大学英语写作常用句型（最新20篇）

Therearesomecherriesinthebasket.(一般疑问句，否定回答)划线部分提问)Kittylikesthebluedress.(用thepinkdress改为选择疑问句)Don`tplaywithfires.(换一种说法)

Joelikesreading.Dannylikesreadingtoo.(把两句连成一句)Pleaseeatsomecakesandbiscuits.(改为否定句)划线部分提问)Thereissomewaterintheglass.(划线部分提问)划线部分提问)Whatdayistoday?

What`sthedatetoday?

Whatdoyouusuallydoafterdinner?

Whichpearsdoyouwant,thegreenonesortheyellownoes?Whichwesternholidaydoyoulikebest?Whenisit?

WhatdoyoudoattheLanternFestival?

5B2

Thosebooksareours.(同义句)划线部分提问)划线部分提问)

ThosecrayonsareDanny`s.(.(用Alice改为选择疑问句)Arethesetheirschoolbags?(单数句)划线部分提问)

Theyridetheirbicyclestothepark.(用May改写)

Thecocooniswhite.(用browng改为选择问句)划线部分提问)Heisfouryearsold.(改为一般过去时)

Iwasathomeyesterdayevening.(改为一般疑问句)

Thecaterpillarslikeeatingleaves.(改为单数句)划线部分提问)划线部分提问)

WhatdoyoueatattheMid-autumnFestival?(根据实际情况回答)

1.Chances are that man will eventually land on Mars.

人类有可能最终登陆火星。

2.The likelihood for peace in the Middle East remains questionable.

中东和平的可能性仍让人怀疑。

3.The necessity for nuclear nonproliferation seems clear.

防止核扩散的必要性似乎清清楚楚。

4.It is perhaps more accurate to consider the family as a blanket of security, rather than a cloak of bondage.

把家庭看作保护安全的毯子可能比把它看做束缚的斗篷更确切。

5.While generalizations are dangerous, it is quite safe to present solid evidence.

抽象概括是危险的，但是，提供确凿的证据是万无一失的。

6.It seems almost certain that China will achieve this years economic growth targets.

中国将完成今年经济增长的目标似乎是毫无疑问的。

7.Reaching this years growth targets is almost a certainty.

达到今年的增长目标几乎是必然的。

8.The urgency of the situation makes it necessary to reiterate the monumental problems of population growth.

情况的紧迫性使我们有必要重申人口增长的重大问题。

9.A recent study revealed the surprising fact that many students pass examinations by relying on nothing more than rote memorization. It is horrifying to think that students graduate without a thorough understanding of the subject matter.

最近的一项研究显示了一个令人惊讶的事实：许多学生仅仅依靠死记硬背通过考试。想到学生对主题没有透彻地理解就毕业了是令人震惊的。

10.Needless to say, advertising sells products. Where would we be without it? Shelves would be empty, consumers would have few choices and products information would disappear.

作文是六级考试的一个重要得分部分，可说起写作技巧，很多同学都会皱眉头，抱怨无话可写，内容平淡。下面是小编整理的六级写作的七大要点，欢迎阅读。

一、 长短句原则。

工作还得一张一弛呢，老让读者读长句，累死人!写一个短小精辟的句子，相反，却可以起到画龙点睛的作用。而且如果我们把短句放在段首或者段末，也可以揭示主题：As a creature, I eat; as a man, I read. Although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy the intellectual need of mind, they are in a way quite similar. 如此可见，长短句结合，抑扬顿挫，岂不爽哉?牢记!

强烈建议：在文章第一段(开头)用一长一短，且先长后短;在文章主体部分，要先用一个短句解释主要意思，然后在阐述几个要点的时候采用先短后长的句群形式，定会让主体部分妙笔生辉!文章结尾一般用一长一短就可以了。

二、 主题句原则。

国有其君，家有其主，文章也要有其主。否则会给人造成“群龙无首”之感!相信各位读过一些破烂文学，故意把主体隐藏在文章之内，结果造成我们稀里糊涂!不知所云!所以奉劝各位一定要写一个主题句，放在文章的开头(保险型)或者结尾，让读者一目了然，必会平安无事!

特别提示：隐藏主体句可是要冒险的!To begin with, you must work hard at your lessons and be fully prepared before the exam(主题句). Without sufficient preparation, you can hardly expect to answer all the questions correctly.

三、 一 二 三原则。

领导讲话总是第一部分、第一点、第二点、第三点、第二部分、第一点… 如此罗嗦。可毕竟还是条理清楚。考官们看文章也必然要通过这些关键性的“标签”来判定你的文章是否结构清楚，条理自然。破解方法很简单，只要把下面任何一组的词汇加入到你的几个要点前就清楚了。

1)first, second, third, last(不推荐，原因：俗)

2)firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally(不推荐，原因：俗)

3)the first, the second, the third, the last(不推荐，原因：俗)

4)in the first place, in the second place, in the third place, lastly(不推荐，原因：俗)

5)to begin with, then, furthermore, finally(强烈推荐)

6)to start with, next, in addition, finally(强烈推荐)

7)first and foremost, besides, last but not least(强烈推荐)

8)most important of all, moreover, finally

9)on the one hand, on the other hand(适用于两点的情况)

10)for one thing, for another thing(适用于两点的情况)

建议：不仅仅在写作中注意，平时说话的时候也应该条理清楚!

四、短语优先原则。

写作时，尤其是在考试时，如果使用短语，有两个好处：其一、用短语会使文章增加亮点，如果老师们看到你的文章太简单，看不到一个自己不认识的短语，必然会看你低一等。相反，如果发现亮点—精彩的短语，那么你的文章定会得高分了。

其二、关键时刻思维短路，只有凑字数，怎么办?用短语是一个办法!比如：I cannot bear it. 可以用短语表达：I cannot put up with it. I want it. 可以用短语表达：I am looking forward to it. 这样字数明显增加，表达也更准确。

五、多实少虚原则

原因很简单，写文章还是应该写一些实际的东西，不要空话连篇。这就要求一定要多用实词，少用虚词。我这里所说的虚词就是指那些比较大的词。

比如我们说一个很好的时候，不应该之说nice这样空洞的词，应该使用一些诸如generous, humorous, interesting, smart, gentle, warm-hearted, hospitable 之类的形象词。

再比如： 走出房间，general的词是：walk out of the room 但是小偷走出房间应该说：slip out of the room 小姐走出房间应该说：sail out of the room 小孩走出房间应该说：dance out of the room 老人走出房间应该说：stagger out of the room 所以多用实词，少用虚词，文章将会大放异彩!

六、 多变句式原则。

1)加法(串联)都希望写下很长的句子，像个老外似的，可就是怕写错，怎么办，最保险的写长句的方法就是这些，可以在任何句子之间加and, 但最好是前后的句子又先后关系或者并列关系。比如说：I enjoy music and he is fond of playing guitar. 如果是二者并列的，我们可以用一个超级句式：Not only the fur coat is soft, but it is also warm. 其它的短语可以用：besides, furthermore, likewise, moreover

2)转折(拐弯抹角)批评某人缺点的时候，我们总习惯先拐弯抹角说说他的优点，然后转入正题，再说缺点，这种方式虽然阴险了点，可毕竟还比较容易让人接受。所以呢，我们说话的时候，只要在要点之前先来点废话，注意二者之间用个专这次就够了。The car was quite old, yet it was in excellent condition. The coat was thin, but it was warm. 更多的短语：despite that, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, notwithstanding

3)因果(so, so, so)昨天在街上我看到了一个女孩，然后我主动搭讪，然后我们去咖啡厅，然后我们认识了，然后我们成为了朋友…可见，讲故事的时候我们总要追求先后顺序，先什么，后什么，所以然后这个词就变得很常见了。其实这个词表示的是先后或因果关系!The snow began to fall, so we went home. 更多短语：then, therefore, consequently, accordingly, hence, as a result, for this reason, so that

4)失衡句(头重脚轻，或者头轻脚重)有些人脑袋大，身体小，或者有些人脑袋小，身体大，虽然我们不希望长成这个样子，可如果真的是这样了，也就必然会吸引别人的注意力。文章中如果出现这样的句子，就更会让考官看到你的句子与众不同。其实就是主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句的变形。举例：This is what I can do. Whether he can go with us or not is not sure. 同样主语、宾语、表语可以改成如下的复杂成分：When to go, Why he goes away…

5)附加(多此一举)如果有了老婆，总会遇到这样的情况，当你再讲某个人的时候，她会插一句说，我昨天见过他;或者说，就是某某某，如果把老婆的话插入到我们的话里面，那就是定语从句和同位语从句或者是插入语。The man whom you met yesterday is a friend of mine. I don’t enjoy that book you are reading. Mr liu, our oral English teacher, is easy-going. 其实很简单，同位语--要解释的东西删除后不影响整个句子的构成;定语从句—借用之前的关键词并且用其重新组成一个句子插入其中，但是whom or that 关键词必须要紧跟在先行词之前。

6)排比(排山倒海句)文学作品中最吸引人的地方莫过于此，如果非要让你的文章更加精彩的话，那么我希望你引用一个个的排比句，一个个得对偶句，一个个的不定式，一个个地词，一个个的短语，如此表达将会使文章有排山倒海之势!Whether your tastes are modern or traditional, sophisticated or simple, there is plenty in London for you. Nowadays, energy can be obtained through various sources such as oil, coal, natural gas, solar heat, the wind and ocean tides. We have got to study hard, to enlarge our scope of knowledge, to realize our potentials and to pay for our life. (气势恢宏) 要想写出如此气势恢宏的句子非用排比不可!

七、挑战极限原则。

既然十挑战极限，必然是比较难的，但是并非不可攀!原理：在学生的文章中，很少发现诸如独立主格的句子，其实也很简单，只要花上5分钟的时间看看就可以领会，它就是分词的一种特殊形式，分词要求主语一致，而独立主格则不然。比如：The weather being fine, a large number of people went to climb the Western Hills. Africa is the second largest continent, its size being about three times that of China. 如果你可以写出这样的句子，不得高分才怪!

I am ___________. I was born in _________ . I graduate from senior high school and major in English. I started learning English since I was 12 years old. My parents have a lot of American friends. That’s why I have no problem communicating with Americans or others by speaking English.

In my spare time, I like to do anything relating to English such as listening to English songs, watching English movies or TV programs, or even attending the activities held by some English clubs or institutes. I used to go abroad for a short- term English study. During that time, I learned a lot of daily life English and saw a lot of different things.

I think language is very interesting. I could express one substance by using different sounds. So I wish I could study and read more English literatures and enlarge my knowledge.

[大学开学英语自我介绍

Thursday, September 29th, the weather is clear

Today is a special day, is my sister Kiki birthday, is also my 22 just over one year old babys birthday.

Today is my little sister Qi Qis birthday, uncle (Qi Qis father) invited me to dinner for dinner. About half past four, I went to school, and my uncle drove to pick me up. I heard it in the car. Originally, a hotel invited Gigi to attend an event, and there were 5 children who were born on the same day of the same month with Qi Qi. If they did, they could have a 500 yuan meal free. Why do you want to carry out this activity? Because the owner of the hotel and the Shanghai newspaper bosses want to work together in Changshu to open a newspaper, just look into that the city has 22 babies are born in September 29th last year today, in 22 babies smoked 6 babies, three male three female, want to interview the babys parents, but also live television, Kiki was lucky enough to draw in.

We came to the house to pick them up, took some pictures in a park, and went to the hotel for a while. We came to the "Jinjiang Hotel". The waiter greet us warmly. We walked into a room of about 50 square meters, and placed six tables. The walls were covered with colorful balloons. On a large page, "twenty-first Century * * activities" was written. About 6, everyone is here, well have dinner. At half the time, the reporter came, and the waiter asked the parents to sign the babys name and hope for the baby on a big red paper. Then the reporter asked, "what do you think after you know the news?" "I feel puzzled..." In a round of applause, the interview came to an end.

Thanksgiving is a holiday celebrated in much of North America, generally

observed as an expression of gratitude, usually to God. The most common view of

its origin is that it was to give thanks to God for the bounty of the autumn

harvest. In the United States, the holiday is celebrated on the fourth Thursday

in November. In Canada, where the harvest generally ends earlier in the year,

the holiday is celebrated on the second Monday in October, which is observed as

Columbus Day or protested as Indigenous Peoples Day in the United States.

Thanksgiving is traditionally celebrated with a feast shared among friends

and family. In the United States, it is an important family holiday, and people

often travel across the country to be with family members for the holiday. The

Thanksgiving holiday is generally a "four-day" weekend in the United States, in

which Americans are given the relevant Thursday and Friday off. Thanksgiving is

almost entirely celebrated at home, unlike the Fourth of July or Christmas,

which are associated with a variety of shared public experiences.

explain... to sb.向某人解释……

look upon sb. as...把某人看作……

think sb. to be...认为某人是……

take sb.’sside站在某人的立场上

would like to do...愿意做……

allow sb. to do...允许某人做……

keep/prevent sb. from doing sth.阻止某人做某事

be afraid to do/be afraid of...害怕……

feel like doing sth.喜欢做某事

insist on doing sth.坚持做某事

drive sb. off赶走某人

think highly of sb./speak highly of sb.高度评价某人

speak ill of sb.对某人评价很差

force sb. to do...逼迫某人做……

offer to do...主动做……

refuse to do...拒绝做……

agree to do...同意做……

regret doing...后悔做了……

prefer to do A rather than do B愿意做……而不愿做……

had better do...最好做……

would rather (not) do(不)愿做……

have the habit of doing...有做……的习惯

have trouble in doing...做……有困难

make up one’smind to do...下决心做……

prepare sth. for...准备好做……

give up doing...放弃……

do sth. as usual像往常一样做某事

do what he wants us to do做他要求我们做的事

set about doing...开始做……

try one’sbest to do...=go all out to do...全力以赴做……

get into trouble遇到困难

help sb. out帮某人的忙

wait for sb. to do...等某人做……

find a way to do...发现做……的方法

make friends with sb.与某人交朋友

show(tell) sb. how to do...告诉某人怎么做……

take(send) sb. to...带(派)某人去……

I’m trying to find...我尽力找到……

It is dogged (that) does it.天下无难事,只怕有心人。

I’m afraid we are out of...恐怕……用完了

feel a little excited about doing...因做……感到兴奋

1.有很多同学早晨上学不吃早餐，这是一个不好的习惯，对身体有很大的危害。请根据提示写一篇短文，指出不吃早餐的危害。70个词左右。?

提示：1.不吃早餐对身体有害;2.不吃早餐会影响上午听课。

Every morning we

have to go to school very early, so many of us don’t have breakfast. It’s very

bad for our health. In the morning we usually have four classes. It’s a long

time before lunch. If we don’t eat anything for breakfast, we may feel hungry

and we can’t listen to the teacher carefully. We need energy very much while we

are growing. I really think that we should have a good breakfast.

2

. How to keep healthy

If we want to keep our

bodies healthy, we must have a good habit. We should get up and go to bed early

and sleep at least eight hours every day. Do more exercise, such as walking,

swimming, playing balls and so on. We should also eat healthy food——more fruit

and vegetables and less meat. If you don’t feel well, you’d better see a doctor

at once. And we should wash our hands before meals and drink enough boiled

water every day. It’s necessary for our health.

We should not throw

litter about, keep long fingernails and smoke etc. It’s also very important.

3.假如你的爸爸是个医生，曾参加了2003年的非典防治工作，虽然非典已经过去了，但是他对一家人的健康仍然很重视。请你写一篇60词左右的短文，讲一下只要预防得当，疾病并不可怕。

参考词汇：personal health个人健康 spit吐痰

overwork使……过于疲劳 food and drink饮食

Keeping healthy

3.My father is a doctor. In 2003,

he took an active part in the battle against SARS.

He said,“We don’t have

to be afraid of catching the illness. If we have good habits, we can keep the

illness away.”

My father and I like

running in the morning. We keep the windows open so that the air in the room is

clean and fresh. We wash our hands before meals. We have healthy food and

drink. We don’t spit here and there. He told us not to overwork because too

much work will make us tired and make it easy to get sick.

My campus life is rich and colorful.

The university life different secondary school life.And it is a problem that how should I adapt to college life.

I go to attend claeveryday morning excluding weekend .In the class I just listening to lectures, and my teachers and classmates discuss the problem.After  class, ofen i go to play basketball or badminton with my friends.

In the evening,i have two hours for study by oneself in scheduled time, and then go back to my dormitory and surf on the internet.At the weekend,i take part in some part-time jobs and go to the Einglish Corner sometimes.

All in all,life in the University is beatiful and substantial for me.And I believe I will achieve my self-value through  the university life .

初中语文作文写作常用技巧作文在语文科目考试中所占的分数比例是最多的，因此，语文写作在考试中占着很大一部分。很多初中考生在面对作文时不知道该任何下手，其实，语文作文的写作是有一定的技巧性的，把这些技巧应用于你的写作中，就会得心应手。

下面是为大家准备的一些语文言语上和写作上的表达技巧：

一、开头常用的5个技巧 要写好一篇文章，开头很重要，所谓万事开头难，作文也是如此。起好头，能为下一步文章写作打下一个很好的基础。古人把文章好的开头比作“凤头”，是很有道理的。一个能让人引发无穷遐思的文章开头，更能使你的文章锦上添花。在语文应试作文中，一个好的文章开头往往更能吸引阅卷老师的目光。同时拥有一个好的“凤头”，往往更能激发读者的兴趣，即为下文打下了一个很好的基础。

作文开头的方法很多，在此谈谈常见的5个方法。

1、开门见山法。 直截了当地切入话题，或开宗明义旗帜鲜明地表明自己的观点、立场。这种方法，朴实自然直截了当，引起下文。一般来说，这种开头方法，随信手拈来，但毕竟出彩儿不多，如果是记叙文或者抒情散文，建议选用其他方法。 开门见山法的例子： 《心灵的镜子》的开篇：“一个人看世界犹如照镜子，镜子中照出的不是人妍媸美丑的外表，而是他那形形色色的灵魂。” 《青春无价》的开头：青春是人的生命中最灿烂最宝贵的季节，它的价值不能用金钱去衡量。 《友善》“投我以木瓜，报之以琼琚。”早在《诗经》中就有教人友善待人的文章。友善待人，不仅是善待他人，更是善待自己。 不过，就考场作文而言，假如你没有把握把别的技巧玩得娴熟，不建议在开头上采用过多的技巧，最好就用开门见山的方法。

2、设置悬念法。 指在写作开始提出疑问，引起读者急切期待并探究事情原委的一种方法。此法能启发读者思索，激发阅读兴趣，达到引人入胜的效果。 如《一次精彩的课外活动》：“上个周六，我们7中的8年级二班发生了“轩然大波”：一个女生哇哇地在课堂上哭，而我们的班主任朱老师却微笑着站在讲台上，最后，全班同学都哄堂大笑起来。至今，同学们还在津津有味地谈论那天的事情……”设置悬念，到底发生了什么事情呢，为什么学生哭，老师笑，而最后同学们都哄堂大笑呢?读者感到好奇——咦，怎么会那样呢?就很想阅读下去。

3、情景渲染法。 也就是描写一个情景，让这个情景牵引出故事的开头。这类开头方法，是记叙文的常见开头方法，建议同学们采用。在故事中间或者结尾，要适时加上“于是出现了本文开头的那一幕”，以便于呼应开头。这种开头方法，其实跟上面的设置悬念有一定的联系。只是，悬念的浓度不大，更偏向于情景的渲染，而设置悬念，偏向于一个出人意外的结果，使人好奇。 如《我对网络的悔和爱》：“啪——”，一记清脆的耳光。 男孩子坐在床上，护着那半边红脸，低头哭泣，内心充满了愧疚。旁边的父亲正在大声严厉地训斥，愤怒涨红了他的脸。那个男孩就是我。此事要从头道来——

4、修辞排比法。 在开头的时候，用上几个修辞排比句，把文章主题的内涵，用排比句的形式写出来。这种修辞方法，可用于有记叙有议论类的记叙文。 这种方法的主要特点就是：连续把有几个象征意义的句子排比起来，最好把几个比喻句排比起来。而且建议同学们的比喻句不要太长。 《他让我明白了作为父亲的坚强》：一颗流星，只有熬过了焚身的痛苦，方能划破黑暗;一粒种子，只有承受了泥土的压力，方能指向光明;一只虫子，只有冲破了黑暗的包围，方能羽化成蝶。一位父亲，只有真正做到了坚强，方能令人感动和敬仰。我的父亲，就是这样的一位强者。

5、景物开篇法。 指开头用自然环境描写，渲染一种特定的氛围，烘托人物的心理，为全文定下感情基调的方法。这种方法适应于在某种环境下发生的某类事情，在开头的时候，不能牵强附会地硬搬环境和景物。具体到写作的时候，要灵活运用。 如《秋雨，淅淅沥沥地下着》：“淅淅沥沥的秋雨一个劲地下着，呜呜咽咽的唢呐不停地吹着。”文章一开始就给我们烘托出了一种悲伤的氛围。

二、记叙文结尾一个小窍门 同学们要记住，写什么作文，最后的结尾一般来说是要抒情的。结尾的时候要注意三点?一个再次切题，二是首尾呼应，三是优美的抒情语言。

1、 再次切题，其实很简单，把标题内容换汤不换药地重复一下，甚至先说一句：“这就是XXXXXX”，接着再抒情就行了。

2、首尾呼应，要看是什么开头，结尾的时候，如果能把开头的内容回顾一下，就显得更舒畅了。

3、语言优美的道理很简单。语言优美了，抒情才能更动人。这种结尾，最好也用比喻排比句。

It is quite often seen that many students walk their pets on campus nowadays. For the owners, it is really good enjoyment and happiness. But for the other students, it may not so good. As more and more students bring their pets to campus, a cry for forbidding the pets brought to campus is higher and higher. For me, I think the owner shouldn’t take their cute pets on campus for the sake of clean.

现在，大学生在校园里遛宠物是一件很常见的事情。对于宠物主人来说，这肯定是一件很惬意和幸福的事情。但是对于其他的学生来说，却不是那么好。禁止在校园里养宠物的呼声随着越来越多的学生在校园里养宠物也越来越高。就本人来说，从整洁的角度来考虑，我认为学生不应该带他们的爱宠来学校来养。

Firstly, keeping pets in dormitory will make dormitory smell bad and cause noise pollution. Pets couldn’t go to toilet and flush their waste as human does, so they just urine everywhere, which makes the place smelly. Besides, pets can make lots of noisy which is annoying especially at night. For other students who live with the owner, it is absolutely a disaster for they have to suffering from both the terrible smell and the disturbing noise.

首先，在宿舍里养宠物会让宿舍里面很难闻，并且会引起噪声污染。宠物并不会像人类一样可以自己去厕所并冲走它们的排泄物，它们到处大小便会让宿舍里面有很大的味道。另外，宠物会制造出很多恼人的噪音，尤其是在夜间。而对于同居一室的其他舍员来说无疑是一场灾难，他们不得不忍受那些难闻的气味与烦人的噪音。

Secondly, raising pets can be time-consuming and even affect their study. For students, they are supposed to spend more time studying. If they put their focus on their pets, then they will have less time to study. Not to imagine that they will do good in their study.

其次，养宠物很浪费时间甚至会影响学生的学习成绩。作为学生，应该多花时间在学习上。如果学生把精力都花在宠物的身上，那么学习的时间会更少。更不用说他们的学习成绩会好到哪里去。

In conclusion, I don’t think it is good for students to raising pets on campus in consideration to the good of the public hygiene and also their improvement in their academic performance.

总之，考虑到学校的公共卫生和学生的学习成绩，我不认为在学校养宠物会对学生有好处。

Hi, My name is Jay, Im from the beautiful ancient city of Kaifeng. As you  can see, I am a very casual girl, and a lot of people here, like 18-year-old, I  love a lot, I love guitar, love to sing love dancing, very fond of English, I am  very love to watch "Prison Break", like the actor micheal clever wit.

I like making friends, and hope you will be able to and I have become good  friends, I think I will, and you get along with.

规范英语论文的格式,使之与国际学术惯例接轨,对从事英语教学,英语论文写作,促进国际学术交流都具有重要意义。下面是小编为你带来的关于英语论文的写作格式和规范，希望对你有帮助。

一、英语论文的标题

一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:Dr./Prof.C.Prager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English 734或British Novel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需double space,即隔行打印,行距约为0.6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。

就学生而言,如果英语论文篇幅较短,亦可不做标题页(及提纲页),而将标题页的内容打在正文第一页的左上方。第一行为作者姓名,与打印纸顶端距离约为2.5cm,以下各行依次为教师学衔和姓、课程编号(或名称)及日期;各行左边上下对齐,并留出2.5cm左右的页边空白(下同)。接下来便是论文标题及正文(日期与标题之间及标题与正文第一行之间只需隔行打印,不必留出更多空白)。

二、英语论文提纲

英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为2.5cm左右)的始端打上 Thesis 一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母;处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。

三、英语论文正文

有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约1.5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码;阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。

四、英语论文的文中引述

正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节;既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式 (即英语论文参考文献)的规范性。引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。目前美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。现针对文中引述的不同情况,将部分规范格式分述如下。

1.若引文不足三行,则可将引文有机地融合在论文中。如:

The divorce of Arnolds personal desire from his inheritance results in “the familiar picture of Victorian man alone in an alien universe”(Roper9).

这里,圆括弧中的Roper为引文作者的姓(不必注出全名);阿拉伯数字为引文出处的页码(不要写成p.9);作者姓与页码之间需空一格,但不需任何标点符号;句号应置于第二个圆括弧后。

2.被引述的文字如果超过三行,则应将引文与论文文字分开,如下例所示:

Whitman has proved himself an eminent democratic representative and precursor, and his “Democratic Vistas”

is an admirable and characteristic

diatribe. And if one is sorry that in it

Whitman is unable to conceive the

extreme crises of society, one is certain

that no society would be tolerable whoses

citizens could not find refreshment in its

buoyant democratic idealism.(Chase 165)

这里的格式有两点要加以注意。一是引文各行距英语论文的左边第一个字母十个空格,即应从第十一格打起;二是引文不需加引号,末尾的句号应标在最后一个词后。

3.如需在引文中插注,对某些词语加以解释,则要使用方括号(不可用圆括弧)。如:

Dr.Beaman points out that“he [Charles Darw in] has been an important factor in the debate between evolutionary theory and biblical creationism”(9).

值得注意的是,本例中引文作者的姓已出现在引导句中,故圆括弧中只需注明引文出处的页码即可。

4.如果拟引用的文字中有与论文无关的词语需要删除,则需用省略号。如果省略号出现在引文中则用三个点,如出现在引文末,则用四个点,最后一点表示句号,置于第二个圆括弧后(一般说来,应避免在引文开头使用省略号);点与字母之间,或点与点之间都需空一格。如:

Mary Shelley hated tyranny and“looked upon the poor as pathetic victims of the social system and upon the rich and highborn...with undisguised scorn and contempt...(Nitchie 43).

5.若引文出自一部多卷书,除注明作者姓和页码外,还需注明卷号。如:

Professor Chen Jias A History of English Literature aimed to give Chinese readers“a historical survey of English literature from its earliest beginnings down to the 20thcentury”(Chen,1:i).

圆括弧里的1为卷号,小写罗马数字i为页码,说明引文出自第1卷序言(引言、序言、导言等多使用小写的罗马数字标明页码)。此外,书名A History of English Literature 下划了线;规范的格式是:书名,包括以成书形式出版的作品名(如《失乐园》)均需划线,或用斜体字;其他作品,如诗歌、散文、短篇小说等的标题则以双引号标出,如“To Autumn”及前面出现的“Democratic Vistas”等。

6.如果英语论文中引用了同一作者的两篇或两篇以上的作品,除注明引文作者及页码外,还要注明作品名。如:

Bacon condemned Platoas“an obstacle to science”(Farrington, Philosophy 35).

Farrington points out that Aristotles father Nicomachus, a physician, probably trained his son in medicine(Aristotle15).

这两个例子分别引用了Farrington的两部著作,故在各自的圆括弧中分别注出所引用的书名,以免混淆。两部作品名均为缩写形式(如书名太长,在圆括弧中加以注明时均需使用缩写形式),其全名分别为Founder of Scientific Philosophy 及 The Philosophy of Francis Baconand Aristotle。

7.评析诗歌常需引用原诗句,其引用格式如下例所示。

When Beowulf dives upwards through the water and reaches the surface,“The surging waves, great tracts of water, / were all cleansed...”(1.1620-21).

这里,被引用的诗句以斜线号隔开,斜线号与前后字母及标点符号间均需空一格;圆括弧中小写的1是line的缩写;21不必写成1621。如果引用的诗句超过三行,仍需将引用的诗句与论文文字分开(参见第四项第2点内容)。

五、英语论文的文献目录

论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为 Works Cited, 其格式须注意下列几点:

1.目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。

2.目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码;如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码(但必须计算页数),其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。标题Works Cited与打印纸顶端的距离约为2.5cm,与第一条目中第一行的距离仍为0.6cm;各条目之间及各行之间的距离亦为0.6cm,不必留出更多空白。

3.各条目内容顺序分别为作者姓、名、作品名、出版社名称、出版地、出版年份及起止页码等;各条目应严格按各作者姓的首字母顺序排列,但不要给各条目编码,也不必将书条与杂志、期刊等条目分列。

4.各条目第一行需顶格打印,回行时均需缩进五格,以将该条目与其他条目区分开来。

现将部分较为特殊的条目分列如下,并略加说明,供读者参考。

Two or More Books by the Same Author

Brooks, Cleanth. Fundamentals of Good Writing: A

Handbook of Modern Rhetoric. NewYork: Harcourt, 1950.

---The Hidden God: Studies in Hemingway, Faulkner, Yeats,

Eliot, and Warren. New Haven: Yale UP,1963.

引用同一作者的多部著作,只需在第一条目中注明该作者姓名,余下各条目则以三条连字符及一句点代替该作者姓名;各条目须按书名的第一个词(冠词除外)的字母顺序排列。

An Author with an Editor

Shake speare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. Ed. Louis B.

Wright. New York: Washington Square, 1959.

本条目将作者 Shakespeare 的姓名排在前面,而将编者姓名(不颠倒)放在后面,表明引文出自 The Tragedy of Macbeth;如果引文出自编者写的序言、导言等,则需将编者姓名置前,如:

Blackmur, Richard P.Introduction. The Art of the Novel:

Critical Prefaces. By Henry James. New York: Scribners,

1962.vii-xxxix.

如果引言与著作为同一人所写,则其格式如下例所示(By后只需注明作者姓即可):

Emery, Donald. Preface. English Fundamentals. By Emery.

London: Macmillan, 1972.v-vi.

A Multivolume Work

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. 4 vols. London: Faber, 1928.

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. Vol.2. London: Faber, 1928. 4 vols.

第一条目表明该著作共4卷,而论文作者使用了各卷内容;第二条目则表明论文作者只使用了第2卷中的内容。

A Selection from an Anthology

Abram, M. H.“English Romanticism: The Spirit of the Age.”

Romanticism Reconsidered. Ed. Northrop Frye. New

York: Columbia UP,1963.63-88.

被引用的英语论文名须用引号标出,并注意将英语论文名后的句点置于引号内。条目末尾必须注明该文在选集中的起止页码。

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers

Otto, Mary L.“Child Abuse: Group Treatment for Parents.”

Personnel and Guidance Journal 62(1984): 336-48.

报刊杂志名需划线,但其后不需任何标点符号。62为卷号或期号,如既有卷号,又有期号,则要将二者以句号分开。如:(3.3);1984为出版年份,应置于圆括弧中。

Arnold, Marilgn.“Willa Cathers Nostalgia: A Study in

Ambivalance.”Research Studies Mar.1981:23-24,28.

月刊或双月刊须同时注明出版年月;23-24,28表示该文的前一部分刊于第23和24两页,后一部分则转至第28页。

Gorney, Cynthia.“When the Gorilla Speaks.”Washington Post

31 July,1985:B1.

引用日报上的英语论文必须同时注明报纸出版的年、月、日。B1为该文在报纸中的版面及页码。参考文献(略)(摘自《外语与外语教学》1999年第8期，原文：“英语论文写作规范”作者 刘新民)

英语是占据分数比较多的，所以写好英语作文很重要。小编整理了关于文明的英语作文，快来看看吧。

【预测作文】文明旅游

【猜题理由】有些旅游景点的文物景观遭到了严重的破坏，致使最近文明旅游的倡议越来越受重视，因此就“游客可付费在仿造长城上涂写留言”发表看法。

【预测题目】文明旅游

写作内容：1. 以约30个词概括短文的要点;

2. 以约120个词写一篇短文，就“游客可付费在仿造长城上涂写留言”发表你的看法，内容包括：

(1)谈谈对某些人喜欢在旅游景点随便涂鸦留言的看法;

(2)对专门修一段仿造城墙让游客付高价留言的做法你是赞成还是反对，并简要陈述你的理由。

【参考范文】

It is reported that tourists to China’s Great Wall can now leave their mark on a fake wall recently built near the real wall in Badaling if they pay 999 yuan.

In China, many visitors have the hobby of carving graffiti on places of interest, especially on some famous cultural relics. Last year I went to the Great Wall and found many people had left names and ugly words on the Wall, which destroys many historic bricks. In my opinion, such people should feel ashamed of leaving their marks on the great relics which were created by our ancestors.

So personally I quite agree with this brilliant project though it has caused criticism from some people. The Great Wall would be ruined one day if we didn’t take any steps to protect it. The fake wall is a really good idea because it will protect our relics as well as making profits from the project.(124 words)

英语写作指导：

英语学习中，在英语书面表达时，每次写作前问自己四个问题：这篇文章的体裁格式是怎样的?主体时态用什么时态?人称用第几人称?可以分几段，之间用什么过渡词、连接词?带着这四个问题去审题，搞清楚文章的主要内容，然后列出提纲。最后利用自己有把握的英语句子丰富自己的提纲就可以了。

(1)条理性。指的是合理布局文章结构。首先，在文章思路、组织材料、叙述顺序等方面要有一定的条理性。其次，根据需要，安排好段落，各段之间要层次分明，也要重视每一段的开头和结尾，开头语往往是总起句，结尾语往往是总结句。

(2)准确性。指要求写出语法正确的句子，包括时态、语态、用词和句法等，要准确、地道地表达。必须要牢牢掌握一些常用句型或习惯表达，避免中式英语，在实践中不断总结中英用法的差异，养成用英语思维写作的习惯。高考英语作文素材。

(3)流畅性。指根据整篇文章思想的需要，有效采用不同的连接手段，清晰段落，使文章层次清楚、行文连贯。

(4)简洁多样性。简洁性就是语言简洁，不重复。多样性就是能随情景内容的变化写出句式多样的语句。这也是新课程标准对写作的评价标准。

(5)思想性。新标准对写作的要求，增加了情感因素，在准确流畅表达写作要点的同时，适当增加句子的感情色彩，增加一些人情味，使文章读起来更亲切，完全达到与读者进行交流的目的。

(6)美观性。指的是卷面书写规范、清楚、干净、整洁。在高考书面表达中，书面整洁是也是一个主观评分标准，所以在高考中保持书面整洁是必要的。

总结：那么在高考作文中，除了自己的一些英语知识的巩固还需要的是自己的情绪和思维。写作期间保持稳定的情绪，按照自己的思维完成写作，从总结文章中—布置文章结构—使用表达的语句—下笔连贯。最后当然是要检查是否出现拼错字，句子语法有误等。

Life in the university is not as satisfactory as what we had expected.

First of all, we are tightly hound by continual classes, excessive homework and exams; some students complain that we are becoming "exam machines". Secondly, the teaching method is boring; instead of lecturing, some teachers just "read" lessons. Finally, living conditions need to be improved; and food in the dining-hall is far from being attractive and tasteful.

In spite of all these adversities we still enjoy our life in the university. During the four-year university study, we can not only acquire a lot of book learning, but also foster various abilities. All types of extracurricular activities such as sports meets, speech contests, different social gatherings and dancing parties provide opportunities to make friends; many of these friendships may last a long time.

In short,we should value our life in the university. Four years is only a short period when compared with our whole lifetime. In the university we mature, and in the university we prepare ourselves for the real world. Although there are many

things lacking, the four years in the university is a worthwhile period in our whole lifetime.

[大学生活的英语作文

下面是语文迷为大家整理的常用的英语短语集锦，希望对大家写英语作文有所帮助。

一、动词+介词

1.look at…看…， look like … 看上去像……， look after …照料…

2.listen to…听…… 3.welcome to…欢迎到……

4.say hello to …向……问好 5.speak to…对……说话

此类短语相当于及物动词，其后必须带宾语，但宾语无论是名词还是代词，都要放在介词之后。

二、动词+副词

“动词+副词”所构成的短语义分为两类：

A.动词(vt.)+副词

1.put on 穿上 2.take off脱下 3.write down记下

此类短语可以带宾语，宾语若是名词，放在副词前后皆可;宾语若是人称代词，只能放在副词前面。

B.动词(vi)+副词。

1.come on赶快 2.get up起床 3.go home回家

4.come in进来 5.sit down坐下 6.stand up起立

此类短语属于不及物动词，不可以带宾语。

三、其它类动词词组

1.close the door 2.1ook the same 3.go to work/class 4.be ill 5.have a look/seat 6.have supper 7.1ook young 8.go shopping 9.watch TV/games 10. play games

[介词短语聚焦]

“介词+名词/代词”所构成的短语称为介词短语。现将Unitsl-16常用的介词短语按用法进行归类。

1.in+语言/颜色/衣帽等，表示使用某种语言或穿着……。

2.in + Row/ Team/ Class/ Grade等，表示“在……排/队/班级/年级”等。

3.in the morning/ afternoon/ evening/ 表示“在上午/下午/傍晚”等一段时间。

4.in the desk/ pencil-box/bedroom 等表示“在书桌/铅笔盒/卧室里”。

5.in the tree表示“在树上 (非树本身所有)”;on the tree表示“在树上(为树本身所有)”。

6.in the wall表示“在墙上(凹陷进去)”;on the wall表示“在墙上(指墙的表面)”。

7.at work(在工作)/at school(上学)/at home(在家)应注意此类短语中无the。

8.at + 时刻表示钟点。 9.like this/that表示方式，意为“像……这/那样”。

10.of短语表示所属关系。 11.behind/ beside/ near/ under+ 名词等，表示方位、处所。

12.from与to多表示方向，前者意为“从……”，后者意为“到……”。

另外，以下这些短语也必须掌握。如：on duty, after breakfast, at night, at the door, in the middle, in the sky, on one’s bike等。

[重点句型大回放]

1.I think…意为“我认为……”，是对某人或某事的看法或态度的一种句型。其否定式常用I don’t think…，

2.give sth. to sb./ give sb. sth. 意为“把……给……”，动词give之后可接双宾语，可用这两种句型;若指物的宾语是人称代词时，则只能用give it/ them to sb.

3.take sb./ sth. to…意为“把……(送)带到……”，后常接地点，也可接人。

4.One…, the other…/One is…and one is…意为“一个是……;另一个是……”，必须是两者中。

5.Let sb. do sth. 意为“让某人做某事”，人后应用不带to的动词不定式，其否定式为Don’t let sb，do sth.，或Let sb. not do sth. 另外，Let’s 与Let us的含义不完全相同，前者包括听者在内，后者不包括听者在内，

6.help sb. (to) do sth./help sb. with sth.意为“帮助某人做某事”，前者用不定式作宾补，后者用介词短语作宾补，二者可以互换. Help… out

7.What about…?/How about…?意为“……怎么样?”是用来询问或征求对方的观点、意见、看法等。about为介词，其后须接名词、代词或V-ing等形式。

8.It’s time to do…/ It’s time for sth. 意为“该做……的时间了”，其中to后须接原形动词，for后可接名词或V-ing形式。

9.like to do sth./like doing sth.意为“喜欢做某事”， 前一种句型侧重具体的一次性的动作;后一种句型侧重习惯性的动作，

10.ask sb.(not) to do sth. 意为“让某人(不要)做某事”，其中ask sb.后应接动词不定式，

11.show sb. sth. / show sth. to do. 意为“把某物给某人看”，该句型的用法同前面第2点。

12.introduce sb. to sb. 意为“把某人介绍给另一人”;introduce to sb.则是“向某人作介绍”。

[重点短语快速复习]

1.kinds of 各种各样的 2. either…or…或者……或者……，不是……就是……

3. neither…nor…既不……也不…… 4. Chinese tea without, anything in it 中国清茶

5. take a seat 就坐 6. home cooking 家常做法

7. be famous for 因……而著名 8. on ones way to在……途中

9. be sick/ill in hospital生病住院 10. at the end of在……的尽头，在……的末尾

11. wait for 等待 12. in time 及时

13. make one’s way to…往……(艰难地)走去

14. just then 正在那时 15. first of all 首先，第一

16. go wrong 走错路 17. be/get lost 迷路

18. make a noise 吵闹，喧哗 19. get on 上车

20. get off 下车 21. stand in line 站队

22. waiting room 候诊室，候车室 23. at the head of……在……的前头

24. laugh at 嘲笑 25. throw about 乱丢，抛散

26. in fact 实际上 27. at midnight 在半夜

28. have a good time=enjoy oneself玩得愉快

29. quarrel with sb. 和某人吵架 30. take one’s temperature 给某人体温

31. have/get a pain in…某处疼痛 32. have a headache 头痛

33. as soon as… 一……就…… 34. feel like doing sth. 想要干某事

35. stop…from doing sth. 阻止……干某事 36. fall asleep 入睡

37. again and again再三地，反复地 38. wake up 醒来，叫醒

39. instead of 代替 40. look over 检查

41. take exercise运动 42. had better(not) do sth. 最好(不要)干某事

43. at the weekend 在周末 44. on time 按时

45. out of从……向外 46. all by oneself 独立，单独

47. lots of=a lot of 许多 48. no longer/more=not…any longer/more 不再

49. get back 回来，取回 50. sooner or later迟早

51. run away 逃跑 52. eat up 吃光，吃完

53. run after 追赶 54. take sth. with sb. 某人随身带着某物

55. take(good) care of…=look after…(well) (好好)照顾，照料

56. think of 考虑到，想起 57. keep a diary 坚持写日记

常用英语短语

1. go to school 上学(用于专业的)go to the school 去学校(不一定是上学)

2. good way to 好方法

3. hate to do 讨厌没做过的事hate doing 讨厌做过的事

4. have a party for sb 举办谁的晚会

5. have a talk 听报告 谈一谈

6. have been doing 现在完成进行时eg : You have been talking You have been sleeping since

7. have been to …( 地方)……去过某过地方have gone to …(地方) 去了某地还没回来

8. have fun +doing 玩得高兴

9. have sth to do 有什么事要做

10. have to do sth 必须做某事

11. have trouble (problem) (in) doing sth 做什么事情有麻烦

12. have…time +doing

13. have…(时间)…off 放……假eg: I have month off 我请一个月得假

14. hear sb +do/doing 听见某人做某事/正在做某事

15. help a lot 很大用处

16. help sb with sth ones sth 帮助某人某事(某方面)help sb (to) do sth 帮助某人做某事

17. hope to do sth 希望做某事

18. How about(+doing) = What about(+doing)

19. how do you like = what do you think of 你对什么的看法

20. if : 是否=wether

21. eg: I dont know if (wether) I should go to the party 我不知道我是否应该去参加晚会

22. He dont know if (wether) we will arrive on time tomorrow morning 他不知道我们明天早上是否能准时到达

23. if :如果，假如(全部接一般时态)+条件语态从句

24. in ones opinion = sb think 某人认为

25. in some ways 在某些方面

26. in the end = finally(adv) 最后

1. 内容切题

内容切题是命题作文的基本要求，考生可从以下几个方面入手：

第一要认真审题。根据题目类别，弄清文体的要求，并判明文章的种类(议论文、说明文、记叙文)，同时确定文章要阐明的主题或要表达的中心思想，若题目已经提供了提纲，还要注意弄清各提纲要点之间的逻辑关系。考生在拿到作文题后，切勿惟恐时间不够，提笔就写。一旦跑题，发现了再改就来不及了，常言道：“磨刀不误砍柴工”。

第二要注意设计安排段落。根据文章的中心思想，确定各个段落的主题内容和主题句。如果是议论文，一般要从论点的正反两个方面来考虑，首先是某观点的合理成分或某物的长处，然后是该观点的不合理成分或该物的短处，最后阐明自己的观点。如果题目提供了提纲，只要把提纲扩展成主题句即可。

第三要避免将记忆里较熟悉的句子生拉硬扯地搬进作文，使作文结构松散，意思不明确，甚至会偏离主题。

2. 表达清楚，文字连贯

文章要做到表达清楚，文字连贯，文章各段落就必须根据提纲所确立的不同主题来展开，而且各段落的主题句要将段落的各个部分凝聚在一起，流利地表达段落大意，使段落中各部分以及段落之间的联系一目了然。

3. 句式有变化

有些考生对写作没信心，不敢大胆地使用所掌握的语言基础知识，包括英语句法知识，结果整篇文章都是以主、谓、宾句式为主的简单句子，文章显得刻板无生气。实际上，

each examiner:

i call, come from shandong province.this year is 21 years old, , is astudent who will soon graduate.

passes the foundation knowledge that the teachers guidance controled acalculator with personal effort firmly in the school.mainly studied c languageat the software aspect. c#. java etc. plait the distance language, the datastructure, vf. access etc. database is applied, calculator operatesystem.studied the dreamweaver web page manufacture and the asp network to weavea distance also.studied the calculator network at the hardware aspect, thecalculator construction with bine many times to attend to pack machine, set thefulfillment of the net operation lesson, make me control the work principle ofthe calculator and the set of the calculator network net process.

in addition, i attend various activities of the school organization to cometo the oneself of 锻炼 actively and do various part-time to increase socialexperience.the teacher is divided into the group to us in the experiment andpractice of the lesson remaining to complete mission, make we the deepcomprehension arrive the importance of the team.the and the rise time acquiresthe school scholarship during the period of school, three staffs.

however necessarily limited at the knowledge that the school learn,therefore i would ready to take advice study in the later work, the backlogworking experience, the exaltation work ability.hope your company to give me a

displays an own opportunity!

this with the result thatsalute

小升初英语写作技巧之一：用介词短语替代从句，例：

原句：While they were playing tennis, she started an argument that lasted all morning.

修改后：During tennis she started an argument that lasted all morning.

原句：When you come to the second traffic light, turn right.

修改后：At the second traffic light turn left.

小升初英语写作技巧之二：删除诸如"who is”或"that is"之类的关系代词，变从句为短语，例：

句：The novel, which is written in three parts, told a story that took place in the Middle Ages.

修改后：The three-part novel told a story set in the Middle Ages.

注：把句中的"three parts"改用形容词来表达，节省了四个不必要的单词"which is written in"。我们经常可以将关系代词如"that"去掉，这只会引起最少的变动。

小升初英语写作技巧之三：剔除你不需要的单词，例：

Two joint partners will present their views over a long-distance telephone call.

写完这样的句子后，你自己再读一遍，挑出单词"joint"和"telephone"，注意删去不必要的词。

公文是国家机关，社会团体及企事业单位在公务活动中，为行使法定职权而制作的文件。它能够跨越时间，空间的限制，有效地传递公务活动所需要的信息。因而行政公文虽然数量不多，但却是应用文中的一个主要门类。

为使国家行政机关的公文处理工作制度化，规范化，科学化，提高公文处理的效率和质量，经过几年的实践，国务院办公厅对原有的《国家行政机关公文处理办法》进行了再次修订，于2001年开始施行。

修订后的国家机关行政公文共有十三类十三种，即一、命令(令)，二、决定，三、公告，四、通告，五、通知，六、通报，七、议案，八、报告，九、请示，十、批复，十一、意见，十二、函，十三、会议纪要。

决定

决定的适用范围

决定记录和反映了各类机关的重要决策结果和内容，它是一种带有制约，规范，指导作用的下行文，对于下级机关的工作过程或者活动具有强制力和约束力，是一种兼具领导性与规定性的公文。决定以机关名义发布，以国家行政机关为例，按照有关法律，决定的发布机关是国务院，国务院各部委，以及县级以上(含县级)地方各级人民政府;乡，民族乡，镇人民政府也可以发布决定。

决定适用于对重要事项或者重大行动做出安排，奖惩有关单位及人员，变更或者撤销下级机关不适当的决定事项。

决定的写法

决定的格式主要由标题，正文，签署和日期组成。

1，标题 决定的标题应当精炼地反映决定的主要内容，通常要求写全项标题，即发文机关，事由和文种。

2，正文 决定的正文，应具体表达决定原由及对具体事项或行动的意见，要求，方法，措施等内容。具体写法有两种:宣告性决定，因其内容相对简单，篇幅又较短小，所以，常按"决定原由"，"决定内容"的顺序作篇段合一的方法来进行表述。指挥性和表彰性决定，因其内容相对复杂，所以，常采用二部式结构表述:第一部分是开头，阐明决定的原由;第二部分是主体，阐明对有关事项或行动的意见，要求，方法，措施等内容，可按一定逻辑顺序分条列项进行表述;有时也可采用小标题的方式来表述。

3，签署及日期 决定的签署与其他行政公文一样，在正文的右下方签上发文机关及成文日期，其中，如果是需要明确通过决定的时间及会议，则可将二者写在标题的下方。

撰写决定的注意事项:

第一，要注意决定的必要性。第二，要注意决定的正确性。

l 通知

一、 通知的适用范围

在机关，团体和企事业中，作为通用公文的"通知"是应用范围广，使用频率高的一个文种。

通知适用于批转下级机关相关的公文，转发上级机关和不相隶属机关的公文，传达要求下级机关办理和需要有关单位周知或者执行的事项，任免人员。

通知的适用范围广，从公布国家的政策法令，到基层单位的事务告知，无论是党，政，军机关，群众团体，还是企事业单位，上至中央，下至地方，单位无论大小都可以使用通知这种公文形式。由于通知的限定性小，机动性，灵活性大，所以处理各种事项用其他公文不好归类和使用时，常常考虑用通知来发文。通知均以机关名义发布。

二、 通知的写法与撰写注意事项

通知的写作格式由标题，受文单位，正文，签署和日期几部分组成。

标题常用的写法有两种:一种是发文机关，事由，文种三要素俱全，另一种标题是只有发文事由和文种两要素，

受文单位 即被通知对象或主送单位，一般是单位，有时也可是个人。

通知的正文多用祈使语句，适当配以说明语句，而且口气坚定，不容置疑。

签署和日期 通知的正文结束后还要将发文机关名称写上，然后再写成文日期，最后要加盖公章。

三、 撰写通知的注意事项:

第一，要认真仔细。第二，被通知单位的名称要写清写全。通知的主送单位可以是一个，可以是几个，也可以是所有下属单位，发文时必须写清楚，通知周全。如使用"省政府有关部门"一类略称，所附发文单位则应写明"有关部门"的名称，以避免发文不全，贻误工作。

报告

一、 报告的适用范围

报告适用于向上级机关汇报工作，反映情况，答复上级机关的询问。

报告从性质上看是一种陈述性的公文;从行文关系上看，是一种典型的上行文。

二、 报告的特点

第一，已然性。

第二，总结性。

第三，陈述性。

三、 报告的种类

报告，按其呈报要求可分为呈报性报告，呈转性和呈复性报告。

报告，按其内容可分为综合报告和专题报告，工作报告和情况报告，以及调查报告。

四，报告的写法与撰写注意事项

四、 报告的写法

报告由标题，主送机关，正文，落款及日期四部分组成。

1，标题 一般由规范化的"三要素"的写法即发文机关，报告内容和报告组成，也可以由事由和文种组成，省略其发文单位。

2，主送单位 主送机关写在正文前第一行。

3，正文 报告的正文一般也分为开头，主体和结尾三部分组成。

正文的开头，一般是简要说明报告的目的或有关情况，有时是对报告的情况作简要概括。采用的方式常用说明式或概括式。

正文的主体应集中反映报告的核心内容。其具体写法，因报告种类不同而略有差异。综合性报告及呈报性报告，专题报告，因是汇报工作，按其内容基本上是采用顺叙法。呈转性报告，因其主要目的是反映对具体问题的意见，所以其内容安排亦采取顺叙法，正文的结尾，一般的报告多无特殊的结尾，汇报完毕，即告结束。结尾常用语是"以上报告，如有不妥，请指正。"呈转性报告，其结尾比较固定，常用语是"以上报告，如无不妥，请批转×××，×××贯彻执行。"

落款及日期 如果标题是"两要素"的写法，或者即使标题是"三要素"写法，为了郑重起见，则先落款即发文单位全称，再写成文的日期。

五、 撰写报告应注意的事项:

第一，要注意明确写作目的。一是根据目的确定报告的具体种类，二是根据目的选择典型材料和重点内容。

第二，报告的材料应确实，可靠。

第三，报告里的观点要正确。

第四，文字要简练。

请示

一、 请示的适用范围

请示适用于向上级机关请求指示，批准。

请示从行文关系看，它是一种典型的上行文，从性质上看是期复性公文。上级机关收到请示后，应当及时给予指示，批复。

请示一般以机关的名义发出，在国家行政机关中，为了明确行政领导负责制，重要的请示，比如涉及有关全国或者一个地区，一个方面工作的方针，政策，计划和重大行政措施等事项的请示，也可以由机关的正职行政领导签署发出。

二、 请示的特点:

第一，行文关系具有固定性。请示的行文不能超越法定的隶属关系，而且一般是逐级行文。

第二，行文的内容具有单一性。凡较规范的请示，都是具有这种单一性的，即一篇请示的公文只写一件事或一个问题，亦即所谓的"一文一事"，"一事一请示"。这样做的原因是由行政管理权限及行文效果所决定的。

第三，行文目的鲜明性。这主要表现在两个方面:一是对请示事项或问题所持的意见是非常明确的;二是对上级机关的有关请求也同样是非常明确的。在这里，一切的含糊其辞都是不允许的

三、 请示与报告的区别

第一，行文目的不同。请示用于向上级请求指示或批准某些事项，待上级明确审批意见后再开展或结束工作，在请示中可以向上级明确提出务必予以答复的要求;报告却不能请求指示或批准，更不能要求必须复文。

第二，两个文种的作用不同。请示对工作起到启始或中续作用;报告则起到汇报工作，反映情况供上级了解或参考的作用。

第三，两个文种的形成时间不同。请示只能在事前，报告则在事后或事情进行当中形成。

第二节 请示

四、 请示的写法

请示由标题，主送单位，正文，签署及日期组成。

1，标题 请示的标题由请示单位的法定名称，事由(请示事项)和文种(请示)组成。标题中的事由必须是请示的主要内容的精炼概括，一般为请示事项或问题的名目。

2，主送单位 即请示单位的直接上级机关。如有双重隶属关系时，则应主送能够直接批复的隶属上级，另者则以"抄报"处理，即主送单位只能是一个。不要轻易越级行文，如因特殊需要，必须越级行文时，应在报送更高的隶属上级机关的同时，抄报被越过的直接隶属的上级机关。

3，正文 请示的正文包括请示缘由，请示事项及请示批准的希望或要求。请示缘由部分应简明扼要地写出导致提出请示事项或问题的主要情况，也是构成原因的主要理由。第二部分的请示事项是全文的重点，明确提出请示的事项或问题以及相应的具体意见。最后一部分是向上级机关提出请求批准的希望或要求，常用语有"妥否，请批准""以上请示，可妥，请指示"等，如果是呈转性请示，结尾时常写"以上请示，如同意，请批转××××地执行"等。以上内容，视繁简程度，可分别作一段或若干段安排。

4，签署及时间 请示全文之后要写上请示单位的全称和请示正式签发的时间，完整的年，月，日。

五、 请示撰写的注意事项

第一，必须做到"一文一事一请示"。

第二，撰写请示事项时，意见要具体明确，决不能含混不清，不知可否。0

第三，凡请示事项或问题的解决涉及有关单位者，应事先商同有关单位，或在请示中加以说明;不能在主送的同时抄给下级机关。

第四，一定要把请示与报告区分开来，不能混用，亦不能写成"请示报告"。

批复

一、 批复的适用范围

批复，是上级机关根据有关的方针，政策和法律法规，依据自身的职权，针对下级机关的请示事项所作书面形式的答复。批复表达了领导机关对下级机关要开展某项工作或者处置某种事项所持的态度，或指示性意见。因此，批复具有强制约束力和严肃郑重性，并有很强的针对性和结论性，受文者必须贯彻执行。

批复适用于答复下级机关的请示事项。

批复是专门针对下级机关的请示而发的，一般是"一请示一批复"，不涉及请示以外的其他事项。它属于指示性下行文。

二、 批复的用途

主要是通过对请示事项的具体答复或指示，实行对下级单位的具体指导，对全局工作及时协调。

三、 批复与批示同属于上级机关发往下级机关的指导性公文，但它们有明显的区别

批复是专门答复下级机关请示事项的，内容具有明显的指导性，属于被动发文;批示是上级机关对某些问题或某项工作发表的指导性意见，其内容常常有较强的针对性和参考作用，属主动发文。

四、批复的写法与撰写注意事项

1、标题 批复的标题一般都是规范的"三要素"的写法，即由发文单位的全称，事由和文种构成，也有的批复的标题由事由和文种构成

2、主送单位 批复的主送单位即原请示单位，换言之即答复是谁的请示，主送单位就应该是谁，若带有普遍指导意义的，需要发给下级机关，则用"抄送"的形式。另外，标题中如有请示单位的，则不必再写主送单位。

3、 正文 批复的正文一般都很简短，因为它不像通知和指示那样详细阐述道理或意义，也不必像请示那样充分说明理由，而是答复问题。正文一般由"引语"和"答复意见"两部分组成。

4、落款及时间 批复因具有通知和指示的性质，所以文中要写发文机关名称和成文具体时间;如果标题中已有发文机关名称，正文后也不再落款而只写成文日期。但无论是哪一种都必须加盖发文机关公章，以示严肃性。

五、撰写批复的注意事项

第一，针对性和真实性。写批复意见必须依照党和国家的方针，政策，针对所请示的问题，并核实请示原由的真实性，实事求是地给予明确答复。

第二，明确性和具体性。写批复，意见要明确，不可模棱两可，意见还应尽量具体，以利下级机关执行。

第三，及时性和一致性。批复是答复请示事项的公文，对请示事项的答复，一定要及时，以免误事。凡请示事项涉及到其他部门或地区的问题，批复前要尽快与其协商，取得一致意见，然后写成批复意见，以利于下级机关的实施。

第四，正确使用"批复"与"答复函"两个文种。批复是一种针对"请示"而发的下行文，作者必须是受文机关的上级领导或指导机关，否则不能使用这一文种。

函

一、 函的适用范围

函，也称公函，是商洽性公文。各级各类机关在开展工作中经常需要与平行或不相隶属的机关进行联系，以便更好地协调工作事项，这种联系常用"函"进行。函，国家机关，企事业单位都可以使用。它是公文中运用最为灵活的一个文种。

函适用于不相隶属机关之间商洽工作，询问和答复问题，请求批准和答复审批事项。

二、 函与批复的区别:

首先，可以从概念上加以界定。函是用来相互商洽工作，询问和答复问题，向有关主管部门请求批准的。批复是专门用来答复请示事项的。

其次，从作用与行文关系上来区分。批复的作用仅限于有隶属关系或业务主管关系的上级对所管辖的机关单位行文，准与不准的态度鲜明，往往具有通知和指示的性质，它只能是下行文。而函的答复更多为平级行文，并只是商洽性，联系与咨询的答复，一般情况都是平行文

三、 请示函与请示的区别:

公文处理中，平行单位之间请示与申请批准内容的函混淆的情况时有发生，虽然它们都有请示的性质，但它们也有明显的区别，主要有以下两点:

第一，请示是上行文，函是平行文。

第二，请示的制发单位和受文单位之间的关系是领导与被领导的关系，函的制发单位与受文单位是平行或不相隶属的关系。

四、 函的写法

函的一般格式主要包括:标题，主送单位，正文，落款与时间。

标题 函的标题是全要素标题，即包括发文单位，事由及文种。其中事由应是对正文主要内容的标准而精炼的概括。

正文 函的正文是文件的主要部分。强调就事论事，应直陈其事。第一部分是叙述事项，第二部分说明希望和要求。去函的正文先写商洽，请求，询问或告知的事项，然后提出希望，请求或要求。最后明确提出"以上意见可否，请函复"，"敬请函复"，"特此函告"等。"事项"部分基本是叙述和说明的写法，是什么就写什么，应简单扼要，又要交待清楚。"要求"部分可多可少，如果事项很简单，而且没有过多要求就同事项写在一起，一气呵成;如果事项复杂些，或要求多些可以单列一段来写，甚至分条列项来写，而且无论是哪一种内容，也不论是对哪一级，要求的口气都是谦和的。复函正文的一般结构是:先引述来函，可引来函的文件名称，发文字号，主要内容。如"贵厂×字×号文悉"这样的格式，也可以直接写"电悉""函悉"，然后写答复的主要事项，所答复的内容要围绕来函，要准确表达本机关的意见，态度要鲜明。复函的结尾一般可写上"此复""特此函复"等话语。在复函中要针对来函中提出的问题予以答复:同意或不同意，同意将怎么办;不同意是什么原因或应该怎么办，不应该怎么办等。文中用语应言简意赅。

落款与日期 函的正文写完之后，最后要有签署和日期，并要加盖公章。

第三章 国家行政机关公文(下)

l 会议纪要

一、 会议纪要的适用范围和种类

会议纪要也是一种比较重要的法定公文。为了体现民主集中制的原则，各级机关，人民团体，企事业单位的公务活动经常采用会议形式，这就使以记录会议情况和议定事项的会议纪要具有较高的使用频率。

会议纪要适用于记载，传达会议情况和议定事项。

会议纪要是一种特殊文种，主要用于传达会议的主要精神和要求，与会单位共同遵守执行的事项，以沟通情况，交流经验，统一认识，指导工作。它是在归纳，整理会议记录及其他有关会议材料的基础上，按照会议的宗旨和要求，针对会议讨论研究的工作事项和问题综合整理而形成，它既可以反映会议的基本情况，主要精神和中心内容，也能够用以解决问题，统一协调各方面的步调，还可以向上级机关汇报会议情况。例如《××大学思想政治教育工作座谈会会议纪要》。

二、 会议纪要的种类

会议纪要从本身反映的内容和性质及作用来看，大体可分为三种:

第一类，指令性会议纪要。

第二类，通报性会议纪要。

第三类，座谈会纪要。

第五节 会议纪要

三、 会议纪要的写法与撰写注意事项

会议纪要的格式一般包括标题，时间，正文等项。

标题 会议纪要的标题有两种写法:其一是单标题，其二是双标题，这里有两个语言结构，前一个是主标题，概括会议的主题，后一个是副标题，说明会议的名称及所用文种。

时间 会议纪要的时间，一般是会议纪要形成的时间，有时也可以写会议结束的时间。会议纪要的时间一般写在标题下方的居中位置，并且首尾加圆括号。

正文 会议纪要正文一般包括开头，主体和结尾三部分。

开头部分用简练的文字写出会议概况:介绍召集会议的单位，会议的目的，开会的时间，地点，会期，参加人员，会议的议程和进行情况等。

主体部分主要写会议内容，即会议研究的问题，讨论的意见及所形成的结果。这部分的表述方式比较灵活多样，可以加写序号按问题的顺序逐一表述，也可以直接以小标题形式表述，还可以按内容性质加序号分若干部分表述。

结尾部分有两种写法。一种是提出希望，号召，要求有关单位认真贯彻会议精神，努力完成会上提出的各项任务;另一种是不另写结尾，正文的主体部分结束就是全文的结尾，一般工作会议纪要常常采用这种写法。

四、 撰写会议纪要应注意的事项:

第一、要真实，准确地概括会议内容，尤其是会议的议决事项。会议纪要，既要忠实于会议的实际内容，又要作好归纳整理工作，不能随主观意图增减或更改会议的内容，而必须做到真实，准确地表达会议内容。

第二、要突出反映会议的重点内容，这主要是指重点反映会议所讨论的问题及形成的统一意见，即会议明确和解决的问题。

第三，会议纪要的写作要及时，否则拖延时间过长，会给人"时过境迁"之感，影响公文的效果。

第四章 行政事务应用文

行政事务应用文的特点

行政事务应用文是指法定的行政公文之外的，在国家机关，企事业单位，社会团体日常行政事务中经常并大量使用的公务文书，有时被称为"常规文书"。

五、 行政事务应用文有其自身的特点:

第一、制发程序，行文格式无严格规定。与法定的行政公文相比，行政事务应用文有较大的灵活性，呈现出风格的多样化。例如，简报这种行政务事务应用文，既可以呈送给上级机关使之作为了解下情，正确决策的参考，又可以发给下级部门用于指导工作，沟通情况的工具。其主送，抄送单位无严格界限。写法灵活得多。

第二、行政事务应用文本身不具备法定权威。行政事务应用文一般不单独行文，它要发挥自身的作用，需要批转，转发，印发通知和实施命令等条件。否则，它只能被看作是一种参考意见。

第三，使用频率高。行政事务应用文在机关，团体，企事业中，使用很多，而且连续使用。

常见的行政事务应用文有计划，总结，简报，调查报告，规章制度，述职报告等。

计划的写作

计划的写作可以有多种格式，常见的有文字叙述式，条文式，表格式。有时几者兼而有之。不论采取哪种格式，计划都应具备标题，正文，日期三部分。

标题 完整的标题包括制定计划的单位名称，计划的期限，内容范围和计划的类别四个要素，如果是草稿或初稿，还应在标题下或标题后加括号注明。

正文 计划的正文要写计划的内容。可以分项写，也可以不分项写。如果分项写，可用条文式，还可用表格式。正文一般分为前言和主体两部分。前言部分一般说明制定计划的总的原则:上级指示和要求，制定计划的依据以及对本部门具体情况的分析。这部分应该高度概括，简约明了，不必过于具体。短期的小型计划，这部分可以省略。

主体部分要具备三项基本的内容，即:目标，措施，步骤。目标是计划产生的起点，也是计划实施的归宿，它是计划的灵魂。这部分应该根据需要和可能，提出完成任务的指标，即要完成何任务，达到什么目的要求。措施是实现计划的保证。这部分应该根据主客观条件，规定达到目标的手段，需动员的力量以及负责的部门，配合的单位等。步骤是实现目标的程序安排和时间要求。这部分应该按照任务完成的阶段和环节，明确哪些先干，哪些后干，体现出轻重缓急和先后顺序。在时间安排上，既要有总的时限要求，也要有每项任务的时限要求。

制定计划的日期 一般写在正文结尾处右下方，也有写在标题下方的。另外，对外行文的计划，需要加盖公章。

总结

一、 总结的写法

总结常见的格式包括标题，正文，署名和日期三个部分。

标题 有两种写法:一种是最一般的写法，包括单位名称，时间，内容和文体;另一种标题只有内容的概括，和一般文章的标题一样。

正文 全面总结和专题总结正文的写作格式有明显的不同。

二、 全面总结正文包括以下四个部分:

1，基本情况。这是总结的开头部分。这部分的写法，常见的有以下几种:一是概述总结工作的全貌，背景;一是说明总结的指导思想和成果;或是将主要的成绩，经验，问题扼要地提出来，先给人以总的印象，作为下文的铺垫。

2，成绩和问题。成绩要说够，问题要写透。

3，经验和教训。经验体会是总结的核心，是从实践中概括出来的具有规律性和指导性的东西。能否概括出具有规律性和指导性的东西，是衡量一篇总结好坏的关键。

4，今后的设想和打算。

署名和日期 全文之后要写上单位全称及完整的年，月，日。

上述几部分顺序而下，各自成章，是全面总结的一种惯用写法。

专题总结以介绍经验为重点，以论带叙，首先逐条概括出经验的中心要点，然后加以说明，情况，过程，做法的介绍，用来充当经验的论据，成绩收获融合在经验的条项之内。各条项之间具有内在联系。

调查报告

一、 调查报告的写法

调查报告的写作要点:

第一要，深入调查研究，详细地占有材料。

第二，认真分析，找出事物的规律。

第三，恰当选材，努力做到观点和材料的统一。

第四，要有点有面，不要笼统空泛，不要以偏概全，既要有典型事例，又要有一般情况的概述，这样才能给读者以完整的印象。

二、 调查报告的结构

一篇调查报告的结构要根据它的内容来安排，要做到既能反映客观事物的内在联系和发展规律，又要服从报告主题思想的表达。一般地说，调查报告由标题，开头，主体和结尾四部分组成。

标题 要用简要的语言概括表达全文的主题或论题。有这样几种类型:第一种是类似总结的标题;第二种是文章标题的写法;第三种是正副标题的写法;第四种是提问式的标题。

开头 概述基本情况。有的概括全篇的基本内容;有的简单介绍调查的目的，调查对象的有关情况和调查的经过等。这部分起提示全文的作用，力求简明概括。

主体 是调查报告的主要部分，主要是用材料来说明观点，说明具体做法，经验或问题。至于怎样组织则要根据内容的需要和事物的内在联系来安排。基本上有两种方式:一是按照调查顺序和事物发展过程的顺序来写，被称为"纵式安排";一是按照调查的内容归纳为几个方面，一个一个问题地叙述，逻辑性较强，条理比较清楚，被称为"横式安排"。但这只是相对的，常常是纵横交错地安排。

结尾 是对调查内容作一简要概括，或对正文进行补充，指出规律或做出结论。有的单独写成一段，有的不单独成段，而是把规律或结论放在介绍或分析材料之中，如果在正文中写清楚了，也可以不要结尾。

第五章 会议应用文

会议记录

一、 会议记录的整理

由于会议记录是在会议进行过程中记的，速度很快。必然用许多代替的符号，或者有句子不完整的地方。因此，会后必须进行整理，把那些用代替符号记的"翻译"出来，不完整的地方补充完整。如果会议当时没有记下来，或者记得不清楚的地方，还可以找发言人问清楚或核实。

记录整理好后送负责同志核阅，签字，以备查考。

二、 做记录的注意事项

第一，忠实，准确

第二，反应迅速

第三，注意保密

第五章 会议应用文

第二节 演讲稿

三、 演讲稿的写法

1、开场白

开场白有两项任务:一是建立说者与听者的同感;二是打开场面，引入正题。

开场白一般有这样几种方式:0

悬念式。演讲伊始，或提问题，或引出故事，设置悬念，激发听众兴趣。

名言式。利用名言警句做开场白，可使听众易于接受，振奋精神。

提问式。开场设问，引导听众积极思考。

演讲稿的开场白的方式要因人，因事，因地而不同，没有固定不变的程式。

2、正文

这是演讲稿的核心部分。要写好这部分，必须做到以下几点:

1)要有突出的中心思想;

2)观点和材料要统一;

3)安排好层次和段落的关系;

4)注意文中的过渡和照应。

3、结尾

四、 常见的演讲稿结尾有:

总结式。即在演讲的最后总结归纳自己的见解，主张，强化演讲的中心内容，给听众留下深刻印象。

号召式。即在演讲结束时，提出希望要求，发出号召。

启发式。即在结尾时，提出问题，启发听众，使之留有思考的余地。

第五章 会议应用文

演讲稿

一、 演讲稿写作注意事项:

第一，语言要有针对性。

第二，议题集中。

第三，语言通俗易懂。

第四，要注意演讲人的身份，演讲人和听众的关系，演讲的场合。

二、 这些是写演讲稿的基本要求。要想写出一篇精彩的演讲稿，还需要在以下几个方面下工夫:

1、内容要新颖独到。要想在同类命题的众多演讲中脱颖而出，必须独树一帜，给人以鲜明的印象。内容的新颖独到体现在两个方面:角度新或材料新。角度新即善于提炼与众不同的主题，发现别人不易发现的内在联系。材料新即运用未曾被人引用过的材料和别人不熟悉的知识。角度和材料，只要在一个方面有所长，就能给听众留下深刻印象。

2、演讲稿的语言要在明白如话的基础上，努力做到精炼，准确，富有概括力。要善于把自己的主要思想，主要观点极其简洁，明确地表述出来，"立片言以居要"，让听众不但听得懂，而且记得住。只要听众记住了这类言简意赅，掷地有声的一两句话，就等于掌握了有关演讲的主要精神。

3、要运用各种手段和方法使演讲具有说服力和鼓动性。事实胜于雄辩，要善于借助于具体生动的事例或其他感性材料来说明道理，尽量用客观事实和客观事理本身的逻辑力量来折服听众;对自己的论题和听众，要怀有一种真挚感情，并通过各种修饰手法或生动的譬喻，将它化为巨大的冲激力，打动听众，鼓动听众。

4、设计好演讲的开头和结尾。演讲稿的开头，既可以提出一个发人深省的问题，也可以设计一种使人关注的情境或悬念，把听众带入演讲者所展示的天地之中。演讲稿的结尾，既可以以精辟有力的语言总结全文，也可以以热情洋溢的语言提出鼓励和期望，还可以以发人深思的语言去催人思考，使听众感到回味无穷，得益匪浅

审计报告

一、 审计报告的写法

审计报告的结构可由标题，署名，主送单位，正文，附件，签署和日期等六个部分组成。

标题 一般由事由加文种构成，也有的直书《审计报告》，或由审计单位加文种构成。

署名 审计报告的署名一般放在标题之下的正中位置，写明审计机关或审计小组名称，也有的放在文尾。

主送单位 即审计报告的呈递单位，可以是委托单位或委托人，也可以是被审单位的上级主管部门，写在标题或署名下一行的顶格处。

正文 主要包括以下六项内容:

(1)审计概况。可以交代审计的对象，目的，范围，时间等;也可以说明被审单位的基本情况，包括被审单位的业务性质，经营规模，内部管理组织的人员配备情况，财产资金情况，主要经济指标等;也可概述审计结果，提纲挈领地写出基本评价，主要成绩或问题，这种写法可使读者很快把握住全文主旨。(2)审计过程。简述审计工作展开的步骤，方法等，以便使委托单位了解审计工作进行的基本情况。(3)审计结果。这是报告的主要内容，或者阐述查出的主要问题和出现弊端的原因，或者指出被审单位的工作成绩和经验。这部分内容要具体，扎实，详细，材料要充分，证据要确凿。(4)审计评价。针对被审单位的工作情况写出评语，做出肯定或否定的评价。(5)处理意见和建议。审议人员根据有关的法律，规章，制度，针对查出的问题提出对被审单位和有关当事人的处理意见，并提出解决问题，消除弊端，改善经营管理的建议和措施。(6)结尾。如是上呈文，可写"以上意见当否，请审定";如果审计公证书，可写"特此证明"。也有的不写结束语。

附件 审计报告一般附有事实佐证材料，主要是与审计内容有关的会计账表，凭证，有关人员证词，调查笔录，以及审计人员整理成表格的数据资料。写作格式是在正文后面，落款的右上侧写明"附件"字样以及附件的名称和件数，然后依次将材料附在后面。

签署和日期 在文尾的右下方写出审计单位名称和审计人员名字，审计负责人要签名盖章，并在签署的下一行注明日期(一般以审计报告讨论通过的时间为准)。

二、 写作注意事项

第一，客观公正。审计报告如同法官的判决词，一经提出，即具有法律效力，将对被审计单位产生重大影响，所以审计人员要严格坚持以事实为依据，以法律，规章，制度为准绳，始终保持客观公正的态度，既不能夸大事实，蓄意整人，也不能大事化小，小事化了，存心偏袒。审计人员必须具有坚定的职业道德，不偏不倚地工作。

第二，材料要真实可靠。如实反映情况是保证审计报告质量的一个重要方面。审计人员必须对有关数据，凭证等资料进行认真的核实，鉴定，使之真实，可靠，完整，充分，剔除失实，弄虚作假的资料，未经查实的问题，不能写入报告。

第三，结论要慎重适度。审计报告是具有权威性，法律效力的文件，指出问题，做出审计评价，拿出处理意见一定要依据事实和法规反复研究，不能草率从事。

第四，建议要切实可行。审计建议是报告的一项重要内容，是审计监督，保护职能的体现，能够促进生产发展和管理水平的提高。建议，意见要有针对性和可行性，切忌不着边际，泛泛而淡，内容空泛。

第五，文字要庄重明确。

经济合同

经济合同的主要内容，写法

签订经济合同时条款应齐全，条款不全既不利于执行，又容易引起合同纠纷。经济合同的主要条款有:

1、当事者的名称或者姓名，住所。

2、标的经济合同中的"标的"。指合同中权利和义务所指的对象，也就是双方当事者要求实现的目标。标的有的指货物(如购销合同)，有的指劳务，服务(如仓储保管，工程承包合同)等。无论标的指的是什么，均应明确具体。

3、数量和质量。任何经济合同对转移财产或提供劳务，都应有明确具体的量和质的要求。有些产品还应规定交货数量的正负尾差，合理磅差或超欠幅度等。

4、价款或报酬价款。是为取得对方产品而支付的代价，报酬是指为获得对方的劳务或智力成果而付出的代价。价款和报酬简称为价金。签约时必须把产品价款或劳务的报酬协商一致，并写明数目和结算货币名称，结算方式，付款方式，付款期限，注明是否给付定金及金额，开户银行名称及账号等。

5、履行期限，地点和方式。履约期限应明确具体。工业品应写明交货月份或季度，不要写得太笼统。农副产品交货期要考虑到季节性和产品性质的要求。确定履行期限时要考虑到履行的可能，无法按期履行的宁可不签约，也不要拖期，有时拖期不仅要被罚款，而且会给对方造成经济损失。履行地点直接关系到费用和包装。地点要写清楚，因地点不清曾发生过把洛阳的货物发运到沈阳的事故。包装材料和方法应做出规定。履行方式因合同性质不同而不同。签约时要规定合同一次履行或分期履行，可否由他人代为履行等。

6、违约责任违约责任又称"罚则"。是对不按合同规定履行义务的制裁措施。合同中应规定当事人违约，根据何种法律承担责任，或依法商定应承担的违约责任。责任条款是促进履约的重要保证。目前有些合同不写责任条款，违约后又推脱责任，这是应该改变的。

7、其他必须具备的条款。这类条款通常有三种情况。第一种是按照有关法律规定必须具备的条款。第二种是按照合同性质应规定的特有条款。第三种是当事人一方要求规定的某些条款。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分