方略写或不写。

展开想象巧构思。在观察分析的基础上，紧扣画面，充分利用自己生活、学习中的积累和体验，展开想象。把画面上的人、景、物的关系与人物的语言、行动、心理以及故事的前因后果构想出来。再通过具体、细致、生动的叙述和描写，把自己意图充分表达清楚。

完成初稿再回顾。初稿完成后，在时间许可的情况下，认真回过头来，把图和文结合起来看一看：一看对画面的观察、分析有无遗漏或失误;二看对人、景、物关系的判断和联系是否合理;三看重点是否突出，详略是否得当;四看叙述和描写是否恰如其分。在“四看”的基础上，进一步修改或增删。当然，也可根据自己的平时做法和考试时间，边看边改。

有关初中语文学习方法推荐：

(一)寻找最适合自己的成功路径

我曾试图总结出语文学习过程中的一些所谓的规律来，但常常失望。因为我渐渐感觉到，每个人都是一个不同的个体，即便面对相同的事物、实现相同的目标、经历同样的过程，他的感受和体验也往往与别人有所区别。

正因如此，我不得不说，别人身上成功的学习方法未必能成为你成功的学习方法，你可以参考，但未必可以拿来直接应用。

(二)刨根问底得益多

语文学习，首先要做到上课专注和认真，抓住每一分每一秒，记下知识要点和重点内容。最关键的是，不懂时，就要善于“问”，而且要刨根问底，追根溯源。

例如，在《桃花源记》的预习中，我对“渔人甚异之”中“异”的解释产生了疑问，我问班中一个优秀的同学，她说这个字解释为“感到奇怪”;上课时，老师说这个字解释为“以……为异，认为……是奇怪的”。我觉得这两种解释都有合理处，但也有“不同”，我问老师，老师说这个词是意动用法，翻译整个句子时可以用那个同学的解释，但单字解释时则需要用老师的解释。我还是有些疑问，于是下课又追到老师办公室问“意动用法”的内容。由于是“一对一”的传授，老师较为详尽地给我介绍了意动用法的原理、解释的技巧、如何翻译等问题，我“豁然开朗”，对这个内容有了深入的了解。

刨根问底的想法使我获益良多，这种方式使我对语文学习保持着充足的动力，让我觉得追究也是一种快乐的体验。

(三)温故而知新

温故而知新，课后的复习，我认为是十分重要的。记得刚接触文言文时，我只是上课时“听过算过”，课后很少去主动复习。结果，文言文的成绩总不理想。经过几次“教训”后，我才意识到了是自己课后缺少复习。方法改变后，文言文成绩果然有了显著的提高。又如，我认为，现代文阅读题目不必做太多，对于那些命题优秀、答题思路特别讲究、考点全面的题目，做过了还要经常拿出来看看，品思路，悟答法，会带给我们更多的收益。

作文也要温故知新。其方式和益处表现在这样几个方面：相同的题材可以多写几次，相同的结构可以多用几次，相同的语言表达也可以多练几次。相同的题材多写几次，可以使你对这个题材的各个方面有充分的把握，可以使你对这个题材的内涵有深刻的理解，甚至不断滋生出许多新意来。相同的结构多用几次，可以使你对这样的结构有更深刻的体悟，可以对这个结构的多种变化都有较多的理解，从而可以在运用的时候选择良多，得心应手。相同的语言表达多练几次，会增加你对文字的“感情”，使你觉得某些精彩的表达很亲切，很贴近自己的心灵，而且，即便是从“最简单”的收益来说，这样做会提高我们炼字炼句的本领，提高自己的文字素养。

Learning can enrich our knowledge, let us become a pillar of the state, so that we can have a "scholar does not go out, actually know about the world". I got countless awards in my grade one or two, because I had my way of learning.

I am good at mathematics, but also the most prone to error, but I also love mental calculation, right! Do the math, see the simple formula on calculating, finally or wrong. The awards are a lot less than before, because of carelessness. I will not be here now, I will be very careful! Listen carefully in class, speak diligently in class and write carefully: do not be lazy and work hard. So dont be lazy like me. In addition, you can learn a number of Olympic Games, but I won the prize. My language is the most difficult, every time N points, harm my fart follow the disaster! Now I come to a conclusion: the first topic, dont panic, calm to grasp the main points; category and do not deviate from the direction of the center. When writing a composition, as long as the guarantee is not beside the point, the rapid design material is busy, dont start as much as early as possible, writing the first line. Straight to the most clear, the chest has a chapter heart do not panic. Body and mind focus on the mind, the most jealous of the destruction of the article. The end strives to be new and good, the first and the end is not long. A good man is a good article.

Learning to climb mountains, there are many ways, such as walking, car, feeling is different. This is my study method, if what is not suitable, please teach more!

一、以读促写

英语写作作为一个高度复杂的产出性活动一直以来是高中生英语学习中的一个难题。以读促写法能有效地拓展词汇量，丰富写作素材、习得写作技巧、提高遣词造句的能力以及培养语感和篇章结构意识。

（一）精选阅读材料

在我们的英语课本中有许多贴近学生学习生活的文章和语言表达地道、优美的句子。教师应充分提炼利用好这些文章和句子，以此来充分调动学生的阅读兴趣。教师可以对所学的语言材料进行重组，结合相关的语境供学生阅读，更可在教学语篇时丰富一些幽默、趣味的材料。

（二）围绕课文，开辟以“读”引“写”的路径

换位性训练：我们阅读课文时，习惯站在作者的立场上，循着作者的思路去考察、理解课文中的人和事。换位训练就是让学生转换一个角度、从自己的立场和经历来表现内容。如在教完阅读文章后，我便让学生进行换位练笔，从自己的经历出发仿写。

（三）读后摘要——英语写作由简单起步

目前，学生写作中存在的问题首先表现在心理上，大部分学生对英语写作有畏惧心理，为了避免这种心理，教师的指导就得避免从语法角度着手，而应着力培养学生遣词造句的能力。摘要写作可谓是一种既简单又有实效的方法，操作起来也很方便。

（四）读后仿写——写作须从模仿开始

大多数学生的作文

（五）化解写作中的难点

在语篇上，学生谋篇布局的能力较弱，不懂得在写作中使用过渡、转折手段将主题有机地连接起来，文章前后往往缺乏照应。学生必须在教师的指导下多阅读，通过学会怎样分析文章结构，怎样恰当地运用连词，怎样正确地使用词组，怎样利用所学知识论证观点，让学生掌握英语写作的基本能力，从而创造出连贯统一、符合逻辑的作文。

（六）鉴赏语句或篇章——在感悟中提升写作能力

大量的阅读可以提高阅读速度，扩大词汇量。另一方面，它还可以增强英语语感，对英语写作起着潜移默化的作用。在阅读时，可以从精美的文章中获取好的词语、句型及表达法，把它们记下来，并加以分析鉴赏，熟读成诵，并有意识地将它们应用到自己的作文中。

二、以写促读

以“写”来促进阅读除了有利于加深对阅读材料的理解外，还有利于提高学生用英语表达思想的能力和运用所学语言的准确性。只要应用得当，且引导学生积极配合，那么通过“写”来促进高中英语阅读教学质量的提高是可以实现并且高效的。在教学过程中，我们可以通过以下措施来进行“以写促读”的训练。

（一）课文填空

课文填空是指在根据课文改编或缩编的短文中进行填空，要求学生在空格中填写恰当的词语—关键词、词语搭配等，以使短文结构完整，意思连贯，符合课文原意。这样的练习可在课堂上进行，也可在课外进行。如在课堂上进行，教师可先利用教学投影（PPT）呈现带空格的课文，进行集体填写或部分学生口头填写，然后进行全班笔头填写。这样可降低难度，帮助学困生完成填写任务。

（二）听写、默写

对于课文中一些精彩的字、词、句子或段落，及新句型和长难句，教师可以采用听写或默写的方式，促进学生对文本的再次或多次阅读。学生对新学词语、句型和难句理解到位了，那么对课文的理解也必然随之加深，“写”也就起到了促“读”的作用。

（三）精华摘抄

对于阅读课文中的精彩句子和段落，教师可要求学生做好摘抄和记录，这样做的益处是促使学生有目的地鉴赏、阅读课文、通过阅读关注英语思维与汉语思维的异同，欣赏英文独特的表达方式，体验英语语言的美感。让学生学会欣赏优美的语言本身就是一种文化熏陶。

（四）课文缩写

课文缩写是原文的精华和梗概，这就要求学生要先通过多次阅读文本，透彻理解课文，把握课文主线，将课文内容用自己的语言加工和理解方式表达出。课文缩写有助于增强学生对课文的理解并提高阅读技能。

（五）课文仿写

课文仿写指的是模仿课文格式写类似文章。在仿写过程中教师应注意指导学生尽量模仿课文中所新学词语的正确用法，句型使用、段落、篇章的合理布局，以便更好地达到以写促读的目的。

（六）写读后感

在学习过课文之后，可让学生讲获得的感受、体会以及受到的教育、启迪等写下来。读后感的重点在“感”字上，那么“读”是“感”的前提，“感”是“读”的结果。因此，学生要对课文进行多次的阅读，才能准确地理解原作，把握要点，是写好读后感的前提和基础。

总之，在高中英语教学中，写作教学应该和阅读教学放在同等重要的位置。不仅教师要高度重视，而且要促使学生把它放在一个重要的位置上。在日常教学中，我们不仅要扩大学生的阅读量，而且更应该关注学生的写作实践和写作过程。只要方法正确，学生的阅读和习作能力都会有所提升。

比你成绩差的人未必处处比你差，他们之中也有你学习的地方，你必须分清什么样的是造成他们不如你的原因，就不要学。而提炼出来他们身上的精华。你可以找一本笔记本，把自己所有的写作练习都写在上面，你可以时不时翻看前面的写作练习，看看自己比之前有了哪些进步，也可以反省一下自己是否在同一个失误上跌倒多次。当然，如果你更喜欢用电脑打字的话，你可以把写作练习传到博客或者，尤其是后者，可以帮助你利用网站日历跟踪写作进度。上海初二学生找好的作文补习班|好的初中作文家教推荐思：指有的时候要想，做到低头看书，抬头思考，手在写题，脑在思考。做：在看的过程中，需要动手做的准备工作以及对课本后的练习题要进行尝试性的做一做。问答题答一答。

以上是关于学习方法的一般性的建议，它们对于各门功课都是适用的。但是，具体到不同的人、不同的课程，还应该结合实际情况摸索适宜的学习方法。比如，应该根据同的学科选择合适的学习方法。文科、理科的学习方法会不一样；同是文科，英语和历史、地理的学习方法也应该有所差异。上海初二学生找好的作文补习班|好的初中作文家教推荐亲自推导公式数学课程中有大量的公式，有的课本上有推导过程；有的课本上没有推导过程，只是把公式的-初形式写出来，然后说一句，“经推导可得”，就把结果式子写出来了。搞好了务学与求道的关系，是使自己永远更新知识，丰富自己的头脑的必要条件，也是不断保持-新、-适用于自己的学习方法的要点。坚持思考与学习同步发展代表着先进的学习方法的发展要求，代表着先进学习理论的前进方向，代表了掌握-广大知识的能力水平。务学与求道必须协调发展，二者要同步实施，同步发展。我建议高中同学们买一本牛津字典或朗文字典。一是查阅不懂的词，不光是看音标、注释，还要看例子；二是看英文注释，用英语解释英语，要比用汉语解释得更明确。如果你拿不准over和above的区别，看一下英文注释就很明白了，不信去试一下。有些学生虽能预习，但看起书来似走马观花，不动脑、不分析。这种预习一点也达不到效果。 发现自己知识上的薄弱环节，在上课前补上这部分的知识，不使它成为听课时的“拌脚石”。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

中考就快到了，小编为大家整理了中考作文的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一. 审题技巧

1. 重视概念的内涵。话题有时是以一个概念形式出现的，比如“诚信”“欣赏”“选择”等。概念都具有特定的内涵，忽视了概念内涵就有走题之虞。

如以“风”为话题作文，提示语中已经列举了“哈韩风”“武侠风”“学风”“校风”等例子，指的是一种社会现象，就不能将“风”理解为一种自然现象，如果错误理解内涵，作文之始就误入歧途了。

2. 重视背景语的指向。背景语往往是命题者着意营造的一种情境，不同的背景语引发的思维走向是不同的。只有审清了背景语的思维指向，才能保证写作中的思维模式与文章内在文脉的贯通。

3. 重视提示语的暗示。作文一般都有限制，这些限制多出现在提示语中。

二. 扣题技巧

我们都要明确，任何题目都有限制，扣题是写好作文的第一要务。实现扣题写作，可以从如下方面人手：

1. 标题嵌入法。所谓标题嵌入法，就是指在文章的题目中嵌入或体现话题的字眼。命题作文不存在这个问题，但话题作文、材料作文需要我们自己拟题，半命题作支需要我们自己填写题目，所以我们在拟题或填题的时候就要将题目限定在命题者设定的范围内。

2. 开篇切入法。所谓开篇切入法，就是指在文章的开头部分就点明话题或文章的主旨。清人李渔《闲情偶寄》中言：“场中作文，开卷之初，当以奇句夺目使之一见而惊，不敢弃去。”这里的“开卷之初”即开篇，这里的“奇句”，或是点明“话题”的词语，或是鲜明的观点、明确的主旨 。如议论文的开门见山提出论点(论题)，记叙文的开篇点题，散文的开篇“文眼”等。

4. 结尾回归法。所谓结尾回归法，就是指在文章结尾处对“话题”进行归纳概括或深化。像议论文结尾处的归纳总结观点或深化观点，或解决问题，或提出希望等;记叙文结尾处的画龙点晴的议论或抒情;散文结尾处含蓄深刻，言尽意犹未穷的语句等。

三：语言表达技巧

中考作文语言要精彩，首先要灵活地调动语言的表现力;其次是运用好的修辞，把生动的比喻，大气磅礴的排比，风趣幽默的仿词，语意含蕴曲折的双关等穿插全文;再次是用心调配句式，将长句短句、整句散句巧妙配合，营造音韵美。

1. 精心锤炼词语。要使语言鲜明生动，新颖脱俗，应尽可能选用那些具体、形象、内涵丰富的词语来写景状物、表情达意，尤其要重视对动词、形容词的锤炼。

2. 巧用修辞。巧妙运用修辞手法，可化抽象为具体，变枯燥为生机，化腐朽为神奇。如比喻的巧妙运用：

“如血的残阳像一位戴着红斗笠的侠客。”“晚霞飘落在天边，宛如一匹红丝绸，召唤着从远古走来的吹箫人。”这是描写“飞天”壁画而运用的绝妙比喻，不能不佩服作者比喻的新奇，想象力的丰富。又如比喻加排比：

生活如海，宽容作舟，泛舟于海，方知海之宽阔;

生活如山，宽容为径，循径登山，方知山之高大;

生活如歌，宽容是曲，和曲而歌，方知歌之动听。

3. 独创巧妙佳句。这是根据文章表达的需要创新语言的一种方法。比如：“班主任老师又在喋喋不休地向我们批发人生意义的补充版。”

“天醉了，映红了天边，云是山的使者吧，把风扯来醒酒，却弄醒水波粼剡。”上述创新出来的佳句妙语，读后如饮醇酒，给人以极美的艺术享受。

4.力求含蓄蕴藉。含蓄的语言耐人寻味，含英咀华，如嚼橄榄。

比如：“海浪不回避礁石的撞击，才得以壮观;人生不拒绝遗憾的存在，才得以明达。”

“认识自己是每个人的必修课，否则我们就会像乌云下生长的花儿，失去了充满阳光的世界。请牢记：是鱼儿，就不要向往天空;是鸟儿，就不要留恋海洋。”这类警策性的话语，于形象中蕴涵哲思，含蓄隽永，优美凝练。

试想，阅卷老师看到有如此成熟思想的文字，怎能不为之动情呢?

5.巧妙引用活用。名言名句，是语言的精华，对于文章创作有着非凡而绝妙的效用。适当引用能使文章意蕴深厚，神采飞扬。如：

李商隐有诗日：“夕阳无限好，只是近黄昏。”我惊讶于他的洞察力，然而，夕阳下互相搀扶的老夫老妻却是天底下最美的风景。

在这个充满活力的岁月里，好想好想划着竹筏，迂回于“山如碧玉簪，水作青罗带”的绮丽风光，穿梭于“两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山”的画廊，或许这里的某个地方会出现“天街小雨润如酥，草色遥看近却无”的奇丽景象，或许还有人愿再作一次“只缘身在此山中”的妙论。

“黄发垂髫，并怡然自乐”，这是五柳先生心中和谐美丽的桃源美景;“舍南舍北皆春水，但见群鸥日日来”，这足杜陵野老浣花溪畔的安宁生活;“浓妆淡抹总相宜”，这是东坡居士留给西湖的最和谐、最完美的评价。

6.凸显个性特色，写出自己的个性如果你是多愁善感的人，那么尽量写诗意的文字;如果你以能言善辩见长，那你不妨多些议论;如果你天性活泼幽默感强，那也不要浪费自己的特点，就多些生动的叙述和描写吧。

游记，是中学生感到最难写的一类作文，因为随着游程的行进，耳闻目睹的情景不胜枚举，很难将材料组织得当，往往写成流水账。如何将自己的游程清清楚楚、有详有略的记叙？如何避免将游记写成景点介绍？这些都是我们今天要谈的问题。

国庆长假你是否游历了祖国的名山大川？是否踏访了华夏的文明古迹？是否流连于桂林的山水中？是否沉醉在丽江的灯影里……旅游，丰富了我们的生活，增长了我们的见识。当我们结束愉快的旅程后，烦恼接踵而来。父母和老师往往不会让我们“白”游一场，写篇作文当作“总结”与“汇报”常常成了旅游的“附件”。

最让大家头疼的是旅游涉及的时间长，景点多，如何才能写得不像流水账，又有自己的特点呢？

首先是“舍”。只有学会舍弃，才能有重点的描写。景点太多，一一赘述很难做到详细、具体。只有突出最有特色的地方才能写出特点，写清游历的情况。例如，你到云南旅游，一路走来，昆明的石林、大理的洱海、丽江的古城，还有玉龙雪山，处处皆景。你必须忍痛割爱，选择其中的一个作为写作的重点，其他最多用一两句话带过。只有这样你才能把游历的情况说清楚。

其次是“短”。这个“短”，不是指的篇幅短，而是指文章涉及的时间跨度要短。不要从出发开始写，一直写到全天的游程结束。这样无端生出的枝节会很多，烦扰了自己的思路。就从你到达这个景点写起，写到景点游览结束。时间的集中会有助于你更好地组织材料，突出景点的特色。

再次是“真”。这一点是同学们最容易忽略，也是最能体现写作水平的。很多人以为写游记就是把景点的情况告诉别人。其实不然。游记，就是游历的记录，更强调了自己独特的游览感受。游览同一个地方，大人和孩子的感受会不同，男生和女生游览的感觉也有差异。怎样将自己的独特感受表达出来呢？那就是将自己游览过程中的“发现”写出来。这些发现可以是“摸一摸”“闻一闻”“听一听”“找一找”，甚至是“猜一猜”，也就是把你游览时的所见、所做、所闻、所思写下来。游记最忌讳的就是通篇景物描写，有了自己的活动出现在游览的过程中那才是属于你自己的游览经历。

最后是“趣”。旅游之所以能吸引人，首先就是有趣味。那么，你的游记也要把你在游历过程中感受到的趣味表达出来。这种“趣味”的内涵很广：可以是放肆的玩耍，可以是悠闲的漫步，可以是滑稽的场面，亦可以是别样的风俗……只要是觉得有意思的就不妨多写两笔，把自己的快乐和大家分享！

掌握了以上“四字”要诀，估计再提笔写游记你就有了一些头绪了吧？

最后还有一个很重要的事情要交代：任何游记，对于景点的环境描写是必不可少的部分，这里可要写得细致生动哦。

1、organize your thoughts before writing: brainstorm、make an outline、etc。 下笔前整合思绪：脑力激荡，写出纲要等。

2、write clearly。 be concise。 avoid wordiness。写作清晰，务必精简，避免赘言。

3、use good grammar and write complete sentences。 使用好的文法，写出完整句子。

4、write simple sentences。 avoid a fancy style。 尝试简单句，避免花俏的句法。

5、avoid slang、cliche and informal words。 避免俚语、陈腔滥调和非正式用字。

6、avoid use of the first person (i。e。 i/me/my) unless necessary to specific piece。除非必要，避免使用第一人称：如“我/我的”。

7、writing naturally。 read it aloud。 does it sound natural? does it flow? 自然挥洒，大声朗诵。整篇文章听起来自然吗?通顺吗?

8、move logically from one idea to the next。 dont skip steps。 上下句意要合乎逻辑。别毫无章法乱跳。

[坚持八条英语作文的写作守则

写好记叙文，应掌握记叙的四个要素，即时间、地点、人物和事件。下面是小编分享的关于小学生写景记叙文的写作方法，欢迎大家阅读！

（一）要写出有特色的景物

一般来说，景物是各有特色的。同样都是公园，但每个公园都有各自的独特之处。例如，北海公园的白塔、九龙壁、颐和园的香阁、十七孔桥；天坛公园的祈年殿、回音壁；紫竹院公园的竹子；香山公园的红叶等。同样是山，我国的四大名山各领风骚，独具特色。同样是水，长江、黄河源远流长，孕育了中华文明数千载。或烟波浩渺、横无涯际；或奔腾咆哮、气势磅礴。这些景色都以其特有的鲜明的特点闻名于世，只有把它们的独特之处描绘出来，才能给人一种身临其境之感，使人得到美的陶冶和享受。

（二）要学会观察

写景作文和看图作文有相似之处，都是以观察作为写作的前提。观察景物与观察图画不同，观察景物要确定观察点，也就是观察景物的立足点。观察点不同，所看到的景物也就不同。宋代文学家苏轼有《题西林壁》：“横看成岭侧成峰，远近高低各不同。不识庐山真面目，只缘身在此山中。”由于观赏庐山的角度不同，所看到的景象，所获得的感受也就迥然不同了.

（三）要借助想象和联想

（四）写景要抒情

写景，不仅是客观事物的再现，更是作者主观感情的外观。景是外在的，情是内在的，正所谓“情随物迁，辞以情发”。景是情产生的基础，情是景的产物。因此，要求小学生不要单纯写景，而是要借助景物，抒发一定的思想感情。当然，这种感情必须发自内心，而不是无病呻吟。

（五）怎样状物

状物作文，是小学生作文训练中的一个重要项目。所谓状物，就是具体、形象地描写物体的特征、形态、色彩、质地等。这个物还应该包括动物、植物等类。由于不同的物有不同的特点，所以状物的方法也不一样。

提高孩子的写作技巧，这好象是一个老大难问题，一直以来都困扰着众多的学生、老师和家长。大家都觉得，要提高写作的能力是一件很不容易的事。

国外的孩子一样有这方面的困扰，不少孩子也苦于不会写作。针对这个问题，教育专家詹妮弗-李提出了一些建议供大家参考。

给孩子准备一个安静、亲切的环境，作为写作的专用区域。当然这里面要具备一些必要的设备：书桌、字典、笔、一些纸，如果可能的话还可以准备一台电脑。这些准备不仅是必要的，同时还可以由此告诉你的孩子，你认为写作是一件有意义的、特别的活动。

孩子需要机会去尝试写各种各样类型的文章，而不是只盯着一种文体来练习。

你可以让孩子给他的好朋友写一封友好的信，给玩具公司写一封信提出自己的一点要求，或写一封邀请亲戚来吃饭的信。这样孩子可以看到自己写作真的取得了成果，就会对写作产生好感。

另外一个鼓励孩子写作的好办法，就是让他写日记。这种方法可以帮助孩子形成写作的个人风格。但你和孩子要约定好，别的家庭成员是否可以读他的日记。如果你答应孩子不看他的日记，那么就一定要保护他的隐私。

还有一个可以帮助提高孩子写作技巧的办法——电脑软件。现在有很多出色的软件，里面提供故事的开头、想象画以及段落结构的建议等内容，这些都可以激发孩子自己写作的愿望和灵感。

许多孩子都经历过写作的瓶颈状态——即脑子里一片空白，不知道写什么好的情况。比如孩子被要求写一个有创造性的故事，但他不能想出有什么有趣的东西可写。这时父母就可以帮助孩子了。可以给孩子一本笔记本，记下平时突然产生的奇特想法，家人开的玩笑，或者是描述一幅以前的具有纪念价值的相片。也可以让孩子从杂志中获得有用的点子。

一旦孩子决定了一个文章的主题，就应该让孩子先写一下草稿或是打一下腹稿。这样可以保证所有要写的重要细节都包括到文章里去了，并且可以调整文章的结构，你还可以就草稿跟孩子一起谈论，寻找最好的写法。在学校里，老师也用各种办法，帮助孩子在开始写文章之前，先组织好要写的内容。

家长还可以和孩子一起朗读不同文体的好作品，比如诗歌、小说、新闻故事甚至是一封有趣的信，只要是孩子会感兴趣的东西都可以。无论是大人还是孩子，在阅读了大量的好的作品之后，都会在写作上学到很多东西。

通过阅读，家长可以问孩子：“你喜欢什么样的作品?不喜欢什么样的作品?”“文章的作者能抓住读者的注意力吗?”“你觉得这个题目有意思吗?”这样可以提高孩子的兴趣。鼓励孩子认识到写作是一个不断发展的过程，写作水平也不是一成不变的，而是可以通过努力不断提高的。告诉孩子可以从对已有作品的改写、缩写、扩写中，开始自己的写作。

孩子需要在完成自己文章之后的一、两天，甚至更长时间以后，再回头看看。这样做可以让孩子用一种全新的眼光来看待自己的作品，发现其中的错误和被遗漏的细节。

一个作家在写作时要考虑，自己写的内容是否切题?所有的细节都包括进去了吗?描写太多会不会显得罗嗦?孩子虽然不是专业作家，但这些问题也需要想一想。

让孩子把自己完成的文章大声地读一遍，如果他自己不能发现其中的明显错误，那么就需要有人为他再读一遍，好让他自己意识到错在哪里。还要注意孩子在文章中有没有错别字。

爸爸妈妈还要为保持孩子的写作积极性做一些努力。比如在孩子犯错误的时候给他一些口头上的批评，但注意重点在为孩子指出错误，而不是教训他。还可以把孩子的好作品贴在墙上，让每一个来家里的人都能看见，这对孩子是一种奖励。这样孩子很快就可以体会到写作的重要和乐趣了。那么他的写作水平就自然会提高。

话题作文通常给出一段材料，但它与材料作文又有着本质的不同。在材料作文中，文章的主旨要与所提供的材料吻合，立意必须从材料中归纳出来。而话题作文中所提供的材料，则是对话题所作的直观、形象的解说，是用来启发思考，激发想象，它所规定的只是一个宽泛、开放的范围，而不是具体的角度，对审题立意、确立主旨没有具体的规定和限制。

所以在话题作文中，学生不需要直接就原材料进行分析，不需要直接通过原材料进行升华主题，不需要直接通过原材料进行阐述，甚至可以绕开原材料，只要文章是围绕着话题就行。如果在写作中只是在原材料上饶圈子，“克隆”原材料，不能引发新的议论，展开新的联想，讲述新的故事，抒发新的感情，不能写“起点以外的东西”（自己的东西）；或者是简单而蹩脚地援引原材料，显然是写作的大忌了，势必影响文章的表达效果。

但这并不是说学生可以无视题中原材料的存在，不对材料进行分析，天马行空，这样的文章也是难以获取高分的。以2001年的高考作文为例，所给的材料暗示年轻人丢掉诚信是不应该的，那么文章如果采取逆向思维就非常危险。虽然话题作文为考生展示自己的生活经验和感受，展开联想与想象，提供了广阔的思维空间，但同样也是“戴着枷锁跳舞”。

正确的做法是，应在深刻把握原材料的基础上，在行文过程中灵活处理，选择自己熟悉的材料从而更好地表现话题。比如2001年著名的满分作文《赤兔之死》构思奇巧，作者以大家熟悉的三国故事为基础，编撰了赤兔马为诚信而殒身的感人故事，表现了“真英雄必讲诚信”的主题，紧扣了话题意旨。这篇作文的成功就是建立在作者准确把握话题、熟悉历史故事的前提下的。还有一部分考生选择了自己的经历和故事。如2002年湖南某考生的满分作文《凤凰的选择》为例，作者以自己的高考失败后的重新选择来记叙一段艰难困苦而又打动灵魂的心路历程。文章充满真挚感人的情感力量，语句优美，打动人心。

导语：下面是小编整理的中学生记叙文的写作方法，欢迎大家阅读参考!

一、什么是记叙文

对中学生而言,记叙文是一种比较熟练也比较容易掌握的文体。然而，我在阅卷中也常常看到文体感不强的记叙文。例如1994年的高考作文，要求以“尝试”为题，写一篇不少于700字的记叙文。可是，有不少文章或叙议并重，平分秋色;或议论过多，喧宾夺主;或叙少议多，本末倒置。据江苏省高考语文阅卷点的粗略统计，该省20万考生中，不符合文体要求的有3%之多。有的考生，其选材的眼光就决定了他不可能写出像样的记叙文。例如，有一位考生，写同学到“我”家来玩，因为父母不在家，“我们”就自己“尝试”着包饺子，一篇700多字的文章，用了23个“再”字：先弄一点面粉，再加水，再揉，再搓，再擀成饺皮……先把菜剁碎，再加一点盐，再加一点酱油……尽管文章也是有头有尾，清楚完整，但却很难说是一篇记叙文，而是比较典型的“怎样包饺子”的程序说明文。当年，许多写“尝试”着做一个物理实验、化学实验，“尝试”着解剖一只青蛙、一条鲫鱼的作文，严格地说来都不是记叙文，而是说明文或应用文。

记叙文以叙述、描写为主要表达方式，运用形象思维的手段，通过叙事、记人、写景、状物等来反映丰富多彩的现实生活。

二、记叙文的特点

1. 创造性

这可以从三个方面来理解：

首先，记叙文虽然不像文学作品那样，对生活现象进行集中概括，通过典型形象来反映生活;而是常常选择日常生活中的那些亲眼所见、亲身经历、亲自体验过的生活内容作为写作的材料;但是，这决不意味着作者可以把现成的生活材料照抄到文章中去，决不意味着作者不需要对生活材料进行加工改造、提炼生发;相反，这是把生活材料转化成文章的必不可少的“工序”。这种加工改造、提炼生发的过程，包含着作者大量的创造性劳动。以写作成品形式出现的记叙文，不可能是客观生活的翻版，也不仅是作者心灵的视像，它是饱和着作者心血的精神产品，是作者心灵和客观事物遇合所孕育出来的创造物。

其次，记叙文是用语言文字作为传达的媒介的，从本质上看，记叙文就是某种经验(外在世界的人、事，内在世界的思想、情感等)的陈述，运用语言文字进行叙述，本身就是一种创造。语言文字无法代替真实存在，语言化了的世界就不再是真实存在的世界本身。将真实存在转化成语言文字的工作，就是一种创造性的工作。

第三，把真实存在转化成语言文字可以有千万种不同的方式，选用哪一种方式，即最后完成的文章是何种模样，其中必然包含着作者个人心灵的运作。因此，任何记叙文总是不可避免地带有作者个人心灵的色彩，正如苏联作家秋切夫所说：“我在一切之中，一切之中都有我。”所以，我认为，尽管记叙文是客观世界的反映，但这种反映，又总是和作者个人的创造性劳动结合在一起的，是通过作者个人的创造性劳动来反映的。

用语言文字把生活材料转化成记叙文，本身就包含创造性因素在内，如果在转化的方式上能够别出心裁，与众不同，其创造的程度就愈高。所以，写好记叙文的关键，一是要选择新颖的材料，二是要采用新颖的写法。

2. 形象性

议论文是以抽象的概念、判断、推理来揭示事物的本质，表达对生活的认识，它在许多具体的个别的事物中概括、抽取共同的特点，而把产生这些认识所依赖的一个个具体的个别的表象留置在作品之外。记叙文则恰恰相反，它往往抓住具体的个别的事物“做文章”。所以，它以叙述、描写为主要的表达方式，即使偶用议论，其目的也是为了“画龙点睛”，并且也往往是在画好全龙以后，才去轻轻一“点”。在这里，“龙身”是主体，是基础。

记叙文要靠具体的形象去感染读者。叙述，必须清楚地交代事情的来龙去脉、前因后果以及具体的发展过程;描写，必须使读者如见其人，如闻其声，如触其物，如食其味，历历可感，如在目前。在记叙文写作中，创造场面是最基本的手段。因为说到底记叙文总是要在纵横两个方面来组织结构，纵就是时间的延续，横就是空间的展开，而场面就是对人或物在特定的时空中存在或活动状况的描述。只有组织起一连串的场面，记叙文才能获得生动具体的形象感。

所以，那种连贯、整一、富有动态感的材料，是记叙文最需要的材料。对短小的记叙文来说，就更是如此。那种千里来龙，百年纷争式的材料，不是记叙文的好材料，记叙文需要的是缩时间于一瞬，寓空间于一隅的短小精悍的材料。

3. 情趣性

从格调上来说，记叙文不像议论文那样庄重严肃，也不像说明文那样冷静客观，它追求的是以情动人，以趣逗人。从选材方面来看，记叙文并不要求一定要选择重大题材，而往往是从日常生活中选择富有情趣的凡人小事，作者往往通过对凡人小事的记述，来寄寓自己的感情，来表现丰富多彩的现实生活的某一侧面。从表现手法方面来看，记叙文追求的是引人入胜的表达效果，它要求把写作内容表现得曲折生动，意趣盎然。有时，记叙文也传达作者对某种事理的认识，但是，它一般不展开直接的议论，而是把这种认识潜藏在具体的生活画面之中。它通过具体形象的描绘，潜移默化地影响读者，从情感、情趣方面去晕染读者，让读者用审美的眼光去领悟作品的意蕴。

在写作记叙文的时候，写人，最好要选择那些内心情感丰富复杂的人物作为描写对象;写事，固然要注意事件本身的脉络，但更要注意流荡在事件中的情感线索，特别要注意选择富有情感内涵的细节来充实、丰满事件的血肉;写景、状物，固然要注意准确地描摹景物的外在状态，但更重要的是，要写出客观景物与主观感受的“化合”。

三、写好记叙文的关键：选材

写好记叙文的关键是选材，选到了一个好的材料，文章就成功了一半。那么，什么样的材料才是记叙文最需要的材料呢?

1.要选择有较强的情感内涵的材料

老舍先生说过：“小说是情感的记录，而不是事实的重述。”记叙文写作也是如此。事件，线索等等仅仅是记叙文的表层结构，其深层结构是充溢其中的情感内涵。事件、线索等等仅仅是承载情感内涵的框架，真正感动人的是蕴含在框架中的情感。为什么有的文章看起来也是有头有尾，清楚完整，但就是清淡无味，不生动，不感人呢?最关键的一点就是其中缺乏深厚的情感。在“记叙经历”的文章中，最好要选择富有情感内涵的经历。那些没有情感内涵的“经历”不是记叙文的好材料。把一次一般性的大扫除的经过记叙得再详细，把一次实验课的过程描写得再具体，把一次郊游的经历写得再热闹，如果其中不流淌在真挚的情感，也是不可能动人的。因为“感人心者，莫先乎情”(白居易语)。

1988年的高考作文题是《习惯》，文体不限。这与近两年的话题作文有点相似。当年不少写记叙文的考生都选择了写老师。应该说，这是一种比较聪明的选择。因为阅卷的是老师，写老师容易博得好感。然而，写老师的什么呢?不少考生都是这样写的：到了晚上，某老师又习惯性地坐到了窗前的书桌旁，照例开始备课、改作业。这样的材料其实没有什么写头，因为它只是在表扬老师的敬业精神，在情感上没有什么特别的动人之处。试想，一位老师晚上不去备课、改作业，而是去跳舞、搓麻将，会是一位好老师吗?可是，有一位考生的选材却不同凡响，他写道：新学期开学了，王老师又像往常一样来到了学校，当他快到教室门口时，突然想起自己已经退休了。于是，只好悻悻地回了家。第二天一早，他又准备到学校去了，但这一回他记起自己已经退休了，他应该在家“挎垮篮子，生生炉子、抱抱孙子”了。可是，他在家里犹如芒刺在背，坐立不安，什么事也干不了。他老是惦记着他的学生。于是，他又来到了他任教的教室旁。他要看一看他的学生。然而，他又怕影响正在听课的学生。于是，他蹑手蹑脚地来到了教室的窗下，躲在那里听学生上课的情况……这样的选材就要高明得多了。因为这个材料中饱含着王老师对学生的梦萦魂牵的一腔深情，这是一个老教育工作者挥之不去、无法排解的对教育事业的真情。这样的选材与晚上备课、改作业，不是一个精神等级，不可同日而语。由此可见，只有那些饱含情感内涵的材料，才是记叙文真正需要的材料。

那么，在“记叙经历”时，可以写哪些情感呢?

从程度方面来说，可以写温情、热情、激情等等;从类属方面来说，可以写亲情、友情、爱情等等。要把文章写得激动人心，要使文章具有较强的情感冲击力，在选材时还要注意以下几点：

(1)要写那些人人都能感知、体会的人之常情。情感虽然是一种说不清、道不明的内在感觉，但是“人同此心，情同此理”，这就是情感具有可体验性的生理、心理基础。有许多情感内容是人们共有的，共通的，传达这样的情感，就会激起别人的共鸣，就会使人感动。例如，1999年江苏的高考优秀作文《伤心儿女》一文，写三个不孝儿女，在母亲的弥留之际，不是给母亲留下最后一点安慰，而是通过移植母亲的记忆，寻找母亲的遗产，然而，他们在母亲的记忆中，却看到了母亲的艰辛，母爱的伟大，母亲的忍辱负重，看到了自己的丑陋。母亲的记忆，荡涤了不孝儿女灵魂深处的污垢，于是，他们的灵魂也得到了升华。对父母的孝顺，是埋藏在中华民族心灵深处最深厚的感情，写这样的内容，最能激起人的共鸣。这篇作文，在阅卷现场就使许多阅卷教师感动得热泪盈眶，在媒体发表以后，又广为传诵，被视为当年全国高考的最佳作文。其中最主要的一点，就是它所传达的情感打动了千千万万人的心。

(2)要写那种超出常规的强烈的反常合道的情感。有时候，人物的所作所为与一般的人不一样，似乎不大正常，但这种反常的行为中往往包含着强烈的情感。这种情感具有很强的冲击力，往往给人留下难以忘怀的印象。例如，上面说的那位退休的王老师，在一般人看来是有点不大正常，这么大年龄了，居然蹑手蹑脚躲在窗户下听课。但是，正是从这反常的举动中，我们看到了他对学生执着的爱，看到了他对教育事业的痴迷，并对他产生了崇高的敬意。相反，那种一到晚上就坐到窗前备课，改作业的老师，正因为他们的合常、平常、正常，反而激不起我们情感的涟漪。当情理冲突，必须舍理取情的时候;当正确与正确之战，必然要舍弃一方，形成悲剧冲突的时候;当人物对某种事物痴迷、执着到难舍难分而与常规的做法不一样的时候;情感就开始动人了。《灌园叟晚逢仙女》中爱花如命的“花痴”，《聊斋志异》中的书痴、石痴、鸟痴、情痴，都是这方面的典范，我们应该从中得到启发。

(3)情感要能产生振荡和分化。文似看山不喜平，那种一览无余的、直线发展的情感，缺少回环蕴藉的美感，很难使人产生情感的激荡。因此，在描述情感的时候，要尽量展示情感的曲折和波澜，一步一步把读者引入情感的旋涡。

2.要选择有较深的主题潜能的材料

所谓主题，是指文章使用的材料所蕴含的基本意义以及作者通过对材料的思考、体验所传达的基本思想和评价。前者是主题的客观性，也就是说，这种基本意义是材料本身所固有的;后者是主题的主观性，是指作者对材料内涵的洞见开掘。主题是客观性和主观性的结合。所以鲁迅先生要求“选材要严，开掘要深”。选材和立意是记叙文写作中两个重要的环节，他们处于互相影响的联动状态。材料选得好，为开掘主题提供了最大的可能性;主题的开掘和深化，又反过来制约、促进材料的选择和加工。就选材这一环节而言，和选择矿点的道理是一样的，矿藏的深厚度如何，质量如何，有无开采价值，这都是打井前需要认真考虑的。有些考生在选材时往往只考虑是否切题，却很少考虑材料的主题潜能，正如鲁迅先生批评的那样：“将一些琐屑的没有意思的事故，便填成一篇。”这样的文章当然不可能获得高分。有时候，同一材料，在不同的作者手里，可以写出主题深浅不一的作品。但是，也有不少材料，本身并不具有什么内涵，无论你怎样妙笔生花，也很难开掘出多深的主题来。这就提示我们，在选材的时候，一定要事先估测一下材料的主题潜能，看看它们有没有可开发性。

举一个例子来说吧。1994年的高考作文《尝试》，不少考生写的都是尝试着学骑车，学游泳，学烧饭做菜，学干农活等等。这样的材料固然也切题，却没有什么可以深层开发的主题潜能，充其量也就是告诉人们“只要去尝试，就可能成功”的道理。而这样的道理是人们共知的常理，是相当肤浅的，它并没有为人们提供新的认识和新的启示。这是材料本身的局限。

那么，怎样才能选择到具有丰富的主题潜能的材料呢?

(1)要摒弃老套的选材思路，开拓选材的视野。比如，写《灯下》，就不要只是想到自己或别人在台灯下刻苦读书;写“假如记忆可以移植”，就不要只想到不劳而获地去移植名人的记忆。这一类老套的材料本身的主题容量就很小，当然更谈不上新意了。其实，每一个题目，每一个话题，可写的材料很多。就拿《灯下》来说吧;灯，可以有电灯、油灯、路灯、探照灯、聚光灯等等多种多样的灯;人们在灯下也可以做各种各样的事。“假如记忆可以移植”，本来就是一个开放性极强的话题，可写的东西太多太多了。为什么非要去一窝蜂地移植别人的记忆呢，可不可以把自己的记忆移植给别人呢?为什么非要去移植名人、伟人的记忆呢，可不可以移植普通人的记忆呢?移植了别人的记忆，人物双方会发生些什么事呢?……一旦把思路打开，选材的天地是非常广阔的。当年，有的考生要把自己游历祖国名山大川的美好记忆移植给自己从来没有出过门的奶奶，让她也体会一下祖国美好河山的大好风光;有的考生要把自己看到的万紫千红、五彩缤纷的大千世界的记忆移植给从小失明的“小弟弟”;有的考生要把自己聆听美妙音乐的记忆移植给从小失聪的“小妹妹”。角度一变，境界全出。

(2)要善于从日常的生活小事中发现具有丰富内涵的材料。中学生的生活阅历当然不可能太丰富，但是，“对于我们来说，生活中不是缺少美，而是缺少发现”(罗丹语)。其实，具有丰富内涵的写作材料无处不在，关键是作者要有一双善于发现的眼睛。也正因为中学生的生活阅历不够丰富，就更需要从日常的生活小事中去发现有意义的材料。从某种意义上来说，愈是能从细小的生活现象中发现深邃的内涵，其作品的质量就愈高。“一粒沙里看世界，半瓣花上说人情”，这是艺术的高致。2001年江苏的高考优秀作文《一毛钱与诚信》，从微不足道的一毛钱中看到了诚信的弥足珍贵，看到了道德的巨大力量，这样的选材是独具慧、颇有新意的。

(3)要处理好虚和实的关系。中学生写记叙文，大多数选材都比较实，都是实实在在地叙述、描写。其实，最具有主题潜能的材料，往往是那些具有象征意蕴的事物。如《白杨礼赞》《荔枝蜜》等都是运用事物的象征意蕴来拓展作品的主题的。因此，我们在选材时，不仅要注意那些写实性的材料，也要注意那些具有象征意蕴的材料。象征的事物往往能使作品的主题具有多义性、多层性、多向性，从而使读者产生丰富的联想，使作品产生特有的艺术魅力。像《门》《坡》《风》这样的题目，就既可以是写实的，也可以是象征的，当然也可以是二者结合的。有时候，在总体写实的情况下，选择一些具有象征意蕴的事物穿插其间，也能使作品荡出虚神，收到言已尽而意无穷的艺术效果。

3.要选择有有初步形式意味的材料

在考虑记叙文选材时，许多考生往往只注意材料内部方面的某些因素，强调选材要积极健康、典型生动等等。这固然不错。但是，如果忽略了记叙文的形式规范对选材的特殊要求，就会造成文体感不强，记叙文的文体特征就会因为选材不当而显示不出来。从某种意义上来看，记叙文区别于其他文体的特点主要就表现在选材上。

那么，记叙文本身特有的形式规范，对选材有哪些要求呢?概括起来就是三点：连贯、整一、动态。

(1)整一。整一，就是记叙文的材料必须相对集中。这种集中，不是要求作者像写议论文那样围绕中心(主题)选材，而是要求围绕记叙文自身的内部要素选材，或集中于人物，或集中于事件，或集中于环境，这也是记叙文内部又可以分为写人、叙事、绘景等类型的原因所在。议论文是旁征博引，运用零散的、片断的材料来证明中心论点，它是在观点与材料统一的原则之下，靠理性的辐射来集中材料;而记叙文则要靠自身的时空关系来凝结材料。在写作训练中，我们经常可以看到《记XXX》 之类的作文，但是，这类作文往往不像记叙文而更像议论文，其原因就在于作者在选择材料时运用的是议论文选材的方法：为了证明xxx具有某种思想品质，于是就从XXX 的生活经历中选择出与这种思想品质有关的“二三事”。其实这正是议论文中的例证法。用这种方法来选择材料、记叙经历、刻画人物，其事件往往是凌乱的，人物的思想性格往往是浮浅的，主题也往往是直露的。在1999年的高考作文中，运用一连串的“假如记忆可以移植”的排比段来展开记叙的文章，之所以文体感不强，显得松垮，散乱，其原因也就在这里。

(2)连贯。连贯，就是要求记叙文的材料，最好是截取现实生活中连续发生的片断。当然，在具体描写的时候，可以有详略，疏密等。这里需要特别注意的是记叙文的一个重要因素：时间。在记叙文中，要始终潜藏着时间的暗流，也正因为如此，人们把叙事作品称之为时间的艺术。在议论文中，也往往要叙事，但是，它所叙之事，往往是拧去了时间的抽象的说明性格或主题的例证。无论是整篇的议论文还是作为例证的叙事片断，时间往往消解在议论的逻辑展开之中，它所使用的材料，也没有时间序列的具体要求。

在充分认识到时间在记叙文中的重要作用以后，又必然引出记叙文的另外两个要素：原因和结果。我们强调时间序列在选材时的重要作用，并不意味着一切具有时间序列的“流水账”都可以作为记叙文的材料，相反，只有在时间序列中包含着“价值”的材料，才是记叙文需要的材料。这里的所谓“价值”，就是伴随着时间演进的因果裂变。福斯特曾经打过一个很有意思的比喻：国王死了，王后也死了，这叫做“时间生活”，没有入文的价值;国王死了王后也伤心而死，这叫做“价值生活”，就可以入文了。由此可见只有伴随着时间的演进中，产生一系列因果裂变的材料，才是真正适合写记叙文的材料。至此，我们可以说，所谓连贯，不仅仅包含着时间的连续，而且也包含着因果关系的连缀。

(3)动态。动态，就是要求在事物的发展过程中，在动态流程中表现某种主题。因此，只有那种具有动态感、过程感的材料才是记叙文真正需要的材料。从本质上看，叙事都是对已经过去了的事情的追述。但是，这种追述，在不同的文体中有不同的方式，在说明文中，运用的常常是“一般现在时”;在议论文中，运用的常常是“一般过去时”;而在记叙文中则常常要把它转化成“现在进行时”。

一、 学习指导

扩写、缩写、续写和改写是小学阶段作文中常见的几种练习形式，它对拓宽学生思路，培养同学们独立作文的能力具有积极的意义。这几种练习形式是分别要在“扩”、“缩”、“续”和“改”字上下功夫。尽管在写作上各有特点，各有侧重，但它们的性质和作文步骤几乎是相同的。

首先，它们都是根据一定的已知材料来写，不是完全独立性的作文。

其次，它们都须阅读已知材料，掌握它的基本内容，提练出中心。

第三，它们都要以已知材料为基础，围绕中心进行种种联想和想象，丰富文中的人物形象，编织生动有趣的故事。

最后一点，它们都要求写出中心意思明确的文章。

1扩写。

扩写是将原文扩展，将原文扩展成较长的一段话或文章。扩写不改变体裁，也不改变原文的基本内容、中心意思和基本情节，只在原文的基础上进行丰富和补充，就像照样放大一样，也好比大树的添枝加叶。

扩写的方法主要是：

(1)扩写的原文一般不长，内容也比较简单。文章越短，每句话都要特别注意，以便掌握它的基本内容等。

(2)确定扩写点，进行丰富合理的想象。

要确定扩写点，还要对原文做进一步的分析。如果故事发生的时间、地点、人物，事情的起因、经过和结果;人物方面都有谁，谁是主要人物，有什么特点等。在分析之后，看看短文有哪些不足，什么地方需要丰富和补充。这些不足之处就是扩写点。

想象要注意合情合理，合情主要指合乎人情，合乎人与人之间的正常关系，特别是不同身份、不同年龄、不同性格的人之间的合乎情理的交往。合理是指事情的发展过程要合理。合情合理的标准是能否真实地反映生活。因此，要从自己的生活经历和体验出发去想象，也可以借助书本中的知识，不能想当当然地胡编滥造。

(3)构思提纲，按提纲扩写。

扩写提纲由原文提钢，加上扩写点的内容组成，写作时要根据扩写提纲进行写作。

2缩写。

缩写就是把篇幅较长的文章，在不改变原文的写作对象、中心意思、写作重点的情况下，压缩成篇幅较短的文章，就像压缩饼干一样。

缩写的一般步骤和方法是：

(1)认真阅读原文，深入理解主要内容和中心意思。

(2)围绕原中心拟出“保留”与“删除”的提纲。

(3)对照原文，按照提纲进行压缩，抓住枝干去枝叶，抓住关键去铺陈;把具体的叙述改为概括性的叙述，把细致的描写变为简单的叙述。

(4)全文缩写后要连起来读一读，看看句与句、段与段之间是否连贯一气。行文时，要尽可能保留原文中准确、鲜明、生动的语言。

3续写。

续写就是给文章的一部分(开头、结尾或中心部分)按要求写成一篇完整的文章。有时，给一篇文章，让我们按要求写成有连续性的另一篇文章，有点像连续故事和电视连续剧，这也是续写。

练习续写，要注意以下几点。

(1)认识阅读文章的已知部分(包括已知的文章)，掌握精髓。

这是续写前的准备。所谓精髓，是指中心意思、基本情节、主要人物和特点，以及人物之间的关系等等。有的是开头、结尾，那就要像写命题作文前的审题一样，抓关键词语的理解，掌握续写的要求方向。

(2)依据已知部分的内容和要求，调动生活积累，展开丰富的想象和思考。

想象思考由于内容和要求不同，重点也有所不同。

给中心部分加开头、结尾，这不需要什么想象，主要是在掌握中心部分以后，考虑如何加个适当的开头、结尾，使文章更具吸引力，在这方面可多考虑几个方案，再从中选定一个。

给开头、结尾加中心部分。这就要根据开头、结尾的有关词语的限制，在所规定的范围内，从选材、组材、确定中心来思考，调动自己的生活积累，确定具体的材料和中心，并进行组织材料的工作。从这个意义上讲，续写与命题作文基本一样，但是比命题作文受到的限制还要多一些。

给一篇文章写续集，则比续写中心部分更难一些。一是必须掌握原文的精髓，不仅仅是几个要求。二是在原文情节的基础上编织新情节，构思新故事，而这个新故事，必须是原文中人物和人物关系的新组合，新发展。这就需既要掌握住人物的特点，还要想象出新的情节，要做到合乎逻辑的发展。当然，这样的要求是比较高的，从另一个角度来讲，这样的训练对提高学生的思维能力、想象能力和表达能力都会有极大的帮助。

(3)制定写作提纲，但要考虑好再落笔。

加开头、结尾可不要提纲，但要考虑好再落笔。

写中心部分和写续集要和命题作文一样，必须制定写作提纲。写作提纲对续写来讲，还有一个作用，因为续写限制比较多，如果没有提纲的制约，信笔写去，很容易离题。因此，制定写作提纲对续写来讲，是一个必不可少的重要步骤和方法。

此外，还应注意的是，续写的文章不仅不能和原文脱节、矛盾，还要努力在语言上近似，就像一个人写的一样，不要搞成两张皮。

4改写。

改写是依据原文必变体裁、人称、结构或表现手法的一种作文练习形式。改写就像修改衣服，可以把上衣改成背心，把长大衣改成短大衣。改写大体有以下几种。

(1)文体的改写：常见的是把诗歌改成散文，把故事改成课本剧。

(2)人称的改写：把第一人称改为第三人称，或是反过来。

(3)写法的改写：把顺叙改成倒叙，把倒叙改为顺叙、插叙;把间接叙述改为直接叙述，一般叙述改为对话等等。

改写的最大特点是“改”。一般说，对原文的中心、主要内容不做变动，但其他方面的变化，要比扩写、续写大，因此要认真把握改写的提示和要求。

改写的方法如下。

(1)认真阅读原文和改写要求，把握住中心意思、基本内容和结构。例如：把故事改写成课本剧，这就是文体的改写。改写时要注意以下几点：

1了解剧本的一般格式，先交代时间、地点、人物。

2把握故事的主要内容及线索，把它分成几幕展现，才能更好地突出人物的冲突，事态的发展。

3根据人物个性特点写好对话，使人物形象生动、丰满，有感染力。

4构思、想象要合理，注意背景，道具等细节。

(2)改写诗歌时，要理解重点词、句、段，想象意境，把握住改写的依据。

(3)确定改写点，构思改写提纲。

(4)成文后要认真阅读，检查是否合乎改写要求。

二、佳作欣赏

例文1

原文

大街上的积雪足有一尺多厚，人踩上去脚底发出咯吱咯吱的响声。一群群孩子在雪地里堆雪人，掷雪球。那欢乐的叫喊声，把树枝上的雪都震落下来了。

扩写

纷纷扬扬的大雪，从昨天晚上一直下到今天清晨。大雪覆盖了大地，远处的山峰、古塔白了;近处鳞次栉比的幢幢楼房白了;公园、马路边的树林，变成了开满团团银花的银树。大街上的积雪有一尺多厚，汽车轮子碾得积雪嗄嗄地响，行人踩在积雪上，发出咯吱咯吱的响声。太阳出来了，灿烂的阳光映照在白雪上，反射出耀眼的光芒。

这是工程大院开阔的院子。大雪后的院子，显得更加生气勃勃。孩子们纷纷走出家门，在雪地上玩着，闹着。大院东侧快堆成了一个大雪人。雪人足有一米多高，圆圆的脸蛋，特别逗人。大家围着雪人跳啊、唱啊，为自己的杰作欢呼。大院西侧的孩子们正在打雪仗，看来，“战争”已到白热化的程度，一时间，雪“弹”横飞，“杀”声阵阵，打得难解难分，大院上空飘荡着孩子们的笑声、喊声、欢呼声，这些声音把树枝上的雪都震落了下来了。

原文是一篇文章的片断，主要写大雪后，孩子们在雪里的活动。文章没有展开写，只是概括地点出了欢乐的气氛。

此文作者在扩写方面有以下特点。

第一，丰富景物描写，设置一些情节。

小作者设想了远处的山峰、古塔，近处的楼宇、树木、马路，一片白雪皑皑的世界呈现在读者面前，使人心旷神怡，丰富了原文的描写。原文没有写时间，作者为了让文章符合实际，增加一点曲折，增加一点色彩，也为了增加孩子们的欢乐，景物有了变化，使孩子们的欢乐显得更加热烈。

第二，刻画活动情景，烘托欢乐气氛。

原文写孩子们的欢乐时，只写了声音。小作者除了声音外，不仅写了孩子们的心情、动作，还写了堆成雪人后和打雪仗的场景，这样就把欢乐的气氛烘托出来，给人以深刻的印象。

例文2

村居(原文)

草长莺飞二月天，

拂堤杨柳醉春烟。

儿童散学归来早，

忙趁东风放纸鸢。

村居(改写)

“放学喽!放风筝去喽!”随着欢快的叫喊声，一群孩子涌出教室，各自跑回家里。到了家，他们赶快取出自己的心爱的风筝，陆续跑到村外堤旁的一块空地上准备放风筝。

这是农历二月的一天下午，和煦的阳光照在孩子们的身上，柔和的春风抚摸着孩子们的面庞。他们的脚步下，芳草正发芽生长，给大地披上一层新绿，黄莺在天上自由自在地飞舞，唱出婉转的歌曲。堤边杨柳长长的、嫩绿的枝条在随风摇曳，像用它柔软的手轻轻抚摸着堤岸。田野里弥漫着淡淡的轻烟水汽，杨柳似乎被这美景迷醉了。

一个孩子说：“春天，景色多美啊!”另一个孩子接着说：“是呀，在这儿放风筝多带劲啊!伙伴们，赶快放风筝吧，看谁的风筝飞得高!”

话音未落，十几个孩子立刻扯起风筝线迎风跑去，十几只风筝陆续飞上蓝天。你看吧!有大眼睛的蜻蜒风筝，还有嫦娥奔月的人物风筝。这些风筝有红色的，有粉色的，有黄色的，也有涂上各种颜色的。风筝有大有小，大的有一人来高，壮观精美;小的只有巴掌大，小巧玲珑。天空成了风筝的世界。这些风筝在春风的吹拂和孩子们的操纵下，忽而低，忽而高，忽而近，忽而远。孩子们一个个仰起脸，望着自己的风筝，跳啊、唱啊、笑啊、嚷啊，还觉得表达不尽自己心里的欢快。飞得最高最稳的还是那只神态飘逸的金鱼风筝。它睁着两只龙睛大眼，摆动着长长的尾鳍，在蓝天上飘呀飘呀 ，像在一望无际的大海里自由自在的遨游。放金鱼风筝的孩子脸上露出了得意的笑容，其他的孩子向他投去羡慕的目光。

过路行人不由自主地停下了脚步，田里干活的老农也不约而同地放下了手里的工具。他们都抬起头，仰望天空，说着，笑着，赞赏着，议论着，分享着孩子们的欢乐。

一幅多么美好的欢乐的农村图画啊!

点评

《村居》是描写春天时孩子们放风筝的一首古诗，讴歌了春天的美好和孩子们的欢乐，表达了作者热爱大自然的思想感情。

小作者在对诗句理解的基础上进行了改写，有以下特点值得借鉴。

一，认真阅读原诗，抓住改写点，展开丰富的想象。

小作者根据原诗重点抓住关键词语，如“早”、“忙”、“趁”。由于小作者能深入理解，并展开丰富的想象，一幅以春天美丽的景色和孩子们放风筝的欢乐情景构成的图画就呈现在眼前。

第二，精心设计，结构紧凑。

小作者大胆想象，打破了原文的顺序，做了新的安排：

先写

接着写

然后再写

最后补加结尾，点明中心。这样安排结构紧凑，动静结合，情景交融。

第三，运用多种方法，细致描写。

一是细写风筝：名称、式样、色彩、大小和各种有趣的飘拂情况，表现孩子们的情趣。二是刻画孩子们的情态：孩子们望着风筝，跳、唱、笑、嚷，孩子们的得意、羡慕等等的描写，把孩子们的欢乐表现得淋漓尽致。三是运用了比喻、拟人、排比等手法，增强了语言的表达效果。

三、训练设计

“滥竽充数”这个成语讲了这样一个故事：

齐宣王爱听吹竽，一定要搞300人的乐队一齐吹奏。南郭先生混在里面凑数，照样得到赏赐。后来宣王死了，湣王立，要每个人单独吹给他听，南郭先生逃跑了……

请你续写这个成语故事，题目是“南郭先生逃跑以后”，写二三百字即可。

1)做模版：拿几片范文，找几句比较拽的结构型句子，拼凑出一个你自己顺手的框架即可。不用到处找，也不用找很多，一个框架即可，当然，准备一些可以替换的词：比如recommendation替换conclusion.漂亮句子很多，但若水三千，我只掬一瓢饮。

2)找出主要的错误类型，每种写出一道两句经典的表述即可。

3)考时30分钟分三个阶段：一)12-15分钟，写出完整的第一段，三个征文段的topic sentence，和完整的末段。写第一段的同时就构思topicsentence,末段无非是重复结论和三句topic。这样的好处是结构已经完整了，你不用慌了。。二)13-10分钟，完成三段正文。我以前觉得这个很困难，后来想通了。无非是把这层意思说清楚就行。3句话就够了。也够长了。三)5分钟check.还一个作用时，是在前面没有完成，还有一个buffer,也不至于弹尽粮绝。

4)非常措施：考试万一时间不够，首段就抄原句;如果时间还不够，末段就cut-paste首段和topic 的文本，稍加修改即可。但是，结构是完整的。

5)ok作文法的精髓和适用范围：精髓：看上去很美。适用范围：不想得6分的人(因为想的6分的人追求的是实际上也很美。如果运气好，可以的5分，运气不好，可以的4分。