英语四级写作方法(推荐19篇)

题目审好后，第二步就是确定选材的问题，也就是写什么的问题，即文章的内容。材料选得好，文章就成功了一半，怎样才能选好材呢？请记住选材的口诀：

选材熟悉最重要，材料真实才可靠；典型事例有意义，新颖有趣为最好；围绕题旨选材料，感情真挚得分高；考场作文时间紧，选材原则要记牢。

老师在阅卷时，对学生的习作常常会有似曾相识燕归来的感觉。材料平淡，材料老套，没有新意。比如：《成功》——终于获奖了。《快乐》——获奖了，考好了，非常快乐。《苦恼》——成绩不好，真苦恼。《苦难后的芬芳》——成绩变好了，上次没考好，这次考好了。《难忘的一件事》——获奖的一次经历。许多考生，选材没有新意，就一个材料换汤不换药。

有的考生，背优秀习作，写起作文来，脑子里就搜索范文，张冠李戴套上去，让阅卷老师一瞧就知道不是真实的，作文没有真情实感，自然不能得高分。

同学们写不出真实熟悉的东西，关键是肚子里没货，平时不注意积累，不注重观察生活，其实生活是丰富多彩的，只要你做生活的有的人，留意生活，在生活中你一定会发现许多值得写的东西，积累起来，就是写作的材料。罗丹：生活中去少的不是美，而是发现。对于我们来说，生活是万花筒，是百科全书。生活中的许多闪光点，都具有典型性，都是典型的事例。生活有三大块组成家庭生活、学校生活、社会生活。这三方面的生活都为我们提供了取之不尽的写作源泉。然而作文不是材料的堆积，因此我们要注意材料的取舍和选择。

选用材料的标准：

一．材料要以真实为基础，写自己熟悉的东西。作文写的感情真挚动人，材料就要感人。作文的材料真实不是指材料的原始再现，而是指经过提炼，比现实生活更加鲜明，更加强烈，更加集中。比如事情的完整性、材料的理想性人物典型性等方面，要适当的进行加工。我们可将几个人的事情加在一个人身上，几个人的品质加在一个人身上，来深化人物和主题。

二．选材要典型有意义。指的是所选的材料是有代表性的，有意义的。因为有代表性的材料能以一当十、以个别反映一般，从而深刻而全面的反映事物本质。比如有位考生写《这事发生在我班》，选取了班上有个叫李玲的同学为灾区捐献300元。一人就捐出了占全班三分之二多，可谓突出、意义重大的事例。当然还可写平时吝啬的人捐出很多钱，这也是典型。学习上，平时不吭一声的人，突然在这堂课上发言了这也是典型

三．选材要新颖而生动做到：人无我有，人有我新，人新我奇。有的时间，换个角度想问题，可以老材料出新意。比如：让座是老掉了牙的材料，有一考生把让座写成谢座，使材料新颖了。有一位中学生让座给一位带小孩的妇女，这位妇女教小孩谢谢大哥哥，借孩子之口表达感激之情，到站了，这位妇女让孩子再次说谢谢大哥哥，大哥哥再见，再一次借孩子之口表示谢意。作者从中感悟，做了一点好事，得到的回报是一谢再谢。

四。在选材时，我们要首选打动自己的材料，如果所选材料一提起来自己就很感动，亏他想得出来的事件，是写出来一定能打动人，只有先打动自己，然后才能打动他人，这样的材料行之以文，感情真挚，得分一定会高。凡是考场上的满分作文，首先得力于选材的成功。所以说，选好了材料，文章就成功了一半。

【选材导练】

文题一：以良师为题，写一篇不少于600字的文章，体裁不限。

[点拨]

虽是全命题作文，但既无提示，又无其他限制，只要所写突出良师即可。这道题开放度很大，为学生提供了展现个性的广阔空间。要在选材上闪出创新的亮色，应把握以下几点。

1、多考生写教学上认真生活上关心的良师这类第一构思，选择医治心灵创伤等内容为题材，在读者面前凸现一个良医式的良师形象。

2、跳出一篇写一人的常规思维，从印象深刻的众多良师形象中选出若干最具美丽的场面，构成良师群体，从不同角度表现主题。

3、打破以人为师的框框，选取生活中通过暗示间接地教育你的事物为叙写对象，展现这些不开口的良师的内蕴美。你可以写黑板——心甘情愿地把自己漆成一身黑色，为的是能清楚地衬托出粉笔字的白；你可以写扫帚——同污秽赃物势不两立，必欲扫除之而后快，而当人们在赞美优美清洁的环境时，在议论该给谁一个荣誉称号时，它却躲到了不为人注意的墙角；你可以写橡皮——宁可天天承受磨砺身躯的痛苦，但决不放过白纸上一丝一毫的错误；当然你还可以写坚忍不拔的小草，写任劳任怨的老牛，写团结互助的大雁等等，应该注意的是，无论写何物为良师，你都要揭示你对它独特的感悟，亮出有个性的视角。

4、你如果对良师的判断标准有切身的体会，如果你对校内外良师的个案材料比较熟悉，那么你不应该随写记叙文之大流，写一篇观点和材料都较有个性的议论文，说说你对何为良师的独特见解。

文题二：《还我课外天地》

现有三则材料可供选用——

①学生课业负担过重，不能顾及课外天地。

②学校、家长卡得紧，不敢顾及课外天地。

你不妨想一想，①②两则选用者肯定很多，③则会少一些，你便可淘汰①②而取③。

文题三：以心中的美丽为话题

[点拨]：可选文学作品中的人物美、历史中的情感美等等。有，二泉映月的凄美，高山流水的情美，霸王别姬的壮美；有，长江黄河的奔腾咆哮之美，林间夜月的幽静雅致之美；有，歌坛上一展歌喉的婉转动人之美，舞台上千姿百态之美，赛场上叱咤风云之美，等等。

文题四：以感受青春为话题

[点拨]

本题就可以在体育界、歌坛上、商海里、战场上等等地方各选一位年轻有为的人物，写出他们青春的亮丽与风采。

文题五：以美在夏季为话题

[点拨]

本题可选不同人物眼里的夏季之美，如简真的《夏之绝句》、李清照的《如梦令》、辛弃疾的《西江月》、还有一首流行歌曲《盛夏的果实》、峻青的《海滨仲夏夜》等。

文章好的结尾大多是简练的、生动的、恰到好处的。那么我们在作文中如何做到有一个好的结尾呢？下面是小编分享的文章结尾写作方法，一起来看一下吧。

1、自然收束式。

不论哪种文体的文章，在把内容表达完了之后，自然而然地收束全文，而不去设计蕴意深刻的哲理语句，不去雕琢丰富的象征形体，这样的结尾谓之“自然结束式”。它完全避免了文章画蛇添足、无病呻吟的结尾毛病，显得单纯明快、朴素无华，在作文中得到广泛运用。作文只要富于激情，挥洒自如，写到哪里就是哪里，能充分地表情达意就是一篇好文章，但讲究“自然”并不意味着随心所欲，马虎草率，而是顺着文思发展的自然趋势结束全局。

2、首尾呼应式。

结尾与开头要相呼应，写出既呼应开头，又不简单重复的语句，这种结尾方式是各类文章极常见的收束方法。这种收束方法能唤起读者心理上的美感，产生一种首尾圆合，浑然一体的感觉。如《一件珍贵的衬衫》，开头写了“在我的家里，珍藏着一种白色的确凉衬衫。”结尾写道：“四年来，这件珍贵的衬衫，我精心地收藏着，没有舍得穿它一次。”《白杨礼赞》结尾与开头呼应道：“我要高声赞美白杨树！”

3、卒章显志式。

这种结尾方式，就是在文章结束时，以全文的内容为依托，运用简洁的语言，把主题思想明确地表达出来，或者在全文即将煞尾时，把写作意旨交待清楚，所以这种结尾方法又称“画龙点晴式”。如《枣核》结尾写道：“改了国籍，不等于就改了民族感情，而且没有一个民族像我们这么依恋故土的。”《记一辆纺车》结尾写道：“跟困难作斗争，其乐无穷。——记一辆纺车。”

4、名言警句式。

用名言、警名、诗句收尾，着意于引申文章，揭示某种人生的真谛。它往往出现在散文、记叙文、杂文的结尾，用三言两语，表述出含意深刻的耐人寻味的哲理或警策性内容，使之深深地印在读者的心中，起到“言已尽，意无穷”的效果。《驿路梨花》结尾写道：“驿路梨花处处开。”

5、抒情议论式。

用抒情议论的方式收束文章，能够表达作者心中的情愫，激起读者情感的波澜，引起读者的共鸣，有着强烈的艺术感染力。这种结尾方式主要用于写人记事的记叙文中，也可用于说明文、议论文的写作。抒情议论式结尾的形式是多种多样的，所以采取这种方式结尾比较自由，好的“抒情议论”式结尾必然油然而生真情，给读者以真实感、充足感。如《花市》的结尾写道：“她笑微微地站在百花丛中，也像一枝花，像一枝挺秀淡雅的兰花吧。”再如《回忆我的母亲》结尾的两个自然段就是很典型的抒情议论式的结尾。

作文的结尾篇篇各异的，但也有其规律可循。上面的几种结尾方式仅仅只是一些常用的结尾方式，切忌生搬硬套，真正好的结尾存在于我们平时扎实的训练之中，存在于我们的“诗外之功”。

一、实习目的与要求

实践教学是本科教学的重要环节，对于提高学生的综合素质、培养学生的创新精神与实践能力具有特殊作用。而毕业实习更是培养、训练学生观察社会、认识社会以及学生将大学四年所学的专业基础知识与社会实际相结合以提高分析和解决实际问题能力的重要学习过程，也是毕业班学生走向社会，寻找工作和就业不可或缺的训练步骤。

通过实习要求同学们了解、熟悉党和国家的各项方针、政策，初步掌握政府机关、企事业单位的各项基础工作和各项职能实践;了解公共管理和社会工作的基本情况、存在的问题及改进对策;巩固和完善学校里学过的理论知识，提高学生的实际动手能力，分析问题和解决问题的能力。

二、实习安排

(一)实习动员阶段(本学期结束前)

1、主要是实习联系期间，主要根据学校教学计划和学生意愿，到各地市教育系统征求实习意向，取得支持和帮助。

2、召开实习动员和出征仪式，主要请学院分管教学的副院长和各专业系主任进行实习的动员工作，并对实习期间的具体工作提出相关的希望和要求。

(二)实习阶段(下学期开学后第1至7周 )

1、实习地点：由学生根据就近(指原籍)、相关(指专业)和安全的原则自己选择地点和单位。

2、实习方式：基地实习、分散实习、岗前培训实习、过境外实习、校内实训实习和自主创新实习。

(三)实习总结阶段(实习结束后2周内)

1、做好实习总结，认真填写好实习总结表。

2、组织座谈、交流心得、体会、经验。

三、组织领导

1、成立公共管理学院实习领导小组，由学院院长(任组长)、党总支书记、分管教学的副院长、有毕业生的各专业系主任、学院办公室主任、学院教学秘书、各毕业班辅导员组成，负责整个实习过程的领导工作。

实习领导小组负责制定毕业实习管理制度和考核方法，审定毕业实习计划，审核毕业实习成绩和优秀毕业实习学生名单。

2、实行指导教师负责制，毕业生毕业实习的指导教师原则上为毕业生毕业论文指导教师，即导师不仅要指导毕业论文，同时还要指导和管理学生的毕业实习工作。指导教师必须定期与学生进行双向沟通，指导与督促学生按计划进行实习，帮助学生解决实习过程中出现的各种困难。

3、要求实习单位指定一位有实践经验的同志担任实习生的指导老师，对实习生进行思想上、业务上的指导与监督。

在考研英语的小作文部分，历年考试大纲中都会列出多种应用文类型，投诉信、建议信、申请信、求职信、辞职信、求助信、感谢信、号召信、邀请信、道歉信等等，但是考生们回到具体的实践写作中，翻阅近几年考研英语真题试卷，常常发现这些归为一大类，终究是书信形式。既然书信写作如此重要，下面就为各位考生带来书信写作的攻克大招，让写作变得无比简单。

一、书信写作总体概述

1.首段

1)问候收信人

例：Dear Sir/Madam

2)解释来信原因

例：I’m writing for ……

2.中间段落

1)阅读题干要求，从中寻找名词或动词

例：Write a letter of application according to the following situation. You saw an advertisement in this morning’s newspaper .A company need’s a secretary and you are interested. Write an application letter to that company.

2)注意题目文字暗示，把名词具体化，把动词近义词化。

例：I am pleased to discover from Beijing Youth that your company is calling for a secretary……

3.结尾段落

例：I would appreciate your assistance in this matter. If you have any question , please don’t hesitate to contact me. I can be reached at...Look forward to your reply.

4.署名

在文章右下角署名，一般格式为：Yours sincerely……

二、书信写作分类讲解(写作脉络)

1.投诉信

投诉信通常包括：说明投诉原因并表示遗憾，实事求是阐述问题发生的经过，指出问题引起的后果，提出批评及处理意见，督促对方采取措施，提出所希望的赔偿及补救方式。

2.建议信

建议信即写给某个组织或机构，就改进其服务质量提出建议忠告;或写给个人，就某一重大事件提出自己的看法、建议及观点。

3.道歉信

投诉信通常包括：表示歉意、阐明表示歉意的具体原因，提出补救办法，再次表示致歉，并希望得到谅解，提供合适的补救办法。(要注意语言的诚挚)

4.感谢信

感谢信中通常带有浓厚的感情色彩，是所有书信中最带有“人情味”的，该书信内容通常包括：表达感谢之情并说明原因--提及自己曾受到对方的帮助--再次感谢并表达回报愿望。

在2018考研的战场上，一分意味着上线与下线，一分意味着录取与非录取，所以，拼尽全力才有可能取得最终的胜利。预祝大家金榜题名，取得理想佳绩!

[考研英语书信写作方法

文献综述的特点，致使它的写作既不同于“读书笔记”“读书报告”，也不同于一般的科研论文。小编收集了关于文献综述的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

①通过搜集文献资料过程，可进一步熟悉科学文献的查找方法和资料的积累方法;在查找的过程中同时也扩大了知识面;

②查找文献资料、写文献综述是科研选题及进行科研的第一步，因此学习文献综述的撰写也是为今后科研活动打基础的过程;

③通过综述的写作过程，能提高归纳、分析、综合能力，有利于独立工作能力和科研能力的提高;

④文献综述选题范围广，题目可大可小，可难可易。对于毕业设计的课题综述，则要结合课题的性质进行书写。

文献综述与“读书报告”、“文献复习”、“研究进展”等有相似的地方，它们都是从某一方面的专题研究论文或报告中归纳出来的。但是，文献综述既不象“读书报告”、“文献复习”那样，单纯把一级文献客观地归纳报告，也不象“研究进展”那样只讲科学进程，其特点是“综”，“综”是要求对文献资料进行综合分析、归纳整理，使材料更精练明确、更有逻辑层次;“述”就是要求对综合整理后的文献进行比较专门的、全面的、深入的、系统的论述。总之，文献综述是作者对某一方面问题的历史背景、前人工作、争论焦点、研究现状和发展前景等内容进行评论的科学性论文。

写文献综述一般经过以下几个阶段：即选题，搜集阅读文献资料、拟定提纲(包括归纳、整理、分析)和成文。

一、选题和搜集阅读文献

撰写文献综述通常出于某种需要，如为某学术会议的专题、从事某项科研、为某方面积累文献资料等等，所以，文献综述的选题，作者一般是明确的，不象科研课题选题那么困难。文献综述选题范围广，题目可大可小，大到一个领域、一个学科，小到一种算法、一个方法、一个理论，可根据自己的需要而定。

选定题目后，则要围绕题目进行搜集与文题有关的文献。关于搜集文献的有关方法，可以如看专著、年鉴法、浏览法、滚雪球法、检索法等等，在此不述。搜集文献要求越全越好，因而最常用的方法是用检索法。搜集好与文题有关的参考文献后，就要对这些参考文献进行阅读、归纳、整理，如何从这些文献中选出具有代表性、科学性和可靠性大的单篇研究文献十分重要，从某种意义上讲，所阅读和选择的文献的质量高低，直接影响文献综述的水平。因此在阅读文献时，要写好“读书笔记”、“读书心得”和做好“文献摘录卡片”。有自己的语言写下阅读时得到的启示、体会和想法，将文献的精髓摘录下来，不仅为撰写综述时提供有用的资料，而且对于训练自己的表达能力，阅读水平都有好处，特别是将文献整理成文献摘录卡片，对撰写综述极为有利。

二、格式与写法

文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果，特别是阳性结果，而文献综述要求向读者介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。因此文献综述的格式相对多样，但总的来说，一般都包含以下四部分：即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲，再根据提纲进行撰写。

前言部分，主要是说明写作的目的，介绍有关的概念及定义以及综述的范围，扼要说明有关主题的现状或争论焦点，使读者对全文要叙述的问题有一个初步的轮廓。主题部分，是综述的主体，其写法多样，没有固定的格式。可按年代顺序综述，也可按不同的问题进行综述，还可按不同的观点进行比较综述，不管用那一种格式综述，都要将所搜集到的文献资料归纳、整理及分析比较，阐明有关主题的历史背景、现状和发展方向，以及对这些问题的评述，主题部分应特别注意代表性强、具有科学性和创造性的文献引用和评述。

总结部分，与研究性论文的小结有些类似，将全文主题进行扼要总结，对所综述的主题有研究的作者，最好能提出自己的见解。

参考文献虽然放在文末，但却是文献综述的重要组成部分。因为它不仅表示对被引用文献作者的尊重及引用文献的依据，而且为读者深入探讨有关问题提供了文献查找线索。因此，应认真对待。参考文献的编排应条目清楚，查找方便，内容准确无误。

三、注意事项

由于文献综述的特点，致使它的写作既不同于“读书笔记”“读书报告”，也不同于一般的科研论文。因此，在撰写文献综述时应注意以下几个问题：

⒈搜集文献应尽量全。掌握全面、大量的文献资料是写好综述的前提，否则，随便搜集一点资料就动手撰写是不可能写出好多综述的，甚至写出的文章根本不成为综述。

⒉注意引用文献的代表性、可靠性和科学性。在搜集到的文献中可能出现观点雷同，有的文献在可靠性及科学性方面存在着差异，因此在引用文献时应注意选用代表性、可靠性和

科学性较好的文献。

⒊引用文献要忠实文献内容。由于文献综述有作者自己的评论分析，因此在撰写时应分清作者的观点和文献的内容，不能篡改文献的内容。

⒋参考文献不能省略。有的科研论文可以将参考文献省略，但文献综述绝对不能省略，而且应是文中引用过的，能反映主题全貌的并且是作者直接阅读过的文献资料。

总之，一篇好的文献综述，应有较完整的文献资料，有评论分析，并能准确地反映主题内容。

导语：高考英语书面表达想拿高分并不容易，首先你要避免一些在学生中比较常见的几种错误才行。下面小编为大家整理了高考英语写作常见的错误，希望大家在考试中能够避免。

有的同学对于否定的概念模糊，不知如何否定，有时会写出不合规则或有异义的句子。

1. 我认为没有必要买大的。

误：I think its not necessary to buy the bigger one.

正：I don’t think it is necessary to buy the bigger one.

析：有些动词如think, believe, expect, suppose, imagine, guess, fancy等的主语是第一人称单数且一般现在时，表示否定的观点应用I don’t think…，而I think… not则属于汉语式表达习惯。

2. 我们直到天全黑了才到家。

误：We arrived home until it became completely dark.

正：We didn’t arrive home until it became completely dark.

析：此汉语句子里面尽管没有否定词，但until用于肯定句时意为“直到…为止”;用于否定句时，其意为“在…以前”。因此，表示“直到…才”用not…until。

3. 如果没有受到邀请的话，我是不会去参加舞会的。

误：I’ll not go to the party unless I’m not invited.

正：I’ll not go to the party unless I’m invited.

正：I’ll not go to the party if I’m not invited.

析：unless“除非”、“如果不”，常可用if…not来替换。误句中的条件状语从句双重否定表示肯定，结果与原句意思相反。

4. 那孩子不够大不能去上学。

误：The child is not old enough not to go to school.

正：The child is not old enough to go to school.

正：The child is too young to go to school.

析：这是学生最容易写错的句子。enough to“足以、足够”。原句中“不够大不能去上学”意思是“不够上学的年龄”，故应译为not old enough to go to school。

5. 他们两个都不说英语。

误：Both of them don’t speak English.

正：Neither of them speaks English.

析：中国学生特别对于all…not 和both…not等这种部分否定结构，很容易理解成全部否定。两者全部否定用neither, 三者以上用none。

6. 开车时再小心也不过分。

误：You can be too careful in driving a car.

正：You can not be too careful in driving a car.

析：cannot…too“无论作…也不过分”。

I woke up early this morning. I went out to play with my neighbor. We watched cartoon at his home. After I went home about 4 Oclock in the afternoon, I helped my mother to do some house work. She is very happy so I am happy too.

叶圣陶先生曾就作文修改说，修改，无非就是向学生说几句提示性的话，引导他们自己去思考该怎样想、该怎样写才好。这里所谓提示性的话，即评语。作文评语是作文评改的关键，然而很多语文老师在评改学生作文时，总是几句千篇一律的套话，不注意启发学生的创造性思维，缺乏个别性和针对性，因而无法发挥作文评语应用的指导作用。作为语文教师，如何使用正确的评语来激发学生的写作兴趣，提高学生的写作水平呢？

一、激励为主，注重调动学生的作文兴趣

在作文教学中给予学生的反馈信息有两种功能：一是调节功能，让学生通过获得反馈信息来调节自己的行为，达到既定的学习目标；二是通过肯定与否定的评价来影响学生以后的学习积极性。学生们总是希望自己辛勤的劳动能得到实事求是的评价，因此，在作文评改中，老师应多用一些激励性语言，少用斥责性的评语。任何一篇学生作文，应该来说，总有其可取之处，或中心，或语言，或思路，或题材，或选材，甚至书写总有一两处值得肯定的地方。要注意发现学生作文中的闪光点，哪怕是一些小小的优点、长处，都应予以充分肯定，以光环效应来激发学生作文的兴趣，这在老师的作文评语中更显得重要。作为语文教师，必须在评语中敢于鼓励、善于鼓励。茅盾上小学时，老师在他的《宋太祖杯酒释兵权论》的文末，写下这样的评语：好笔力，好见地，读史有眼，立论有识，小于可造，其竭力用功勉成大器。读着这样的文字，可以想象少年茅盾是如何受其感发和激励。因此老师激励性的评语，如一腔真情皆在篇首涌现，耐读！……此外，刻画十分传神，令人拍案惊奇！文章写得很有灵气！你的立意让我耳目一新……等等，必定会使学生在作文中找到自己的价值，坚定写好作文的信心，为继续提高作文水平注入活力。而诸如习作能力太差、简直不动脑筋等训斥式的评语，只会让学生积极性下降，兴趣索然，写作信心消失。教师不必吝惜激励之辞，不必担心你的激励会捧杀学生，在评语中贯彻了鼓励性原则，少批评责备，学生就会从你的评语中看到自己的劳动和努力，从而带来精神上的满足，引发强烈的作文兴趣。当然，老师激励性的语言要符合实际，少而精，诚恳而有真情，否则将适得其反。

二、引而不发，尽力开启学生的创造思维

对学生的某篇作文出现的一些偏差，或某个方面需要探求更完美、更理想的表现形式时，评改者万万不能越俎代庖，将更加的途径和解决的办法统统指出来，评语应少用不应……应该……的字样，以免将学生的思维机械地引导到评改者的思路上，扼杀了学生的创造性思维。宜多采用启发性的提示或暗示，用商量的方式，使用可否……？等字眼，给学生留下更多的自由思考的空间，让学生自己领会、自己体味、自己感悟，自己去斟酌、去修改。

三、着眼发展，充分挖掘学生的作文潜能

作文是充满创造性的心智活动，既是各种智能的综合，又是学生心灵世界的展示和个性特点的表现。因此，教师在作文评语中一定要着眼于学生的发展，培养学生写作动机和写作兴趣，充分挖掘学生创造潜能。作文评语应指导学生多角度、多方位推导不同的结果，指导学生利用事物的内在联系，寻找媒介，多方架桥，发挥丰富的联想和想象，让思维向四周发散，从而写出一篇又一篇的好文章。

四、评语具体，耐心引领学生的二次作文

老师对学生作文所下的评语，除了要有激励作用以外，还应循循善诱，跟踪学生的思路，把握学生的得与失，具体表达出老师的意图，为学生的二次作文指明修改方向。

学生的作文，特别是课堂作文，完美的必定很少，这犹如一块未琢的玉石，须老师的雕琢方令显出光彩，对于学生来讲，他们所需要的就是老师的具体指导，任何抽象空泛的评语，诸如选材欠佳；叙事不具体、不生动；文章平淡无味等等，这些评语只令使学生茫然而无所适从。像选材欠佳一语，老师若改为选材应从母爱，这个角度写一两件母亲如何指导自己学习的事，那么，母亲的伟大表现得更具体。这样，学生就有可能知道自己的不足所在。

当然，抽象笼统的评语是易写的，而带有具体指导性的评语是费时费神的，但从提高学生写作水平这个角度来说，只有具体指导性的评语，才令使学生有的放矢，有针对性的改正。另外，作为语文老师，在给学生写具体评语时，应结合单元习作重点评析，使评语更有针对性，而不是漫无目的、千文一语。当然，学生要写好作文，必须经历一个较长的过程，我们应建立作文指导序列，从语言到立意，从立意到选材，从选材到布局，分而治之，这会使学生作文稳步提高的。

五、重视反馈，师生共同体验作文的乐趣

作文评改，过去许多老师往往一厢情愿地包打包唱，不厌其烦地给学生作巨幅评改，学生只是看一看得分或等级便束之高阁，评改效能几乎为零。我们可引导学生充分参与到作文评改活动中去，每篇作文均让学生现自评再由师评改。这样做，既督促学生认真领会老师评改作文的心理历程，又鞭策老师批阅作文不得敷衍塞责，还可让师生在求同存异的基础上获得感情的共鸣，以共同体验写作成功的乐趣。

作文评语在作文中有着不可取代的作用，作文评语若写不好，不仅会失去指导和帮助学生写作的意义，还会挫伤学生的写作积极性，每位语文老师必须重视作文评语在语文教学中的作用。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

良好的开端等于成功的一半，下面是小编整理的高考英语写作基础知识，欢迎阅读。

一. 开头用语：

良好的开端等于成功的一半.在写作文时，通常以最简单也最常用的方式---开门见山法。也就是说, 直截了当地提出你对这个问题的看法或要求，点出文章的中心思想。

1.议论文：

A. Just as every coin has two sides, cars have both advantages and disadvantages.

B. Compared to/ In comparison with letters, e-mails are more convenient.

C. When it comes to computers, some people think they have brought us a lot of convenience. However,...

D. Opinions are divided on(关于) the advantages and disadvantages of living in the city and in the countryside.

E. As is known to all/ As we all know, computers have played an important role/part in our daily life.

F. Why do you go to university? Different people have different points of view.

2. 书信：

A. I am writing to you to apply for admission to your university as a visiting scholar.

B. I read an advertisement in today’s China Daily and I apply for the job...

C. Thank you for your letter of May 5.

D. How happy I am to receive your letter of January 9.

E. How nice to hear from you again!

3. 口头通知或介绍情况：

A. Ladies and gentlemen, May I have your attention, please? I have an announcement to make.

(词典例子：Can I have your attention please?请注意听我讲话好吗?)

B. Attention, please. I have something important to tell you.

C. Mr. Green, Welcome to our school. To begin with, let me introduce Mr. Wang to you.

4. 演讲稿：

A. Ladies and gentlemen, I feel very much honored to have a chance here to make a speech on the subject -- A Balanced Diet and Health.

(词典解释：be/feel honoured to do sth=feel proud and happy做某事感到荣幸

例子：I was honoured to have been mentioned in his speech. 他在讲话中提到了我，真是荣幸。)

B. Good morning everyone! Allow me, first of all, on behalf of all present here, to extend our warm welcome and cordial greeting to our distinguished guest.

(词典解释：extend=to offer or give sth to sb 提供;给予

例子：I’m sure you will join me in extending a very warm welcome to our visitors. 我肯定你们会同我一起向来访者表示热烈的欢迎。)

(词典解释：allow me=used to offer help politely (礼貌地表示主动帮忙)让我来

二.并列用语：

as well as, not only…but (also), including,

A. Not only do computers play an important part in science and technology, but also play an informative role in our daily life.

B. All of us, including the teachers / the teachers included, will attend the lecture.

C. He speaks French as well as English.=He speaks English, and French as well.=He speaks not only English but also French.

D. E-mail, as well as telephones, is playing an important part in daily communication.

三.对比用语：

on the one hand---, on the other hand---, on the contrary/contrary to ..., though, for one thing, for another; nevertheless

A. I know the Internet can only be used at home or in the office, but on the other hand, it is becoming more and more popular for much information as well as clear and vivid pictures.

B. It is hard work; I enjoy it, though.

C. Contrary to what I had originally thought, the trip turned out to be fun.

(词典：contray to sth 与之相异的，相对的，相反的

Contrary to popular belief, many cats dislike milk. 与普通的想法相反，许多猫并不喜欢牛奶。)

四. 递进用语：

even, besides, what’s more, as for, so…that…, worse still, moreover, furthermore; but for, in addition, to make matters worse

A. The house is too small for a family of four, and furthermore/besides/what’s more/moreover /in addition/worse still , it is in a bad location.

中考英语作文中经常会出现跟天气有关的题材，下面是语文迷网为大家提供的关于天气的英语作文素材，一起来看看吧。

1. It rained cats and dogs last night. 昨晚雨下得很大。

Rain cats and dogs是一句非常受欢迎的俚语，几乎每个学英语的学生都懂得用 rain cats and dogs 来形容雨下得很大。

当然如果你不想用俚语的讲法，你可以说："Its raining really hard.(雨下得很大)"或是"Were having a heavy rain."同样也是“雨下得很大”。

那“雨下得很大，我被淋成了落汤鸡”这整句话要怎么讲?“落汤鸡”在英文里常用"I am soaked."(我湿透了)来形容。因此，我们可以说：Its raining cats and dogs out there so Im soaked.

2. We had a downpour. 我们刚遇到了一场倾盆大雨。

中文里常形容下雨像是用“倒”的一样，这在英文里也有同样对等的字眼喔!英文里用的是 downpour 这个词。所以“下雨像是用倒的”我们可以说："We had a downpour."

另外有一个十分口语的讲法就是"Its really coming down out there."，也是形容雨下得很大，像是用“倒”的一样。

3. Its just sprinkling. 只是在下毛毛雨而已。

在英文里不管下“毛毛雨”或是“毛毛雪”我们都可以用 drizzle 和 sprinkle 这两个动词来表示。

Drizzle 这个词就是气象术语“下毛毛雨”的意思，而sprinkle 则是一个动词表示“撒”，但也常被用来形容毛毛雨。

常听到的用法就是："Its drizzling." 或是 "Its sprinkling."另外还有一个词叫 scattered rain，指的则是“零零星星地降雨”。

例如：We have to cancel the track and field contest because of the scattered rain.因为零星的降雨所以我们必须取消田径赛。

天气的英语单词

downpour, shower 暴雨

storm, tempest 暴风雨

lightning 闪电

land wind 陆风

hurricane 飓风

cyclone 旋风

typhoon 台风

whirlwind 龙卷风

gale 季节风

gust of wind 阵风

breeze 微风

fog 浓雾

dew 露水

humidity 潮湿

freeze 冰冻

snowflake 雪花

snowfall 降雪

waterspout 水龙卷

dead calm 风平浪静

Indian summer 小阳春

drought 干旱

AM Clouds / PM Sun=上午有云/下午后晴

AM Showers=上午阵雨

AM Snow Showers=上午阵雪

AM T-Storms=上午雷暴雨

Clear=晴朗

Cloudy=多云

Cloudy / Wind=阴时有风

Clouds Early / Clearing Late=早多云/晚转晴

Drifting Snow=飘雪

Drizzle=毛毛雨

Dust=灰尘

Fair=晴

Few Showers=短暂阵雨

Few Snow Showers=短暂阵雪

Few Snow Showers / Wind=短暂阵雪时有风

Fog=雾

Haze=薄雾

Hail=冰雹

Heavy Rain=大雨

Heavy Rain Icy=大冰雨

Heavy Snow=大雪

Heavy T-Storm=强烈雷雨

Isolated T-Storms=局部雷雨

Light Drizzle=微雨

Light Rain=小雨

Light Rain Shower=小阵雨

Light Rain Shower and Windy=小阵雨带风

Light Rain with Thunder=小雨有雷声

Light Snow=小雪

Light Snow Fall=小降雪

Light Snow Grains=小粒雪

Light Snow Shower=小阵雪

Lightening=雷电

Mist=薄雾

Mostly Clear=大部晴朗

Mostly Cloudy=大部多云

Mostly Cloudy/ Windy=多云时阴有风

Mostly Sunny=晴时多云

Partly Cloudy=局部多云

Partly Cloudy/ Windy=多云时有风

PM Rain / Wind=下午小雨时有风

PM Light Rain=下午小雨

PM Showers=下午阵雨

PM Snow Showers=下午阵雪

PM T-Storms=下午雷雨

Rain=雨

Rain Shower=阵雨

Rain Shower/ Windy=阵雨/有风

Rain / Snow Showers=雨或阵雪

Rain / Snow Showers Early=下雨/早间阵雪

Rain / Wind=雨时有风

Rain and Snow=雨夹雪

Scattered Showers=零星阵雨

Scattered Showers / Wind=零星阵雨时有风

Scattered Snow Showers=零星阵雪

Scattered Snow Showers / Wind=零星阵雪时有风

Scattered Strong Storms=零星强烈暴风雨

Scattered T-Storms=零星雷雨

Showers=阵雨

Showers Early=早有阵雨

Showers Late=晚有阵雨

Showers / Wind=阵雨时有风

Showers in the Vicinity=周围有阵雨

Smoke=烟雾

Snow=雪

导语：环境描写包括社会环境的描写和自然环境的描写。下面我们来说说怎么通过展现环境去烘托人物。

社会环境即指人物活动、事件发生发展的社会背景，时代特征，社会风貌等，一 人都生活在一定范围内，身边的亊身边的人、特定的环境、特定的背贵，会对人造成不 同的影响。在刻_人物时，如采把这些社会环境交代清楚，就能够展示出人物生活的特定 社会背景，揭示出人物活动的特定历史背景。

自然环境是人物活动的时间、地点、时令气候、地理风貌等。自然环境描写是$章的 有机组成部分。在写人的作文中，自然环境的描写是作为人物活动的背贵存在的，它可以 制造气氛，衬托人物的悄趣、心境，表现人物的心理活动，从而更好地突出主题思想。好 的自然环境的描写往往离情于最，情诰交融，随人写景，为人取设，人、贺融为一体，为 塑造人物形象、刻_人物性格更好地服务。

人教版九年级语文上册《孤独之旅》中就有大量的环境描写，而且逛出色的环境描写， 它为人物成长提供了一个广阔的背景：芦荡如绿色的浪潮直涌到天边，无边无际，给人以 极大的心理压力，让杜小康宵怕、胆怯。当杜小康习惯了孤独的生活，洱面对这浩浩荡满 的芦苇吋，就不再恐慌了。

在写人的文章中，运用晋物描写的目的是为更好地塑造人物，表现主题。丨对此’写作时要根据内容的猫要，有选择地进行环境描写。不能见到什么写什么，觅不能脱离中心大 段大段地写景。这种漫无目的的盲目写景，不会使文京增加文采，反而会界巧成拙，成为累赘，破坏了文竞的连贯性。除了明确目的外，在写贵时还应该注意一些问题：首先要选 择好观察的角度。角度就是指观察者站在一个固定的位置上朝一定方向观望，看到的设物 就是自己应该描写的部分，观察角度一定要选好，由此决定描写贵物的正面还是侧面，全 景还是部分景。其次还要注意描写的顺序。或者按照设物本身的空间顺序，从上而下，从 下而上;或者按照观察者的移动顺序，移步换景;或者按照景物本身的变化进行描写。这 样文章层次分明，脉络淸晰、最后注意，平时应善于观察，观察不同季节、不同地点、不 同时间的景物，抓住其特征。在此骓础上，写出来的贵物才会逼真、感人。

一、审题的“精确性”

在上篇中，笔者已经介绍了部分考题中的“绝对性”的应对措施，而根据专家对于过去2年独立写作考题的分析，发现有90%以上的题目属于“支持/反对”型：

2011.01.30

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?

Because the change of the society is so rapidly, people are less happy or less satisfied with their life than people did in the past time.

而剩下的则是由“对比论述型”构成的：

2011.03.13

Some people think children should spend most of their time in studying and playing while others think they should help their parents with the household chores. What’s your opinion?

在审题时，考生必须首先把题目通读1-3遍，彻底把握题目主旨后，方可进行段落布局。在这里，笔者结合自己的经验给考生们一些建议：首先，判断题目是否包含“绝对”含义的词，若有，则按照上篇讲过的建议布局，若没有，则对于同意或者反对的理由进行快速的brain storming, 然后根据分论点的数量及论点的可延展性来敲定立场：

Some people think that human needs for farmland, housing, and industry are more important than saving land for endangered animals. Do you agree or disagree with this point of view? Why or why not? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.

Disagree:

1) Endangered animals are valuable because of their limited quantities

2) Environment balance

3) Endangered animals sometimes stand for the country, so they are more valuable than farmlands

Agree:

1) life quality is the top priority

2) endangered animals can be raised in the zoos

经过一番考量，假如考生得出了上述的一些分论点及想法，这时候，主体段的布局基本就可以敲定大方向了。第一种就是完全反对题目的说法，采用五段式结构布局，每个主体段论证上述三个分论点中的一个;第二种也是反对题目的说法，采用五段式结构布局，但是前2个主体段从三个分论点中选二个去论证，而第三个主体段从“同意”的二个分论点里去选一个，最后的结论还是倾向于反对的。第三种是采用四段式结构布局，即第一个主体段从三个反对意见中选择二到三个分论点去写，而第二个主体段则从赞同的分论点里去选择，数量上比前一段少一个即可，最后结论还是倾向于反对多一点。这样说是不是有些同学看了会有点“晕”呢?那下面笔者就再举个简单点的例子吧：

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Television, newspapers, magazines, and other media pay too much attention to the personal lives of famous people such as public figures and celebrities. Use specific reasons and details to explain your opinion.

Disagree:

1) Most people are common, so they want to know something about famous ones

2) Famous people stand for some fashion

3) Constrain the public figures

4) Celebrities can improve the national cohesion and unity

又经过了几分钟思考，我们得出了上述的四个分论点，但是一时半会赞同的理由实在是想不出。若考试的时候遇到这种情况，千万别犹豫不决，马上从已经想好的观点里面进行挑选。于是，这个题目我们就采用完全反对的立场，以五段式结构布局全文，主体段的分论点从上述四点中挑选三个展开论述即可。这样一来，大家是不是明白一点了呢?

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Parents or other adult relatives should make important decisions for their older (15 to 18 year-old) teenage children. Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion.

Agree: Parents make decision for children.

1) Parents have more experience

2) 15-18 years old children are not adults, so they cant take responsibility

还有一种情况就是我们只能想出两个分论点，这时候考生应该果断采用四段式布局，而这一次，两个主体段都分别论述一个同意的理由，而在结尾时，可以顺便提一些反对的理由，这样也不失为一种灵活的方法，希望考生们可以借鉴。

二、分论点的排列原则

专家提醒考生们，在布局的时候我们不是随意编排分论点的先后顺序，而是需要有一定的逻辑性和合理性。一般说来，五段式的三个主体段，若都是同意或者都是反对的理由的话，一般这些分论点有两种逻辑顺序，即第一种按照“重要性”来排，将你认为最主要的理由放在第一个主体段中详细论证;第二种是按照“小到大”的原则，即个人方面的理由先写，然后再是家庭，公司，最后再是社会，国家等。倘若所有的论点都是在一个范围内的，比如都是属于个人的论点，则这个时候要看这些分论点后续的论证内容的多少，比如某一个分论点你既举得出例子，又可以进行对比或者因果论述的话那肯定应该先写这个分论点，若某一个分论点后续能够阐述的理由只有一句话的时候那就应该果断地将其排在后面写。若文章是四段式的结构，则在一个主体段中的排列顺序和前面讲的原则是一致的。

导语：小编来讲讲散文，如何做到形散神凝，如何做到情动于衷，如何做到言发于外?下面一一道来。

一、散文最大的特点就是“形散而神聚”

这一点是我们在写作时必须要把握的。所谓"形"指的是散文的外在形式，比如选材、结构、表达方式、语言运用等。古往今来，天文地理、历史文化等方面都可以作为散文的材料。所谓”神"指的是散文的主题，散文的主题要集中、明确，不能让人读了半天也不知道到底写的是什么。所谓"形散而神聚"就是说，在写作时，材料可以广选博采，结构可以灵活安排，但是这些材料一定要围绕一个中心展开，服务中心，能表现一个共同的主题。

二、把握好立意

“意”即中心，它是文章的灵魂。我们在写散文就是把握好立意，确定好写作的中心，弄清楚自己到底要表达什么。这样，写出来的文章读者才能理解。另外，也只有把握好立意，才能更好地选材，安排文章的结构。散文也语言十分重要。首要的一条是以口语为基础，而文语(包括古语和欧化语)为点缀。其次是要清新自然，优美洗练。此外，还可以讲究一些语言技法，如句式长短相间，随物赋形，如多用修辞特别是比喻，如讲音调、节奏、旋律的音乐美等。

立意从何而来?从生活中来。古人说得好：情动于外。只有触及到自己的心灵，才会有感受，才会有期望。列宁讲：缺少情感的认识，便失去了认识的深入。只有被浓厚的情感滲透时，才能得到力量，引起积极注，和思考。

要想把散文写好，从立意这个角度谈我们特别要注与别人的不同感受。越是富有个性的感受，立意也就会新颖，别具一格。这也就要求我们在平时注意留心观察生累写作素材。散文可以主要分为记叙散文和抒情散文(仍按传统的不明确的说法)两种。

三、善于联想和想象

通过联想和想象，可以把现实、过去与未来联系起来，由此及彼：一方面可以激发自己的某种感情与灵感;另一方面可以丰富文章的内容。比如：雪与纯洁、松与坚强、流水与时。绿色与环保……如果没有丰富的联想和想象，这些前后内容无法联系到一起的。实际上，我们越是善于联想和想象，外界物也就越能触动我们的情感，无论是写人还是叙事，无论是：景、状物还是发表议论，都可以游刃有余，从容应对，从而写好文章。

四、安排好线索

在一篇散文里，如果材料众多，就更需要安排好线索。通过恰当的线索将这些材料“串”到一起，体现材料之间的联系，形成一个清晰、有机的整体。散文的线索很多，常见的有感情、事件、人物、事物、景物、行踪、时间等。在具体写作时，选用哪一个要依据文章的内容来定。

科幻的定义众说纷云，莫衷一是，尺度差异极大。比较接近的是：用幻想艺术的形式，表现科学技术远景或者社会发展对人类影响。以下是科幻类作文写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、文章的本质就是虚构

从广义上讲，古今中外的文章，就算写的是真实事件，都存在着不同程度的虚构。历史真实无法还原，任何对历史的陈述，都是不准确的，都带着作者的主观意愿、想象和改造，无法得到所有历史参与者的认同。这就是为什么同样一件事，如果由不同人写出来，总会有或大或小的出入与争议。既然虚构是一种无法改变的事实，我们就没有必要反对学生在写作文时存在虚构。

二、写作文是一种想象的训练

我个人认为，在中小学教学中要求学生写作文，是因为写作文本身就是一种非常重要的想象训练，写作文的这一功能，恐怕比培养学生的文字功底和语言陈述能力更加重要。一般来说，人的年龄越小，对世界的认知越模糊，想象力就越发达。对于小学生来说，如果写作时虚构的成份越多，对于保存和培养孩子的想象力效果就越好。所以，我认为老师们在教学时，应当鼓励学生们无拘想象、大胆虚构。

三、真实的生活是有限度的生活

任何人的生活，都是狭碍的、有限度的生活——即便是走遍世界的旅行家，他所接受的信息量和产生的生活体验也许比普通人丰富，但是，他的生活同样是受局限的，不可能做到对世间万物全知全觉。小学生的生活阅历比成人少得多，他们可写的生活素材因此受到极大限制。如果不允许他们在写作文时进行虚构，就容易导致无事无物可写的现象出现。而虚构，可以开拓他们的创作视野，和作家创作一样，进入他们也许并未亲身体验过的生活。

四、虚构可以锻炼学生的写作技巧

没有什么事情可以比虚构更加锻炼写作者的写作技巧的。如果我们要求学生在写作文时，只许将曾经真的看到了的或者听到了的原原本本地写下来，不许有一点虚构，那么，他的写作就会受到极大的局限，叙述事件时会捉襟见肘。而如果我们允许他们去虚构人物在事件发生时的心理活动、动作细节、对话表情等等，那么，他写起来就会有各种各样的素材和佐料，行文时就能做到下笔如有神。

写科幻作文，同学们要做好以下三个“点”：

一、确定角色，这是科幻作文的基础环节

所谓角色，就是科幻作文中所涉及的人或物，他们是这个故事的扮演者，也是缔造者。

二、设定情节，这是科幻作文的重要环节

情节是指事情的开端、发展、高潮和结局，它贯穿科幻作文的始终，是故事的生命线。它和角色相辅相成，缺一不可。选好材料后就可以设定情节了：

1.开端。可采用开门见山、点明题意的方法，也可以用表示声音的词或几个奇怪的问题、现象来设置悬念，引人入胜。

2.发展。

1.要有想象力，丰富的想象力!

2.要了解一定的知识，不能胡编乱造嘛!

3.写的事情要有根据，让人觉得你写的这个事情是有必要的。

4.建议读一些科幻小说，对写作应该有好处。

小朋友一般都喜爱小动物，看了小动物以后总想把它们写下来，那么到底该怎样观察描写小动物呢，下面是小编整理的动物观察作文的写作方法，希望对你有帮助！

1、注意观察描写动物的外形。

例如我们学过的《壁虎》，作者分步向我们介绍了壁虎的外形。脚一像爬山虎的脚;头三角形;嘴，看不清;眼睛非常机灵;尾巴又长又细;身披着花纹。这是按照从下到上，从前到后，先局部后整体的顺序，比较详细地观察了壁虎的外形特征，反映出壁虎是一种机灵的小动物。观察描写动物的外形还可以直接从整体上概括动物的外在特点。例如喜鹊的羽毛大部分黑而带绿，只是肩和腹部有白色羽毛，显得朴素洁净。喜鹊的体态轻盈优美，鸣声清脆响亮，有使人喜悦的感觉。这段话就是从整体上概括了喜鹊的三个外形特点。

2、注意动物的活动情况。

在习作训练中，我们不仅是从动物的外形上去认识动物，还需人从动物的活动方面去观察、了解动物，这样才能全面认识动物、写好动物。观察了解动物的活动情况，首先必须掌握动物的一般活动规律和一些特殊的动态。例如，海参靠肌肉收缩而蠕动，乌贼、章鱼，利用水的反推力前进，这是海参、乌贼、章鱼在行动方面的特点。两牛相斗，总是用双角猛顶;两鸡相争，总是用嘴相啄，这是牛、鸡搏斗的特点。总之，无论是哪一类动物，都有它们各自的活动特点，只要仔细观察各种动物的活动特点，我们就能得心应手地写出来。

3、在观察中注意发现动物的习性，抓住动物的习性特点写。

欲话说："鸡吃谷，牛吃草，猪吃糠，各有所好。"这是它们的食性爱好;"翠鸟水上飞，大雁列队行，蝙幅黄昏出，公鸡天亮鸣。"这是它们活动的规律。夏天，狗伸出舌头散热，冬天，蛇、蛙等藏在地下冬眠。这是狗、蛇、蛙适应气候的本能。平时，我们就可以从这些方面去观察各种动物的生活习性，并按一定的顺序写下来。

写好观察作文，还有一个好办法，那就是运用六觉：视觉、嗅觉、味觉、听觉、触觉和心理感觉，通过多种感觉，可以把观察到的物体写得立体化，形象生动。

班主任评语写作指导：每到期末，班主任工作的重中之重莫过于是对学生一学年在校表现的评价，是班主任工作的一项重要内容。班主任评语既要充分肯定学生，鼓励学生，又能适当指出缺点，既使学生能正确认识自己，又能使家长了解到子女的情况，有效的配合学校，才能让评语产生最佳的教育效果，达到预期目的。那么怎样才能写好班主任评语呢？

一、首先平时要注意积累、收集学生的个人素材。

“巧妇难为无米之炊”,积累、收集学生的个人素材，掌握学生的第一手资料，这是写好评语的重要前提。那么怎样才能积累，收集学生的个人素材呢？

1、要注意细心观察，积累学生的闪光点，为日后写评语准备素材。如我几次看到一位平时默默无闻的女同学捡纸屑，就在她的评语中写到“你非常关心班集体，有着良好的行为习惯，每当你默默地捡起纸屑时，我是多么高兴！”

2、兼听各方面意见，尽量使素材充实丰富，全面中肯。班主任直接写评语，较为省事，但主观性强。为此可以向任课老师了解学生情况，充实你的素材。也可以让学生先自我评价，再让班委评价，充实你的素材。有时候，也不妨让每个学生写2-3个他最熟悉的同学的评语，学生的兴趣浓，积极性高，反馈过来的情况又可以充实素材。这样全员参与，发挥教育集体的教育力量。而班主任兼听各方面意见，写作的评语也将趋于准确和中肯。

二、写作评语时，宜用“你——我”的温馨的评语?

传统评语常用的“该生”如何如何，应该淘汰，因为“该生”面对的是家长，而不是面向学生，语气冷漠，面孔冷峻，不宜让人接近，忽视了评语对学生的教育作用。而用“你——我”的温馨式的评语，一下子缩短了教师与学生之间的距离，使学生充分体会到教师的关爱和尊重。“你——我”的温馨式的评语娓娓道来，宛如与学生促膝谈心，让学生家长倍感亲切，学生的上进心、自信心自然而然就增加了。如以下一则评语“你辛苦了！我知道你一直很尽力地要干好每一件事。对你来说，虽然课堂是乏味的，但你却总是挺直腰板，睁大眼睛。这真让老师感动，即使没有一个同学为你的努力喝过彩，但是我肯定地说，你是个积极向上的好孩子，成功的道路充满坎坷，总结经验教训，继续努力吧，我相信在不远的未来，会有一片蔚蓝的晴空在等着你”，这个学生很努力，但进步不大，教师的这则评语充分的肯

定了他的努力，并提出了希望，相信这样的评语学生看了，会感到老师对她的爱心和厚望，并为之而努力。

三、评语要能反映出学生的个性特点。

从心理学角度上看，学生期待班主任对自己有独到、新颖的评价。而传统评语的通病，空泛而雷同，千篇一律，没有个性，如"该生热爱祖国，尊敬师长，热爱集体，团结同学，礼貌待人……但上课听讲尚欠专心……希望今后改正缺点，更上一层楼。"典型的老式操行评语，让人读了，连学生操行等次都难判断出。偏重对学生行为的评价，忽视对学生个性的评价；评语一般化，往往不符合学生实际，不同学生的评语之间差别甚小，千人一面。如对一位各方面优秀但常规不佳的学生的评语“你活泼开朗、充满热情、积极向上。你在学习上取得的成绩令同学们羡慕，你为班级工作作出的努力使班级赢得了荣誉，可你在课上的闲话却令我为难，在我的意识中，一个好学生不该出现如此的反复，你说对吗？”这样的评语写出了学生的闪光点，同时，又能指出该生自身存在的缺点，不会伤害她的自尊心，具有一定的教育效果。家长看了，无疑也会很好地配合老师帮助孩子克服缺点。

四、评语要以鼓励肯定为主，发挥激励功能。

在教育教学中，我们要以发展的眼光看待学生，要善于发现学生的优点进行正面教育，切忌将学生一棍子打死。写评语更是如此，如果把一个学生的评语写的一无是处，不要说学生接受不了，就是家长也接受不了，我们也怀疑，难道他一点优点都没有吗？这样的评语只会加深教师与学生之间的隔阂，更难达到教育的目的。我认为一份好的评语对学生的发展和所取得的成绩表示认同，将学生的缺点通过语言的隐含信息折射出来，这样学生就更易接受教师的教育，形成健康的自我认识，更好地把握自己未来的发展。如对一位各方面习惯都比较差但天赋不错的学生的评语“你的聪明、你的悟性、你的记忆力都让老师欣赏，同学羡慕。但你的散漫、你的与老师同学的不合作，不仅限制了你的发展，而且让老师不安，同学不快。你若能加强‘自控’能力，养成良好的行为习惯，定能成为‘人杰’。”这样的评语教师的用意一目了然，学生、家长看后心中有数，很好的达到教育的目的。

五、评语中可以赠送警句、格言，或可融进对人生哲理的思考。

格言，是人类智慧库中的瑰宝。评语中赠送警句、格言，或融进对人生哲理的思考，追求了评语的美育功能，含蓄隽永，耐人

寻味。如评语中以下几个片断：“卓越的人的一大优点是：在不利和艰难的遭遇里百折不挠——贝多芬”。“每一项错误都是学习的机会。只是不要一再一再地犯同样的错误。”“多则价廉，万物皆然，唯独知识例外。知识越丰富，则价值就越昂贵。”“人的天才只是火花，要想使它成熊熊火焰，哪就只有学习！学习！！！”“有教养的头脑的第一个标志就是善于提问。”一句透彻的格言可以使人迷途知返，投向光明；进而立志，创出伟业来。这样的格言对学生的激励鞭策作用是显而易见的。再如融进对人生哲理的思考的内容“当你拥有的时候，你并不知道珍惜，一旦失去了，你就会知道它的可贵。岁月不居，时节如流，只有把握住现在，才是你最明智的选择。”“人是一切社会关系的总和，与同学们融为一体，你会觉得这世界是非常美好的”这些评语片段，针对性强，对学生会产生较大的影响力。

开题：描述的方式来引出要议论的主题。

以叙代议 常见：

As we can see , has become a very important problem in the rapidly developing world.

Adimttedly,  has attracted more and more attention from people.

As we know. Bring us many b123fits and conviences.

Judging from that fact, it is very obvious thathas become part of our everyday life to some extent.

The emergence of  is really worth our respect in history while it still remains meaningful to us now.

个人描述：以个人的亲身经历来引起要议论的问题。

Once, I had the experience of

I can never forget the experience of

Personally, at first sight of this topic, I could not help thinking about the

引用名言式：用一个相关的谚语、术语、名言或名人实例来引题。

Just as the saying goes,

The saying that comes to me at the first sight of this topic.

在引题时要注意不要照抄原题， 而且篇幅不宜过长，在引题之后，迅速进入自己所支持的观点，或表态，并引起下文。

论述L详细阐述分支观点的部分，在开题首段的第二句一般是文章的主旨句所在，而在论述部分的理由段中，各个分论点应该放在首句的位置，开门见山。

微小说的的阅读情趣常常通过因果式突变、误会式突变、双线式颠覆、空白式象征进行酝制和营造。小编收集了微小说佳作与写作方法，欢迎阅读。

微小说是指在140字的微博篇幅里具备了小说各要素的微型小说。微小说的的阅读情趣常常通过因果式突变、误会式突变、双线式颠覆、空白式象征进行酝制和营造。

因果式突变

什么是因果式突变?按小说的写作规律，小说的艺术描写要落实到人物细节、情节细节上，凡进入到小说描写范围的细节，都是通过艺术地提示细节与细节之间的因果关系来产生小说的审美特点和阅读情趣。微小说、闪小说、小小说的艺术描写，因篇幅的限制，它们更加讲究在140、600、1500字的篇幅里着力写好若干个小说细节，它们的作者常常在描述这若干细节时要艺术地揭示和表现这若干个细节之间的因果关系，而这些小说细节之间的因果关系一旦明确、明朗就会产生一种艺术的突变，140、600、1500字的小篇幅瞬间呈现小说细节之间的艺术突变就形成了微小说、闪小说、小小说等的意外结局及小说审美阅读情趣。

微小说(1)：《我远不及你》。二年级八班，他递纸条给她：做我女朋友好吗?她接过纸条的瞬间眼里闪过一丝犹豫后随后将纸条递给了坐右边的她，他一脸惊讶却什么也没说。六年后她参加他的婚礼，新娘敬酒：“其实我一开始就知道纸条不是给我的，谢谢你。”她微笑回应：“其实在那之前我就知道你是真心爱他，我远不及你。”

只有140个字篇幅的微小说，也能写出很纯、很美、很感人的爱情故事，也能写出人的一种命运、一种个性和一种精神。女主角把他求爱的纸条在“一丝犹豫后”递给右边的她(一个动作细节);6年后，女主角参加他的婚礼，已成为新娘的她点破当时递求爱纸条的秘密并表达她对女主角的真诚谢意，而女主角回应说：“我知道你真心爱他，我远不及你。”人物的语言细节把女主角善良、真诚、并热心为他人着想的美德“立在”纸面了。如果说6年前女主角的“谦让爱情”是“果”的话，那么6年后的语言细节则是产生这个“果”的“因”。用最简洁的语言将人物的行动方式(果)与行为动机(因)做微小说式的叙述，这个“因”一旦点明，情节的发展与故事的结局发生了突变——原来女主角并不是不爱他，而是认为她比自己更爱他。这就是突变情节带来的意外结局。

微小说的因果式突变有3种方式：有像《我替你找到大学了》那样的开头细节和结尾细节形成(A——-A)式的矛盾相反的艺术突变。有像《民国最老剩女》那样的开头细节和结尾细节形成(A——AA)式相同的并是倍增扩大的艺术突变。还有像《只是在你眼里很特别》那样的开头细节和结尾细节发生(A——B)式的不同方向的艺术突变。

微小说(2)《我替你找到大学了》：高中男孩和女孩原本令人羡慕的一对，但有一天男孩出了车祸，离开了女孩。女孩伤心了，却没有和任何人哭诉。此后她加倍学习，考上了重点大学，有的同学不解的以为女孩没有感情。但是当女孩踏进大学的第一件事，就是照了一张和大学校门口的照片，并在背后写道：“你向往的大学，我替你找到了”。

微小说(3)《民国最老剩女》：张茂渊，张爱玲笔下最精致智慧的女人，也是她的姑姑。她是海归，有丰厚遗产有高收入。1925年，25岁的她在赴英轮船上与李开弟一见钟情，可李已有婚约，于是她开始52年的等待。文革中她与李开弟一起照顾备受摧残的原配，十几天衣不解带，原配去世后，78岁的她与李开弟结婚，13年后去世!

微博(4)《其实我很普通，只是在你眼中很特别》：他在公司第一次注意到她，是因为她左手拇指上涂成红色的指甲。他脑海中天马行空的想象又开始不停的琢磨她。为什么涂红色?为什么单单一个手指?慢慢的，他开始对她感兴趣，一点一点接触着她。她的特别充斥着自己满满的好奇心，一来一往他们在一起了。结婚那天，她问他为什么会爱上自己。他很诚实，告诉了她那个红色指甲的事情。她突然大笑起来说：“傻瓜，那是朋友买指甲油我帮忙试用而已。”笑着笑着她又哭了，她说，“其实我很普通，只是在你眼中很特别。”

微小说(2)一开头就说高中时的男孩和女孩原是令人羡慕的一对，因车祸男孩死了，而女孩好像不哭泣、没感情，但最后女孩考上大学后第一件事就是在大学的校门口照一张相说：“你向往的大学，我替你找到了”。这种告慰死去男孩的方式实际上是告诉读者：女孩不是没感情，而是把感情深埋于心，把思念当作人生进取、前进的动力，这就是提示了开头细节与结尾细节的因果关系后形成的(A——-A)的相反的艺术突变。

微小说(3)是纪实微小说。它用140个字的篇幅写出人一生等待了52年的爱情。这篇作品只选取了张茂渊一生中4个时间节点的材料：1925年25岁的她与李开弟一见钟情;文革中的她与李开弟一起照顾原配;78岁时终于和李开弟结婚;婚后13年她91岁时去世。张茂渊对爱情的坚守、坚持创造了一个人世间感人的爱情传奇。以上两个微小说故事让我们看到百字小说的篇幅也能写出人的一生或者一段较长的历史，并按时间节点在精选的材料里，要艺术地透露、揭示或点破各“时间节点上的细节”之间的因果关系，只有把叙述文本里的细节建立起了“情节的因果关系”才能产生“小说味”。这3个时间节点上的故事实际上把张茂渊的爱情元素做了极致的(A——AA)式的倍增扩大。它的艺术突变可以理解为一种同向的变化放大到了极致，形成一种“斜升式爆点”的艺术效果。

微小说(4)的开头细节是他以为她只涂一个红指甲很特别，但结尾当他们因这个特别而接近、结合后才最后提示真相和原因：她并不特别——她只是替朋友试用指甲油，这就是让我们想不到的是另外不同的原因而形成的(A——B)式的艺术突变。这个艺术突变的故事实际上是概括了生活中许多同类的男女间一见钟情、男女间“情人眼里出西施”的生理、心理的真实过程。

误会式突变

什么是误会式突变?小说中的两个人物都有着自己的生活、自己的个性、自己的故事，但在微小说、闪小说、小小说的同一个故事情境中交汇，双方发生了误会，而且这个误会在故事叙述的前五分之四的篇幅并不暗示和写出，这个误会还有可能因若干个细节的渲染会被进一步扩大，等到小说的高潮出现，误会被消除时，读者才突然醒悟，原来这是两个人物的误会，完全是两种思维、两种情感在定的情节场面里发生有情趣的误会，小说的艺术突变和阅读情趣就是通过消除误会后实现了。微小说《钱包在我这》《熏死人了》《你给我咬开》是误会式突变的典型案例：

微小说(5)《钱包在我这》：一对情侣在公园游玩，无意中发现后面跟着一个衣衫不整的老人。女孩拉着男友说：“快走，后面有要饭的”，老人紧跟不舍。女孩想：天啊!这么难缠，于是停下脚步冷冰冰地对老人说：“没钱!” 老人笑了。“我知道你没钱，钱包在我这呢”。

微小说(6)《熏死人了》：我们领导有一宝贝独生女儿……中午领导就躺在沙发上看电视，看着看着睡着了……这时候，他突然感到一个小被子给他盖上了。一阵暖流拂过心间。觉得女儿果真是爸爸的贴心小棉袄啊，养女儿真是没白养啊。然后在这美好的感动中……听到女儿跑过去跟她妈妈悄悄地说:“妈妈，爸爸的脚真臭啊，受不了……不盖住熏死人了……”

微小说(7)《你给我咬开》：本人幼师一枚，和小朋友们相处融洽，他们总是偷偷给我零食，有一天班里一个平时很抠门的孩子，拿着一根火腿递给我，我心里特开心因为他从来都没给过任何小朋友零食，我暗喜：还是我在他心里有分量!赶忙用又温暖又含糖量很高的声音说：老师不吃了你吃吧!他很淡定的说：你给我咬开!

微小说(5)女孩把老人紧跟自己误认为是“没钱的、要饭的”，但老人却是一个送还钱包的好人。微小说(6)爸爸以为女儿给自己盖被子是“贴心小棉袄”，但女儿给爸爸盖被子的原因却是嫌爸爸的脚臭“熏死人了”。女主角的真正的人物动机和男主角人物行为是典型的误会。微小说(7)里的老师满以为班里的小朋友给自己送火腿，没想到小朋友不是给老师送火腿而是要老师帮忙“给我咬开”。这些误会的瞬间解除，构成了小说结尾的情节突变和意外结局。误会式突变的情节值得注意的是，它们常常是在某一个生活细节和物品细节发生误会的构思格局，当误会解除时，细节与细节之间并没有形成因果关系，而是发现和顿悟：两个人物、两种情感——是互相平行的两条生活规迹，仅仅是“误会”才把暂时地建立虚拟的艺术联系。

双线式颠覆

什么是双线式颠覆?“双线式颠覆”有两条故事情节，因小说篇幅的限制，这两条线索做了一明一暗的艺术处理，也和误会式突变的小说情节不同，它们不会是在某一个物品上产生误会式联结，当明线、暗线各自发展到高潮时，明线的故事真相会瞬间颠覆读者想像中的暗线的故事，颠覆读者预测的立意，而形成对小说故事真相的新顿悟、对小说人物性格、命运的新理解。来看微小说案例：《对不起，没关系》《可我愿意等你长大》《一张陌生女子的合影》。

微小说(8)《对不起，没关系》：他是她楼下送煤气的，每月帮她换气，他喜欢她，她知道。彼时她年轻貌美，追求者众。一天家里大火，他冒着生命危险救了她，因毁容，她昔日追求者无踪。唯他不离不弃，娶她。五年后，他们乘坐旅游巴士发生事故，他护她，头部重创失血过多而死，弥留时他说：对不起!她说：没关系!

微小说(9)《可我愿意等你长大》：高二，她问他：“老师，我可以爱你吗?”他笑，“傻孩子，你还小”。大学毕业后，她长大结婚，他寄来份贺礼，人没到。二十年后，他因病去世，她参加他的葬礼，才知道他终身未娶。三十年后，她搬家时无意发现高中时的作业本，最后一页有一行醒目的字：可是我愿意等你长大。

微小说(10)：【一张陌生女子的合影】妻子整理房间时发现了一张丈夫和一位陌生女子的合影照片，便询问丈夫是怎么回事。丈夫不以为然地说：“这是五年前和女友的合影，早已经和她断绝关系了。”妻子大声地说：“难道去年我才给你织的毛衣，五年前你就穿上了?”

微小说(8)里读者通过作者的表层暗示而想像出来的另一版本的故事完全颠覆了故事的表层叙述。微小说(9)里面两条线索的故事更明显，高二的女生想爱老师而被老师有效地引导而考上大学并健康成长，而老师却终身未娶，20年后病逝。30年后女生在自己的作业本的最后一页发现了老师的留言。老师的真爱和等待被女生错过了，而老师的形象、个性、情感却因这最后一句的揭示而鲜活、生动起来。老师的深层故事颠覆了女生表层的故事。微小说(10)的最后一句话是颠覆表层的故事，为读者想象男主角平时的言行、个性提供了一个丰富的空间。

空白式象征

什么是空白式象征?如果说因果式突变是在两个以上的小说细节实体创建它们的因果关系，如果说误会式突变是在解除两个实写的细节之间的误会，双线式颠覆是让一条故事真相来刷新、取代另一条故事实体，由此来制造艺术突变和意外结局的话，那么空白式象征的小说情节则是另一细节、另一情节在小说叙述中根本不出现，它是一个没有实体的空白，一个完全供读者想像的空白。而小说文本实写的这一个细节，这一个人物，这一个故事却成为这一类细节、这一类人物、这一类故事的象征和概括。

微小说(11)《永远跟不上你的距离》：相恋两年，不管是上学放学，还是一起逛街。他总是风似得在前面走。而她，要一路小跑，才能跟得上。终于的终于，她累了。“我们，还是适合做朋友呢。”她说道。“为什么?你不爱了吗?”他使劲抓着她的肩膀问道。她笑了笑，“爱，很深。但，你的脚步，是我永远跟不上的距离。”

微小说(12)他爱她，但一直羞于说出口。有一天，他请她帮讲道题，成绩优异的她轻松解答。他要回座位时，她拉住他的衣角说：我给你讲题没啥好处啊?他问：什么好处?她说：请我吃饭吧。他问去哪吃。她轻声说：哈根达斯。

微小说(13)：“我因车祸而失明，所以我从不知女友长什么样。那年，她得了胃癌，临终前她将眼角膜移植给了我。我恢复光明后的第一件事就是找她的照片，然而我只找到她留给我的一封信，信里有一张空白照片，照片上写有一句话：“别再想我长什么样，下一个你爱上的人，就是我的模样。”

微小说(11)实写的是她总是跟不上他的步伐。“跟不上步伐”实际象征了女性与男性在爱情生活中的距离。这个“距离”可以象征为男性的工作方式、生活方式、情感方式因过于超前，过于走得快而与女性产生差距导致男女两性间的矛盾与冲突。微小说(12)只实写了女主角要男主角到“哈根达斯”请她吃饭，“哈根达斯”是青年男女谈情说爱的场所。女主角没有说出来的爱情表白，被“哈根达斯”所代表的爱情地点、场所象征了。所以表面上不讲的深层故事和立意却被表层的故事象征了，小说的审美信息至此被扩大、延伸了。微小说(13)的表层故事是女主角爱男主角的2个独特的细节(照顾失明的他、为他捐角膜)，但这个已建立了因果关系的细节象征了真正的无功利的爱情与双方模样没有直接的关系，表现了当代比较新潮的爱情观。她究竟是个什么模样呢?这里面就有了3个版本的故事：第一，她的样子可能很丑。如果这样，立意就是相貌对爱情不是起关键作用的要素。第二，她的样子可能很美。那么，作品的立意就是创造一个外表美和心灵美统一的人。第三，她的相貌可能很一般，这就告诉我们：人的爱情心理中可能有一见钟情的类似“情人眼里出西施”的心理因素。这些由作品的省略叙述而造成空白式象征使微小说的内含的审美信息量得到了多种版本的开掘。

1、格式

法定代表人授权委托书

兹委托×××(姓名、性别、年龄、职务)代表本企业为×××(项目名称)的代理人，其权限如下：

×××(具体说明代理的事项和内容，包括谈判权、签订合同权、代为承认或者放弃一定权利权等)

法定代表人：×××

×年×月×日

2、说明

法定代表人授权委托书是企业法人委托他人代为某种法律行为的法律文书。法定代表人因事不能亲自为某种行为时，可以通过授权委托方式，指派他人去办理。这时，就需要制作法定代表人授权委托书，被委托人在授权的范围进行活动，对委托人直接产生法律效力。

填写法定代表人授权委托应当注意的事项有：必须写明被委托人的姓名、性别、年龄、职务等基本情况。写明授权的范围，不能简单写“全权委托”，而应当逐项写明授权的内容。如委托代理诉讼，就应写明在诉讼过程中委托代理人的权限，有无放弃、承认诉讼请求的权利，有无反诉权，有无和解权等。如果未写明，则认为不具备这些具体权利，只有诉讼代理权。如果是签订合同，则应当明确在什么条件下、什么范围内签订的合同是有效的，超过这个范围就是无效的。

授权委托书范本

委 托 单 位：________________

法定代表人：________________

受 委 托 人：姓名：________，工作单位：________________

职务：________，职称：________________

姓名：________，工作单位：________________

职务：________，职称：________________

现委托上列受委托人在我单位与________________________因________________纠纷一案中，作为我方诉讼代理人。

代理人____________的代理权限为：____________________

代理人____________的代理权限为：____________________

委 托 单 位：________________(盖章)

法定代表人：________________(签名)

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