自考英语 英语写作基础【汇编20篇】

1. 内容切题

内容切题是命题作文的基本要求，考生可从以下几个方面入手：

第一要认真审题。根据题目类别，弄清文体的要求，并判明文章的种类(议论文、说明文、记叙文)，同时确定文章要阐明的主题或要表达的中心思想，若题目已经提供了提纲，还要注意弄清各提纲要点之间的逻辑关系。考生在拿到作文题后，切勿惟恐时间不够，提笔就写。一旦跑题，发现了再改就来不及了，常言道：“磨刀不误砍柴工”。

第二要注意设计安排段落。根据文章的中心思想，确定各个段落的主题内容和主题句。如果是议论文，一般要从论点的正反两个方面来考虑，首先是某观点的合理成分或某物的长处，然后是该观点的不合理成分或该物的短处，最后阐明自己的观点。如果题目提供了提纲，只要把提纲扩展成主题句即可。

第三要避免将记忆里较熟悉的句子生拉硬扯地搬进作文，使作文结构松散，意思不明确，甚至会偏离主题。

2. 表达清楚，文字连贯

文章要做到表达清楚，文字连贯，文章各段落就必须根据提纲所确立的不同主题来展开，而且各段落的主题句要将段落的各个部分凝聚在一起，流利地表达段落大意，使段落中各部分以及段落之间的联系一目了然。

3. 句式有变化

有些考生对写作没信心，不敢大胆地使用所掌握的语言基础知识，包括英语句法知识，结果整篇文章都是以主、谓、宾句式为主的简单句子，文章显得刻板无生气。实际上，

英文书信是一种最常用的应用文体，对于普通的私人信件通常由五部分组成：小编收集了英文电子邮件的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

英文书信是一种最常用的应用文体，对于普通的私人信件通常由五部分组成：

1.信头：指发信人的地址和日期。写在信纸的右上角，可以从靠近信纸的中央写起。信头上面要留空白。先写发信人地址。地址的写法与汉语不同，要先写小地方，后写大地方。在地址的下面写上日期。日期的顺序是：月、日、年，或者：日、月、年。例如：may 17 XX。在年份之前有一个逗号。

2.称呼：指对收信人的称呼。写在信头之下，从信纸的左边开始。写信给熟悉的人，一般用dear…或my dear…作称呼。如：dear li lei，dear miss thomas或my dear dad.

3.信的正文：指信的主体部分。从称呼的下一行第一段顶边写。从第二段起每段第一个词都缩进3或5个字母写。

4.结束语：指正文下面的结尾客套话。一般从信纸的中央靠右写起，第一个字母大写，末尾用一逗号。在非正式的社交信中，常用yours或sincerely。假如对方是亲密的朋友，可用sincerely yoursyours等。

5.签名：指发信人签名。写在结束语的下面，稍偏右。

另外，英文信封写法与汉语的不同。一般把收信人的地址写在信封的中央或偏右下角。第一行写姓名，下面写地址。发信人的姓名和地址写在信封的左上角，也可以写在信的背面。

英文书信的格式

1、 信头(heading)

指发信人的姓名(单位名称)、地址和日期，一般写在信纸的右上角。一般公函或商业信函的信纸上都印有单位或公司的名称、地址、电话号码等，因此就只需在信头下面的右边写上写信日期就可以了。 英文地址的写法与中文完全不同，地址的名称按从小到大的顺序：第一行写门牌号码和街名;第二行写县、市、省、州、邮编、国名;然后再写日期。标点符号一般在每一行的末尾都不用，但在每一行的之间，该用的还要用，例如在写日期的时候。

2、 日期的写法：

如：1997年7月30日，英文为：july 30，1997(最为普遍); july 30th，1997;

30th july，1997等。1997不可写成97。

3、 信内地址(inside address)：

在一般的社交信中，信内收信人的地址通常省略，但是在公务信函中不能。将收信人的姓名、地址等写在信头日期下方的左角上，要求与对信头的要求一样，不必再写日期。

4、 称呼(salutation)：

是写信人对收信人的称呼用语。位置在信内地址下方一、二行的地方，从该行的顶格写起，在称呼后面一般用逗号(英国式)，也可以用冒号(美国式)。

(1)写给亲人、亲戚和关系密切的朋友时，用dear或my dear再加上表示亲属关系的称呼或直称其名(这里指名字，不是姓氏)。例如：my dear father，dear tom等。

(2)写给公务上的信函用dear madam，dear sir或gentleman(gentlemen)。注意：dear纯属公务上往来的客气形式。gentlemen总是以复数形式出现，前不加dear，是dear sir的复数形式。

(3)写给收信人的信，也可用头衔、职位、职称、学位等再加姓氏或姓氏和名字。例如：dear prof. tim scales, dear dr.john smith。

5、 正文(body of the letter)：

位置在下面称呼语隔一行，是信的核心部分。因此要求正文层次分明、简单易懂。和中文信不

同的是，正文中一般不用hello!(你好!)正文有缩进式和齐头式两种。每段书信第一行的第一个字母稍微向右缩进些，通常以五个字母为宜，每段第二行从左面顶格写起，这就是缩进式。但美国人写信各段落往往不用缩进式，用齐头式，即每一行都从左面顶格写起。商务信件大都采用齐头式的写法。

邮件范文：

15 huaihai street

shanghai, china

feb 6th, XX

peter brown

22, blachpool road(可以省略)

sydney 2140

australia

dearpeter,

i am very glad to hear from you.______________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

i must stop writing now, as i have a lot of work to do.

best wishes to you!

sincerely yours, wang xiaolan

训练指导者方针的好坏是一个前提条件。合理地设置训练程序，使英语习作从初级到高级沿着一条循序渐进，由简到多的进程发展是成功训练者必须具备的指导思想。本篇认为，在习作训练的初期，应采纳一条从有材料可依的习作方式过渡到脱离本本进行自由写作方式的途径。从有材可依到元材可依的训练过程应包括三个阶段：

一、短文缩写(Summary)阶段。

短文缩写可以是就所学课文进行缩写，也可以采用其它阅读材料，但要求被缩写的材料难易程度不超过所学课本。被用于进行缩写的课文或其它材料必须观点明确，层次分明，叙述有条理。缩写时应做到简明扼要，抓住重点，不要拖泥带水，没有主次。初学阶段的被缩写材料不宜太长，以不超一千词为佳，缩写文以不超过2m词为佳。以下就一篇短文进行缩写，限于篇幅，短文内容有所节略。

Most shops in Britain open at 9.00 a.m. and close at 5.00 or 5.30 in the evening. Small shopsusually close for an hour at lunchtime. On one or two days a week-usually Thursday and/or Friday-some large food shops stay until about 8.00 p.m. for late night shopping.

Many shops are closed in the afternoon on one day a week. The days is usually Wednesday orThursday and it is a different day in different towns. Nearly all shops are closed on Sunday. News-paper shops are open in the morning, and sell sweets and cigarettes as well. But there are legal restrictions on selling many things on Sundays. Many large food shops(supermarkets)are self-service. When you go into one of these shops you take a basket and you put the things you wish to buy into it. You queue up at the cash-desk and pay for everything just before you leave. If anyone tries to take things from a shop without paying they are almost certain to be caught. Most shops have store detectives who have the job of catching shoplifters. Shoplifting is considered a serious crime by the police and the courts. When you are waiting to be served in a shop, itis important to wait your turn. It is important not to try to be served before people who arrived before you. Many people from overseas are astonished at the British habit of queuing.

将短文缩写如下：

This article tells us about British shops. British shops usually open at 9.00 a.m. and close at 5.00or 5.30 p.m. Many shops are closed in the afternoon one day a week. Nearly all shops are closed on Sundays. In Britain, many large food shops are self-service. And when you wait to be served in a shop, you have to wait patiently for your turn.

这是一篇不超过100词的缩写，句子基本上由原文各段落的主要内容构成。个别段落被完全删除以保证缩写重点突出，前后连贯。缩写是一种“依材剪贴”的习作方式，基本上采用原材料中的词语和句子，仅作了部分调整，是最初级的习作方式。

二、短文评论(Brief Comment)阶段。

短评是就所学课文或阅读材料进行评论。通过分析原文中的内容和观点，提出一定的看法。短评可以是对原文观点表示赞同，也可以提出异议或不同看法。如对前文便可作以下评论：

From the article we learned about British shops, about their opening and closing time and their service. But we find that there are something inconvenient with British shop service. First is the time. Shops in Britain open very late and close too early. Second is that there is almost no Sunday service. Where can people go if they suddenly need to buy something? The last is the habit of queuing. It will be a waste of time if the queue is too long.

初学阶段，短文评论的字数一般也应在150字左右，不宜写大多。短评是一种“一半依材一半发挥”的习作方式。在内容上，一部分取自原文，一部分靠自己的思考。在用词上，可以部分地依赖原文，也需使用一些其它词汇。此外，短评的行文布局和用句也是一半模仿，一半创造。短评的这种特点使它非常适合承接短文缩写阶段，而又为后期阶段打下一定的基础。

三、引导写作(Guided Writing)阶段。

引导写作可分为重新编排句子顺序。规定情景作文。看图作文。提纲作文。关键词作文等形式。这些形式均可以用于训练，但以提纲作文和关键词作文多用为佳. 提纲作文是一种给出题目和段落提纲的习作方式，其段落写作提纲可以采用段落主旨句的形式，也可以是短语。关键词作文是一种给出作文题目和一些关键词或词组的命题作文形式。由于有段落写作提纲或主旨句等，进行习作时，减少了审题环节，且写作思路受到引导。在训练初期，引导写作的命题应尽量与所学英语书本的内容挂钩，使学生能够参照一部分课文所学的词汇与结构，避免大多生词。如针对上篇短文便可出一道相关命题引导学生习作：

题目：shops in China

提纲：(1)中国商店的作息时间 (2)中国商店的周未服务情况 (3)中国商店服务态度的好坏 以上是关于英语习作初级阶段的训练步骤。三个步骤的三种形式，相承相继，循序渐进，为进入自由命题写作打下了良好的基础。既适合教师指导学生习作课使用，也适合学习者自我训练。事实证明，这三个步骤是英语习作人门的有效做法。

事务文书是机关、团体、企事业单位在处理日常事务时用来沟通信息、安排工作、总结得失、研究问题的实用文体。小编收集了事物文书的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

第一节 事务文书的概述

事务文书是机关、团体、企事业单位在处理日常事务时用来沟通信息、安排工作、总结得失、研究问题的实用文体。

由于这类管理类文体处理的日常事务亦为公务，所以事务文书属于广义的公文范畴。它与狭义公文(行政机关12类13种，党内机关14种)的区别在于：一是无统一规定的文本格式;二是不能单独作为文件发文，需要时只能作为公文的附件行文;三是必要时它可公开面向社会，或提供新闻线索(如简报)或通过传媒宣传(如经验性总结、调查报告等)。

第二节 简报的写作

简报是机关、团体、企事业单位内部，或者是某项中心工作、某次重要会议中用的沟通信息、交流经验、反映情况、汇报工作的期刊式文字载体。其特点是文字短、内容新、反应快、形式活。

一、简报的类别

简报的名称很多，常见的有《××简报》、《××简讯》、《××信息》、《××动态》、《××通报》、《××通讯》及《内部参考》、《情况反映》等。 从不同角度对简报有不同的分类，按内容来分，可分三种。

1、综合简报

它全面、综合反映编发单位工作进展、思想动态、成绩缺点等概况。综合简报多常年定期编发，例某高校党委、校长办公室编《××工作动态》。

2、中心工作简报

它主要是为配合、推动当前某项中心工作，掌握思想动态、交流推广经验而编发。中心工作简报多在一定时期内不定期制发。例某市委路线教育工作领导小组编发《路教工作简报》。

3、会议简报

它报道会议概况，反映会议交流经验和探讨的问题，传达和贯彻会议精神和决议。会议简报用于大中型会议，视会期长短及规模在会议期间可只编发一期或多期。例某校学代会秘书组编发的《××学代会简报》。

二、简报的编写

(一)报头

简报首页上端1/3处由分割线将报头与文稿部分分开，报头由以下四个必备要素构成：①、简报名称，一般套红、居中、字体稍大印刷;②、期数，印于简报名称正下方;③、编印机关，一般为制发简报单位的办公部门或中心工作领导小组及会议的秘书处(组)，要求用全称或规范化简称印于分割线左上方;④、编印日期，印于分割线右上方，要求年月日齐全。除以上四个要素，视简报内容，保密要求，还可以增加简报编号、密级(或使用范围和要求)等要素。

(二)文稿

根据文体性质和文稿来源，简报的体式可分四种：一是报道体，它及时、简明、准确地叙述、报告部门、行业、系统、领域内最新发生的新情况、新动态。其文体十分类似动态消息、动态信息;二是汇篇体，这是在众多稿源基础上剪辑而成的类似综合消息的简报文体，其信息量大面广，能做到点面结合反映全局性情况;三是总结体，其文章即一般意义的总结，但内容有典型性有推广价值，编入简报能发挥其指导一般的作用;四是转引体，即将他单位有参考借鉴意义的材料完整地或篇段地摘编转引。

1、按语

按语是代简报编制机关立言，是对文稿及使用作出说明、评价，如说明材料来源、转引目的、转发范围，表明对简报内容的倾向性意见及表示对所提问题引起讨论研究的希望等等。按语的位置在报头下，标题前。它视需要而使用，并非每篇必有。一般在转引体、总结体及重要的报道体、汇篇体简报文章前才配用按语。

按语可分三种类型：一是题解性按语，它类似前言，主要对文稿产生过程、作者情况、主体内容作简要介绍;二是提示性按语，它侧重于对简报内容的理解揭示或是针对当前实践应注意事项的提醒;三是批示性按语，它往往援引领导人原话或上级机关指示结合简报内容对实际工作提出批示性意见。

2、标题

根据简报的体式，标题也有不同写法。动态性较强的内容多采用单行式新闻标题，简短明快地交待事实、揭示中心，在总结体简报和其他体式简报中，一般使用文章化标题。

3、目录

简报文稿通常是一期一篇，根据需要也可以是一期为一组性质接近的文章。如是一组文章，则须在报头下设计“目录”一栏，将各篇文章标题先印于此，然后依次刊出每篇文章。

4、正文

因体式各异，简报正文格式相去甚远。报道体、汇篇体类消息结构往往前有导语，后有主体、背景等;总结体可完整地将“总结”刊于简报;转引体则因所引文章不同，正文或可能是片断章节，也可能是整篇文稿。

(三)报尾

在简报末页下1/3处用分割线与文稿部分分开，分割线下与之平行的另一横线间内标本期简报的“报、送、发”单位名称，右侧注明本期印数。

第三节 计划与总结的写作

一、计划的写作

计划是单位或个人对未来一定时间内要做的工作从目标、任务、要求到措施预先作出设计安排的事务性文书。

(一)计划的种类

从性质、内容、时间等角度可划分出不同种类的计划。从形式分有以下三种：文件式计划，分目标、要求、措施、步骤等环节，写作严谨具体，内容重大并有一定篇幅;条文式计划，以列出任务为主，较少涉及措施、步骤等;表格式计划，通常用于项目较多又具共性的内容，有时辅之适当文字说明，使计划简洁明了。

计划是个统称，像规划、纲要、设想、打算、要点、方案、意见、安排等都是根据计划目标远近、时间长短、内容详略等差异而确定的名称。

规划 是一种时间跨度长(三年以上)，范围广，内容较为概括的计划。例：《××市城市建设总体规划》。

纲要 和规划相同，它们都是各级领导机关根据战略方针，为实现总体目标对某个地区或某一事项作出长远部署。不同的是纲要比规划更为原则和概括，一般只对工作方向、目标提出纲领式要求和指导性措施。例：《××市2000年经济发展纲要》。

设想 是一种粗线条的、初步的、预备性的非正式计划。相对来讲，其适用时限较长。例：《××市拓展就业安置门路的设想》。

打算 也是一种粗线条的、其想法不太成熟的非正式计划。相对设想，它的内容范围不大且考虑近期要做的。例《××学校争创文明校园的打算》。

要点 是将计划的主要内容择要摘编，使之简明突出，它适用于时间相对较短的计划。例：《××局19××年工作要点》。

方案 从目的、要求、方式、方法、进度等都部署具体周密有很强可操作性的计划。方案一般适合专项性工作，其实施往往须经上级批准。例：《××市住房分配制度改革实施方案》。

意见 属粗线条计划，它适用于上级向下级布置工作任务并提供基本的思路、方法，交待政策，提出要求等。例：《××公司关于下属企业19××年扭亏增盈全面提高经济效益的意见》。

安排 是短期内要做的，且范围不大、内容单一、布置具体的一类计划。例：《××系第×周工作安排》。

(二)计划的写法

1、标题 计划标题一般由四个部分组成：计划的制订单位名称、适用时间、内容性质及计划名称。视计划文本的成熟程度，有可能出现第五个部分，即在标题尾部加括号注明：草案、初稿、征求意见稿、送审稿等。如《××市19××年再就业工程实施方案(讨论稿)》。

2、引言 计划通常有一个“前言”段落，主要点明制订计划的指导思想和对基本情况的说明分析。前言文字力求简明，以讲清制订本计划的必要性、执行计划的可行性为要，应力戒套话、空话。

3、主体 如果说引言回答了“为什么做”的问题，那么主体要回答“做什么”、“怎么做”、“何时做”等问题。

目标与任务 首先要明确指出总目标和基本任务，随后应根据实际内容进一步详细、具体地写出任务的数量、质量指标。必要时再将各项指标定质、定量分解，以求让总目标、总任务具体化、明确化。

办法与措施 以什么方法，用什么措施确保完成任务实现目标，这是有关计划可操作性的关键一环。所谓有办法、有措施就是对完成计划须动员哪些力量，创造哪些条件，排除哪些困难，采取哪些手段，通过哪些途径等心中有数。这既需要熟悉实际工作，又需要有预见性，而关键在于有实事求是的精神。唯有这般，制订的措施、办法才是具体的，切实可行的。

时限与步骤 工作有先后、主次、缓急之分，进程又有一定的阶段性，为此在计划中针对具体情况应事先规划好操作的步骤、各项工作的完成时限及责任人。这样才能职责明确、操作有序，执行无误。

4、落款 在正文右下方署名署时即可。

二、总结的写作

总结是单位或个人对过去一个时期内的实践活动作出系统的回顾归纳、分析评价，从中得出规律性认识用以指导今后工作的事务性文书。

(一)总结的种类

从性质、时间、形式等角度可划分出不同类型的总结，从内容分主要有综合总结和专题总结两种。综合总结又称全面总结，它是对某一时期各项工作的全面回顾和检查，进而总结经验与教训。专题总结是对某项工作或某方面问题进行专项的总结，尤以总结推广成功经验为多见。 总结也有各种别称，如自查性质的评估及汇报、回顾、小结等都具总结的性质。

(二)总结的写法

1、标题

文件式标题 一般由单位名称、时限、内容、文种名称构成。例：《××局19××年度拥军优属工作总结》。

文章式标题 以单行标题概括主要内容或基本观点，不出现总结字样，但对总结内容有提示作用。例某企业的专题总结《技术改造是振兴企业之路》和某高校的专题总结《我们是如何实行教学与科研相结合的?》。

双行式标题 即分别以文章式标题和文件式标题为正副标题，正题揭示观点或概括内容，副标题点明单位、时限、性质和总结种类。例：《知名教授上讲台 教书育人放异彩——××大学德育工作总结》。

2、正文

前言 一般介绍工作背景、基本概况等，也可交待总结主旨并作出基本评价。开头力求简洁，开宗明义。

主体 应包括主要工作内容、成绩及评价、经验和体会、问题或教训等。这些内容是总结的核心部分，可按纵式或横式结构形式撰写。所谓纵式结构，即按主体内容从所做的工作、方法、成绩、经验、教训等逐层展开。所谓横式结构即按材料的逻辑关系将其分成若干部分，标序加题，逐一写来。

结尾 作为总结的结束语可以归纳呼应主题、指出努力方向、提出改进意见或表示决心信心等语作结，要求简短利索。

3、落款 一般在正文右下方署名署时。如是报刊杂志或简报刊用的交流经验的专题总结，应在标题下方居中署名。

第四节 调查报告的写作

人们在完成了调查工作之后，为了使调查的成果形成为文字，就要撰写调查报告。那么调查报告是怎样一种文章体裁呢?调查报告是根据调查研究的成果写出的反映客观事实的书面报告。由于调查报告是调查与分析、实践与理论、客观与主观相结合的实用性文体，是从调查目的通向社会效益和经济效益的桥梁和工具，它在社会生活、经济活动和人类的其他实践活动中具有十分重要的作用。

一、调查报告的类别

调查报告亦有别称，像考察报告、调研报告及××调查等都是常见的。

1. 关于……人们有不同的观点。一些人认为……

There are different opinions among people as to ____ 。Some people suggest that ____。

2. 俗话说(常言道)……，它是我们前辈的经历，但是，即使在今天，它在许多场合仍然适用。bbs.xschu.com

There is an old saying______。 Its the experience of our forefathers，however，it is correct in many cases even today.

xschu.com

3. 现在，……，它们给我们的日常生活带来了许多危害。首先，……;其次，……。更为糟糕的是……。

Today， ____， which have brought a lot of harms in our daily life. First， ____ Second，____。 What makes things worse is that______。

4. 现在，……很普遍，许多人喜欢……，因为……，另外(而且)……。bbs.xschu.com

Nowadays，it is common to ______。 Many people like ______ because ______。 Besides，______。

xschu.com

5. 任何事物都是有两面性，……也不例外。它既有有利的一面，也有不利的一面。

Everything has two sides and ______ is not an exception，it has both advantages and disadvantages.www.xschu.com

6. 关于……人们的观点各不相同，一些人认为(说)……，在他们看来，……bbs.xschu.com

People’s opinions about ______ vary from person to person.Some people say that ______。To them，_____。

xschu.com

7. 人类正面临着一个严重的问题……，这个问题变得越来越严重。

Man is now facing a big problem ______ which is becoming more and more serious.www.xschu.com

8. ……已成为人的关注的热门话题，特别是在年青人当中，将引发激烈的辩论。bbs.xschu.com

______ has become a hot topic among people，especially among the young and heated debates are right on their way.

xschu.com

9. ……在我们的日常生活中起着越来越重要的作用，它给我们带来了许多好处，但同时也引发一些严重的问题。

______ has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life.it has brought us a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.www.xschu.com

10. 根据图表/数字/统计数字/表格中的百分比/图表/条形图/成形图可以看出……。很显然……，但是为什么呢?bbs.xschu.com

According to the figure/number/statistics/percentages in the /chart/bar

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

Keeping a diary in English does a great deal of good to my English study. Keeping a diary can help you review all the English knowledge you have learned. For example， you must know the correct spelling of each word needed in the diary； you must use the phrases correctly and choose the suitable sentence patterns， meanwhile， it is also necessary to use you knowledge of grammar in a correct way.Keeping a diary can help you not only to console your knowledge of English， but to form the habit of thinking in English. Practice makes perfect. By and by， your English writing will be greatly improved.

[谈写英语日记的好处英文写作

财富，指具有价值的东西就称之为财富，包括自然财富、物质财富、精神财富等。下面是语文迷为大家整理的关于财富的英语名言，希望对你写作文有帮助。

Betrand Russell, British philosopher 乞丐并不羡慕百万富翁，尽管他们一定会羡慕比他们乞讨得多的乞丐。

英国哲学家罗素.B.

He that has a full purse never lacks a friend. Even in a busy market, nobody cares to know a poor person.

Anonymors 富在深山有远亲;贫在闹市无人识。

无名氏

All good things are cheap, all bad things are very dear.

Henry David Thoreau, Ameican writer 一切好的东西都是便宜的，所有坏的东西都是非常贵的。

美国作家梭罗。H.D.

Apply yourself to true riches; it is shameful to depend upon silver and gold for a happy life.

Lrcius Annaeus Seneca, Ancient Roman Philosopher 要争取真正的财富，靠金银谋取幸福是不光彩的。

古罗马哲学家西尼加.L.A.

I would rather have my people laugh at my economies than weep for my extravagance.

Oscar ll, Swedish king 我宁愿让我的人民嘲笑我的的小气也不愿让他们为我的挥霍而哭泣。

瑞典国王奥斯卡二世

A penny saved is a penny gained.

Richard Brckminster Fuller.American srchitect 省下一分钱等于得到一分钱。

美国建筑师富勒.R.B.

Beggars cannot be choosers.

Du Bose Heywood, American writer 乞丐不能挑肥拣瘦。

美国作家海伍德.D.B.

Creditors have better memories than debtors.

Benjamin Franklin. American president 放债的比借债记性好。

美国总统富兰克林。B.

Economy is in itself a source of great revenue.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Ancient Roman Philosopher 节约本身就是最大的收入 .

罗马哲学家 西尼加，L.A.

Economy is the poor man s mint; and extravagance the rich man s pitfall. 节约是穷人的造币厂，浪费是富翁的陷阱。

英国作家 塔泊.M

Few rich men own their property.The property owns them.

Robert Green Ingersoll. American Iawyer 极少富人拥有他们的财产，是财产拥有他们。

美国律师英格索尔.R.G.

If you would know the value of money, go and try to borrow some.

Benjamin Franklin, American presudent 要想知道钱的价值，就想办法去借钱试试。

美国总统富兰克林.B.

I finally know what distinguishes man from the other beasts:financial worries.

Jules Renard, French playwright 我终于明白人与野兽的区别在于：人为钱而担忧。

法国剧作家勒纳尔.J.

If rich, it is easy enough to conceal our wealth, but, if poor, it is not so easy to conceal our poverty. We shall find it less difficult to hide a thousand guineas, than one hole in our coat.

Charles C. Colton, British clergyman 如果富有，藏富很容易;如果贫穷，掩饰贫穷却很难。我们不难发现隐藏1000个金币比遮盖衣服上的一个破洞来得容易。

英国画妆师科尔顿.C.C

An ounce of prudence is worth a pound of gold.

Tobias Smollett, British writer 一盎司谨慎抵得上一磅黄金。

英国作家 .斯摩莱特 .T.

All the splendor in the world is not worth a good friend.

Voltaire, French thinker 人世间所有的荣华富贵不如一个好朋友。

法国思想家伏尔泰

关于财富的英语谚语

A bashful dog never fattens.害羞的狗养不胖。(bashful:害羞的)

A beggar can never be bankrupt,乞丐永远不会破产。

A beggar s purse is a I ways empty.乞弓存不住钱。

A borrowed loan should come laughing home.向人借贷应微笑返还。(借钱乐还，再借不难)。 读书笔记

A clear fast is better than a dirty breakfast.宁为清贫，不为法富。 内容来自

A covetous man does nothing that he should till he dies,贪娶之人，死后方尽其义务。

A covetous man is good to none, but worst to himself,贪娶之人，对人无益，对己更损。 读后感

A covetous woman deserves a swindling gallant,贪娶女郎的绝配就是负心汉。

A fool and his money are soon parted,傻子存不了钱。 内容来自

A heavy purse makes a light heart,钱袋沉甸甸，人就轻飘。

A lamb is as dear to a poor man as an ox to the rich,的黑羊比富人的牛更珍贵。

A light purse makes a heavy heart.?中无钱心事重。

A man does not wander far from where his corn is roast i ng.人不会远离财富的来源。 内容来自

A man has no more goods then he has good of.只有享用财富，才算真正拥有财舍田。 读后感

A man may love his house we I I without riding on the ridge.有宝何必人前夸。

A man without money is a bow without an arrow.人无钱，犹如弓无箭。 读后感

A man without money is no man at all. 一分钱难倒英雄汉。

A man’ s wealth is his enemy,财富是人之患也。

想要写好一篇英语作文有哪些方法步骤呢?下面来看看语文迷网为大家带来的写作指导吧。

(一)仔细审题，确定要点。在开始写作这前一定要认真阅读题目中的所有信息(中文提示、图示、注意事项等)把需要表达的全部信息要点列成提纲，列要点时，如果提示是图表，要认真审图，从图中找出要表达的信息要点，如事件发生的背景，人物的衣着、表情、动作、位置、年龄、外貌、图中的英汉文字等，如果有参考词汇，一定要用上。

(二)根据要点，先词组句。近年来高考书面表达的要求不断提高，高分文章要有较多的词汇，较高级的词汇用法。比如表达丰富可以用rich,但如果你用abundant这个词就属于较高级的词汇。再比如“他强调小心驾驶的重要”这个句子 He emphasized the importance of careful driving.其中“强调”这个词如果你用 attach much importance to 效果更佳。

(三)确定时态及人称，内容连贯，结构紧凑。高考书面表达评分标准明确规定，如人称错误要扣分，不同的文体一般都有基本时态。日记通常记叙发生过的事情，多用一般过去时。议论文多用一般现在时，通知等文体通常用一般将来时。每个句子写好之后，句与句之间要选择恰当的连接词。比如：(1)表示承接、递进用语，besides(并且)、whats more(并且)，moreover(而且)，firstly,secondly,finally(最后)，from now on (从此)，afterwards I after that(后来)，to make things worse/ whats worse(使事情更为糟糕的是)，the worst thing of all(最糟糕的是)。(2)表示转折关系用语。but bowever,otherwise,though,despite,in spite of...(尽管)on the other hand(另一方面)，as(尽管)，all the same(尽管如此)。(3)表示因果关系用语。because/because of......for(因为)，owing to (由于)，thanks to (由于)，due to (由于)，so that (结果)。(4)归纳总结用语。to summarize(总而言之)，in short/in a word(简而言之)，on the whole(从总体看)，generally speaking(一般说来)，in my view(我的观点)，in conclusion(总之)。

(四)句式丰富，避免单词。英语书面表达评分标准第五档(21-25分)要求，“应使用较复杂结构，这要求学生不仅会运用基本句型，也要有意识地使用复杂句型，这是文章的亮点。如何使用复杂结构，我认为适当运用非谓语结构(分词短语、动名词或不定式短语)适当运用各种从句(定语从句、名词性从句、状语从句)是有效什么途径。比如：when he arrived in Beijing,he gave me an e-mail.(时间状语从句。一般)→On arriving in Beijing,he gave me an e-mail.Having arrived in Beijing.he gave me an e-mail.(使用了动名词，分别作状语。高级) Hardly had he arrived in Beijing when he gave me an e-mail.(改变时态，句子结构。高级)I wont believe what he says.(一般)→No matter what he says,I wont believe.(让步状从句，高级)。

(五)认真答写，卷面整洁。高考书面表达评分标准中对书写有较高要求。尤其今年英语作文要进行网上阅卷，如果书写较差，会影响到扫描质量，因此，考生在答卷时，一定要认真、清楚规范地书写，以保卷面整洁。

基础写作心得体会思考是一个痛苦的过程，而思考之后的收获又让人感到一种莫名的兴奋与欣慰，就在这种痛苦与兴奋交织之中，基础撰写已经尘埃落定，三年的研究生生活也将接近尾声。回想基础撰写的那些日子，一切都历历在目，在实验室挑灯夜战，在宿舍辗转反侧难以入睡，有过山穷水尽疑无路困惑，有过柳暗花明又一村的激动，也有过拨开乌云见日出的喜悦，基础写作是一个艰难的过程，我痛苦并快乐着，这是一个一边思考和一边探索的过程，难免也走了一些弯路，我蓦然回首，基础的文献综述、开题、中期检查、预答辩各个环节还记忆犹新，深有体会，下面谈谈对基础撰写的几点体会，纯属个人看法，仅供学习交流。

一、选题要准确。俗话说

，良好的开头是成功的一半。基础写作也是一样，选一个恰当的题目是写好基础的关键之一。万事开头难，就是在选题的时候，要考虑好多的因素，既要符合理论的发展趋势，紧跟时代的步伐，有一定的新意，有一定的学术价值；又要符合自身的实际情况，自己有一定的专业知识的沉淀，或自己感兴趣。在选题时一定要进行深入的论证，选题要适中，既不要太难，自己没法写下去，又不能过于肤浅，研究价值不大。这就是要结合自身情况，量体裁衣，在导师的指导下，选一个符合自己实际的题目。题目一旦论证确定，就要树立目标和信心，坚定的写下去，在写作过程中遇到困难在所难免，我们只有进一步调查研究，寻求解决困难的办法，切忌朝三暮四，犹豫不定，切忌中途换题，临阵换将，就是在万不得已的情况下，不要中途换题，这样会分散自己的精力，一定要相信自己，选定的题目是有科学依据的，自己有能力有信心写下去，这一点，信心最重要，这是我们基础写作的动力和支撑。

二、研究思路要清晰。

题目选定了，我们就围绕基础进行深入的论述，思路最重要，思路决定出路。基础写作，总有一个思路，是按时间顺序，历史发展顺序，战斗行动顺序，还是逻辑顺序，这根据自己基础的实际情况而定，只有做到研究思路清晰，才能围绕主体开展论述，这也是从总体上对基础的一个把握，不会让基础写作偏离主题，做到形散神聚。根据研究的思路，我们可以列出基础的各级标题。

三、观点要鲜明。

基础写作过程中，要善于用简明扼要的话总结自己的观点，要敢于亮出自己的观点，就是在基础的三级标题之间对自己的观点要有所体现，切忌把观点隐藏在正文中间，要做到读者看了你的纲目，就知道你写了什么，表达了怎样的观点。切忌人云亦云，泛泛而谈，说了半天，不知道要表达什么意思，我们所有的工作都是为我们的中心论点和分论点服务的。

四、论据要充分。

基础基础，重在论证。这与我们编写教科书有很大区别，教课书的重点在于解决“是什么”，而基础的重点在于解决“为什么”。基础不需要像教课书一样面面俱到，可以不完整，但一定要亮出自己的观点，把道理讲明白，为什么是这样的观点，论据一定要充分，我们可以采取讲道理，摆事实，举例子进行论证，古今中外，历史的，现在的，未来的，都可以用来论证，论据充分了，我们的基础才显得丰满，论点才能站得住脚。

五、找准自己基础的创新点。

基础的创新点或进步点，就是你基础的闪光点，也是你基础中最核心的地方，硕士基础的创新点一般为3-5个即可，这必须站在一定的高度，进行深入的思考，要提出新的思路、新的方法、新的举措，创新点的优劣，从一定程度上也决定了你的学术研究水平和基础质量，也是你基础答辩时必须重点汇报的东西，这也是吸引专家教授眼球的东西。

六、合理借鉴和引用他人的成果。

他山之石，可以攻玉。我们就是在占有资料和文献的同时，要借鉴他人的强处，进一步进行研究。牛顿说过，我之所以看的更远，是因为站在巨人的肩上。我们在论证的时候，一般可以采用归纳、总结和演绎的方法，当看到几个相似的观点时，我们可以进行归纳和总结，找出它们的共性，得出它们的规律，那就是自己的观点。从他人研究的一个内容，我们可以进行联想和演绎，是不是对我研究的东西也可以引申，可以借鉴。在引用他人的研究成果时，一般要遵循一个原则，引用了人家的论点，就不能引证人家的论据，引用了论据，就不能引用论点，这样可以避免不必要的麻烦。

七、详略要恰当。

山不在高，有仙则灵，水不在深，有龙则灵，文章篇幅不在长短，有新意就行。在基础写作中，千万莫以字数论英雄，字数只是个门面，关键是内容，在基础创新的地方，应该重点论述，基础中其它部分要恰如其分，详略恰当，有张有弛，重点内容，浓墨重彩，相关内容，蜻蜓点水，切忌一碗水端平，我们要学会弹钢琴。真正一篇好的基础，就像你见到的一个美女一样，添之一分太肥，减之一分太瘦，恰到好处。而不是在凑字数，可要可不要的东西，坚决删除，别留着占版面，浪费读者的时间。

八、定性与定量分析结合。

大多数军事学学基础，基本上具有理工科基础的特征。有了定性的研究往往是不够的，就是讲的天花乱缀，它的说服力是不够的，我们要借用数学的、计算机的相关知识，对其进行定量的分析，计算和模拟出结果，这也是自然科学研究的精神，用事实说话，切忌伪造数据，篡改数据，这是学术道德不允许的。

九、巧妙运用图表。

图标的功能就是简明扼要，能形象的反应出研究的问题，让人看了一目了然，赏心悦目。把我们的基础比作一部电影的话，那么图标就是电影的插曲，是相当重要的，没有图标的基础，通篇纯文字的基础，让人看了就是有点不过瘾，就像只有一种纯颜色，没有色彩，就像看黑白电视一样，显得有点沧桑，基础中的图表的作用相当重要。

十、文中脚注和参考文献要全面。

在基础写作中，不可能不引用别人的观点，不过基础写作中标注出来了，这是研究的需要，不能算抄。但一定要有下注，要标明文献的出处，具体到页码，不然很容易有抄袭的嫌疑。一般在引用中，不能出现大段的引用，最好是转化为自己的语言，把意思表达出来。文章千古事，得失寸心知。基础撰写没有捷径可走，只有一步一个脚印，认认真真的去完成，在基础的字里行间凝结着导师和作者的心血，一份耕耘一份收获，预祝在一起并肩战斗的兄弟姐妹顺利通过！

下面是语文迷网精心为大家整理的关于高考英语作文素材，背熟以下句子有助于你的写作哦。

1、 Success is dangerous. One begins to copy oneself, and to copy oneself is more dangerous than to copy others. It leads to sterility. -Picasso , Spanish artist 成功是危险的。一个成功的人开始模仿自己，而模仿自己比模仿别人更加危险。因为这样做将毫无结果。 ── 毕加索 , 西班牙画家

2、 But failure also taught me that life is a road with unpredictable forks and unexpected tomorrows. 但是, 失败还使我懂得, 生活的道路充满了无法预测的岔路口和无法预料的明天。

3、 The common idea that success spoils people by making them vain, egotistic, and self-complacent is erroneous; on the contrary, it makes them, for the most part, humble, tolerant, and kind. Failure makes people cruel and bitter. -W. Somerset Maugham , British author 人们普遍认为成功使人变得虚荣、自以为是、自满, 从而毁了他们, 但这种看法是错误的;恰恰相反, 成功在很大程度上使人变得谦恭、宽容、善良。失败则使人变得残忍、怨愤。 ── W•萨默塞特•莫姆 , 英国作家

4、 Against all the odds she achieved her dream of becoming an actress. 她冲破重重困难，实现了当演员的梦想。

5、 He is too smart not to jump at the chance. 他这个人很精明，不会错过这个机会的。

6、 I’m not sure if I’ll succeed, but I certainly hope so. 是否成功我没有把握, 不过我当然希望会成功

7、 I wish you every success. 祝你万事如意!

8、 He seems to be successful in anything he tries. 他好像不论做什么事都能成功。

9、 Experience shows that success is due less to ability than to zeal. 经验告诉我们，成功与其说是由于才能，不如说是由于热情。

10、 Ambition is to life just what steam is to the locomotive. 抱负之于生活, 恰似蒸汽之于火车头。

11、 With their advanced features and compact size, portable electronic devices offer consumers freedom, productivity, and organization. 由于本身小巧玲珑, 又具备种种先进的特点, 便携式电子设备为消费者带来了自由, 提高了生产力, 改进了对信息的组织。

12、 However, the ease and speed with which messages can be sent and received has increased and accelerated to such an extent that many people are receiving hundreds of electronic messages of all kinds each day. 但是, 信息发送与接收的便捷发展得如此之快, 以至于很多人每天都会收到各种各样、成百上千的电子邮件。

13、 Weak men wait for opportunity, but the strong men make it. 弱者等待机会，强者创造机会。

14、 Opportunity meets the prepared mind, as the old saying goes. 正如俗话所说，机遇只属于那些有心理准备的人。

15、 Perseverance is failing nineteen times and succeeding the twentieth. 十九次失败，到第二十次获得成功，这就叫坚持。

16、 He tried hard to learn, and to be a good boy, and he succeeded fairly well. 他用心学习，又很听话，因此一切倒还顺利。

17、 In fact, there’s an old Chinese saying which goes, “He who hasn’t been to the Great Wall is not a true man.” 实际上，中国有句古谚语说：“不到长城非好汉。”

18、 A man is not old as long as he is seeking something. -John Barrymore只要一个人还有所追求, 她就没有老。 ── 约翰•巴里莫尔

19、 To take advantage of them, you can’t let yourself be destroyed by a defeat, or let others set the limits on your ability to achieve. 利用它们, 你就不会被一次失败击倒, 也不会让别人来限制住你成功的能力。

20、 Only those who have the patience to do simple things perfectly ever acquire the skill to do difficult things easily. 只有有耐心圆满完成简单工作的人才能够轻而易举地完成困难的事。

21、 The most important thing in life is to have a beautiful dream and good ways to realize it. 人生最重要的是要有美梦，并有好的方法去实现它。

22、 We must carry on till success in spite of the extremely difficult conditions. 尽管条件极端困难, 我们必须坚持下去, 直到成功。

23、 This belief in equal opportunity has produced a spirit of competition. It’s like a race to the top of the success ladder. 这种机会均等的信念造就了一种竞争的精神, 它就像一场通往成功之梯顶端的比赛一样。

24、 Just as history has shown that species which fail to adapt die out, businesses will die out if they don’t get to grips with the Internet. 正如历史所示, 适者生存, 企业如果不紧跟互联网就将退出历史的舞台。

25、 Television is different from radio in that it sends and receives pictures. 电视与无线电不同, 电视能播送和接收图像。

26、 When people master the digital organization, it will greatly simplify and improve both their professional and personal lives. 当人们掌握了这种数码管理方法后, 他们的工作与个人生活都会得以极大地简化并改善。

27、 A new IT high-tech park in Beijing is helping the city keep its promise to be the country’s center of the knowledge-based economy. 一所焕然一新的IT高科技园帮助北京实现了它的诺言：成为全国知识型经济的中心。

28、 Observation is the best teacher. 观察是最好的老师。

29、 Imagination is more important than knowledge. 想像力比知识更重要。 ── 爱因斯坦

30、 Knowledge is a treasure, but practice is the key to it. 知识是一座宝库，而实践是开启宝库的钥匙。

31、 We can kill two birds with one stone by combining our honeymoon with our business trip. 我们可以把蜜月和出差合在一起，这样一举两得。

32、 Greatly inspired, he made up his mind to read as much as he could, and what’s more, he would study harder than ever before. 他深受鼓舞，决心尽可能多读书，而且，比以往任何时候都努力学习。

33、 Nothing in all the world is more dangerous than sincere ignorance and conscientious stupidity. 世界上再也没有比实实在在的无知和认认真真的愚蠢更危险的了。

34、 Eat to live, but live to eat. 吃饭是为了生存而不是生存为了吃饭。

35、 To my knowledge, my daughter has never told a lie before. 据我所知, 我女儿以前从未说过谎。

36、 In the long run, basic knowledge and technological applications go hand in hand—one helps the other. 归根结蒂, 基础知识和技术应用是并进的, 相辅相成的。

37、 Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body. 读书之于思想, 就如运动之于身体。

38、 English is now the international language for airline pilots, scientists, medical experts, businessmen and many others. Consequently, more and more people are learning it. 现在, 对于航空公司飞行员、科学家、医学家、商人及许多其他行业的工作者来说, 英语是一门国际性语言, 因此越来越多的人开始学习英语。

39、 Unlike many other widely used languages, English can be correctly used in very simple form with less than one thousand basic words and very few grammatical rules. 与许多其他被广泛应用的语言不同, 英语仅凭借将近一千个基础词汇和很少的语法规则，就能够用简单的形式正确地表达意思。

40、 English will doubtless continue to change and develop as a living language always does. 毫无疑问, 英语将像一种活的语言贯常的变化和发展一样继续变化和发展下去。

41、 Another reason for the popularity of English is that English-speaking countries are spread through out the world. 英语流行的另一个原因是说英语的国家遍布世界各地。

42、 Genius is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration. 天才是百分之一的灵感和百分之九十九的汗水

43、 An estimated 310 million people in Britain, U.S.A., Canada, Australia, South Africa, etc. use English as their mother tongue. 据统计，在英国、美国、加拿大、澳大利亚和南非等国有三亿一千万人以英语为母语。

44、 It is surprising that some students have little or no knowledge of English. 令人感到吃惊的是, 有些学生英语懂得很少, 或者根本不懂英语。

45、 The rush to learn English has reached even China. 这种学习英语的浪潮甚至波及到中国。

46、 Washington is known as “the father of his country” and is one of those “larger than life” historical figures who are known around the world. 华盛顿被称为“美国国父”，是一位誉满全球的具有传奇色彩的历史人物。

47、 Many immigrants have come to this land of opportunity for that reason-to seek a better future. 许多移民基于这个缘故来到了这块充满机会的土地上──为了追求一个更好的未来。

48、 Not all Americans are rich, but most are concerned about money. Success-oriented Americans often measure people’s worth by how much they have. 并非所有的美国人都很有钱, 但大多数美国人都在乎钱。以成功为取向的美国人常常用人们拥有财产的多少来衡量他们的价值。

49、 As a result, nearly half of foreign students in the U.S. are concentrated in just 100 out of 2,500 post-secondary institutions, mostly brand-name schools. 结果, 在美留学生几乎有一半集中在2500所高校的仅100所, 这些学校大多是名牌学校。

50、 Credit cards symbolize American shopping habits: “Buy now, pay later.” 信用卡反映美国人的购物习惯：“现在买, 以后付。”

51、 In general, the act is designed to keep the U.S. high-tech industry on top by filling the need for skilled technology workers. 总之，这个法案是为了填补美国对熟练技术工人的需求，以保持美国在高科技工业中的领先地位而制定的。

52、 Tom’s college education gave him an advantage over boys who had not been to a university. 汤姆的大学教育使他比没上过大学的男孩们占优势。

53、 Educators also claim that calculators are so inexpensive and commonplace that students must become competent in using them. 教育家们还声称, 计算器如此便宜而又普遍, 学生必须学会熟练使用。

54、 He already has five honorary doctorates-the latest bestowed upon him by Yale University late of May, 2002-but what he really wanted was this humble bachelor’s degree. 斯皮尔伯格已获得5个荣誉博士头衔，其中最近的一个是在2002年5月下旬由耶鲁大学授予的，然而他最想得到的却是这个不起眼的学士学位。

55、 Calculators do have their place in the world outside school and, to a limited extent, in higher-level math classes, but they are hardly education tools. 计算器在学校之外的社会中的确有其地位, 在高等数学课堂上也有一定的作用, 但它们很难算得上是教育工具。

56、 Very heavy objects or bulky materials like coal, cement, mineral ore, and the like, are weighed in tons. 非常重的物体或者像煤、水泥、矿石等堆积如山的原材料用吨计重。

57、 By the end of this century, about 5,000 modern windmills will be in operation, generating about 20% of the electricity of the country. 到本世纪末, 将有5000架现代化的风车投入运行, 生产约全国20%的电力。

58、 Deep down, they realize that happiness can’t be bought, but it can be given away. 在内心深处,他们认识到幸福是买不来的, 但却可以与人分享。

59、 It is wrong to define happiness as owning a lot of money, but some people take it as their life philosophy. 把幸福定义为有很多钱是错误的，但是有些人却把它奉为人生哲学。

60、 He is rich in terms of money, but not in terms of happiness. 从钱的角度说他是富有的，但从幸福的角度说他不是。

61、 All happy families resemble one another, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way. —Leo Tolstoy 所有幸福的家庭彼此都很相似，而每个不幸的家庭却各有各的不幸。 ── 托尔斯泰

62、 Unfortunately, there are still some people who do not look after their pets properly or are even cruel to them. 遗憾的是，仍然有一些人对他们的宠物不好好照管甚至虐待它们。

63、 She sat up straight and pretended to believe in herself, so much so that she actually started believing in herself. 她坐直了身子, 假装对自己充满信心, 装得连她自己都开始以为自己确实很有信心。

64、 It’s not easy to keep in touch with friends when they are far away, however, they are always on her mind. 和远方的朋友保持联系不是一件容易的事，但是她一直记挂着他们。

65、 Agriculture will have to undergo a drastic change to meet the needs of the new situation. Otherwise, the country will starve. 农业必须进行深入的改革, 以满足新形势的需要。否则, 国家将遭受饥荒。

66、 In the northern area, it is necessary to plant varieties which are outstandingly resistant to low winter temperature. 北部地区只能种植确实能抗冬季低温的品种。

67、 Synthetic, or man-made, diamonds have been manufactured from carbon since the mid-1950s, when General Electric Co. developed the process for making small diamonds for industrial uses. 人们从20世纪50年代中期就开始用碳来制造或人工合成钻石，当时通用汽车公司开发出了生产工业用小钻石的工艺。

68、 The WTO’s creation on January 1 1995 marked the biggest reform of international trade since the Second World War. 1995年1月1日世贸组织的诞生，标志着第二次世界大战之后国际贸易的最大改革。

69、 A student who has grown up with a calculator will struggle with both strategies and computations. 一个伴着计算器长大的学生既要对付解题策略, 又要对付实际运算。

70、 Students learn far more when they do the math themselves. 学生自己进行数学运算所获得的收益远比依赖计算器多。

71、 A student who learns to handle numbers mentally can focus on how to attack a problem and then complete the actual calculations easily. 学会心算的学生能把注意力集中到如何解题上, 然后轻而易举地完成实际运算。

72、 It’s my mother who has been encouraging me never to lose heart when I had difficulties in study. 这些年来，当我在学习中遇到困难时，是我的母亲一直在鼓励我从不要泄气。

73、 With more students applying to college than ever before, admissions directors are paying especially close attention to essays, interviews, and teacher recommendations. 由于有比以往更多的学生申请上大学, 招生部主任将格外注重作文、面试和教师的推荐信。

74、 Calculators prevent students from seeing this kind of natural structure and beauty in math. 计算器妨碍学生认识数学中这类自然结构和美。

75、 If we don’t require students to do the simple problems that calculators can do, how can we expect them to solve the more complex problems that calculators cannot do? 如果我们不让学生做那些计算器能代劳的简单的运算, 又怎么能期待他们去解决计算器解决不了的更为复杂的问题呢?

76、 Your parents are the people responsible for helping you make decisions until you’re 18. 父母是有责任帮助你在18岁之前做决定的人。

77、 But he is too young to understand cheating won’t do him any good in the long run. 就长远而言, 他太小, 还不懂得欺骗会给他带来害处。

78、 What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the soul. 教育之于心灵, 就如雕刻术之于大理石。

79、 He began to study accounting at night sessions of the City University of New York, earning his tuition during the daytime. 他开始晚间在纽约城市大学学习会计，白天做工赚学费。

80、 Those who educate children well are to be more honored than the parents, for the latter only give them life while the former teach them the art of living well. —Aristotle 把儿童教育好的人们甚至应该比他们的父母更受尊敬，因为后者仅仅给予他们生命，前者却教给他们生活好的艺术。 ──(古希腊)亚里士多得

81、 The cloning of Dolly the sheep nearly 5 years ago raised the hopes of transplant scientists looking for an endless supply of lifesaving organs. 将近5年前,克隆羊多莉给寻求无穷无尽的救命器官供货的移植学家带来了希望。

82、 I would rather join you in research work than go on a holiday to the seaside. 我与其到海滨去度假，倒不如和你们一起参加科研工作。

83、 The further that Joy dug into the cutting edge of research in the new technologies-robotics, genetic engineering and nanotechnology-the more horrified he became. 乔伊在机器人学、基因工程和纳米技术等新技术研究领域的前沿钻得越深, 就越感到恐惧。

84、 What Henry Ford is to the automobile, George Eastman to photography, and Charles Goodyear to rubber, Edison is to not one but several of today’s essential technologies. 对当今不止一项而是多项重要技术的贡献, 就如同Henry Ford 对汽车、George Eastman 对摄影、Charles Goodyear 对橡胶的贡献一样大。

85、 I am not afraid of tomorrow for I have seen yesterday and I love today. -W.A.White我并不害怕明天, 因为我已见过昨天而又热爱今天。 ── 怀特

86、 He invested his money in several different companies, by which means he hoped to reduce the natural hazards of investment. 他把自己的钱向几个不同的公司投资, 希望借此减少投资的自然风险。

87、 With the rise of the Internet, personal finance magazines and TV shows find information on investing. 随着因特网、个人理财杂志和专事选股的电视节目的兴起，人们很容易找到有关投资的信息。

88、 Nothing is more precious than time yet nothing is less valued. 时间最宝贵，却最不被爱惜。

89、 If indeed silence is golden, it is also becoming as rare as gold. 如果宁静真是贵重如金的话，那它也在变得像金子一样稀罕了。

90、 Man is not creature of circumstances, circumstances are the creatures of man. 人不是环境所造就的，乃是环境由人所创造。

91、 Pollution is a global problem which needs a global response. 污染是一个全球性的问题，需要全球关注。

92、 Greenhouse effect means the gradual warming of the air surrounding the earth. 温室效应意味着地球周围的空气逐渐变暖。

93、 Air is to us what water is to fish. 我们离不开空气, 就像鱼离不开水。

94、 As our country is populous, it is confronted with a more and more serious crisis of resources. 我国由于人口众多，面临着越来越严重的资源危机。

95、 The government has to provide against a possible oil shortage in the coming months. 政府不得不预防未来几个月里可能出现的石油短缺。

96、 Why do Americans emphasize money so much? Well, this “land of plenty” has long enjoyed abundant natural resources, and people have gotten used to material wealth. 为什么美国人这么看重金钱呢? 这么说吧, 这块“丰饶之地”久已享有充裕的自然资源, 而人们已习惯于丰富的物质财富。

97、 A slip of the foot you may soon recover, but a slip of the tongue you may never get over. -Benjamin Franklin 失足可以很快弥补, 失言却可能永远无法补救。 ── 富兰克林

98、 The earliest Mother’s Day celebrations can be traced back to the spring celebrations of ancient Greece in honor of Rhea’, the Mother of the Gods. 庆祝母亲节的习俗最早 可以追溯到古希腊, 当时人们在春天举行庆祝活动, 来向众神之母──莉雅女神表示敬意。

99、 I am grateful to you for the opportunity to express my conviction in this most important political question. 感谢你们使我有机会就这个最重要的政治问题发表意见。

100、 I am thankful for America and thankful that we are able to resolve our electoral differences in a peaceful way. 我感谢美国, 我们终于用和平的方式解决了选举中的分歧。

拿到英语试题不知道从哪里下手吗?那么下面这套英语写作流程对你会有一定的帮助。

一.审题。

拿到题目后，手中拿铅笔，手脑眼嘴并用，开始审题。看题目的要求是什么，要点是什么，特殊要求是什么。譬如你是叫李华，还是随便一个名字? 要议论文还是记叙文?对分几段写有无要求?等等。诸如此类的硬性要求信息，都最好用铅笔划下来，以免出错，也许你一开始会记得，可随着时间的流逝，你会不会因紧张而遗忘这些信息呢?还是小心为妙。边看最好边张嘴默读，这样就不会遗漏或忽略任何一个字了。

二.草稿。

有的同学怕出错，全文都打草稿再誊写，我姑且认为不太可取，毕竟考场时间宝贵，即使我有四十分钟时间写作文也不敢贸然这么做，更何况考场时我们留给作文的时间往往一再被压缩。有的同学不打草稿，我认为更不太可取。一来容易出错，二来边写边想思维不连贯，即使思维连贯也无法审词酌句，展现自己最好的一面，容易后悔。

草稿怎么打?

1.结构就是你打算分几段写，每段都写什么?哪段转哪段承哪段起合?心里都要是有谱的。

2.关键词：结构拟定后，迅速在草稿纸上写下自己这篇作文可能用到的一些关键词。包括一些漂亮的词和自己可能会忘记的词。主要是动词和名词。

譬如一省作文题： 假设你的名字是李华，亚洲冬季运动会将在你居住的地方举办，现招募志愿者。你希望成为志愿者。申请信的格式已经写好了，你直接写内容就可以。你的个人情况：年龄性别学历，个人条件。英语好，爱好体育，擅长交际，乐于助人。承诺提供最佳服务。

关键词就是学历、爱好、擅长、乐于、承诺，和你对这篇作文初步构思时想到的一些词。先把这些词(指词的英文表达)写在纸上。有一些词的拼写，譬如学历，可能你本身就记得不是特别清楚，这时一定要在开始写作文前先把它写下来，以免一会因干扰而遗忘。

可能看到聪明这个关键词时，你最初写下的往往是clever，再仔细想想，你是不是又想到了smart,deligient好多词，挑个漂亮和合适的用吧。再比如转折，你写了but，这会再想想，是不是又有一堆表示转折的词在你脑里打转呢?挑一个吧。千万别用but.

3.句式：词写下来了，其实你构建这篇作文的建筑材料就到位了，下步就是要把它们盖成漂亮的作文。先用最普通的陈述句把它们在头脑中过一遍，然后看看都能改成什么句式。能不能把一句陈述句改成问句?能不能用上一个双重否定句?能不能用一个主语从句套定语从句的长句?能不能用一个插入语?等等。把你高中三年的英语积累展示出来。在草稿纸上同样标注。

三.正式写。

这样的草稿打完后，就要快快写了。注意，英语作文的卷面简直太重要了，一定要把字写整齐，写大。没有把握的词和句子不用。别忘了遵守你最初用铅笔划下的题目的规定。

四.检查。

注意，最最重要的一步来了。尽管很小心，可是我们写英语作文还是会犯下很多错误。单词拼写的，大小写的，等等。这些错误会极大破坏我们在阅卷老师心目中的形象，一定要坚决誓死消灭。即使时间再紧，请务必留下1——2分钟检查作文的时间，消除隐性错误。

需要说明的是，英语的开头和结尾是最关键的，尤其是开头。基本上，不跑题，遵守题目要求，一个漂亮的开头，一个还过得去的结尾，2-3个高级词汇，1-2个漂亮的句子，加上整齐的字迹，作文的分就不会低了哦。所以，精心为你的作文想个漂亮的开头吧。

微型小说又名小小说，超短篇小说，一分钟小说。过去它作为短篇小说的一个品种而存在， 后来的发展使它已成为一种独立的文学样式，其性质被界定为"介于边缘短篇小说和散文之 间的一种边缘性的现代新兴文学体裁"。阿·托尔斯泰认为："小小说是训练作家最好的学 校。"(《论文学》)

日本作家星新一指出："很久以前就存在着类似超短篇小说的作品。……但是，超短篇小说 这个名字的正式出现，是源于美国。"多数人推崇美国作家欧·亨利(1862-1910) 是创始人。他的近三百篇作品，情节生动，笔调幽默。其中《麦琪的礼物》脍灸人口。可以 这么说，超短篇小说具有立意新颖、情节严谨、结局新奇三要素。即在1500字以内，要概 括出普通小说应具有的一切。也可以说，微型小说是一种敏感，从一个点、一个画面、一个 对比、一声赞叹、一瞬间之中，捕捉住了小说--一种智慧、一种美、一个耐人寻味的场景， 一种新鲜的思想。

微型小说在写作上追求的目标是四个字：微、新、密、奇。

一、微。指的是篇幅微小，不超过一千五百个字。因此，构思和行文时必须注意字句的 凝炼，不允许作品中有赘词冗句。如马克·吐温的《丈夫支出帐本中的一页》。全文只有七 行字，却具有长篇小说的全部情节。

二、新。指的是立意新颖，风格清新。星新一写作一分钟小说，就极力追求"新"。他写道： "有些评论家把我的小说与美国的超短篇小说(Short-Short)混为一谈，这是不妥当的。 我是受了美国超短篇小说的影响。但是没有完全依靠，而是发挥了自己独特的风格和技巧。 我的小说强调一个新字，给读者以新题材、新知识，甚至让他们感到惊讶!"(星新一《一 分钟小说选》)为此，他常常借助于童话、寓言、科幻、推理等手法，通过非现实的题材或 现实题材的非现实笔法，反映他在现实生活中的独特的感觉，表现清新的主题，如他的《保 修》。 当然，微型小说的立意和其它形式的小说作品一样，有时并不是一眼能看出的，有时主题并 非一个，是多元化的，这都是可以的。例如美国著名科幻作家弗里蒂克·布朗写的一篇被称 为世界上最短的科学幻想小说："地球上最后一个人独自坐在房间里，这时忽然响起了敲门 声……"就写得十分别致而耐人寻味。

三、密。指的是结构严密。微型小说的作者在结构上，应力求时间、场所、人物都尽可 能地压缩、集中，使作品结构简练、精巧，如同微雕工艺品那样。因此，特别要在选材、剪 裁和布局上下功夫。

四、奇。指的是结尾要新奇巧妙，出人意料。微型小说的特点多半在于一个"奇"字。 中外作家的许多优秀作品就常在结尾处使人拍案叫绝。如邵宝健的《永远的门》的结尾就出 人意料。

对待微型小说的特点及技巧，一要弄通掌握， 争取在理论指导下站在较高起点上进行实践，二要灵活运用，甚至不去联系，让它们在潜意识中随时起到作用。还可以摹仿。照搬形式、技巧， 发扬精华，受到感应，并力求创新，出自己意。上述特点， 特别是"博采众长"中已经具备了微型小说的一些结构要求。以下再列出一种模式，供初学者学习。

模式如下：

【开头】要使人"一见钟情"。方式有三种：

▲造成悬念，引起兴趣。如《那团云雾》，开头就写不知怎的没了游兴，连山顶上也罩上一团云雾。

▲开门见山，进入情节。往往开头就是人物对话。

▲含蓄蕴藉，曲径通幽。往往描写景物， 烘托铺垫并有照应和伏笔。

【中间】结构主要有三种基本类型：

▲曲折生致式。

①单线曲折，一波三折。如王任叔的《河豚子》，写一农民在二三十年代的社会背景中，因穷困而自杀的过程：弄回毒鱼， 却看到孩子们兴高采烈;怕见惨象而出外， 回来后却见妻儿欢笑等待;吃后等死，却因鱼失去毒性，死不成仍要受苦。

②双线交叉，内在联系。一人两事，或两人一事;可以是两条明线，也可一明一暗，互为陪衬。如《小星的暑假日记》， 父亲编造假材料，儿子编写假日记。父亲打骂儿子后， 再要写材料时只好苦笑。

③反复回环，同中见异。如《奇妙的循环不等式》，车上只有一个空位，售票员不让老太太坐，却让"首长"坐。 司机上车后赶开"首长"请经理坐，经理的丈母娘正是老太太。 又如《他们都是瞎子》，写一对青年热恋、结婚、离婚时都看见一对瞎子相搀相扶。

④前后对比，双峰对峙。 如《变化》写一个业余作者先后发表两篇稿件后，单位领导不同的态度。

(5)欲扬先抑，欲抑先扬。前者，"扬"是主体， 却先在"抑"上着笔，突然一转归于"扬"。后者相反。这样，产生了情节发展的意外性，加强了相反相成的艺术效果。

▲重旨复意式。微型小说应以小暗示大，达到意义的升华;要讲象外之旨，言外之意，引起读者想象。主要采用：①象征。 用具体物象寓示概念或另一形象，但只起结构作用， 不是象在诗歌中着力描写的中心形象那样。如《枪口》， 写一官复原职的领导用别人送的枪打下猎物时，得知走后门的"枪口"也对准了他。 ②双关。如《向不通》， 写大学生向不通十年勤恳工作反不如工作差的升得上去，因而"想不通"。③比喻。如《"炮"炸宴席》， 写小孙子在酒宴上放炮仗捣乱， 又在爷爷不满新经理四十来岁年纪轻时放"炮"："你不是十八岁就当县长!爸爸三十出头就当厂长了! "④省略。这是一种具象化的空白。如《落果》， 老门卫退休后门口枣树上果子不熟就被打光，他写信给厂长："连几十张馋嘴都管不住，还管厂。"接着省略了厂长感奋、整顿厂风的情节， 而写第二年老师傅收到一包红枣。

▲采用其它文体和艺术体裁的特长。

【结尾】结尾宜巧，要"回眸一笑"。主要有三种：

▲画龙点睛，首尾呼应。如《那团云雾》，开头败了游兴，峰顶似乎有团云雾，结尾那团云雾也不见了。

▲戛然而止，含蓄隽永。如二百来字的《书法家》，局长在书法展览会上应邀不过写了两个拿手的好字是"同意"， 面对惊叹和要求只好无奈地说?quot;能写好的数这两个字……"这样结尾， 韵味无穷，艺术容量很大。

以上两种结尾方法只能撩起读者短暂的激动，最佳结尾是：

▲出人意外，扣人心弦。即"欧·享利式结尾"，其特点是"巧"。整个布局为结尾服务，读者以为情节东向演进， 结果却西向而行，抖包袱，亮底牌。这种结尾， 打破了情节发展惯用的结构手法，给人以新奇感，深化了主题，增加了容量。大家熟知的《麦琪的礼物》就是这样，一对穷困夫妻为在节日时互送礼物而煞费苦心，最后礼物拿出来却没用：一个卖掉金表为妻子买了梳子， 一个剪掉长发为丈夫买了根表链。又如澳大利亚的《窗》，靠窗的病人每天为角落病人描述窗外美景，为苍白的生活增光添彩。 但是角落病人却见死不救，图谋到了靠窗的好位置，抬头望见窗外只是一堵高墙。

小编今天与大家一起探讨一下应用文的写作基础知识。

第一节 应用文的主题

应用文写作基础知识既有与一般文体写作的共通之处，更多的是其在写作知识运用上的独特性，只有掌握其独特性，才能正确、规范地写好应用文体。

一、主题的特点 (主题单一性、主题先行性、主题显露性)

应用文的主题就是解决问题的方法、建议。其主题是十分明确直接的，主题的确立大多不是写作者有感而发，而是应客观实际的需要，为解决实际问题而产生的，由此可以说应用文主题就是解决问题的具体方法。因此应用文的主题具有以下特点：

文学作品的主题是从生活中、从已获取的材料中提炼出来的，往往反对主题先行。而应用文主题的确立与文学作品主题的确立不同，其主题确立在全文写作之前，所谓“意在笔先”。因为应用文总是先产生了具体问题而后产生写作的需求，而解决这一问题的方法、结论往往也产生在文章写作之前;同时执笔者的写作行为往往也是被动的，是应解决问题而动笔，写作的过程更是确切地体现主题。如《国务院关于同意黑龙江省调整哈尔滨市部分行政区划的批复》一文就是为答复《调整哈尔滨市部分行政区划的请示》而写的文章，表示同意请示提出的请求事项而作，主题一定是确立在写作之前。

一般说文学作品的主题具有其复杂性，对主题的理解更呈多元化。然而应用文的主题则必须单一、明确，读者对主题的理解不允许多元，而要求理解上的同一性，这样才利于统一认识，更有利于问题的解决。如：《关于当代青年消费问题的调查报告》一文就消费观念、消费现状、消费趋势和消费结构等四个方面，展开调查，尽管涉及面广，材料较丰富，但文章紧紧围绕“当代青年消费”这一中心，内容集中，一题一议，主题单一、明确。

文学作品的主题要求含蓄、曲折，令人回味。而应用文写作就不同，要求直截了当地点明主题，表明态度，提出解决问题的措施和办法，对文章所涉及的各类问题，必须有明确的观点立场，应该怎么做，解决什么问题，达到什么目的，都要明确地表达出来。

二、主题的表现方法 (标题显旨、开头点旨、结尾点旨)

应用文主题的表达要做到明确、显露。那么怎么才能做到主题从文章中显露出来呢?下面就给大家介绍几种表现方法：

标题显旨，就是在文章的标题中直接点明主题。如《三季度物价水平再次转降，出口增速趋于稳定》，这篇经济活动分析报告的标题就直接点明了主题，让人一看就大致明白了文章的主要内容，主题十分显露。这不失为是一种使主题显现的好方法。

这种方式是在文章的开头或每一段落的开头用简短的语句陈述主题，使主题凸现出来。如《 2001 年经济形势展望》一开头就指出： “展望 2001 年，经济回升的势头还比较微弱，促进经济的持续向好仍然需要克服许多困难。” 开宗明义，点明主题。再如《靠名牌赢得市场——关于深圳市飞亚达(集团)股份有限公司的调查》一文在 “启示：现代企业必须重视实施名牌战略” 的小标题下，分三段来阐述这一问题，在每段开头用段首句点明主旨：第一段的段 首句： 实施名牌战略是提高产品质量、提升企业品味的内在要求。 第二段的段首句： 实施名牌战略是企业参与市场竞争尤其是国际市场竞争的客观需要。 第三段的段首句： 实施名牌战略是增强国家经济实力的重要手段。 在这三句主题句的提示下，每段的中心就十分明了。

这种方式是在文章的的结尾之处点明文章主题。如李政道的论文《基础、应用科学与生产三者关系》一文就是采用这一方法结尾。文章的结尾指出： “我再重复一下，没有基础学科就没有应用学科，没有应用学科就没有生产学科，三者是紧密结合在一起的。” 非常清晰地显示了主题。

三、主题的作用 (主题决定材料的选取、主题决定文种的选用、主题决定结构的安排、主题决定表达方式的选用)

第二节 应用文的材料

一、材料的特点 (材料的真实性、材料的现实和新颖性、材料的典型性)

应用文写作对材料是十分依赖的，常言道“巧妇难为无米之炊”，为了表现主题我们需要收集一系列材料，或综合或舍取运用到文章的写作之中，使主题真实立体地表现出来。应用文材料的使用除了与文学作品有共通之处外，更多地体现自身特点：

应用文在材料的选用过程中不准改变材料本身性质，必须保持材料的真实性，对材料的时间、地点、数据、事实过程及结果都不能任意改动，否则就会使材料本身的价值发生变异，导致歪曲事实的真相，弄虚作假的后果，失去应用文的主题应有的价值，不仅不能解决问题，反而于事无补。应用文要求的真实是“绝对的真实”，也就是说所有材料要确凿无误、持之有据。不仅对搜集到的材料要反复核实，在材料的解释上，也要有科学的态度，实事求是。

应用文写作是为了解决现实问题而作的即时之作，其主要的材料需选取能反映现实的新颖材料。所谓现实是指，围绕文章要解决的问题所存在的事实(数据)材料而非通过联想和推论得到的材料。如在《新的消费热点：出门旅游过年》一文中，为了陈述出门旅游过年的现状，就采用了大量的事实(数据)材料： “根据国家旅游局对江苏、广东、云南、海南、北京、福建、广西、四川、黑龙江、湖南、山东、山西等 13 个省、自治区、直辖市的调查，……今年春节期间，这些地区直接由旅行社接待的国内旅游人次比往年至少有 15 %的增长……以上 13 个省、区、市的旅行社，春节期间共接待旅游者 124 万人次，旅行社营业收入 14 亿元。” 文中采用的材料都是新近现实发生的，这是大多数应用文材料的特点。所谓新颖是指，材料本身是新近产生的，如新事实、新政策、新的统计数据、新发现的问题等和用新的角度重新审视其新意。

所谓典型性是指那些最能支持主题和说明问题的材料。典型材料可以是一个具体的事例，一些有说服力的数据和一些带有普遍性的现象。如题为《“小解放”为何俏销湖北》的市场调查报告中，在说明“优质服务获得良好口碑”这一经验时，采用了这样一则事实材料： “去年 10 月的一天傍晚，河南省郑州市某单位的一辆小解放牌车在去广州途径武汉时，在武汉黄鹤楼处出现问题，求助电话打到了该销售中心，中心经理立即亲自带队迅速赶到现场，发现该车是用户对后驱动桥端面螺丝没拧紧而发生齿轮油漏尽，导致差速器锥齿烧损。当维修人员在后半夜将修好的车交给用户时，用户激动地说虽然我们不属于该省管辖，又没带保用手册，并且问题又是因我们使用不当所致，你们还这样及时周到地服务，太让我们感动了!‘小解放走到哪服务到哪，此言不虚，以后再买车，还买‘小解放。” 这一材料就是一则很能表现主题的材料，是典型的材料。 直接获取

二、材料的选取 (获取材料的方法、间接获取、围绕主题，挖掘材料的意义、材料的使用 根据主题的需要，进行详略处理、合理安排材料，注重条理)

如何获取材料，哪些材料是应用文写作值得关注的?下面我们谈谈这个问题：

在实践之中积累材料。在自身及周围同事的工作实践中做个有心人，时刻关注有价值的事件及数据，如在工作中及时对做了什么工作、采用了什么方法、取得了什么效果、有哪些人参与等信息及时记录收集。

在观察中掌握材料。在观察时要做到实事求是，防止主观武断、先入为主，同时要全面、系统、动态地进行观察，以获取真实、广泛、完整的材料，并能把观察所得及时整理成文字，给写作提供基础。

在调查中拓展材料。个人的实践和视野总是有限的，观察也不可能做到深入细致，这样就需要走向实际、走向社会，向有关人士了解情况，做一些调查，以扩大自己的视野，获取材料上的补充。经济类的应用文，调查是必不可少的步骤，如市场调查报告，市场预测报告需在调查之后，才能动笔。

通过查阅文献资料获取材料。应用文写作材料常常从有关文件、正式出版物，以及会议资料中获取材料，为写入具体文章之用，因此大量查阅文献资料来获取材料，是应用文写作经常采用的方法。

获取材料是写作的第一步。总的来说，获取材料要求以多为好，以全为贵。材料多了，便于比较、鉴别，更有选择的余地;材料全面，观点才能不至于偏颇，因此，动笔之前，应当围绕主题，占有详尽而充实的材料。

其次，强调对感性材料的分析研究，不能停留在表面的认识上，要挖掘材料能凸现主题的一面，使其在文章中发挥挖掘主题的作用。如有这样一则材料 ： 某日，某国驻广州领事馆的外交官员去珠江三角洲某市参观，市长亲自接待，但讲不好普通话请了一个翻译，本来 10 分钟就可以讲完的话，结果用了 20 分钟。此外交官用标准的普通话问：广东不是在大力推广普通话吗么? 这则材料从不同的角度可展现不同的主题，但意义深浅不一。从较粗浅的角度看，可表现“市长不重视说普通话”的主题;进一步挖掘可表现“我们的官员素质的高低，直接关乎办公的效率”。这样的材料还可以根据主题的需要进行开拓。同学可以动动脑筋来挖掘一下。

使用材料时，要分清主次。对材料的加工整理，无非是为了突出文章的主题，加强应用文的表达效果，处理材料的详略要以此为据。突出事件特征的材料要详写，一般材料可略写;处于主体地位的材料详写，处于从属地位、过渡的材料略写;读者不熟悉的材料详写，熟悉的略写;材料之间角度相异的详写，材料之间相同的略写。

根据主题的需要，按照一定的组织形式，安排材料的先后顺序，在安排顺序时要考虑材料的主次、时间的先后、材料间的逻辑顺序、人们认识事物的规律、事物发展的过程等因素。

最后，数字材料是应用文写作中十分重要的材料，数字有时比文字材料更具体、准确、更能说明问题。因此，要注意： ⑴ 真实、准确地用好数据材料。 ⑵ 运用统计数据，展开分析论证，更好地为主题服务。 ⑶ 适当地使用统计图表。 ⑷ 变抽象的数字为具体，使其形象。如有两篇介绍乐山大佛的文字，其中一篇在介绍时用了这样一些数字： “乐山大佛身高 71 米 ，头高 14 . 7 米 ，宽 10 米 。” 这些数字看似具体清晰，但比较抽象，大佛的高大这一主题没有凸现出来。另一段文字这样写道： “佛像有三十多层楼高，耳朵有四人高，每只脚背上可以停五辆解放牌汽车，脚大拇指上，可以摆一桌酒席。” 这段文字也用了数字，但采用文字叙述的方法，使抽象的数字形象了，大佛的高大形象仿佛就在眼前，极好地体现了主题。

第三节 应用文的结构

一、应用文结构的特点 (固定性、条理性、文种不同结构不同)

应用文是经过长期写作实践，逐渐形成较固定的写作结构，以适应实际工作需要，使写作更快速，阅读更便捷，提高办事效率。特别是公文写作，其格式更规范，结构更固定。

应用文写作要求有严密的思路，表现在结构上以求清晰有条理。在写作中要根据主题的需要安排好结构。如写事件，就应按“开端——发展——结果”的顺序安排结构;写问题就应按“发现问题——分析问题——解决问题”的顺序安排结构。

凡文种都有相对稳定的结构样式，应用文写作结构安排需适应不同文体的要求。如写合同就需要将合同的条款按标的、数量、质量、价款等内容分条列项地写清楚;写通知要按目的依据、事项、执行要求的顺序安排结构。

二、常见的应用文结构模式

(一)单段式

正文内容用一个自然段来表达。用于内容少而单一，不便分开，往往采用一段文字来表达。如写在商品外包装上的说明文;公文中的函、批复，也常用一段文字来进行写作。“玉兰油”写在外包装上的说明： “经实验证明能帮助减少细纹。四星期内，肌肤重现青春光泽。请不要涂抹在眼睛及眼睑周围。如不慎入眼，即用清水彻底洗清。如有持续眼睛刺激，请向医生咨询。如有持续皮肤刺激，请停止使用。请置于儿童接触不到的地方。” 这就是单段式。

(二)两段式

正文内容用两个自然段来表达。用于内容简单，不需每层内容都分段。这种结构模式，一般用于以下几种情况：

1 .把结语部分内容和主体内容分开写，单列一个自然段，成为两段式。即行文的缘由和行文事项为一段，希望、要求等结语为一段。

2 .写作目的缘由、行文事项各为一段。

3 .在转发、发布性公文中，将发布或转发的文件名和发文意见列为一段，执行要求另为一段。

4 .在答复性公文中，将表示收到对方文件为一段，而答复事项为另一段。

5 .没有开头、结语部分，将主体内容列为两段。

(三)三段式

这是短篇应用文比较规范的常用模式。正文把写作目的缘由、写作事项、结尾分为三段来写。

(四)多段式

它用于内容较多，篇幅较长的应用文书，总共有四个自然段以上。一般是开头概述基本情况、说明原因、目的、依据，结尾单独成段或省略结尾，主体部分内容分为若干个段，各部分不分条列项。如短文式的说明书、简单的市场预测报告等。内容多、篇幅长的应用文书，一般不宜采用多段式，宜采用将主体内容分成几部分，用小标题或总分条文式。

(五)条款式

用分条列项的形式安排结构。规章制度、计划、合同和职能部门的一些文书，较多使用这种形式。全文从头到尾都用条款组织内容，给人以眉目清楚、排列有序的印象。

(六)表格式

这是应用文不同于其他文体所特有的一种结构形式。表格式通常有以下两种形式：

1 .由职能部门或企事业管理部门或企业如银行、厂矿、公司等单位，事先印制好表格式的规范文本，将有关内容分项列出，各项之后留下空白，让使用或合作单位和个人按规定填写。表格文书一般要注明填写要求和注意事项。如申请专利、商标的文书、合同、税务征管文书、财务会计文书，大都采用这种形式。

2 .作者单位临时制作的表格式文书。根据写作目的，将有关统计数据编制成表格。

三、应用文结构的基本内容及写法

(一)标题

应用文写作的标题，要求充分体现主题，有的标题还有规范要求。这与文学作品形式多样、灵活多变的标题有着明显的不同。应用文的标题通常有三种形式：

1 .公文式标题。这类标题程式性强，表达直接而少变化，主要用于公文。

2 .新闻式标题。新闻式标题通常又称文章式标题，又可分为单标题和双标题两种形式。单标题有的直接提出文章主题，如 “小商品也要高质量” 、 “做好纪检信息工作实践与体会” ;有的概述主要内容，如 “积极财政政策仍将持续至少两到三年的时间” ;有的在标题中提出问题，如 “日本经济何时走出低谷” 。

双标题是有正题和副题的双行标题，其中正题符合单标题的要求，更多地突出文章主题，副题则对正题起补充作用，常常说明应用文的内容范围和文种，如 “靠名牌赢得市场——关于深圳市飞亚达(集团)股份有限公司的调查” 、 “繁重 · 活跃 · 稳定 · 上升—— 2002 年国内市场发展趋势” 。

3 .论文式标题。这类标题或表达文章的观点和内容或点明所论述范围。如 “核心竞争力——企业制胜的根本” 、 “双峰县农村劳动力转移的调查与思考” 。

(二)开头

应用文写作开头担负着统领全文，揭示主题或全文的作用。开头要求开门见山，直接显露，常见的开头方式有：

1 .概述式。这种方式要求用简明扼要的语言，围绕主题介绍有关情况或背景。如一篇题为《加强民族团结 繁荣民族事业》的总结开头： “山东省青州市是少数民族居住比较集中的地区之一，有回、满、蒙古、朝鲜、土家等 27 个民族， 2 . 6 万余人，占全市人口的 2 .5 %。近年来，青州市积极加强 民族团结，繁荣民族事业，有力地推动了全市经济和社会各项事业全面发展。” 就是用了这一开头方式。报告、会议纪要、调查报告等文种也常用此开头方式。

2 .说明依据式。开头引用上级指示精神或有关法律，常以“根据”、“按照”、“遵照”等词语领起下文。如《关于粮食政策性财务挂帐停息的意见》一文的开头： “根据中共中央、国务院关于妥善解决粮食财务挂帐问题的一系列文件精神，结合各地清理粮食财务挂帐的实际情况，经过反复研究，对粮食财务挂帐实行停息的有关政策提出如下意见”。 这种方式常在通知、批复、通告、规章等文种的开头使用。

3 .陈述目的式。开头以简明的语言，直接说明写作的目的和意义，常用介词“为”、“为了”领起下文。如《国务院关于成立经济贸易办公室的通知》一文开头写道： “为适应加快改革开放和经济建设的新形势，加强宏观调控和协调日常经济工作，国务院第 100 次常务会议决定，……”。

4 . 说明原因式。开头常用“由于”、“鉴于”、“因为”等词领起下文，也可以简述发文原因，再引出写作目的。如《广州市建设用地起坟通告》的开头 “因建设的需要，经核准，市公安局天河区分局征用天河区东圃镇堂下乡(村)土地。为便利建设工程顺利进行，……”。

5 .议论式。开头用议论的表达方法，表达作者的看法，提出观点。如《现代化企业需要什么样的复合型会计人才》的开头： “随着社会主义市场经济的不断深入发展，会计工作也不断拓宽，过去那种单一的会计知识结构已远远不能适应会计管理工作的需要，会计人员作为企业经济管理的重要的专门人才，必须相应地提高自身的专业素质，改变原来那种单一的知识结构，以适应市场经济发展的需要。因此，培养造就一批复合型会计人才是当前会计工作的一项重要任务，也是企业发展向现代化迈进的关键所在。”

6 .提问式。先提出问题，然后引出下文。这种开头方式能引起读者的注意和思考。这种开头方式常见于调查报告、学术论文的写作。如《核心竞争力——企业制胜的根本》的开头： “在激烈的市场竞争中，一个企业制胜的根本是什么?为什么有的企业能长盛不衰，有的企业只能成功一时，而有的企业却连一点成功的机会都没有?笔者一直为这些问题所困惑。” 这篇论文就是采用了提问式开头。

(三)结尾

应用文的结尾讲究言尽意尽，不留“余味”，不添“蛇足，更不能草率。常用的结尾方法有：

1 .强调式。对文中提出的问题作强调说明，以引起重视。

2 .结论式。对文中的主要观点或问题，加以归纳总结或略作重申，以加深印象。

3 .说明式。对与主体内容有关但性质不同的问题或事项作补充交代、说明，以保证内容的完整性，如公文结尾交待施行日期、执行范围、传达对象、与该文规定不符的原有规定如何处置等;论文结尾处说明尚未解决而应另作讨论的问题。

4 .号召式。提出希望，发出号召，展望未来。如公文的通报、市场预测、计划等常用这种结尾形式。如《关于成都矿产综合利用研究所值班人员勇斗歹徒先进事件的通报》一文结尾就是采用这一方法。

5 .建议式。针对设定的施行目标、产生的问题提出意见和建议。

除了上述几种结尾方式，还有请求式、责令式、表态式等不一一列举，有的则没有结尾，自然收尾。

第四节 应用文的表达方式及语言

一、表达方式

应用文写作中常用的表达方式只有叙述、说明、议论三种，而描写、抒情一般在广告、调查报告、经济新闻等文体中偶尔使用。我们现在只谈叙述、说明、议论这三种方式在应用文体中的使用。

(一)叙述

叙述这种表达方式是应用文体写作常用的一种方法。有的以叙述事实作立论的依据，如通报、经济活动分析报告、市场调查、总结等;有的以叙述事实为依据进行决策和预测;有的对事实作如实反映和记载，如会议纪要、合同、诉讼公文等。叙述在应用文写作中有如下几个特点：

1 .以记事为主

应用文写作反映现实，解决问题，与记叙文以写人为主不同，而是多以记事为主，如反映经济活动状况、市场情况、经济信息、介绍典型经验、阐述事情原委、总结工作等，采用叙述来记事。

2 .叙述客观真实

文学作品的叙述可作艺术加工，所述事件不必是客观存在的事实。但应用文不同，其所述事实，必须客观真实，不允许对事实夸大或缩小，更不能歪曲事实或主观臆造，否则就会导致决策失误，使经济活动混乱，使企业和消费者蒙受损失。如市场预测所依据的市场事实失真，那么预测结果必定出现很大的偏差，从而导致决策的失误。

3 .以概括叙述为主

文学作品需通过叙述细节来塑造人物形象，展开故事情节。而应用文写作则是通过叙述为文章得出正确结论作依据。如通报的叙述是为后面阐述事实的性质，达到对这一事件学习，鉴戒或引起注意的目的而服务的。叙述本身不是全文的核心(主题)所在，因而应用文写作的叙述大多用简明扼要的概括叙述。

4 .多用顺叙

为使应用文条理清晰，让读者掌握理解所述的客观事实，在文章中常常使用顺叙。在叙述时有的按照时间顺序，有的以事件发展的顺序，有的按人们认识事物的客观过程来叙述，这样叙述能使较复杂的事实头绪清晰，一目了然。

5 .语言较平实

应用文的语言要求平铺直叙，较少使用修饰性词语，笔法较朴实。因为应用文语言是需把握问题实质，直接表现主题，为主题服务，而不像文学作品那样文笔的曲折，主题的含蓄 , 讲究语言的修饰性、词语的色彩，常用修辞手法，应用文的实用性决定了其语言的简洁朴实。

(二)说明

说明这一表达方式在应用文中是与叙述相结合的，起到对客观事物真实介绍说明的作用，有很多文种都依赖这一表达方式。如说明书、报告、请示、经济活动分析、合同、自荐书等，都离不开说明。说明在应用文写作中表现出以下几个特征：

1 .说明客观、科学

通过说明真实客观地反映事物的真实面貌，本质特征，这就要求说明需客观、科学、严肃。

2.多用数字进行说明

说明不但要客观真实，而且要做到准确无误，用数字进行说明就能起到这样的作用。因此在应用文写作中就少不了数字进行说明，特别是需要反映量的变化时，数字的作用就尤为突出。

3.综合使用多种说明方法

在说明方法使用的过程中，常常是多种方法结合同时使用。如数字说明和比较说明、定义说明和分类说明等说明方法结合运用，这样可以把事物说得更具体、准确。

(三)议论

应用文写作常常用议论的方式进行评论、分析，探寻事物发展的规律，阐述主题。其议论有以下几个特点：

1 .重数据、重材料

与议论文的议论不同，应用文中议论不是靠言论的雄辩，而是需要无可辩驳的事实材料和数据为依据，正可谓“事实胜于雄辩”。应用文反对不切实际的议论。如在一篇《三季度物价水平》的经济活动报告中，对该季度的物价水平转降的情况分析是这样议论的：“ 三季度，居民消费价格总水平同比上涨 0.8 %，涨幅比二季度缩小 0.8 个百分比，其中 9 月份已转为下降，同比下降 0.1 %;社会商品零售价格总水平同比下降 0.9 %，已连续 4 个月处于下降之中，并且降幅在不断增大;工业品出厂价格指标同比下降 1.7 %，降幅比二季度增大 1.4 个百分点。各种物价总水平再次全面转降在很大程度上是外生性涨价因素所致，但这也清晰地表明困扰我国经济的紧缩和总需求不足问题并未真正消除，而只是被外生性涨价因素掩盖起来了。一旦政策支持力度减弱，经济就会再次下降。” 这段文字在议论时采用了大量的数据材料，材料充分，议论切合实际，得出的结论有说服力。

2 .常与说明、叙述等方式结合使用

夹叙夹议、说议结合，是应用文中的议论特点。应用文写作往往不单独进行完整的议论，议论依赖于所叙述的事实和说明的现象，是在事实和现象的基础上进行议论。如在一篇《靠名牌赢得市场》的调查报告中，文章是这样写的：“ 90 年代初，瑞士、日本各种品牌的钟表开始大规模进入中国市场。面对严峻的市场形势，公司决策层认真研究数量和质量的辩证关系，决定借鉴国外钟表工业发展的成功经验，走‘少而精的道路，即以提高‘单位面积的产出取胜，生产高技术含量、高附加值的产品，在工艺上精益求精，把人、财、物集中用到刀刃上，争取在最短的时间里后来居上。 ”这段文字采用夹叙夹议方法，材料具体，剖析深入，语言生动活泼。

二、 语言运用

应用文的语言与文学创作的语言有较大的差别，其主要特点是：

(一)程式化

程式化的语言是写作实践的产物，是应用写作实践中常用的习惯用语，这种语言已经约定成俗，得到广泛的认可和共识。学习掌握这种语言的关键是表达要简明合乎规范。程式化的语言根据功用不同，可大致分为下列几方面内容：

(二)书面化

应用文的写作性质决定其语言风格表现为简明、规范、严肃，而书面语能较好达到这一语言要求，因而应用文语言大多采用书面语进行书写。如《中共中央关于接受宋庆龄同志为中国共产党正式党员的决定》中写道： “她一贯是共产党最亲密的战友，是中国各族人民包括台湾同胞和海外侨胞衷心敬爱的领袖之一，是爱国主义、民主主义、国际主义和共产主义的伟大战士，是保卫世界和平事业久经考验的前驱，是全体中国少年儿童的慈爱的祖母……。” 中的“同胞”、“战士”、“祖母”等用的都是书面语，改为口语就不合适了。

(三)常用数词

应用文写作常用数字来说明问题，因此经常大量使用数字。在分析问题、说明问题时，运用数字，可以比较明确地表达事物的状态，从而加深对该事物的认识。如一个企业管理是否先进，只有运用同行业国内外的对比数字才能说明。邓小平同志在《关于科学和教育工作的几点意见》中，讲到我国科研人员少、队伍小时用了三个数字：美国科研队伍有 120 万人;前苏联是 90 万人;我们是 20 多万人。这三个数字勾勒出三个国家科研队伍的基本状况，十分清晰地说明了我国科研人员少、队伍小的现状。应用文常用的数字有以下几种：

(四)运用应用文语言的要求

1 .叙述语言需简洁、概括。

在进行叙述时要用最简短的语言陈述特定时空的信息，通过概述事实的主干，而不应纠缠于耗时费事的具体情节之中。如有一篇表彰通报是这样写的： “ ××× 在科学研究上走的是一条不平凡的路，他全心扑在科研上，而忘记了个人的事。有一次孩子病了，他妻子在家里忙着护理，打电话到 ××× 单位叫他赶回家把孩子送医院治疗。 ××× 接了电话答应后，电话筒一放他又埋进了实验。他妻子在家中左等右等等不到他回家，急得像热锅上的蚂蚁，又往 ××× 单位打电话，这时 ××× 正潜心做实验，电话铃声都没听见了。他妻子又急又气只好打 120 急救中心的电话，才把孩子送往医院治疗。他的小孩高烧退后，还在问他妈妈：‘爸爸又出差了吗?或者还没下班……” 该公文将 ××× 先进事迹作为表彰决定的理由时，不懂得以最简洁的文字陈述特定时空的信息，通过快叙概述事实的主干，而仍用记叙文慢叙写话的方法表述公文事实，结果摆脱不了耗时费字的情节纠缠，公文内容冗长，不简明扼要，失去了公文的品味，违背了文约事丰的要求。

2 .语言表达要严谨、有分寸。

应用文语言表达是否严谨有分寸，关系到对问题的判断、处理是否合理、准确。如一份处理决定，其中这样写道： “李××在 1998 年 9 月间收受×××工程公司的 50 万元的巨款。案发后李××还和×××工程公司经理及会计订立攻守同盟，妄图掩盖其过错”。 文中“过错”一词有失严谨，表述与事实不符，李××的行为不是过失而是严重犯罪。

3 .数据语言书写要规范、清晰、准确。

具体要做到以下几点：( 1 )在同一篇文章中序数数字的体例要统一，不能体例混杂。如 “农历初一至初 7 放假” 一句，前后数字体例书写不规范，需统一书写。同时分数与小数的体例也必须统一。如 “该县企业所得税收入完成 95.6 万元，比去年增长百分之十三 ” 也出现了混写的错误。( 2 )表示公元世纪、年代、年、月、日、时刻均需使用阿拉伯数字 , 而星期则用汉字。如” 21 世纪 ” 、“ 90 年代 ，“星期五”。( 3 )邻近两个数字并列表示概数时，应该用汉字书写，数字与数字之间不能用顿号将其隔开。如“ 3 、 4 天 ” 应写成”“三四天”，“七、八种”的“七”和“八”之间不能用顿号隔开。

4 .朴实、简洁。

应用文的语言要求准确无误，朴实无华，简洁有力，不像有些文学作品用华丽多彩的语言去描摹事物，呈现事物的形象，而是提倡朴素美，简洁美。如一篇公文是这样写的： “ 2000 年某天深夜，乌云密布，雷声隆隆，大雨倾盆而下，刹那间，美丽富饶的鱼米之乡被一片汪洋吞没。接连几天如注的暴雨，淹没了田野、冲毁了村庄和工厂，交通、电力、通讯一度中断。这百年不遇的特大洪涝灾害，给我乡造成了不可估量的损失。……” 这段语言就违反了应用文语言的写作要求，带有浓厚的文学色彩，不够朴实、简洁，也有失真实。

事业单位考试大纲中明确指出，需要考察考查应试人员对学术论文相关知识的了解与实际运用能力。在以往的事业单位考试中，更多的是考察公文写作的相关知识，论文写作考察的很少，且相关的资料也比较少见。小编在此为各位考生简要分析论文写作的相关考点，帮助各位考生更好的复习备考。

首先，论文具有几下几项特征：

①科学性，即选题科学，研究方案合理;数据准确无误;结果与讨论的数据依据充分，具说服力，不出现无数据和现象支持的主观臆断的结果和结论。

②创新性即新颖性;即有别于他人(它文)的本质特征;刻意阐明创新点;应用研究着重实验设备、测试分析技术、工艺方法等方面的更新或改进;基础研究着重理论上的新见解，计算方法的另辟新径;

③学术性，即透过对所研究的客体外象的观测，分析探讨其内在本质，将感性认识进行理论上的深化;切忌将一连串现象无分析归纳的无序堆砌，而将论文写成实验报告或工作总结。

④真实性，即错误、虚假、失实将导致论文科学性和学术性的丧失，甚至可能涉嫌有剽窃行为;不凭主观臆断和好恶随意舍取数据和素材 ，引证他人成果必须给出出处，但只提取与文章密切相关的重要信息用以引证。

⑤标准化和规范化，即书写格式的标准化和规范化，是要按规定的格式书写，即符合信息传递与交流、科技文献管理、以及电子化、数字化等方面的要求。

论文写作的相关依据主要来自国家标准局的文件《科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式》。按照该格式，论文主要分为主体部分和前置部分。

1.前置部分。主要包括①封面——报告、论文的外表面，提供应有的信息，并起保护作用;②封二——可标注送发方式，包括免费赠送或价购，以及送发单位和个人;版权规定;其他应注明事项;③题名页——对报告、论文进行著录的依据;④分类号——中图分类号是按照《中国图书馆分类法》;⑤题目(可加副标题)——以最恰当、最简明的词语反映报告、论文中最重要的特定内容的逻辑组合;⑥署名——姓名、工作单位;⑦摘要——报告、论文的内容不加注释和评论的简短陈述，是独立的短文，概括文章主要信息。⑧关键词——为了文献标引工作从报告、论文中选取出来用以表示全文主题内容信息款目的单词或术语。⑨目次页——长篇报告、论文可以有目次页，短文无需目次页;⑩插图和附表清单——报告、论文中如图表较多，可以分别列出清单置于目次页之后。

2.主体部分。主要包括①引言——(绪论/导论/引论)简短介绍研究的目的、意义、方法、范围、背景等;②正文——实事求是、合乎逻辑、结构严谨、层次分明、论证充分、表达规范、行文流畅;③结论——文章的研究成果，准确、完整、明确、精炼;④致谢——可以在正文后对进行方面致谢;⑤引文——所引用的他人的研究成果(观点、理论、数据等);⑥注释——注明引文的出处;⑦参考文献——写作中所参考、借鉴的重要文章和著作(作者、文章标题，期刊/著作名、出版社、年份、页码等详细情况);⑧附录——作为报告、论文主体的补充项日，并不是必需的。

你会写描写风景的作文吗？下面是小编整理的写景作文的写作方法，希望对你有帮助！

一、写春夏秋冬和晨午暮夜的作文类型

1.描绘一年四季的景色，表达自己对大自然的热爱;

2.描绘某个地方的四季景色，表达自己对这个地方的喜爱和向往之情;

3.描绘早晚景色的变化，锻炼对自然和生活的观察能力，培养热爱生活的情感。

二、写春夏秋冬和晨午暮夜的参考题目

1.《秋天的雨》

2.《家乡的秋天》

3.《池塘春景》

4.《春在我家》

5.《校园的春天》

6.《春天的小花园》

7.《夏天的傍晚》

8.《清晨》

9.《冬天的夜晚》

10.《我爱___》(填一个季节)

11.《校园春早》

三、写春夏秋冬和晨午暮夜的参考开头

1.《家乡的秋天》的两种开头

第一种开头：在四季之中，我最爱秋天。家乡的秋天是金色的，是沉甸甸的。

第二种开头：在我们的家乡，秋天是最美好的，大街上到处都飘溢着桂花的幽香。

2.《夏天的傍晚》的两种开头

第一种开头：吃过晚饭，我和爸妈一起去平门桥上走走。

第二种开头：平门桥的傍晚是很迷人的。

3.《冬天的夜晚》的两种开头

第一种开头：妈妈有事外出了，家里只剩了我一个人。外面的北风呼呼地刮着，像一只怪兽在吼叫。

第二种开头：冬天的夜晚是那样地寒冷，那样地使人感到害怕。

四、写春夏秋冬和晨午暮夜的参考段落

1.春天来了，天气渐渐地暖和了。大地披上了绿色的新装，地上长满了嫩绿的小草，树木也发出了嫩芽，花儿在春风的吹拂中展开了花瓣，燕子在天空一边飞一边欢快地叫着，仿佛在祝贺春天的到来。

2.初夏季节，各色野花都开了，有红的，有紫的，有粉的，有黄的，就像绣在一块绿地毯上的绚丽的斑点。成群的蜜蜂在花丛中忙碌着，吸着花蕊，辛苦地飞来飞去。

3.秋天是收获的季节。柿子树上缀满了小红灯笼似的柿子，沉甸甸的，把枝头都压弯了。枫树的叶子火红火红的，像一堆正在燃烧的火焰。那梧桐树的枯叶在秋风中纷纷飘落下来，像翩翩起舞的金色蝴蝶。

4.校园里的梧桐树的叶子都落光了，只剩下枝枝杈杈伸向天空，寒风一吹，颤颤抖抖;院子的水池也结了冰。下了早读课，太阳出来了，发出淡淡的光，好像害怕寒冷似的，躲得老远老远的，不肯把暖意给我们。

5.清晨，公园里空气清新，鲜红的太阳跳出了地平线，把柔和的阳光均匀地洒在绿树草地上。花草散发出香气，绿叶散发着清新的气息。那棵枝叶繁茂的榕树，又是一派欣欣向荣的景象。

6.一个无风的中午，天气十分炎热。耀眼的阳光显得格外威严，照到人的身上就像火烤一样。地上升起的热气，仿佛划一根火柴就会点着。

7.夏夜的星空是多么的美丽啊!那些闪烁的星星是那么地平静安详，既像一只只明亮的眼睛，又像一盏盏亮晶晶的银灯，在看着我，照着我，使我产生了许许多多的遐想。

8.正当我们在天文台参观快要结束的时候，老天突然变了脸，一阵阵乌云压了下来，接着竟下起了霏霏细雨。老师催促我们快步下山。在下山时，我又注意到了佘山的绿。那密密的细雨，好像是给佘山洗了一次淋浴，满山遍野的树叶，被冲洗得翠绿闪亮，还挂满了晶莹的小水柱，这佘山雨中的绿，是闪光的绿，透明的绿，是迷人的绿，醉人的绿……

9.寒冷的冬天，雪花飘飘，校园披上了一件银白色的外衣。操场上，像铺上了一条白色的地毯。老槐树的树枝上，银白雪条闪着道道白光，校园变成了一个银妆素裹的世界。

10.晚饭后，夜幕还未把天宇完全遮盖起来，人群已经开始流向区庄。卖东西的，买东西的，逛街凑热闹的，越是入夜，越是见得人头济济。电灯亮了，一盏，十盏，百盏，千万盏，高楼大厦与地摊大排档，从高到低，从下到上，一片灯海，整个区庄又迎来了一个黑夜的白天!

11.因为云块不断流动，天边的色彩也不断变幻;因为云块形状不断变化，天边也不断出现各种各样的形象，瞬间又消退：飞禽走兽啦，花草树木啦，古今人物啦……好像是哪位伟大的画家用饱蘸夕阳余辉的彩笔，在天边这块幕布上精心描绘着一幅迷人的画卷。

12.现在已是初冬了，立冬已过了半个月。初冬的早晨和晚上，冷风中略带有一分寒意，而中午，气温又升高了，早晚与中午的温差可达十度以上。苏州的初冬，跟北方的秋天差不多，人们还没有感觉到冬天已经到了，身上还只穿了两件毛衣。

13.晨风迎面吹来，像一只大手抚摸着我们。刚刚苏醒的小草，在风中跳起了舞蹈，一颗颗晶莹的露珠纷纷从叶片上滚落了下来。一片片树叶伸了伸懒腰，吮吸了一颗颗清凉的朝露，便像小姑娘似的活跃了起来。朵朵白云如仙女一般，悠悠然飘过来。树上的小鸟唧唧喳喳地叫着，好像在向太阳，向大地，向人们问好。早晨，这是多么美好的时刻!我的每一天都是从这最美好的时刻开始的;大地上的一切也都是由这最美好的时刻开始的……

介绍信是介绍派出人员的身份和任务的专用信件。下面是小编为你带来的介绍信写作基础知识，欢迎阅读。

一、单位介绍信的相关概念

介绍信是介绍派出人员的身份和任务的专用信件。

二、单位介绍信的作用

1.介绍信主要用于联系工作、洽谈业务、参加会议、了解情况时的自我说明。

2.对于持信人而言，介绍信具有介绍、证明双重作用。

三、单位介绍信的种类

介绍信有两种形式：一种是便函式的介绍信，一种是带存根的介绍信。

四、单位介绍信的结构和写法

其一是便函式介绍信。

用一般的公文信纸书写。包括标题、称谓、正文、结尾、单位名称和日期、附注几部分。

1.标题

在第一行居中写“介绍信”三个字。

2.称谓

另起一行，顶格写收信单位名称或个人姓名，姓名后加“同志”、“先生”、“女士”等称呼，再加冒号。

3.正文

另起一行，开头空两格写正文，一般不分段。一般要写清楚：(1)派遣人员的姓名、人数、身份、职务、职称等。(2)说明所要联系的工作、接洽的事项等。(3)对收信单位或个人的希望、要求等，如“请接洽”等。

4.结尾

写上表示致敬或者祝愿的话，如“此致敬礼”等。

5.单位名称和日期

6.附注

注明介绍信的有效期限，具体天数用大写。

在正文的右下方写明派遣单位的名称和介绍信的开出日期，并加盖公章。日期写在单位名称下方。

其二是带存根的介绍信。

这种介绍信有固定的格式，一般由存根、间缝、本文三部分组成。

1.存根

存根部分由标题(介绍信)、介绍信编号、正文、开出时间等组成。存根由出具单位留存备查。

2.间缝

间缝部分写介绍编号，应与存根部分的编号一致。还要加盖出具单位的公章。

3.正文

本文部分基本与便函式介绍人相同，只是有的要标题下再注明介绍信编号。

五、单位介绍信的写作要求

1.接洽事宜要写得具体、简明。

2.要注明使用介绍信的有效期限，天数要大写。

3.字迹要工整，不能随意涂改。

介绍信范文

范文一：

_______银行_______支行：

我公司由于工作的需要，特派出我司工作人员李XX(身份证号：_______工作证号：_______)、_______(身份证号：_______工作证号：_______)等前来贵行办理______________工作事宜，望贵行给予协助办理。

特此证明

单位名称：_______

____年____月_____日

俗话说“千里之行始于足下”。英语书面表达能力的形成不是一日之功，必须从平时的课堂学习一点一滴抓起，持之以恒。

一篇优秀的英语作文在内容和语言两方面应是一个统一体，任何一方面的欠缺都会直接影响到作文的质量。然而，很多考生在写作中或者由于粗心大意，或者由于基本功不扎实而经常出现名词不变复数、第三人称单数不加s，前后不一致，以及时态语态、句子完整性等方面的错误。

1. 审题不清

如2004年中考作文要求写一项最喜欢的课外活动，有些考生将作文的主题定位为“我最喜欢的活动”，偏离了“一项、课外活动”这一主题。依据作文的评分原则，若文章内容不切题，则不管语言如何规范、用词如何准确，都会被判为零分。

2.拼写错误

拼写是考生应该具备的最起码的基本功，但在考生的作文中却经常能发现很多拼写错误。有拼写错误的作文肯定会被酌情扣分，而且有大量拼写错误存在的作文不仅体现出语言基本功差，同时也直接影响内容的表达，通常会降低作文的档次。

3.名词单复数问题

误 my father and my mother is all teacher。

正 my father and my mother are both teachers。

[中考英语作文写作常见的三个错误

一、首段

第一段四个句子,第一句宏观描述图画,并谈图画看似可笑但发人深思.第二句写出图画最强烈的视觉效果,第三句是主题句,谈用二十个单词的爆发力句型谈该现象对个人的发展和进步有破坏性,并引发思考,第四句是用贬义词批判这个现象是强烈的指责。

1、As is vividly depicted in the picture, which seems to be humorous and ridiculous but thought-provoking on second thoughts.

2、The most striking feature that impresses me deeply is that unbelievably,

3、Recent few years has witnessed a phenomenon of 主题 which seems to be disastrous to individual survival and prosperity.

4、This phenomenon of 主题 should be condemned severely or made illegal.

二、中间段落

中间段落从两方面论证问题的危害，并举例论证，预测危害的趋势

第二段七个句子,首先第一句从宏观上谈这种现象的总的有两到三个点危害或者原因,第二句谈这个现象的第一个危 害,用 “not only, but also”的五星级句子,通常是谈对个人身心健康的危害性, 第三个句子谈第二个危害,通常是用一个豪华级的比较级的句子,让老师耳目一新,通常是谈这个现象对社会的危害.第四个句子谈对家庭或学校的危害.第五个句 子谈一个代替 “for example”的十五个单词的好句子,意思是说没有更好的例子来证明正如下文.第六个句子是例子群体的出现,谈根据一项调查表明,80%以上的人只要从 事经历过这个消极的现象一定会对个人在精神和生活上有危害.最后一句话是预测趋势的二十五个单词的钻石级的句子,谈以下预测趋势,表明这种现象再这样下 去,就会导致恶劣的结果出现,甚至是毁灭性的后果。

1、To account for the above-mentioned phenomenon, several serious effects have been put forward.

2、To begin with,主题 not only results does harm to our physical and mental health but also results in a frustrating and humiliating life.

3、In addition, nothing is more harmful than主题 to contradict with a harmonious society.

4、Last but not the least, no issue is as harmful as 主题 to increase family burdens, which is a threatening situation we are unwilling to see.

5、No better illustration of this idea can be thought than the example mentioned below .

6、According to a survey made by China Daily, 63.93% of young people who have ever experienced主题will live a dull life or even feel loss of hope about the future.

7、If we cannot take useful means, we may not control this trend, and some undesirable results may come out unexpectedly, we will see the gloomy future of something.

三、结尾段落

最后一段要强调解决问题，谈的两点建议通常是提高人们的意识，加强执法

第三段六个句子, 第一个句子是下个结论,谈解决问题的必要性.第二个句子是第一个建议谈的是加强立法惩治这个现象,第三个句子谈提高人们的觉悟关于着这个现象能提高人们对 这个现象的觉悟.第四个句子谈个谚语,谈一下实践我的建议的重要性.五个句子谈解决的任重道远.第六个句子是解决问题之后的美好的未来。

1、From what have been discussed above, it is therefore, necessary that some effective measures are taken to prevent主题.

2、On the one hand, we should be sensible to strengthen the enforcement of the laws to protect something.

3、On the other hand, it is demanding for us to keep people aware of the importance of saving somebody out of the evil hands of destruction.

4、However, it is easier said than done.

5、Although the fight against it is long-standing and tremendous one,our efforts will eventually pay off.

6、Only when you attention to it can you see a colorful and harmonious future better sooner or later.

消息即狭义的新闻，它是对新近发生的有社会意义并引起公众兴趣的事实的简短报道。小编收集了关于消息的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

消息即狭义的新闻，它是对新近发生的有社会意义并引起公众兴趣的事实的简短报道。因此 ，真实性、时效性及文字少、篇幅小成为消息的基本特征。

一、消息种类

(一)动态消息：也称动态新闻，这种消息迅速、及时地报道国内国际的重大事件，报道社会 主义建设中的新人新事、新气象、新成就、新经验。动态消息中有不少是简讯(短讯、简明 新闻)，内容更加单一，文字更加精简，常常一事一讯，几行文字。

(二)综合消息：也称综合新闻，指的是综合反映带有全局性情况、动向、成就和问题的消息 报道。

(三)典型消息：也称典型新闻，这是对某一部门或某一单位的典型经验或成功做法的集中报 道，用以带动全局，指导一般。 (四)述评消息：也称新闻述评，它除具有动态消息的一般特征外，还往往在叙述新闻事实的 同时，由作者直接发出一些必要的议论，简明地表示作者的观点。记者述评、时事述评就是 其中的两种。

以上四类消息，以动态消息较易写作，可以经常练习写一些，从实践中提高新闻写作能力。

二、消息写作

写作消息要设想并回答读者问的问题，这些问题就构成了新闻五要素，即：When(何时)、 Where(何地)、Who(何人)、What(何事)、Why(何故)。有的新闻学上补充了一个要素：HOW(如 何)。在五个W和一个H中，最主要的是What(何事)、Who(何人)。写作时要认真写好这几 个方 面的内容。

当我们弄清了“我要说些什么”，接下来就是“怎么说这些内容”，显然这涉及到了如何安 排消息的结构。只要我们用心分析一下报刊发表的消息，就会发现，消息的结构比较固定、 简单，大多数消息的结构都是“倒金字塔”式的，即：最重要的材料放在开头，次要材料放 在后面。消息的结构具体表现为：标题、导语、主体、结尾，并在文中穿插背景材料。

(一)标题

标题是消息的眼睛，拟写得好，可以吸引读者;拟写得差，一篇好消息也会被埋没。可见标 题有着向读者推荐的作用。如：《两位市长直接关怀 大港“油郎”喜结良缘》(新华社1990 年1月6日电讯稿)、《地球三分钟 净增五百人》(新华社1996年7月13日电讯稿)、 《杭城新事见新风 拎书拜年书压岁》(1991年2月19日《解放日报》)。

消息的标题必须简明、准确地概括消息内容，帮助读者理解报道的事实。 消息标题有主题(正题)、引题(眉题)、副题(次题)三种。

主题：概括与说明主要事实和思想内容。

引题：揭示消息的思想意义或交待背景，说明原因，烘托气氛。

副题：提示报道的事实结果，或作内容提要。

(二)导语

导语是指一篇消息的第一自然段或第一句话。它是用简明生动的文字，写出消息中最主要、 最新鲜的事实，鲜明地提示消息的主题思想。

导语的要求，一是要抓住事情的核心，二是要能吸引读者看下去。要做到第一条，必须具备 训练有素的分析能力;要做到第二条，则要有写作技巧。

导语写作中的思维过程，通常是以作者的自问自答开始的：

①什么事情是已经发生的事件中最重要的?

②什么人参加进去了?——谁干的或谁讲的?

③是用直接性导语，还是用延缓性导语?

④有没有什么吸引人的词汇或生动形象的短语要写进导语中?

⑤主题是什么?什么样的动词能最有效地吸引读者?

以上五个问题中，第三个问题涉及到导语的类型。那末，导语有哪些类型呢?

一类是直接性导语：直接写出事实的核心的导语。多是陈述性的像速记一样地反映事实。

另一类是延缓性导语：多用于“软”消息。即所报道的不是正在发展中的、变化中的或突发 性的事件。它通常用来设置一种现场或创造某种气氛。多是解释性、说明性的。

导语的形式主要有：

1、叙述式。用摘录或综合的方法，把消息中最新鲜、最主要的事实简明扼要地写出来。

2、描写式。对消息的主要事实或某一有意义的侧面作简洁朴素而又有特色的描写，以酿成 气氛。

3、提问式。先揭露矛盾，鲜明地、尖锐地提出问题，再作简要的回答，引起读者的关注和 思考。

4、结论式。把结论写在开头，提示报道某一事物的意义或目的或总结。

5、号召式。提出号召，给读者指出方向和奋斗目标。

另外还有摘要式、评论式、综合式、解释式等等。

(三)主体

这是消息的主干部分。它紧接导语之后，对导语作具体全面的阐述，具体展开事实或进一步 突出中心，从而写出导语所概括的内容，表现全篇消息的主题思想。应按“时间顺序”或“ 逻辑顺序”写作，但仍然要先写主要的，再写次要的。

(四)背景

1、什么是背景?新闻背景，指事件的历史背景、周围环境及与其它方面的联系等。写新闻 有时要交代背景，目的在于帮助读者深刻理解新闻的内容和价值，起到衬托、深化主题的作 用，也就是回答五个“W”中的Why(为什么)。

西方新闻学认为背景就是对新闻事件作出的解释。美国新闻学家赖斯特说得很清楚：“我看 不出新闻背景与解释有什么区别。”“解释，在我看来，就是新闻报道的深入化。就是把单 一的新闻事件放到一系列的事件中去写”，“就是提供新闻的背景知识，从而使读者能够对 新闻事件作出客观的判断。”

但是“解释”不是议论，解释本身就是事实，也就是说用事实去解释。所以新闻背景又称之 为“事实背景”。

2、背景有哪些作用?

第一个作用，是说明新闻事件的起因。

第二个作用，显示或帮助读者理解新闻事件的重要性。

第三个作用，突出新闻稿件的新闻价值。

第四个作用，表明记者的观点。记者是不准在新闻中发表议论的，但是，谁也无法禁止记者 通过自己来写的新闻表达自己的立场和看法。纯客观的报道是不存在的。

3、背景的类型有几种?常见的有三种：对比性的，说明性的，注释性的。有的新闻学则将 背景分为四种：人物背景、地理背景、历史背景和事物背景。

(五)结尾

新闻的结尾有小结式、启发式、号召式、分析式、展望式……等等。这些结尾写作与一般记 叙文结尾的写作并无大的不同。

生态旅游的内涵更强调的是对自然景观的保护，是可持续发展的旅游。下面是语文迷网为大家带来的关于生态旅游英语作文的句子，希望对你有帮助。

1.we will establish some ecological demonstration zones and ecological agriculture counties. Specifically， high-efficiency ecological agriculture will be developed;抓好生态示范区和生态农业县的建设，发展高效型生态农业;

2.We will expand ecological demonstration zones.加强生态示范区建设。

3.The regional ecological system is fragile.区域生态系统脆弱。

4.Environmental protection in the places embodying cultural， historical and natural relics will be promoted. Integrated planning and management of tourism will give priority to the development of ecological tourism and improvement of forest parks and scenic resorts.加强有关文化遗产和自然遗产的环境保护工作，加强旅游业统一规划管理，开展生态旅游，强化森林公园和风景名胜区建设。

5.A variety of tourism products designed around sightseeing， conferences and contests， vacations， business trips， academic studies， cultural explorations， technology， sports， ecological tours， and traditional customs shall all be improved.完善观光旅游、会奖旅游、度假旅游、商务旅游、修学旅游、文化旅游、科技旅游、体育旅游、生态旅游、民俗旅游等旅游产品。

6.Promoting the construction of ecological agriculture?

加强生态农业建设。

7.economic development and ecological equilibrium经济发展与生态平衡

8.system analysis of ecosystem生态系统的系统分析

9.Sub-plan for Environmental Protection生态环境保护专项规划

Though there are no exact figures for the ecotourism segment， a government-sponsored push for rural tourism —— usually involving staying with farmers —— has become popular in China in recent years.

虽然生态旅游方面还没有确切的统计数据，不过近年来由政府资助推出的乡村旅游项目(通常被称为“农家乐”)却已在中国广受欢迎。