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自考英语 英语写作基础(合集20篇)

导语:父亲节马上就要到了,你是否准备礼物了呢?下面是开学吧小编为大家整理的优秀英语作文,欢迎阅读与借鉴,谢谢!

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优秀英语作文写作指导:六级写作高分七大技巧

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不管做什么是,找对技巧很重要。下面语文迷网整理了英语六级的写作技巧,供大家阅读参考。

一、 长短句原则。

工作还得一张一弛呢,老让读者读长句,累死人!写一个短小精辟的句子,相反,却可以起到画龙点睛的作用。而且如果我们把短句放在段首或者段末,也可以揭示主题:As a creature, I eat; as a man, I read. Although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy the intellectual need of mind, they are in a way quite similar. 如此可见,长短句结合,抑扬顿挫,岂不爽哉?牢记!

强烈建议:在文章第一段(开头)用一长一短,且先长后短;在文章主体部分,要先用一个短句解释主要意思,然后在阐述几个要点的时候采用先短后长的句群形式,定会让主体部分妙笔生辉!文章结尾一般用一长一短就可以了。

二、 主题句原则。

国有其君,家有其主,文章也要有其主。否则会给人造成“群龙无首”之感!相信各位读过一些破烂文学,故意把主体隐藏在文章之内,结果造成我们稀里糊涂!不知所云!所以奉劝各位一定要写一个主题句,放在文章的开头(保险型)或者结尾,让读者一目了然,必会平安无事!

特别提示:隐藏主体句可是要冒险的!To begin with, you must work hard at your lessons and be fully prepared before the exam(主题句). Without sufficient preparation, you can hardly expect to answer all the questions correctly.

三、 一 二 三原则。

领导讲话总是第一部分、第一点、第二点、第三点、第二部分、第一点… 如此罗嗦。可毕竟还是条理清楚。考官们看文章也必然要通过这些关键性的“标签”来判定你的文章是否结构清楚,条理自然。破解方法很简单,只要把下面任何一组的词汇加入到你的几个要点前就清楚了。

1)first, second, third, last(不推荐,原因:俗)

2)firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally(不推荐,原因:俗)

3)the first, the second, the third, the last(不推荐,原因:俗)

4)in the first place, in the second place, in the third place, lastly(不推荐,原因:俗)

5)to begin with, then, furthermore, finally(强烈推荐)

6)to start with, next, in addition, finally(强烈推荐)

7)first and foremost, besides, last but not least(强烈推荐)

8)most important of all, moreover, finally

9)on the one hand, on the other hand(适用于两点的情况)

10)for one thing, for another thing(适用于两点的情况)

建议:不仅仅在写作中注意,平时说话的时候也应该条理清楚!

四、短语优先原则。

写作时,尤其是在考试时,如果使用短语,有两个好处:其一、用短语会使文章增加亮点,如果老师们看到你的文章太简单,看不到一个自己不认识的短语,必然会看你低一等。相反,如果发现亮点—精彩的短语,那么你的文章定会得高分了。

其二、关键时刻思维短路,只有凑字数,怎么办?用短语是一个办法!比如:I cannot bear it. 可以用短语表达:I cannot put up with it. I want it. 可以用短语表达:I am looking forward to it. 这样字数明显增加,表达也更准确。

五、多实少虚原则

原因很简单,写文章还是应该写一些实际的东西,不要空话连篇。这就要求一定要多用实词,少用虚词。我这里所说的虚词就是指那些比较大的词。

比如我们说一个很好的时候,不应该之说nice这样空洞的词,应该使用一些诸如generous, humorous, interesting, smart, gentle, warm-hearted, hospitable 之类的形象词。

再比如: 走出房间,general的词是:walk out of the room 但是小偷走出房间应该说:slip out of the room 小姐走出房间应该说:sail out of the room 小孩走出房间应该说:dance out of the room 老人走出房间应该说:stagger out of the room 所以多用实词,少用虚词,文章将会大放异彩!

六、 多变句式原则。

1)加法(串联)都希望写下很长的句子,像个老外似的,可就是怕写错,怎么办,最保险的写长句的方法就是这些,可以在任何句子之间加and, 但最好是前后的句子又先后关系或者并列关系。比如说:I enjoy music and he is fond of playing guitar. 如果是二者并列的,我们可以用一个超级句式:Not only the fur coat is soft, but it is also warm. 其它的短语可以用:besides, furthermore, likewise, moreover

2)转折(拐弯抹角)批评某人缺点的时候,我们总习惯先拐弯抹角说说他的优点,然后转入正题,再说缺点,这种方式虽然阴险了点,可毕竟还比较容易让人接受。所以呢,我们说话的时候,只要在要点之前先来点废话,注意二者之间用个专这次就够了。The car was quite old, yet it was in excellent condition. The coat was thin, but it was warm. 更多的短语:despite that, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, notwithstanding

3)因果(so, so, so)昨天在街上我看到了一个女孩,然后我主动搭讪,然后我们去咖啡厅,然后我们认识了,然后我们成为了朋友…可见,讲故事的时候我们总要追求先后顺序,先什么,后什么,所以然后这个词就变得很常见了。其实这个词表示的是先后或因果关系!The snow began to fall, so we went home. 更多短语:then, therefore, consequently, accordingly, hence, as a result, for this reason, so that

4)失衡句(头重脚轻,或者头轻脚重)有些人脑袋大,身体小,或者有些人脑袋小,身体大,虽然我们不希望长成这个样子,可如果真的是这样了,也就必然会吸引别人的注意力。文章中如果出现这样的句子,就更会让考官看到你的句子与众不同。其实就是主语从句,表语从句,宾语从句的变形。举例:This is what I can do. Whether he can go with us or not is not sure. 同样主语、宾语、表语可以改成如下的复杂成分:When to go, Why he goes away…

5)附加(多此一举)如果有了老婆,总会遇到这样的情况,当你再讲某个人的时候,她会插一句说,我昨天见过他;或者说,就是某某某,如果把老婆的话插入到我们的话里面,那就是定语从句和同位语从句或者是插入语。The man whom you met yesterday is a friend of mine. I don’t enjoy that book you are reading. Mr liu, our oral English teacher, is easy-going. 其实很简单,同位语--要解释的东西删除后不影响整个句子的构成;定语从句—借用之前的关键词并且用其重新组成一个句子插入其中,但是whom or that 关键词必须要紧跟在先行词之前。

6)排比(排山倒海句)文学作品中最吸引人的地方莫过于此,如果非要让你的文章更加精彩的话,那么我希望你引用一个个的排比句,一个个得对偶句,一个个的不定式,一个个地词,一个个的短语,如此表达将会使文章有排山倒海之势!Whether your tastes are modern or traditional, sophisticated or simple, there is plenty in London for you. Nowadays, energy can be obtained through various sources such as oil, coal, natural gas, solar heat, the wind and ocean tides. We have got to study hard, to enlarge our scope of knowledge, to realize our potentials and to pay for our life. (气势恢宏) 要想写出如此气势恢宏的句子非用排比不可!

七、挑战极限原则。

既然十挑战极限,必然是比较难的,但是并非不可攀!原理:在学生的文章中,很少发现诸如独立主格的句子,其实也很简单,只要花上5分钟的时间看看就可以领会,它就是分词的一种特殊形式,分词要求主语一致,而独立主格则不然。比如:The weather being fine, a large number of people went to climb the Western Hills. Africa is the second largest continent, its size being about three times that of China. 如果你可以写出这样的句子,不得高分才怪!

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篇1:英语写作百搭语句参考

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下面是由语文迷为大家整理的英语写作百搭句子,赶紧学会吧。

1. 完全同意……这种观点(陈述),主要理由如下:

I fully agree with the statement that ______ because______.

2. 面临……,我们应该采取一系列行之有效的方法来……。一方面……,另一方面,

Confronted with______, we should take a series of effective measures to______. For one thing,______For another, ______

3. 相反,有一些人赞成……,他们相信……,而且,他们认为……。

On the contrary, there are some people in favor of ___.At the same time, they say____.

4. ……对我们国家的发展和建设是必不可少的,(也是)非常重要的。首先,……。而且……,最重要的是……

______is necessary and important to our countrys development and construction.First,______.Whats more, _____.Most important of all,______.

5. 然而,正如任何事物都有好坏两个方面一样,……也有它的不利的一面,像……。

However, just like everything has both its good and bad sides, ______also has its owndisadvantages, such as ______.

6. 早就应该拿出行动了。比如说……,另外……。所有这些方法肯定会……。

It is high time that something was done about it. For example. _____.In addition,_____.All thesemeasures will certainly______.

7. 尽管如此,我相信……更有利。

Nonetheless, I believe that ______is more advantageous.

8. 有几个可供我们采纳的方法。首先,我们可以……。

There are several measures for us to adopt. First, we can______

9. 但是,我认为这不是解决……的好方法,比如……。最糟糕的是……。

But I dont think it is a very good way to solve ____.For example,____.Worst of all,___.

10. 为什么……?第一个原因是……;第二个原因是……;第三个原因是……。总的来说,……的主要原因是由于……

Why______? The first reason is that ______.The second reason is ______.The third is ______.For all this, the main cause of ______due to ______.

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篇2:2024新闻的写作基础知识:通讯的写作

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通讯是以叙述、描写为主要表达方式,将具有新闻价值的人物或事件及时、具体、生动地予 以报道的新闻体裁。

一、通讯特点

通讯作为报刊、电台等媒体最主要的体裁之一,新闻性显然是基本的特征。而新闻性中,真 实、时效、思想性及典型意义构成了它的不同层面。就报道对象言,或是人物、事件,或是 经验、成果、工作情况、社会风貌等,都必须是真实的,不允许虚构或“合理想象”,而且 报道对象应该具有必须的思想性和典型意义。就报道时效言,通讯虽不及消息这般快速敏捷 ,有时为将人物、事件报道细致完整需时较长,但也必须及时,仍须有很强的时效概念。除 去真实、时效的新闻性特征,通讯的主要特点有:

1、生动性。

通讯尤其是人物通讯具有一定的文学色彩。消息在表达上主要 是平面的叙述,语言追求简洁 、明快、准确。通讯则较多借用文学手段,可以描写、抒情、对话,可以用比喻、象征、拟 人等修辞。因此通讯在语言和表达方法上都具有一定的文学性,它在报道真实的人和事的过 程中,善于再现情景,平添许多生动和形象,给人以立体感、现场感。

此外,通讯虽然一般以第三人称叙述为主,但在“见闻”、“采访记”一类的通讯中,也采 用第一人称。不过其中的“我”主要起见证人或采访线索的作用。在效果上第一人称的使用 也增加了一些亲切感。

2、完整性。

通讯须相对完整、具体地报道人物或事物的过程。消息侧重写 事,叙述 简明扼要,一般不展开情节。通讯可写人物也可写事件,其材料比消息丰富、全面,其容量 比消息厚实、充足。它要求详尽、具体地报告事件的经过、演绎人物的命运,充分展开情节 ,甚至描写细节和场面。这些既是生动性的表现,同时也是内容完整性、具体化的要求。

3、评论性。

通讯须运用夹叙夹议的方法对人或事作出直接的评论。消息是 以事实说话,除 述评消息一般不允许作者直接发表议论。通讯则要求在报道人物或事件的同时,表露记者的 感情与倾向。然而通讯的评论不同于议论性文体的论证,它须时时紧扣人物或事件,依傍事 实作适时的、恰到好处评价点拨。因此这是一种通过描写、叙述、抒情等表达手段进行的议 论,它的特点是以情感人,理在情中。

二、通讯种类

1、人物通讯

是以人物的思想、言行、事迹和命运为报道内容的通讯。 人物通讯并非仅仅 是“名人通讯”,报道对象的选择取决于其蕴含的新闻价值,一般来说人物必须具有先进性 或典型性。在取材上可写“全人全貌”,也可截取片断着重写人物的某个侧面或阶段。此两 类一般以人物的“行”为主,而“人物专访”则以写人物的“言”为主。通过记者的专访, 记述人物的谈话,从而揭示其精神世界。

2、事件通讯

是以具典型意义的事件为报道对象的通讯。事件通讯时效 性较强,它围绕中 心事件选材,虽不着力刻划人物,但往往通过典型事件表现一群人或一个集体。所以它通过 较为详尽地展示事件的完整过程,挖掘其意义,揭示其本质,进而反映社会风尚,弘扬时代 精神。? 除人物通讯与事件通讯外,另有:“工作通讯”,这是介绍某单位先进事迹,传播其典型经 验和做法,以指导一般的通讯;“概貌通讯”,这是记述某地区、部门、行业、工程的新面 貌、新气象的通讯。报刊上常见的“见闻”、“纪行”、“巡礼”、“散记”均属此类。此 外,还有以写一段片断、一个场景、一场冲突为对象的“新闻故事”、“小通讯”之类,它 们以生动、快捷的形式宣传新人新事新风尚,实为通讯家属中不可忽视的一员。

三、通讯写作

1、关于选材与提炼主题

占有材料对通讯写作来说就是通过扎实细致的采访广泛搜集第一手材料。随后在纷繁的直接 材料中剥离出典型材料、背景材料。这些材料不仅要求真实,而且要有意义,具有典型性、 指导性,同时还要有意味,具有具体、完整、感人的生动性、情节性。在这般基础上根据深 和新的原则提炼主题,通讯才可能呼应社会关注热点,反映时代风尚特点,宣传党的路线方 针,从而以正确的舆论引导人,以先进的人物激励人,以真实的事件震撼人。然而通讯写的 是真人真事,其主题必须从实际生活中提炼而来,不能随意“拔高”,更不能虚构夸大,它 永远不能违背新闻的真实性原则。

2、关于写人

事因人生,人以事观。人与事虽不可分,但在人物通讯与事件通讯中的确有以人为主和以事 为主之别,为叙述方便故而分之。? 写人在文学创作中已积累丰富经验,在“非虚构”的原则下,我们不妨可借用其多种手段, 并注意以下三个方面:第一,形与神兼备。即不仅要写出人物的行为和事迹,更要展示其精 神世界;第二,言与行统一。人物语言、行为表达、传递出人物的思想,而不同的语气、句 式、词汇及动作表情、神态等是极富个性色彩的内心表露形式。写好了人物的言与行,无疑 是写活了人;第三,画龙必须点睛。如果说言行、事例、情节勾勒出人物的整体形象称为“ 龙” ,那么揭示人物行为意义,指出人物个性特点的评点便是“睛”。“画龙”用的是纪实的叙 述、描写,“点睛”则是超脱的议论或抒情。

3、关于叙事

通讯离不开写事,事件通讯更须完整地叙述事件的起因、人员、场面、结果等,以交待事件 的复杂性和社会影响度。叙事要注意两点:第一,理清主线、丰满细节。一个新闻事件的发 生、发展过程中,有因有果,有人有事,头绪多而关系复杂,作者须理清主线,按事件原貌 将其完整地、动态地、立体地呈现给读者。而为实现这一目标,就须选择典型的细节。一篇 优秀的事件通讯,必然有几个生动感人的细节来充分展示主线,使作品丰满而具现场感。第二,时间为经、时间为纬。通讯须有一定的时间要领因为事件、故事总在于一定的时间和空间中。纺织好时空画面既是一个结构总是也是一个表达方法问题。篇幅不长而情节不太复杂的事件通讯可多运用插叙、补叙、分叙等手段,充分展开矛盾和利用背景材料,使文章有变化起伏。容量大而情节复杂的事件通讯则常常运用时空交叉方式,以时间推进、空间变换等手段来切割事件,构成若干侧面。经过作者精心的组合剪辑将事件完整而利落地报告于世。

显然选材与提炼主题是各类通讯写作中必须面对的,而写人与叙事则因通讯品种不同而有所侧重。但是通讯的写作模式也必然带来约束,因而通讯的散文化写法亦开始为人注目。所谓 的散文化倾向有以下几个特点:(一)生活面更趋广阔,(二)结构不拘一格,(三)技法更多样 化,(四)报道呈系列化。

思考与练习:

一、阅读下列消息,然后给它拟写引题和正题:

本报讯(记者董洪亮)我国唯一的教育艺术刊物《教育艺术》杂志日前度过了五 周岁生日。冰心老人、贺敬之等知名人士为之题词致贺。

《教育艺术》由中华教育艺术研究会暨中华教育艺术家协会、首都师范大学青年教育艺术研 究所共同主办,李燕杰教授担任社长。该刊以“激扬正气,振奋民魂”为办刊宗旨,主要栏 目有“名家谈教育艺术”、“时代精神磁场”、“青春思絮”、“教育艺术一千问”等。《 教育艺术》杂志被海内外读者誉为“青年的良师,家长的益友,干部的参谋,教师的助手” 。

(《中国教育报》1994年11月17日第2版)

二、一件新闻在不同的报纸上刊出时,会因编辑的眼光不同而出现不同的标题。请就近日发 生的一件重大新闻,比较、分析各大报纸刊出时的标题有何不同。

三、写一篇新闻,报道学校或班上新近组织的某项活动。时间、地点、事件要交代清楚,还 要注意详略得当,有条有理。? 四、下面这则题为《卫生部写信感谢空军某部官兵》的消息与通讯《为了六十一个阶级弟兄 》是同题材的报道,请仔细比较两文章,谈谈通讯与消息在确立主题、写作方法等方面的异 同。

新华社20日讯卫生部最近写信给人民解放军空军领导机关,表扬和感谢空军某 部 官兵为了抢救平陆县公路工地食物中毒的员工,克服各种困难,完成了空投药品的任务。

信上说,2月3日,山西省平陆县风陵渡公路工地上发生六十多人食物中毒事故,当地县委 来 电话后,经与你们联系,立即得到大力支援,派专机前往空投药品。飞行员们为了抢救工人 阶级兄弟的生命,毫不犹豫地连夜起飞,迅速地执行这一任务。由于药品的及时供应,使全 体中毒员工经过抢救脱离了生命危险。这一英雄行为,充分说明了人民空军战士有高度的为 人民服务的精神和共产主义风格。

信上还说,空军战士抢救中毒工人的事迹,大大地鼓舞了病人和平陆县全县人民的革命意志 ,他们纷纷写信感谢党中央和毛主席对他们的关怀,感谢人民空军的大力支援。中共平陆县 委还将此事件写成材料,向全县人民进行教育,学习人民解放军忠于祖国、忠于人民的高贵 品质。

(原载《人民日报》1960年2月21日)

五、阅读近期报纸,书面推荐人物通讯、事件通讯、概貌通讯各一件。

六、实地采访,写一篇通讯。

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篇3:英语写作技巧

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小升初英语写作技巧之一:用介词短语替代从句,例:

原句:While they were playing tennis, she started an argument that lasted all morning.

修改后:During tennis she started an argument that lasted all morning.

原句:When you come to the second traffic light, turn right.

修改后:At the second traffic light turn left.

小升初英语写作技巧之二:删除诸如"who is”或"that is"之类的关系代词,变从句为短语,例:

句:The novel, which is written in three parts, told a story that took place in the Middle Ages.

修改后:The three-part novel told a story set in the Middle Ages.

注:把句中的"three parts"改用形容词来表达,节省了四个不必要的单词"which is written in"。我们经常可以将关系代词如"that"去掉,这只会引起最少的变动。

小升初英语写作技巧之三:剔除你不需要的单词,例:

Two joint partners will present their views over a long-distance telephone call.

写完这样的句子后,你自己再读一遍,挑出单词"joint"和"telephone",注意删去不必要的词。

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篇4:写作基础知识之基本句式

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句子依据用途或语气可分为四大类即:陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句。

陈述句:说明一件事情,表示陈述语气的句子。

疑问句:提出一个问题,表示疑问语气的句子。

祈使句:要求或者希望中国人做什么或不做什么,表示祈使语气的句子。

感叹句:表示感叹语气的句子。

一、陈述句和反问句的互换:

陈述句指说明意见、叙述事实的句子。反问句是指用疑问句的形式表达确定的意思的句子。

把陈述句改成反问句有两种情况:

1 肯定语气改成反问句如:

天才来自勤奋。改为:难道天才不是来自勤奋吗?

2 否定语气改成反问句

小孩掉进河里,我们不能见死不救。

小孩掉进河里,我们能见死不救吗?

注意点:陈述句改成反问句,要把句中表示肯定的词改成表示否定的词,句末的句号改成问号,并加上“吗”、“呢”等句末的句号要改成问号。

反问句改成陈述句也有两种情况:

把反问句改成陈述句就要把“难道”和“不”等词删去,把句末的问号改成句号,并去掉“难道……吗”和“怎么……呢”语气助词。

练习 :

1、既须劳动,又长见识,这就是养花的乐趣。

2、不劳动,连棵花也养不活,这难道不是真理吗?

3、难道我们播下的种子不会在自己学生的身上开花结果吗?

4、老师对我的教导,难道我会忘记吗?

二、 肯定句和否定句的互换:

表达一个肯定的意思,也可以采用否定句式,例如,“人人都都遵守课堂纪律。”可以改写成“没有一个人不遵守课堂纪律。”改写后句子的肯定语气要比原来的句子更强。改写时要注意:双重否定是表示进一步的肯定,所以必须用上两个表示否定的词,也就是“否定+否定=肯定”。如果只用一个否定的词,句子意思就完全相反了

例:天下的人都知道秦国是从来不讲信用的。

天下的人没有一个不知道秦国是从来不讲信用的。

注意:

练习:

1)全班同学都参加了这次植树活动。

2)学好语文和输血,对青年人的成才才会起促进作用。

3)同学们都觉得书籍是我们的好老师。

4)记住“只拣儿童多处行”是会找到春天的。

5)上坡下的每一块地都被大水淹没了。

6)事情的来龙去脉得向你说清楚。

7)这里的情况你是清楚的。

三、直接引语与间接引语的改写:

我们在说话或写作中,有时需要直接引用别人的对话,有时需要转述。例如雨来摇摇头说:“我在屋子里什么也没有看见。”这是直接叙述的句子。如果要改成转述的句子,就可以改成“雨来摇摇头说,他在屋子里什么也没有看见。”

改写时应注意三点:一是改换人称,将对话中表示“谁”(如我、我们等)的人称代词改成“他”或“他们”。与引号前的人称一致起来。二是改变标点,将冒号改成逗号,双引号去掉。三是适当调整词语,需要时可作少量的文字改动,但不能改变句子的基本意思,使句子通顺。

例:贝多芬说:“我是来弹一首曲子给这位姑娘听的。

贝多芬说,它是来弹一首曲子给这位姑娘听的。

1)他轻轻地说:“我买不起,我的钱不够。”

2)蔺相如说:“秦王我都不怕,我会怕廉将军吗?

3)小华告诉我:“ 我的《儿童时代》先借给你看。”

4)妈妈对我说:“ 我今晚要加班,不回家吃饭了。”

5)小华对小丽说:“明天我们班要参加区文艺会演,我得早点到校排演。”

四、陈述句改成把字句和被字句

如:他碾死了小青虫。可改成

⒈“把”字句:他把小青虫碾死了。将陈述句改成把字句,就是将句中表示动作的对象移到表示动作的词前面,加上“把”即成把字句。在变换句式时必须保持原句的意思。

⒉“被”字句:小青虫被他碾死了。把陈述句改成被字句,就是将句中表示接受动作的词调到句首,换上“被”就成了被字句。

这两种句子的变换只要调换句中的某些词的位置就行了。

如上面句①中只需把“碾死了”和“小青虫”的位置调换一下,再在他的后面加个“把”字;句②则把“小青虫”与他“他”之间加个“被”字就行了。两个句子互相改换之后,它们原来的意思不能改变。

五、有些陈述句为了突出句中的某一部分,可交换下词语的位置。

如:“我去过北京。”与“北京,我去过。”前者突出“我去过”,后者突出了“北京”。改变说法,做到语言美。

在公共汽车上,看到一位老太太上车,一个小学生连忙让座,应怎么说呢?

应说:“老奶奶,请您坐这儿!”

注意点:如说“喂,老太婆,坐这儿来!”就很没有礼貌。我们在与人交往时,要学会使用“请”“打扰”“对不起”“谢谢”“没关系”,接电话时,要用“您好!请问……”等。

六、特殊句式的变换

1、词语位置的变换:如

常式句:亲人再见了!

变式句:再见了,亲人。把主谓语的位置进行互换

2、变换提示语的位置:如

(1)、我说:“爸爸,也许它不会死……” (提示语在前)

(2)、“爸爸!”,我说,“也许它不会死……”(提示语在中间)

(3)、“爸爸,也许它不会死……” 我说。 (提示语在句末)七、关联句

句子依据结构分类,可分为单句和复句。复句是能分成两个或两个以上相当于单句的分段的句子。复句内的各个单句形式,叫做分句。同一个复句里的分句,说是的是有关系的事,它们又是由关联词语连接起来的,因此也称作关联句。常见的关联句有七种类型,每类关联句有它们自己常用的关联词语。

1、因果关系:因为……所以 因此 既然……就

2、条件关系:只有……才 只要……就 无论……都 不管……总

3、假设关系:如果……就 要是……就 哪怕……也 即使……也4、递进关系:不但……而且 不光……还 不仅……还

5、并列关系 :既……又 一边……一边 一方面……一方面 一会儿……一会儿

6、转折关系:虽然……但是 尽管……还是

7 选择关系:是……不是 宁可……也不 不是……就是 与其……不如

运用关联词语要注意以下几点:

关联词语一般都成对出现,只有少数单独使用。(如“可是”、“而”、“因此”等)

关联词语大都有一定的搭配习惯,不能任意组合。

关联词语起连接作用,可以把两句话并为一句。

七、因果句式的改写:

因果句式,是按事物的原因和结果关系来写的。它有两种形式:一是先因后果,二是先果后因。因果句式中,原因可以是一个或几个,但结果只能是一个。改写时,可以用关联词,也可省支其中一个关联词,甚至不用。但原意一定要保持不变。

八、缩句和扩句

缩句的目的是为了更好地分析和理解句子。把句子中表示修饰或限制的词语去掉,保留原来句子的主干,缩成一个简单完整的句子。缩句不能增加和减少原句基本成分,不改变原句的意思。

缩句主要方法有以下几种:

1、分辨句式,提出问题。先看看这句话是写人还是写景物的,然后可以提出“谁是什么”、“谁干什么 ”或者“什么是什么”、“什么干什么”、“怎么样”来找出句子的主要部分。如:“这毛茸茸的在地上流动着的小绒球原来是刚孵出来的小鸡。”我们可提问:什么?--小绒球;是什么?---是小鸡。缩句后就是成 “小绒球是小鸡。”

2、进行词语比较,找出主要词语。有些句子很长,修饰的部分较多,我们就要在几个词语中选出主要的,才能正确地缩句。如“工人宿舍前的草地上开满了五颜六色的野花。”因为“野花”只能开在“草地上”。所以“草地上”是主要词,而“工人宿舍前”是修饰“草地”的。

3、如果是否定句缩句,就要把否定词一起写出来,否则就会改变句意。如“我不相信他那种骗人的鬼话。”应缩成“我不相信鬼话”,而不能缩成“我相信鬼话” 另外要提醒小朋友的是,缩句后,虽然句子十分简短,但它还是个完整的句子,所以句末必须加上原句上的标点符号。扩句恰好相反,是在句子的主干上增加一些恰当的修饰或限制性的词语,是句子的内容变得丰富、具体和生动。扩句的过程正好与缩句相反,即按一定要求给句子的主干添枝加叶,加上修饰成分,使它表达的意思更具体、形象、生动。

在具体扩句过程中,要注意以下几个方面:

1、所加的修饰词必须与主干搭配得当

2、扩句后句子的成分不变。

3、扩句后不能改变句子的结构。

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篇5:文学写作基础知识

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一、中国古代代学

(一)先秦代学

①上古神话。

中国古代神话名篇有:女娲(wā)补天后羿(yì)射日,精卫填海、(盘古)开天辟地、黄帝战蚩(chī)尤等。(刘安:《淮南子》)

②先秦散代

A、儒家经典。

“五经”指《诗经》、《尚书》、《礼记》、《易经》、《春秋》。

“六经”又称六艺 ,在“五经”后增加(《乐》)。

“四书”指《论语》《孟子》《大学》《中庸》。

B、历史散代。 《左传》《战国策》《国语》。

“春秋三秋”《左传》《谷梁传》《公羊传》。

C、诸子百家散代。 著名的有:

①老子,李耳, 字聃(dān),道家学派创始人,著有《道德经》。

②孔子名丘,字仲尼。是儒家学派创始人、《论语》是孔子弟子记载孔子和他的学生言行的书。

③墨子名翟(dí),墨家学派创始人。《墨子》53篇。

④孟子名轲,字子舆。儒家学派继承者。《孟子》是孟子学生记录孟子言行的书。《得道多助,失道寡助》《生于忧患,死于安乐》《庄暴见孟子》《鱼我所欲也》。

⑤庄子,名周,战国道家。著《庄子》。《庖丁解牛》

⑥荀子, 战国儒家,著《荀子》32篇、《劝学》

⑦韩非子,法家。著《韩非子》。《扁鹊见蔡桓公》《五蠹》《智子疑邻》。

⑧《吕氏春秋》又称《吕览》,是秦相吕不韦和他的门客的集体创作。《察今》。

⑨李斯的代表作是散代《谏逐客书》。

③先秦诗歌

A、《诗经》。《诗经》是我国第一部诗歌总集,共305篇分风、雅、颂三类、风是民歌,雅是乐歌,学习规律,颂是祭歌。诗经的表现手法是比、兴、赋。比即比喻,以彼物比此的。兴,先言他物以引起所咏之词,赋,直陈其事。

B、《楚辞》。西汉学者刘向把屈原宋玉等人的作品编辑成书,定名为《楚辞》。屈原(前340?-前277?)名平,我国伟大爱国主义诗人、曾在楚国任左徒三闾大夫等职。代有作是《离骚》《九歌》《九章》。

(二)、两汉代学

A、两汉散代

①贾谊,世称贾生。又称贾长沙,贾太傅。著《新书》十卷。《过秦论》、《论积贮疏》是他的代表作。

②司马迁,字子长,伟大的史学家、代学家。著《史记》首创“纪传体”,分为本纪、世家、列传、表、书。

鲁迅称《史记》为“史家之绝唱,无韵之离骚”。

③班固的《汉书》 刘向编订的《战国策》都名传史册。

B、乐府民歌和赋。乐,民乐;府,官府、乐府原为汉代音乐机关所搜集的诗、《孔雀东南飞》是汉乐府叙事发展的高峰。最早见于南朝徐陵编纂的《玉台新咏》、赋是我国古代韵代和散代的综合体。司马相如的《子虚赋》《上林赋》。贾谊的《吊屈原赋》都很有名。

(三)、魏晋南北朝代学

1、魏晋南北朝的诗歌和散代

①“三曹”、“三曹”即曹氏父子曹操、 曹丕、 曹植。曹操的《观沧海》,曹丕的《蒿里行》,曹植的《名都篇》《白马篇》《洛神赋》都很有名。

②“建安七子” 。孔融、陈琳、王粲、徐干、阮?、应?、刘桢

③“竹林七贤”。 阮籍、稽康、山涛、刘伶、王戎、向秀、刘咸

④陶渊明,名潜,字元亮,世称靖节先生。 《桃花源记》《归去来辞》《归园田居》《饮酒》是传世之作。

⑤此外, 诸葛亮《出师表》、范晔(yè)《后汉书》、陈寿《三国志》、王羲之《兰亭集序》、刘勰《代心雕龙》、郦道元《水经注》都名垂史册。

2、魏晋南北朝的小说。

①志怪小说以干宝《搜神记》为代表。 《干将莫邪》。

②轶事小说以刘义庆的《世说新语》为代表。《周处》。

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篇6:高考英语写作错误分析:否定模糊

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导语:高考英语书面表达想拿高分并不容易,首先你要避免一些在学生中比较常见的几种错误才行。下面小编为大家整理了高考英语写作常见的错误,希望大家在考试中能够避免。

有的同学对于否定的概念模糊,不知如何否定,有时会写出不合规则或有异义的句子。

1. 我认为没有必要买大的。

误:I think its not necessary to buy the bigger one.

正:I don’t think it is necessary to buy the bigger one.

析:有些动词如think, believe, expect, suppose, imagine, guess, fancy等的主语是第一人称单数且一般现在时,表示否定的观点应用I don’t think…,而I think… not则属于汉语式表达习惯。

2. 我们直到天全黑了才到家。

误:We arrived home until it became completely dark.

正:We didn’t arrive home until it became completely dark.

析:此汉语句子里面尽管没有否定词,但until用于肯定句时意为“直到…为止”;用于否定句时,其意为“在…以前”。因此,表示“直到…才”用not…until。

3. 如果没有受到邀请的话,我是不会去参加舞会的。

误:I’ll not go to the party unless I’m not invited.

正:I’ll not go to the party unless I’m invited.

正:I’ll not go to the party if I’m not invited.

析:unless“除非”、“如果不”,常可用if…not来替换。误句中的条件状语从句双重否定表示肯定,结果与原句意思相反。

4. 那孩子不够大不能去上学。

误:The child is not old enough not to go to school.

正:The child is not old enough to go to school.

正:The child is too young to go to school.

析:这是学生最容易写错的句子。enough to“足以、足够”。原句中“不够大不能去上学”意思是“不够上学的年龄”,故应译为not old enough to go to school。

5. 他们两个都不说英语。

误:Both of them don’t speak English.

正:Neither of them speaks English.

析:中国学生特别对于all…not 和both…not等这种部分否定结构,很容易理解成全部否定。两者全部否定用neither, 三者以上用none。

6. 开车时再小心也不过分。

误:You can be too careful in driving a car.

正:You can not be too careful in driving a car.

析:cannot…too“无论作…也不过分”。

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篇7:2024中考英语写作指导:作文为什么被扣分

全文共 980 字

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中考英语试卷写作的分数各个省市有所不同,一般在15-20分之间。下面从阅卷老师的角度分析一下中考英语作文的得分点和扣分点。

中考英语作文对考生的要求有四点:1、内容要完整。 2、语句流畅。3、没有语法错误。4、书写规范。能达到上述要求的作文,都会得到相应的高分。

一:先看一下扣分点:

1.内容方面:要点缺失,可酌情扣分。比如中考作文“I want to do something for my school”,若没有写一件具体的事情,是要扣3分以上的;若写的事情太过于虚幻,没有实际内容,也会扣1-2分。

2.字数:少于60字的作文要酌情扣分。

中考英语作文要求60字以上,标点符号不算,少了就要扣分。但是60字的作文能不能得高分?从我们拿到的实例作文来看,16分以上的作文,没有少于75字的,甚至少于80字的也少之又少。当然,也极少有超过100字的,因为中考试卷的短线格一共80个,在格子下面大约还有2行的空间,可以加20字左右,再多阅卷人就很难看清了,也会影响卷面的美观。所以,同学们如果想让作文得到高分,最好是让字数在75-100字之间。

3. 语法和拼写错误:每个扣0.5,重复错误不计;

4. 标点错误:每4个扣0.5.

二:加分点

除了这些扣分点,还有一些得分点:比如说作文的组织结构分,就是根据学生使用复杂句型、单词和谚语、俗语的情况来加分。

只要文章中有1个亮点,基本就可以争取到1分(3分的文采分是很难全部拿到的)。而这1分的亮点,是可以提前准备的。例如,有一些“万金油”式的复杂句型,例如强调句型、only相关的倒装句等,只要同学们多操练几次,几乎是一定能用到作文当中,从而为自己争取到这1分。

其次就是卷面分

很多家长和同学,尤其是部分书法并不是十分整洁的同学,都会关心是否真的有“卷面分”的存在。虽然在阅卷标准里面并没有卷面分这一项,但是这个分数却真切地反映在了同学们的分数里面。

据阅卷老师的经验,在阅卷的时候并不是按这3个部分逐项打分的,而是在第一遍读完全文之后,心里已经形成了一个“印象分”,然后再细读第二、三遍,把印象分分配到各个打分部分。因此,这个“印象分”就非常重要,而同学们的书法,也正是在这个环节,影响到了自己的分数。所以初三的考生,如果书法不好,一定要注意。所谓的书法并不需要写的很漂亮,符合3个简单的标准即可:没有斜体、没有连笔、涂改较少。

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篇8:2024年中考英语看图作文写作要点

全文共 861 字

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看图作文是以图画或图表来提供目的、对象、时间、地点、内容等情景,要求作者借助图画,通过联想将一组画面的直观内容转换成传神达意的文字形式,用于反映图中所表现的思想内容。

写作体裁上看,可说明介绍,可叙事记人、可写景状物,也可以发表议论。

1.仔细审题、弄清题目要求

看图作文主要考查考生的观察能力、分析能力、想象能力、创造能力和语言表达能力。

想写好看图作文,必须遵循以下步骤:

首先,必须通读试题中的每一个字,认真观察所给的每一幅图画,正确理解提示所提出的各种要求,从而明确作文的中心思想,判断文章的类型、特点,了解文章的重点内容,力求切中题意。

2.审好图,确定要素

认真观察图中的故事发生于何时?何地?图中的人物为何人?他们做了什么事情?结果如何?

3.考虑用恰当的词语、句型和时态

弄懂了图上的大意后,在内心构思一个基本的框架,考虑用什么样的句型、词语、时态来充分表达文章的内容,尽可能用你熟悉的词语或句型,力求语言准确、意思明了。

4.列出要点,组织语言

在认真审题、弄清题意的基础上,我们应逐个完整无误地把内容要点列出来,我们可以在每幅图画的旁边用简单的词语标出其所表达的要点,这样,既可以提醒自己不要漏写了要点,又能防止过分发挥。接着就可以将内容要点译成英文词语或句子,以便下一步组织语言,形成短文。要注意使用适当的连接词或过渡性语句,以使上下文更为连贯,过渡自然。

5.详细得当

对一些细节方面的内容,如果是文章必不可少的细节,在写作时不可将这些细节忽略;如果是可有可无的细节,则可视具体情况进行增删。因此,我们在审图时,一定要注意各图中的一些细节内容,看其是否影响文章的内容。

6.仔细检查、修改

文章写完后,应进行必要的检查、修改,力求全文内容表达准确、完整,并最大限度减少错误。

具体从如下做起:

(1)核对图中要点是否有遗漏;

(2)时态、语态是否正确;

(3)文章句、段、篇是否连贯;

(4)用词是否得当、词数是否符合要求;

(5)单词大小写、拼写、标点是否准确无误。

最后提醒大家:一篇好的作文不但要内容写得好,字迹也要美观、工整、漂亮。

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篇9:会计专业毕业论文写作基础

全文共 15583 字

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(一)会计专业论文是学术论文的一种

什么是学术论文?中华人民共和国原国家标准局发布的《科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式(GB7713-87)》中指出:“学术论文是指某一学术课题在实验性、理论性或观测性上具有新的科学研究成果或创新见解的知识和科学记录;或是某种已知原理应用于实际中取得新进展的科学总结,用以提供学术会议上宣读、交流或讨论;或在学术刊物上发表;或作其他用途的书面文件。”简而言之,学术论文就是用来进行科学研究和描述科研成果的文章,它既是探讨问题进行科学研究的一种手段,又是描述科研成果进行学术交流的一种工具。一般意义上的学术论文,应当具有四方面的特点:

1.学术性。它指研究与探讨的内容具有专门性和系统性,是以科学领域里某一专业性问题作为研究对象。从内容上看,学术论文的专业性较强;从语言表达上看,学术论文很多是采用专业术语、专业性图表和专门符号表达内容的,它的读者主要是专业上的同行。因此,为了把学术问题表达得简洁、准确和规范,文中即会涉及较多的专业用语。

2.科学性。它指研究与探讨的内容要准确、思维要严密、推理要合乎逻辑。要求作者在立论上必须从客观实际出发,不得带有个人好恶与偏见,不得主观臆造,在相关基础上得出符合实际的结论。因此,在论据上,应当尽可能多地占有资料,以最充分的、确凿有力的论据作为立论的依据;在论证时,必须经过周密的思考,并进行严谨地论证。

3.创新性。它要求作者有自己独到的见解,能提出新的观点和看法。创新性是科学研究的生命,学术论文的科学价值就表现在其具有创新性上。创新性表现是填补空白的新发现、新发明和新理论,是在继承基础上发展、完善和创新,是在众说纷纭中提出自己的独立见解,是推翻了前人的某种定论,是对已有资料作出创造性综合等。有时在论文中,所体现出的新思路、新方法、新体系和新因素等,也可视为一种创新。

4.理论性。它指论文中体现出作者思维的理论性、论文结论的理论性和论文表达的论证性。学术论文与一般议论文不同,它必须有自己的理论论证,不能只是材料与文献的简单罗列,应当是在对大量的事实、材料和文献进行分析、研究的基础之上,使感性认识上升到理性认识。

学术论文按内容的学科性质,可分为自然科学论文和社会科学论文。会计专业论文是社会科学研究论文的一种,它是系统地阐述、讨论或研究、探讨某个会计专业问题的文章。会计专业论文按撰写要求可分为学术论文和一般论文;按用途可分为会计科研成果论文、会计业绩考核论文和会计专业学位论文等。

(二)会计专业论文写作的基本要求

1. 会计专业论文写作的内容要求。所撰写的会计专业论文,在内容上应当力求做到:(1)准确性,即论文的内容从实际出发,正确地反映客观事物的性质、发展过程和规律。写作中要充分运用逻辑思维:要准确地运用各种概念,概念的定义(或内含定义)和外延要准确,不得模棱两可,似是而非;判断要明确,对客观事物的分析要揭示其性质和规律,明确肯定或否定、真或假、正确与错误、广度和深度,或不同程度等之间的界限;推理要科学,根据已知的判断(前提)引出新的判断(结论)是科学的,论证清楚,认识正确。(2)鲜明性,即论文能以简明的语言,表明作者明确的观点。(3)生动性,即论文的内容要采用生动的语言和具体的事实来反映事物的发展变化和趋势。(4)合规性,即论文既要在内容上符合国家的路线、方针、政策、法律和制度,也要在形式上符合国家有关部门论文学术的规范要求。(5)理论性,即论文的观点和论证要符合科学原理。(6)创新性,即论文要具有一定的新内容,如新建议、新措施、新方法、新公式、新模型、新资料、新证明、新概念、新设想、新理论和新体系等。(7)层次性,即论文的层次结构要合理,同一层次的篇幅基本均衡。(8)精细性,即论文中要避免出现常识性错误,如立论不当、资料不实、分析绝对化、概念不准确、判断不科学、推理不合理、结构不严、内容前后矛盾不协调、字句含糊和标点符号不准确等。(9)完整性,即论文的学术要素齐全与规范。

2. 会计专业论文写作的法律要求。应当做到:(1)要有尊重他人知识产权的意识。即对论文中引用和借鉴他人的研究成果时,应当严格遵守《中华人民共和国著作权法》的要求,按照国家有关规定中所确定的著录规范要求,列出注释与参考文献的详细信息。(2)要有保护自己知识产权的意识,对凡是属于自己独创性论文中所形成的观点、材料和数据等形式的成果,发现他人的论著借鉴运用,但未用规范方式加注与列作参考文献时,应当保留根据《中华人民共和国著作权法》所赋予的权利追究使用者相应法律责任的权利。(3)应当透彻理解《中华人民共和国著作权法》中有关侵权行为的界限,如根据该法第五条规定的精神,在论文中使用法律、法规,国家机关的决议、决定、命令和其他具有立法、行政、司法性质的文件及官方正式译文、时事新闻、历法、通用数表、通用表格和公式等,不属于剽窃和抄袭他人作品的行为。

二、会计专业论文的基本撰写程序

(一)选定论题

1. 正确选定论题意义重大,它关系到能否完成研究任务。如果论题过大,到时可能会因多种因素影响而难以完成;如果论题过小,不能达到研究的水平。选定论题的前提是选择研究主题,它是确定研究对象,选择所要解决的问题。狭义地说,是指选定写文章或者著作的题目。广义地说,是选择科研领域,确定科研方向。

2. 需要注意与选定论题有关概念内涵上的区别。(1)课题。它是指某一学科重大的科研项目,它的研究范围比论题大得多,如“面对经济全球化环境的中国会计规范体系建设问题”。(2)论题。它指在研究过程中所确定的论述范围或研究方向,也就是解决前面说的“写什么”的问题,属于内容要素,如“关于会计委派制的问题”。(3)标题(题目),它是准确概括文章内容的一句话或一个词组,它是根据内容来确定的,属于形式要素,它可以在文章写成后加上去,也可据内容改换,具有较大的弹性。有的文章标题可以明显地揭示出论题,如“会计委派制利大于弊”。有些文章从标题上是看不出论题的内容,如“浅谈会计委派制”、“会计委派制的若干分析”。在选定论题时有一个思路问题,就是把小题做大?还把大题做小?20世纪80年代初期,著名语言学家王力教授在中国社会科学院的一个演讲中曾经强调,研究生论文写作时尽量把小题做大。他曾经举例说,汉语中的一个字都可以做成一篇论文。

3. 选定论题时需要思考以下六个因素。(1)我应该研究什么问题?这要与个人的专业方向相结合,有大问题、中问题与小问题之分。各个专业领域里的问题非常多,只要处处留心就有值得研究的问题。(2)我喜欢研究什么问题?这要与个人兴趣结合起来,既有长期性跟踪的专业性问题,也有临时性需要研究的热点问题,还有完成任务性的命题式问题,如课题研究。(3)我能够研究什么问题?这要与自身的研究能力结合起来,在确定目标时要量力而行,把长期研究、中期研究和短期研究进行组合。(4)了解别人已经研究了什么问题?这就要提倡广泛搜集资料并追究根底,兼听则明,偏听则暗。(5)了解别人从什么角度研究此问题?它的研究视角是什么。因为从同一个研究问题的不同研究视角出发,会有不同的研究结论,这里要注重切入点选择与学科交叉性的研究。(6)了解别人是怎样研究这个问题的?同样问题的研究,由于研究方法不同,就会有不同的研究结论,因此要注重研究方法与研究技术的掌握。

4. 选定论题阶段应当注意的主要问题。(1)要掌握选题原则,即要有创新精神,又要从实际出发;(2)要明确选题范围,可包括会计实务工作、会计管理体制、会计基础理论研究和会计教育等方面的内容;(3)要优化选题方法,既可在命题中选(如根据相关的《论文选题指南》选定),也可自行选定。在选定论文题目时,要避免一般化、表面化、雷同化、陈旧化、宽泛化和琐细化。

(二)搜集资料

按照确定的选题和内容,通过各种方法搜集大量的资料,能为科学研究打下坚实的基础。有了丰富的资料,才能研究客观事物的历史发展和现实状况,揭示其影响因素、发展趋势和规律,并预测未来可能出现的变化。通过各种方法搜集大量的资料,能为科学研究提供可靠的依据。科学研究需要占有的大量资料,不仅是数量要求,而且要有质量的标准。只有搜集的资料是真实的,才能为研究成果也具有真实性提供可靠的依据。

搜集资料的要求:1.搜集的资料要全面,要有针对性;2.搜集的资料要真实,要有客观性;3.搜集资料的方法要广泛,可采用资料法、观察法、调查法和实验法等。

(三)拟定提纲

1. 拟定提纲的作用很关键。现实中,有不少会计专业研究人员都有这样的感受:当某种思想在头脑中奔涌,感觉已经酝酿成熟,满怀激情地拿起笔想写出来,但是一旦动笔,思想却在笔头上凝固起来,写不出来或写不下去;或者是在一项科研任务行将结束时,脑子里装着许多材料,观点已经形成且有价值,想写但就是无从下手。凡此种种,并非由于“懒”,而是由于感到“难”。由于遇到了难题,多少影响了写作论文的信心。拟定论文写作提纲就是解决“开头难”的一个重要步骤。拟定提纲就是确定论文的总体布局,先设计后施工,开始对客观事物进行研究。有了论文提纲,才能对搜集的资料进行加工,形成规律性的认识;才能安排论文的结构,形成全面的观点;才能排列问题的顺序,使观点鲜明。撰写论文如果没有提纲,下笔千言,实际上可能离题万里,是为大忌。

2. 拟定提纲可分为两个步骤。首先,是拟定粗纲(一层结构),即以中心论点(主题或主题思想)为纲展开的各种论点(观点),作为大的部分,并按顺序确定大的标题。这种提纲只有大标题这一个层次,是体现论文题目的中心论点的各种论点。它是在对搜集的资料进行深入研究的基础上形成的,往往要经过多次思考才能确定。其次,才是拟定细纲(多层结构),在粗提纲的基础上,在每个大的部分、大论点之下,形成相互依存的多层的小论点;也就是在大标题之下有小标题,小标题之下有论点或论据或资料来源。细提纲是粗提纲的细化,大论点中有小论点,层次分明,便于写作。根据研究任务和论文题目的内容来看,提纲可以是两层结构,或三层结构、四层结构、五层结构(如上例格式)等。

3. 拟定提纲的构思逻辑。(1)构思论文主题,即拟传递的主要信息;(2)构思论文形式,即拟以什么方式传递信息,是论文、调查报告还是实证分析报告等,是写纯理论性、普及性还是应用性论文;(3)构思(确定)研究方法,即采用规范法还是实证法;(4)构思论文范畴,即怎样写,写多宽,大致涉及哪几个方面的问题;(5)构思论文布局,即其论述与表达的逻辑关系;(6)构思论文的写作技巧,即文章如何切入与如何切题;(7)分析读者对象,即考虑论文读者的不同的需求与供给均衡关系;(8)分析不同论文要求上的特点,以提高创造性劳动的效率。

4. 拟定提纲的基本要求。拟定提纲时,应当做到:要以中心论点(主题或主题思想)为纲;要注意结构完整,以全面论证中心论点;要注意内容前后的顺序,以反映论文结构的层次关系;要注意内容的逻辑性以反映事物的必然联系;要注意文章的体裁,以反映不同特点;要注意逐步形成提纲,并经过多次修改确定。

(四)撰写初稿

论文的初稿要按照论文的组成部分和拟定的提纲分层次(部分)编写,原则上要按照论文的先后逻辑顺序完成论文引论、本论和结论(或结尾)的拟稿工作以及主要参考文献的列示工作。撰写初稿时要求做到:尽量提高撰写初稿的质量,切实做到以论为纲、观点与材料统一、逻辑思维严谨、论文层次清晰、文字表达精炼。初稿的写作方式有手写与机写两种,目前一般均采用机写方式,但不同的方式各有其优势与不足。

因此,在论文初稿写作时,需要做到:集中主要精力,抓住灵感不放;围绕主要线索,细节不须纠缠;行笔信马由缰,篇幅不受约束;随记相关联想,争取一气呵成;及时补充遗漏,格式稍加整理。而且需要注意的是,为了集中精力完成初稿,标题可以暂不考虑,内容可以信马由缰,拦路虎可暂时搁置,数据可以暂不测算,篇幅可以暂不限制,出处可以暂不查实,要尽快搭起论文框架。

(五)修改初稿

修改初稿是提高认识和提高论文质量,以便更好地完成科研任务的一个重要程序。修改初稿的步骤为:1.通读初稿,以找出存在的问题和缺点;2.修改与调整结构;3.进行内容上的修改、补充与调整;4.进行语言修饰,逐一审读和修饰论文内容的段落、句子、字、词和数码等,以使其符合相应论文规范的要求。

(六)论文定稿

编写的初稿在按照拟定提纲的要求反复修改、补充与校核对后方可定稿。作者判断定稿的标准,是论文的观点(中心论点、基本观点和具体论点)正确,论据(理论和实践依据)合理,结构(文章体系)严谨,文字通顺,资料真实。论文定稿后,还要认真做好誊正、校对和署名等技术性工作。

三、会计专业论文的主体学术要素

根据国家标准委员会发布的《中华人民共和国国家标准——科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式》(GB 7713—87)的要求,一般的会计专业论文应当具有如下十项基本的学术要素。

(一)标题与署名

论文标题是论文内容的高度概括,它的一般要求是概括全文、吸引读者、便于检索、意明简短(20个字以内)、避免空洞、少用问题型标题。在特殊情况下,可以用以下两种方式:一是分段标题的方式,如“会计诚信:永恒理念下的沉重话题”、“会计信息·会计意识·会计环境”和“无形资产保护:类型·层次·目标”等。二是主副标题的方式,如“论我国会计科学研究学术规范的建设与运用问题——基于100篇会计学研究生学位论文学术规范遵循情况调查结果的分析与思考”。论文作者的中文署名置于中文标题下一行。作者姓名的译名署名置于外(英)文标题下一行,中文译名一般用汉语拼音:姓前名后,中间为半角逗号并空格(即“, ”);姓氏的第一个字母大写,复姓连写;名字的首字母大写,双名中间空一格;名字不缩写;斜体。如:Zhang, Ying(张颖);Wang, Xi lian(王锡联);Zhuge, Hua(诸葛华)。

(二)摘要

摘要是论文内容的简要陈述,它要尽量反映论文的主要信息,应当包括研究意义、目的、方法、成果和重要结论,以及论文内容中最重要的部分,以供读者了解论文全貌并吸引其通读全文。摘要具有相对的独立性和完整性,其间不应含图表和注释。若论文摘要中需分层次表述内容时,一般应采用文字表达的方式,而不宜使用数字表达的方式。论文的中文摘要字数一般控制为按照论文总字数的5%,即200~800字。摘要放在论文之前,但其撰写应当是在论文完成之后。注意在摘要中要适当地运用一些过渡性和串连性语言,以避免句子的结构过于呆板。外文摘要项的英文标示词用“Abstract”,其摘要内容应当与中文基本一致。

(三)关键词

关键词是反映论文主题内容的名词,是供文献检索使用的重要信息。关键词的词条应为通用词汇,一般要求使用《世界汉语主题词表》中所罗列的专有名词,不得自造关键词。关键词一般为3~5个,每个关键词为2~6个字,按其外延层次(学科目录分类)由高至低顺序排列。中文“关键词”应当排在“摘要”正文下一自然段,每个关键词间用分号“;”分隔。外文关键词排在外文摘要正文下一自然段,且与中文关键词严格一致。英文关键词用“Key words”,后接英文状态下的冒号“:”,其间用英文状态下的分号“;”分隔。第一个关键词的第一个字母可大写。

(四)目录

目录是论文内容的主要线索,它的功能是为了帮助阅读者极快地了解论文的主体结构。一般论文不需要目录,但是较长的论文在必要时可以考虑加一个目录。按照现在学士以上学位论文的篇幅要求,需要增加一个目录。目录内容应当层次清晰,并与正文题序层次、标题内容与所处论文的页序完全一致。主要包括引论(或导论、绪论)、正文主体(一般只到二级标题,即条次与款次)、结语(或结论)、主要参考文献、附录和后记等项。若论文中专设目录时,目录应单设一页。目录下各项内容应标明与论文正文中相应内容相互对应的页序,标题与页序之间的空格应当用中圆点填充。

(五)正文

论文正文部分包括引论(或导论、绪论)、论文主体及结语(或结论)三个主要部分,各部分的基本要求如下:

1. 引论(引言)。论文的引论部分主要说明论文选题的目的和意义、国内外相关文献的简要评述,以及论文所拟研究的主要内容。“引论”可作为一个单独条(如“一、”)次排列,但在标题前不加题序。一般情况下,论文应当有“引论”项,但其内容不宜分设款(如“(一)”)和目(如“1.”)来表达作者观点,但可用文字表达必须的层次。如果引论内容不长,也可不列“引论”字样作为标题,只用一个自然段综合表达即可。引论的内容一般包括:研究目的和背景;前人已取得的成果,尚未解决的问题,目前研究态势;研究的理论意义、政策意义与现实意义。引言要开门见山,言简意赅并揭示主题;不要云遮雾障,不见天日,难见主题;避免自我吹嘘,贬低别人。

2. 本论。它亦称正文,是论文的主体与主干,是论文的主要组成部分,要求紧扣主题,层次清楚,逻辑性强,文字简练,表达通顺,标点符号使用得当,文法规范,图表规范、整洁、美观,引注准确,重点突出。在本论写作中,要依据拟定的提纲和搜集的资料,围绕主题和论点安排材料,按照提出问题——分析问题——解决问题的思维方式,进行充分的论证,表明所取得的研究成果。本论一般有三种结构:一是并列式,即各个大层次(大标题)之间,在论述问题的若干方面为并列、平行关系;二是递进式,即各个大层次(大标题)之间,在对所论述的问题呈层层递进、步步深入的递进关系;三是总分结合式,即各个大层次(大标题)之间,对所论述的问题,先总体论述、后作分别论述的总——分结合式,或先作分别论述、后作综合论述的分——总结合式。由于本论内容丰富,若篇幅较长时,可以采用多层结构,内部划分若干部分,再列明几级标题(大标题、小标题)或用层次级别顺序号来表示;内容简单,篇幅较小时,也可以采用一层结构,只划分大的部分,仅列明大标题,或用一级顺序号来表示即可。

3. 结语。对于内容丰富、篇幅较长的学术论文,可以在本论之后写结语。它是整个论文的总结,应以简练的文字说明论文所做的工作以及所得到的主要结论,也可涉及论文存在的研究局限和需要进一步研究的问题等。结论是论文创造性研究的结晶与精华,要以严肃的态度,准确的文字和适当的词语来如实表达。结语一般不宜过长。它可以作为一个单独条次排列,但在标题前不加题序。如果结语内容不长,也可不加“结语”字样,而只是在正文后另起自然段写出结语类的文字即可(如:综上所述……),但宜在段前空一行。对于一般性篇幅不长的学术论文,可以不写结论,仅视与前言和本论的需要相衔接而写相应的结尾。

(六)注释

在学术论文写作中,注释项目作为一种文化现象的历史源远流长,它体现了对他人研究成果的一种尊重与知识产权保护意识。早在我国古代,对典籍的注释就曾采用了注、解、传、笺、疏、章、句等多种形式,在现代学术论著中的注释项虽然已经相对简化,却仍然是论著文本的一个重要附属部分。论文中在运用注释方式时,要注意如下问题:

1. 注释范围。论文中的注释主要用于以下三个方面:一是直接引文注释,即文中引用他人原话和相关资料所载数据时对出处的交待;二是间接引用注释,即文中吸收他人观点时对出处的交待;三是内容说明注释,即对文中需要补充说明而在正文中又不便详细阐述的其他问题所做出的解释。一般情况下,不能采用转引方式。

2. 注释形式。注释的形式有三种:一是脚注(置于每页页脚,可每页重新编序号或者全文总编序号);二是尾注(置于全文末尾,全文总编序号);三是旁注(用括号说明前面的某一内容)。但现代论文中的注释一般采用随文加注,并多以脚注形式标注。

3. 注释序号。注释序号一般以带圈的数字用上标编号,如“XXXXX①,……”(提倡用word软件的“插入”——“脚注”中的自动编码功能)。注释的序号每页从“①”起重新编号,且不宜直接置于单列一行的条、款、项、目上,也不宜直接置于相关表格名、插图名以及公式之后,而应当置于相应的导入性文字中。除直接引注外,注释序号一般宜插于文尾的标点符号内。

4. 注释格式。注释的内容用小五号宋体(即通用word软件的默认标准)。注释中凡是涉及引用相关文献时,其标示内容及格式规范与后述参考文献的要求相同。

(七)主要参考文献

在论文篇后附参考文献,表明作者在研究过程中参阅其他资料情况,表明学术界对该论文题目的研究情况,为他人继续研究提供线索。论文中的参考文献项,需要注意以下问题:

1. 涉及范围。主要参考文献是指与论文内容有密切关系,且在写作中部分参考或者借鉴了他人文献的观点和材料时,为了对其成果表示尊重,同时也为了指明主要资料出处并便于检索而列出的一项论文要素。其范围不仅包括注释中已涉及的文献,还可包括论文写作过程所涉及的其它文献。但不能列示阅读或者是与其没有多大关系的文献,因此,要避免出现列示参考文献时的充门面等不正常现象。

2. 列示数量。主要参考文献应当列于文末,可另起页。一般情况下,论文后附主要参考文献的列示数量应当没有规定限额。但有时有些学位论文的学术规范要求有一定的数量。如,有的学校现行本科学士学位论文的参考文献就要求不少于15项(其中至少应包括3部以上的著作,还应当至少包括2项以上的外文文献)。

3. 列示顺序。主要参考文献列示顺序一般为中文在前,外文在后。中文文献按第一作者姓氏的拼音增序排列,外文文献按第一作者名的字母增序排列,第一作者相同的文献则按发表时间增序排列。

4. 列示格式。主要参考文献的字号一般小于正文半号字体。各条参考文献首行缩进两个字符后列序号(如果没有特殊要求,也不必列示序号),序号一般在方括号(即“[ X ]”)内列示,括号后空一格,再接相应的文献信息。一项文献的信息列示超过一行时,宜采用“悬挂缩进”格式。中文文献各要素之间的小圆点宜用全角状态下的圆点符号(即“.”),外文文献中的论题宜用斜体标示。著作类文献凡属第1版时则不必标明版次信息。

5. 著者列示。主要参考文献的主要责任者列示方法为:中文著者先姓后名,外(英)文著者先名后姓。列示时不须标明编著形式(如:“张光明著”只标“张光明”,但译者需要注明,并用逗号“,”分隔,如:“李有明,译”)。一项文献涉及多个责任者时,应分别处理:外文著者只需标注第一个著者的姓名,空一格后附“etc.”;中国著者应标注至第一、二、三著者的姓名,三位以后的著者则以“等”字省略,各作者姓名之间以及所列示的最后一位作者姓名与“等”字之间均用逗号“,”分隔。

6. 列示格式。主要参考文献一般可分论著图书类、译著图书类、学术刊物类、学术会议类、学位论文类、报纸、在线文献和其他文献等不同类型,不同类型的文献主要项目均包括作者、文献名、文献类型及载体类型标识(如期刊类为“[J]”)、版(期)次(第1 版不必标注)、出版地、出版者、出版年和引用部分起止页等基本信息,但据文献特点在列示方式上有所差异。除此之外,在论文写作中,若还涉及到科技报告和专利等其他类型的文献时,可以根据需要自行参考国家标准管理委员会2005年10月1日发布的中华人民共和国国家标准——《文后参考文献著录规则》(GB/T7714-2005)的要求作相应处理。

(八)附录

附录为论文的非必选项,它的主要内容可包括放在正文内显得过于冗长的公式推导、复杂的数据图表、论文使用的专门符号内涵释义、计量单位缩写表、专有名词缩写表和检索表,以及软件程序的有关说明等。若无需要,也可不单列此项。附录应另起一页。附录编序前应当冠以“附录”两字(如:“附录一”、“附录X”)。

(九)后记

后记为非必选项,它的主要内容可以是作者对论文过程的记录与写作感悟,也可以是对给予指导或协助完成论文工作的组织与个人表示感谢。后记文字要简洁、得体、实事求是,切忌浮夸和庸俗之词。后记应另起页。后记内容的版面要求与正文相同,文内顺序宜用文字表达。

(十)鸣谢

论文中的鸣谢部分主要体现三层意思:一是对论文写作过程支持者和指导者的感谢,如国家自然科学基金课题立项资助的感谢等;二是对论文写作中所引用或者参考文献作者的感谢;三是对论文编辑与发表过程匿名审稿者和编辑的感谢。在表达方式上,有文题“鸣谢”方式和文末 “鸣谢”方式。文题“鸣谢”一般用“*”脚注方式;文末“鸣谢”有的单列,也有与“后记”结合在一起。论文中是否有该项,由作者自行决定。若从学术礼节的角度,一般宜有此项内容。

四、会计专业论文的主要表达规范

(一)行文

1. 用字规范。论文中所用汉字必须使用国家语言文字工作委员会公布的规范汉字,在文本状态下,所有文字必须字面清晰,若必须更改,要使用国家新闻出版总署规定的标准校对符号,不能随意涂抹。

2. 段首规范。论文的每一自然段、每一层次单行列示的题序和标题前均按汉字书写习惯缩进(即首行缩进两个字符,专门规定“居中”的除外),而不宜按英文格式悬挂缩进。一般情况下,英文文字的首段左边应顶格,但从第二自然段开始左边需空两个半角字符。

3. 字符规范。论文中所有中文表述内的标点符号应当统一用全角状态下的字符;论文中所有英文大、小写与标点符号一般宜用“新罗马体(Times New Roman)”半角字符。而所有英文间的标点符号则统一用半角字符,但均应在标点符号后加一空格。论文中凡是涉及阿拉伯数字的宜用半角字符(如12345),而不宜用全角字符(如12345)。

4. 避免背题。论文中凡是单列一行的各级标题均不得背题(即标题出现在某页的最后一行,内容在次页),必要时应强制使用相关软件中另起一页的排版功能。

(二)正文文本

论文中除“引论(或导论、绪论)”部分和“结语(或结论)”部分不需列出题序外,其他表明论文层级的内容应当统一由题序数字和标题表明相应的层次。正文的标题序号一般可用中文(一级标题与二级标题)和阿拉伯数字(三级标题与四级标题)混合标示(或者仅用阿拉伯数字)。在格式上有文科格式和理科格式两种,不论采用哪种格式,均需要注重全文的规范性与统一性。论文中的级次,一般宜以四级为宜。若无特别需要,文中不宜用特殊符号来标示论文的各级层次(如:“●”和“■”等)。除章节之外的论文层级的具体要求如下:

1. 条次格式。条次是正文的第一层次,在标题前以“一、”、“二、”等表示题序。如第一条则标示为:“一、XXXXXXX”。题序和标题占一行,一般居中,题序和标题之间用顿号间隔(而非下圆点“.”),结尾处无标点符号。

2. 款次格式。款次是正文的第二层次,在标题前以“(一)”、“(二)”等表示题序。如第一条第一款则标示为 :“(一)XXXXXXX”。题序和标题占一行,行首空两格,题序和标题之间不加标点,结尾处无标点符号。特殊情况下,可接着“(一)XXXXXXX”后空一格,要接着叙述内容亦可。

3. 项次格式。项次是正文的第三层次,在标题前以“1.”、“2.”等表示题序。如第一条第一款第一项则标示为:“1.XXXXXXX”。题序和标题占一行,题序和标题之间用下圆点(用英文全角“.”)间隔(而非顿号“、”),结尾处无标点符号。

4. 目次格式。目次是正文的第四层次,在标题前以“(1)”、“(2)”等表示题序。如第一条第一款第一项第一目则标示为:“(1)XXXXXXX”。题序和标题占一行,行首空两格,题序和标题之间不加标点,结尾处无标点符号。若题序和标题不单独占一行时,则在标题后加句号,后面接着叙述内容即可。

5. 其他格式。当条、款和项次下不单设层次时,也可在正文的同一段落中用“(1)…………;(2)…………;(3)…………。”等的行文方式列举事项,显示层次。但若在条(或款、项)次下不设单列的层级(或者在目次下还要分层次)时,可在正文的同一段落(或者分段)中采用文字顺序词,如 “一是…………;二是…………;三是…………。”等类似的行文方式。若在文中使用“首先”、“其次”或“第一”、“第二”或“其一”、“其二”等顺序词时,其后不能使用顿号:“、”,而必须使用逗号:“,”,且其编序一般以五号为宜。

(三)表格

表格是会计专业论文写作中必须运用的一种专门技术。在论文中凡涉及表格运用时,应当满足六方面的基本要求:

1. 表格编序。论文中的表格应当统一编序(如:表1;若论文分章的情况下,则分章编序,即“表章序——表序”,下同),采用方式应与插图和公式的编序方式统一。表序用阿拉伯数字,且必须连续,不得重复或跳跃。每个表格应拟表名,如“XXXXXX表”。

2. 表格导入。论文中凡导入表格时,均应使用类似“见表X所示”的导入语,不宜用“见下表所示”。表格导入语不宜直接用于论文各层级的标题中,如:“1.XXXXXX(详见表1)”。

3. 表序表题。表序和表题间空两格,置于表格上方,居中,标为“表XXXXXXXX表”。

4. 表格设计。表格形式全文应当统一,可选用上下有线而左右无线的开口式表格、四边有线的封闭式表格或三线式表格等,设计上应当尽量简洁且排列整齐美观(如表内出现换行时,即可考虑取消页面设置定义的“间距”限制)。表格中各栏都应标注相应的计量单位,或者在表头靠右边注明相应的主要计量单位(如“计量单位:元”),右缩进两格。

5. 表内内容。表内文字或数字须上下对齐,相邻栏内的数值相同时,不能用“同上”、“同左”或其他类似用词,应一一重新填注。表格内各项目栏内容(或数据)的字号可根据需要适当调小(宜用小于正文半个字号),但全表的字号应当统一。一般情况下,表内数据来源的交待用注释形式提供即可,若有特别需要时,也可于表底另设一段专列“资料来源:”项(首行缩进,小于正文半号楷体,内容转行时则悬挂缩进两个空格)。一般情况下,表序、表题、表格与表底所附必须的“资料来源”项最好同页,若表格实在需要分页时,表格标题行应当重复。

6. 表格运用。论文中凡运用表格数据时,均应使用“见表X所示”的使用语,不宜用“见上表所示”。

(四)插图

图示是表达论文观点的一种重要形式,它在会计专业论文写作中必不可少。论文中凡涉及图的运用时,应当满足四个基本要求:

1. 插图编序。论文中的插图要精选。图序方式应与表格和公式的编序方式统一。图序统一用阿拉伯数字(如:图1;若论文分章的情况下,则分章编序,即“图章序——图序”,下同)且必须连续,不得重复或跳跃。若全文仅有一个插图时,亦可在图题前加“附图”字样。论文中的插图以及图中文字符号要绘制清晰。

2. 插图导入。论文中凡导入插图时,均应使用类似“见图X所示”的导入语,不宜用“见下图所示”。插图导入语不宜直接用于论文各层级标题中,如:“3.XXXXXX(详见图1)”。

3. 图序图名。插图的结构设计上应简洁且排列美观,线条之间的关系清楚(选用箭头)并尽量减少交叉。图序和图题置于插图下方,标为“图XXXXXXXX图”,居中。若某插图由若干个分图所组成,则各分图用“图Xa”、“图Xb”、“图Xc”……标出。插图内有关文字的字号可据需要适当调整。一般情况下,插图来源的交待用注释形式提供即可,若有特别需要时,也可于图序和图题下另设一段专列“资料来源:”项以及“图标说明项”(首行缩进,小半号楷体)。插图、图序、图名及必须的“资料来源”和“图标说明项”必须排于同一页内。

4. 插图运用。凡在论文中运用插图资料时,均应使用“见图X所示”的使用语,不宜用“见上图所示”。

(五)公式

公式也是会计专业论文写作中经常遇到的问题之一。在论文中凡涉及公式运用时,应当满足五个方面的基本要求:

1. 公式编序。论文中的公式应标注序号并加圆括号,序号一律用阿拉伯数字连续编序,编序方式与表格和插图统一,如:“(式1;若论文分章的情况下,则分章编序,即“式章序——式序”,下同)”。公式的序号“(式X)”排在公式版面内容居中并靠右侧,且全文所有公式的右边页距应当相等(可统一右缩进两个字符处理)。

2. 公式导入。论文中凡导入公式时,均应使用类似“见式X所示”的导入语,不宜用“见下式所示”。公式导入语不宜直接用于论文各层级标题中,如:“3.XXXXXX(详见式1)”。

3. 公式格式。公式格式编排时,凡是数学类公式均应使用word软件或其它软件中附带的“公式编辑器”进行编辑,文本类公式亦可采用其它方法编辑。公式主体应当单列一行,居中,具体公式与表示序号的“(式X)”之间不需要加虚线连接。

4. 公式运用。论文中凡是运用公式时,或者是对公式的某值内涵进行解释时,均应采用“式X中”的使用语,而不宜用“见上式”、 “上式中”、“(式X)中”和“式(X)中”。

(六)数字

1. 年代标示。公历世纪、年代、年、月、日和时间均应采用阿拉伯数字,如“2000年”、“2007-03-18”和“20世纪50年代”等,但模糊的年代数可用汉字表示,如“二十世纪五六十年代”等。避免使用“本世纪”和“上世纪”,可用“下世纪”。公历年份不能简写,如“2000年”不能写成“00年”。

2. 数值标示。各种计数、计量以及确切的数字均采用阿拉伯数字,如“10位专家”和“30个项目”等,但模糊的数字须使用汉字,如“十多位专家”和“三四十个项目”等。数值的有效数字应全部写出,如“5%~8%”不能写成“5~8%”等。

3. 数码标示。数码千分位使用空格(国际标准),不宜使用逗号(美国标准),如“123456元”应写为“123 456元”,不宜写成“123,456元”。负数一律写成“-123”(负号用宋体)。两组以上的阿拉伯数字组之间如果没有计量单位,就不宜直接使用顿号,必须用逗号连接,如“三种产品的产量分别为200,250和300件”,但如果有计量单位时,则可使用顿号,如“三种产品的产量分别为200台、250套和300件”。

4. 数区标示。数字和时间的区间不得使用连字符“-”或一字线“—”,而应使用“标点符号”中的波浪线“~”。如:“x的取值范围为0~30”不能写成“x的取值范围为0—30”,“论文写作时间为2001年11月28日~2002年5月28日”不能写成“论文写作时间为2001年11月28日—2002年5月28日”。但若仅表示年份区间可用连字符“-”(如:“2005-2006”)。参考文献页码的区间范围用英文状态下的连字符“-”表示,而不用中文中的一字线“—”与波浪线“~”。

5. 其他标示。其他特殊要素的标示方法按原国家技术监督局1995年12月13日发布的中华人民共和国国家标准——《出版物数字用法的规定》(GB/T 15835-1995)的要求执行。

(七)软件

软件设计中的流程图和源程序清单,一般应当按软件文档格式作为“附件”在论文后列出,不列入论文内。特殊情况下不便列出时,可另外展示。

(八)其他

1. 规范用词。行文时要注意:区分“必须”与“必需”等类似的近似词组;区别“帐”与“账”等类似相形字使用时的微妙差别;统一使用“其他”、“人才”和“惟一”等词组,不得使用“其它”、“人材”和“唯一”)。具体用法可参照中华人民共和国国家语言文字工作委员会2001年12月19日发布的《第一批异形词整理表》(2002年3月31日起试行)的要求。

2. 标点符号。标点符号的使用方法按原国家技术监督局1995年12月13日发布的中华人民共和国国家标准——《标点符号用法》(GB/T15834-1995)执行。

3. 计量单位。计量单位的定义和使用方法按中华人民共和国国务院1984年2月27日发布的《中华人民共和国法定计量单位》及国家计量局的有关具体规定执行。

4. 英文简称。论文中有关国际性组织的专有名词英文缩写首次出现时,要用中文写出全称,并在括号内注明英文全称及简写的英文大写字母符号组合,后文才能用英文简称。例如:“2001年,中国加入世界贸易组织(World Trade Organization,简称WTO)后……。根据WTO规则要求……”。

5. 英文人名。注意区别外国人名中的分隔符(如马克·吐温)与英语中的缩写符(如A. C. Littleton)使用上的区别。如:卢卡·帕乔利(Luca Pacioli)、罗伯特·S. 卡普兰(Robert S. Kaplan)。

6. 其他事项。其他未涉及的论文写作中的有关事项,可参照原国家技术监督局1987年发布的GB/7713-1987——《科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式》执行。●

【主要参考文献】

[1] 教育部社会科学委员会. 高等学校哲学社会科学研究学术规范(试行). 2004.

[2] 王力,等. 怎样写学术论文. 北京大学出版社,1981. P1-10.

[3] 许家林.毕业论文的基本要素与规范. 中南财经政法大学学报, 2004. 第154-157期.

[4] 许家林.会计学专业研究生学位论文学术规范遵循情况研究.学位与研究生教育,2005,5:4-11.

[5] 许家林. 中国大陆17所高校100篇学位论文调查结果的分析与思考. 载:中南财经政法大学会计学院编.会计·审计·财务管理前沿问题研究——第八届海峡两岸会计与管理学术研讨会论文集.北京:中国财政经济出版社,2005.526-563.

[6] 许家林. 论本科生论文写作训练的几个基本问题. 财经政法资讯, 2005,2:3-14.

[7] 于玉林. 现代会计方法学. 上海:立信会计出版社,1997.P87-254.

[8] 于玉林. 新编会计操作方法全书. 沈阳:辽宁人民出版社,1994. 1307-1320.

[9] 赵德馨,周秀鸾.社会科学研究工作程序. 北京:中国财政经济出版社,1987. P4.

[10] 中华人民共和国国家标准局. GB7713-87:科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式. 1987.

[11] 中华人民共和国国家技术监督局. GB/T 15835-1995:出版物数字用法的规定. 1995.

[12] 中华人民共和国国家技术监督局. GB/T15834-1995:标点符号用法. 1995.

[13] 中华人民共和国国家质量监督检验检疫总局,中国国家标准化管理委员会. 国家标准GB7714-2005:文后参考文献著录规则. 2005.

[14] 中华人民共和国国务院. 中华人民共和国法定计量单位使用方法. 1984.

[15] 中华人民共和国著作权法.2008-01-29.

[16] 中南财经政法大学教务处. 中南财经政法大学本科生毕业论文(设计)撰写规范(试行),2008-01-29.

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篇10:初中英语说明文写作要点

全文共 1976 字

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说明文是阐述事物的特征、本质、性能、结构、用途或科学原理的一种文体。其说明的对象可以是具体的,如:自然环境,仪表设备等;也可以是抽象的,如概念定律等。以下是小编整理的初中英语说明文写作要点,欢迎阅读!

说明文的写作相对于论说文来说,有一定的套路可循,因此不是十分复杂。说明科技方面的内容常用定义法、比较对比法、分类法、因果法等;说明自然环境方面的内容常用时间次序法、分类法等。当然,随着对象的不同,具体应该采用的方法也会有所不同。

说明文的写作应该注意的事项有下面几点:

1.语言简明扼要,通俗易懂,避免夸张华丽的辞藻,要把真实的一面展现在读者面前。

2.说明时一定要把握一个中心主题。说明文中细枝末节较多,但不能喧宾夺主。

3.说明的次序非常重要。合理的次序会使文章条理清楚,脉络明晰。因此,练习时可以尝试不同的次序进行写作,找出最合理的一种。

4.由于说明文写实性较强,有时难免会让人感到没有生气。因此,可以适当使用一些比喻、拟人等修辞手段,来增加文章的色彩。

下面是一篇说明一所医院布局的文章。文章虽短,但需要说明的内容却达11处之多。平均一句话就要描写一处,如果组织得不好,便会给人凌乱的感觉。

为了避免这一点,文章把整个布局图分三部分来写:

贯彻医院的是main road,第一部分以大门为参照物,介绍了靠大门且通过main road东西相对的急诊楼和门诊楼。

第二部分以湖为参照物,中心线还是main road,介绍其他分诊楼、实验室、放射室等。

第三部分写main road尽头的建筑物。

这样,繁多的细节显得井井有条。因此,选择好主线及参照物是决定文章成功的关键。

Directions:For this part,you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition about“THE LAYOUT OF A HOSPITAL”. Locate some important departments in the hospital based on the information given below.Your composition should be no less than 120 words.

(1)the Emergency Department

(2)the Out-patient Department

(3)the Surgery Department

(4)the Dispensary

(5)the Physician Department

(6)the Eye,Ear,and Throat Department

(7)the Dental Department

(8)the Laboratory

(9)the X-ray Department

(10)the Administrative Building

(11)the Ward

例文:

The Layout of a Hospital Near the gate,on the westside of the road is the Emergency Department. Opposite the Emergency Department across the Main Road is the Out-patient Department. The building to the southwest of the lake is the Dispensary,which face the Surgery Department lying on the other side of the road.Along the west wall,from south to north,stand three buildings:the Physician Department,the Eye,Ear,and Throat Department,and the Dental Department.

The Laboratory is to the northwest of the round about,and beside the Laboratory,the X-ray Department is located on the same side of the road. A winding road by the lake leads to the Ward.

Near the end of the Main Road,the Administrative Building is situated on the east side.The hospital is nicely and conveniently laid out.

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篇11:第一节基础写作

全文共 216 字

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你接受了一项写作任务,为英语校报写一篇科技报道。

写作内容:

请根据以下信息,介绍国外医疗行业出现的一项新技术,内容包括:

技术名称:DNA检测

检测方法:唾液样本分析

检测费用:125英镑

检测时长:4到6周

检测用途:1、预测重大疾病

2、预知食物偏好

3、提示合适的锻炼方式

检测影响:1、增强健康意识

2、易引起过度焦虑

唾液样本:saliva sample

写作要求:只能用5个句子表达全部内容。

评分标准:句子结构准备,信息内容完整,篇章结构连贯。

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篇12:英语写作素材之名言警句

全文共 844 字

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导语:写英语作文的时候运用名言警句或者谚语会给人眼前一亮的感觉,下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的英语写作素材,欢迎阅读与借鉴,谢谢!

01. Practice makes perfect. 熟能生巧.

02. Time is money. 时间就是金钱

03. Easier said than done. 说来容易做来难

04. Where there is a will, there is a way. 有志者事竟成.

05. Look before you leap. 三思而后行.

06. Knowledge is power. 知识就是力量

07. God helps those who help themselves. 自助者天助.

08. Nothing is impossible to a willing heart. 心之所愿,无事不成

09. Its never too old to learn. 活到老,学到老

10. No pains, no gains. 不劳无获

11. Once in a blue moon. 千载难逢

12. To make the impossible possible. 将不可能变为可能

13. Failure is the mother of success. 失败乃成功之母

14. A friend in need is a friend indeed. 患难见真情

15. First things first. 先做重要之事

16. Great minds think alike. 英雄所见略同

17. Rome was not built in a day. 成功并非一朝一夕的事

18. All that glitters is not gold. 闪光的未必都是金子

19. East or west, home is the best. 金窝银窝不如自家草窝

20. Time and tide wait for no man. 时间不等人

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篇13:读后感的写作基础知识

全文共 1766 字

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一、读后感的概念

读后感的概念有两重含义:一是真实的、不受任何约束的读后感,二是一种作文的体裁,考试时要接受各种条件的约束。下面这篇读后感,就接近于第一种读后感。写这种读后感,主要是给自己看的,一定要真实,有什么感想(当然感想应当有意义,值得一写)就写什么感想,与心得笔记不同,它要展开来写,尽量像一篇文章,尽量写得生动、实在、深刻。一般应当写清楚读了什么,有什么感想,联想到了什么,对自己有什么作用等。它不追求文体、格式框框,写起来也可长可短。

二、读后感的写法

写读后感最重要的一点是要读出所读书籍或者文章的“眼睛”,它是你展开来写的基础、中心和出发点,这个问题我们已经在上一讲里说过了,这里就不多讲了。其次,写读后感,有它一定的规矩,有的书上把它归纳为“引、议、联、结”,四个字,想公式一样。对于这些规矩我们不可以不学,考试时只要内容有创意,套用这种公式未尝不可;但我们也不要受其所限,写成千篇一律的“八股文”,也可尝试在结构上有自己的创意,有自己的个性。但不管怎样,读后感也离不开“读”——对原文的引述、概括、评价等等,离不开“感”——自己的感想。只要把这两个字表达好了,就是好的读后感。

三、写读后感的基本技巧

在读过一篇文章或一本书之后,把获得的感受、体会以及受到的教育、启迪等写下来,写成的文章就叫“读后感”。

读后感的基本思路

(1)简述原文有关内容。如所读书、文的篇名、作者、写作年代,以及原书或原文的内容概要。写这部分内容是为了交代感想从何而来,并为后文的议论作好铺垫。这部分一定要突出一个“简”字,决不能大段大段地叙述所读书、文的具体内容,而是要简述与感想有直接关系的部分,略去与感想无关的东西。

(2)亮明基本观点。选择感受最深的一点,用一个简洁的句子明确表述出来。这样的句子可称为“观点句”。这个观点句表述的,就是这篇文章的中心论点。“观点句”在文中的位置是可以灵活的,可以在篇首,也可以在篇末或篇中。初学写作的同学,最好采用开门见山的方法,把观点写在篇首。

(3)围绕基本观点摆事实讲道理。这部分就是议论文的本论部分,是对基本观点(即中心论点)的阐述,通过摆事实讲道理证明观点的正确性,使论点更加突出、更有说服力。这个过程应注意的是,所摆事实、所讲道理都必须紧紧围绕基本观点,为基本观点服务。

(4)围绕基本观点联系实际。一篇好的读后感应当有时代气息,有真情实感。要做到这一点,必须善于联系实际。这“实际”可以是个人的思想、言行、经历,也可以是某种社会现象。联系实际时也应当注意紧紧围绕基本观点,为观点服务,而不能盲目联系、前后脱节。

以上四点是写读后感的基本思路,但是这思路不是一成不变的,要善于灵活掌握。比如,“简述原文”一般在“亮明观点”前,但二者先后次序互换也是可以的。再者,如果在第三个步骤摆事实讲道理时所摆的事实就是社会现象或个人经历,就不必再写第四个部分了。

四、写读后感应注意的问题

第一是要重视“读”

在“读”与“感”的关系中,“读”是“感”的前提、基础;“感”是“读”的延伸或者说结果。必须先“读”而后“感”,不“读”则无“感”。因此,要写读后感首先要读懂原文,要准确把握原文的基本内容,正确理解原文的中心思想和关键语句的含义,深入体会作者的写作目的和文中表达的思想感情。

第二是要准确选择感受点

读完一本书或一篇文章,会有许多感想和体会;对同样一本书或一篇文章,不同的人从不同的角度思考问题,更是会产生不同的看法、受到不同的启迪。以大家熟知的“滥竽充数”成语故事为例,从讽刺南郭先生的角度去思考,可以领悟到没有真本领蒙混过日子的人早晚要“露馅”,认识到掌握真才实学的重要性;若是考虑在齐宣王时南郭先生能混下去的原因,就可以想到领导者要有实事求是的领导作风,不能搞华而不实,否则会给混水摸鱼的人留下空子可钻;再要从管理体制的角度去思考,就可进一步认识到齐宣王的“大锅饭”缺少必要的考评机制,为南郭先生一类的人提供了饱食终日混日子的客观条件,从而联想到改革开放以来,打破“铁饭碗”,废除大锅饭的必要性。

一篇读后感,不能写出诸多的感想或体会,这就要加以选择。作为初学者,就要选择自己感受最深又觉得有话可说的一点来写。要注意把握分析问题的角度,注意联系自己的实际情况,从众多的头绪中选择最恰当的感受点,作为全文议论的中心。

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篇14:高一英语写作练习

全文共 1997 字

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写作练习:旅游活动(中段考范文)

【单元财富运用】

假定你是李华,上周末和家人开车去大角湾度假。请你根据以下要点,给你的美国朋友Tom介绍你的旅游经历。

1. 出发时间:周六早上7点;

2. 准备物品:零食、衣服、相机等;

3. 旅游活动:游泳,欣赏海水、海滩、日出和日落等美景,吃海鲜,买纪念品;

4. 你的感受。

【注意】:1. 词数100;

2. 开头已给出,但不计入总词数;

3. 可以适当增加节,以使行文连贯。

Last weekend my family and I went to Dajiaowan Gulf for a holiday.______________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

步骤1:认真审题,提炼要点。

一定体裁:记叙文,记叙一次旅游活动

二定时态:旅游发生在过去,因此描述旅游前的准备和过程都应该采用一般过去

时;而感想则可以用一般现在时或现在完成时。

三定要点:结合写作内容,整理和罗列要点。

表达旅游活动的常用词汇:

步骤2:整合信息,连词成句。

1. 星期六早上7点开车出发。

_____________________________________________________________________

2. 准备好零食、衣服、相机等。

__________________________________________________________________

3. 在海滩游泳,欣赏海水日出和日落等美景。

__________________________________________________________________

4. 吃海鲜,买纪念品;

___________________________________________________________________

5. 谈感受。

___________________________________________________________________

步骤3:连句成段,用上适当的关联词。

not only…but also…, where, what’s more /besides / in addition, then, because…..

【我的作文】

Last weekend my family and I went to Dajiaowan Gulf for a holiday.______________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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篇15:新闻写作基础知识精选

全文共 2649 字

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一、新闻定义

什么是新闻?不同的文化背景,不同的意识形态,就有不同的回答。

在美国,麦尔文•曼切尔著的《新闻报道与写作》一书,引述了过去和现在新闻学家对新闻的一些解释。例如:

达纳在1869年至1897年主管过《纽约太阳报》,他说,新闻是“社会上大多数人感兴趣,而且在此以前从未对它注意过的那些事情。”

达纳的一个编辑提出了一个经典性的新闻概念:“狗咬人,不是新闻;人咬狗,才是新闻。”(注:这是达纳1882年办《纽约太阳报》时,他属下的采访主任约翰•b•博加特对一个青年记者说的。)

另外一个新闻的典型概念是斯坦利•瓦利克尔提出来的。他是本世纪三十年代初期《纽约先驱论坛报》的采编主任。他说,新闻是建立在三个“w”的基础上:“妇女(women)、金钱(wampun)和坏事(wrongdoing)”。

其实,以上表述并非科学意义的下定义,但他们的观点却集中地代表了西方新闻学的基本立场,即一切反常的、有刺激性的、人们好奇的事才是新闻。这种观点当然有其深厚的人文背景及经济基础,虽然他们对新闻定义的认识已侧重在“读者兴趣”上,但其实质仍不能脱离“利润”的操纵。

在中国,“新闻”这个词最早出现在《新唐书》。《新唐书》记载:初唐神龙年间(公无705年前后),有一个叫孙处玄的文人曾说过:“恨天下无书以广新闻”。孙处玄曾投书当时执政的大臣恒彦范,评论时政得失,未被采纳,他就挂冠而去,可见他是个很关心时事政治的人。这样的人对没有书刊传播新闻(当时印刷术尚未应用于书籍)表示不满,是理所当然的事。孙处玄这句议论竟被载入《新唐书》,说明尽管唐代还未完全具备传播新闻的条件,但人们已意识到需要报道这类新闻的传播工具。“新闻”一词在这里是指“最近消息”。

《现代汉语词典》释“新闻”为:①报纸或广播电台等报道的国内外消息:新闻广播/采访新闻。②指社会上最近发生的新事情。

《辞海》对新闻的解释是:①报社、通讯社、广播电台、电视台等新闻机构对当前政治事件或社会事件所作的报道。要求迅速、及时,真实,言简意明,以事实说话。形式有消息、通讯、特写、记者通信、调查报告、新闻图片、电视新闻等。②指被人当作谈助的新奇事情。如《红楼梦》第一回:“众人当作一件新闻传说。”

1943年9月陆定一提出:“新闻就是新近发生的事实的报道。”

1981年8月中宣部在京召开全国18大城某地的报纸工作座谈会,其会议纪要对新闻定义作了新的诠释:

“新闻反映新发生的、重要的、有意义的、能引起广泛兴趣的事实,具有迅速、明了、简短的特点,是一种最有效的宣传形式。”

定语修饰的限制显然是考虑了“读者兴趣”,同时也顾及到了“社会效果”,这些是对陆定一定义的有效补充,然而其偏颇也是显而易见的。综合上述种种看法,我们不妨把新闻定义小结为:通讯是运用叙述、描写、抒情、议论等多种手法,详细地报道新闻事件或典型人物的一种报道形式。它比消息更详细地报道具有新闻意义的事件、经验或典型人物的一种文体。通讯与消息都是新闻的主要文体,它们的共同点是都要求具有严格的真实性和及时性。不同之处是:

1。选择不同,消息选择广泛,可大可小。通讯要选择含量较大的真实典型材料。

2。表述详略不同,消息的内容表述简单概括。通讯内容表述比较复杂详尽,讲究场面和细节描写。

3。表达方式不同,消息多用叙述,而通讯在叙述的基础上,还要运用描写、议论、抒情手段。

4。结构不同,消息有固定的结构形式。通讯的结构与一般记叙文章相同,某本上按时间、逻辑及二者结合的顺序安排结构。

特点

1。现实性。通讯要求报道新近发生的有意义的事实,新时代涌现出来的新人、新事、新经验,紧密配合当前形势,为现实中心工作服务。

2。形象性。通讯常采用叙述、描写、抒情、议论相结合的手法,要求对人对事进行较为具体形象的描写,人物要具有音容笑貌,事情要有始末情节,以此来感染读者。

3。评论性。通讯一般采取夹叙夹议的手法,直接揭示事件的思想意义,并评说是非,议论色彩较浓,常常表现出强烈的政治倾向和流露出作者的爱憎感情。

分类

1。人物通讯。人物通讯是以报道各方面的先进入物为主的通讯,以表现人物为中心,从不同角度反映人物的事迹和思想,有的写一人一生的,为人物全面立传的;有写一个人的一个或几个侧向的,集中反映人物的某一思想品质;也有写群像的。

2。事件通讯。事件通讯是以记写事件为中心,重点描绘社会生活中带倾向性和典型性的生动事件及具有普遍教育作用的新闻事件。它的特点是以记事为主,交代清楚事件的原委,从而表达某种思想。

3。工作通讯。工作通讯又称经验通讯,是以报道先进工作经验或某项工作的成就和存在的问题为主要内容的通讯。写工作通讯要有针对性,抓住当前带有普遍性的,又需要解决的问题。介绍经验要科学、有理论根据。经验要写得具体,使人看得见,摸得着,学得到。

4。概貌通讯。概貌通讯也叫风貌通讯、上题通讯、综合通讯。它是反映社会生活、风土人情、自然风光和现实中的建设成就为主的报道。这类通讯取材广泛,气势大,笔墨重,给人以完整深刻的印象。

写作

1。选好典型,确立主题。典型是通讯的筋骨,主题是通讯的灵魂。选好典型,确立主题对通讯来说十分重要。选择什么样的典型呢?要选择那些具有代表性、具有普遍意义、具有宣传价值和教育意义的人和事,选择那些在一定时期内人们所关注的问题。确立什么样的主题呢?要确立体现时代精神,表现时代风尚的主题,确立反映人物和事物、本质和规律的主题。

2。写好人物。写好人物是通汛写作的重要任务。不论是人物通讯还是事件通讯,都要把人物写好。写人离不开事,因此,写人必写事、写人物自己所做的事实的事,写能揭示人物内心世界的事。写人物还要用人物自己的语言、行为、活动来表现人物;人物要写得有血有肉,有音容笑貌,有内心活动;写事要具体形象,有原委,有情节。

3。安排好结构。纵式结构,是按时间顺序、事物发展的顺序或作者对报道事物认识发展的顺序来安排结构。在这种结构里,时间发展的顺序、情节展开的顺序、作者认识事物的顺序成为行文的线索。在采用这种结构时,要详略得当,布局巧妙,富有变化,避免平铺直叙;横式结构,是指用?间变换或按照事物性质来安排材料的。这种结构概括面广,要注意不同空间的变换,恰当地安排通讯所涉及的各方面的问题。采用空间变换的方法组织结构时,要用地点的变化组织段落;按事物性质安排结构时,要围绕主题,并列地写出不同的几个侧面;纵横结合式结构,是以时间顺序为经,以空间变化为纬,把两者结合起来运用。采用这种形式,要以时空的变化组织结构。

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篇16:英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

全文共 45713 字

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下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言,考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章,然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分,特别建议你熟读,背诵,因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白,表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累,潜移默化。从某种意义上说,提高英语写作能力无捷径可走,你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关,没有任何人能代替你过。

因此,建议你下点苦功夫,把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况,并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心:你可以这个星期背,下个星期忘。这没有关系,相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后,你会惊讶的发现:I can think in English now!

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

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篇17:小学语文写作的基础知识及技巧

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语文考试内容所占比例在未来的学习中越来越大,那么如何让语文考试锦上添花呢?那就是在作文上花功夫。下面是小编为大家搜集整理出来的有关于小学语文写作基础知识技巧,希望可以帮助到大家!

(一)作文基础知识

1. 审清题意:“五审”:

(1)审清体裁(记叙文、应用文、说明文)。

(2)审清题材(人、物、事、景)。

(3)审清范围(时间、地点、人称、事件、对象具体限制)。

(4)审清主题(中心思想)。

(5)审清其他要求(附加要求)。

2. 确定主题:“四要”:

(1)主题要正确(反应生活实际)。

(2)主题要集中(一个文章不能多个主题)。

(3)主题要鲜明(明确表达自己对事物的态度和立场)。

(4)主题要深刻(深挖内涵思想)。

3. 选择材料:“四要”:

(1)围绕主题选择材料(多写与主题相关的内容)。

(2)选择真实的材料(真实可信,具有代表性和典型性)。

(3)选择新颖的材料(新人新事)。

(4)选择独有的材料(具有创新性)。

4. 编写提纲“五点”:

(1)拟好题目。

(2)确定主题。

(3)段落安排。

(4)每段的主要意思。

(5)重点段落的层次安排和内容。

5. 修改文章“五看”:

(1)是否切题。

(2)主题、思想是否明确、突出。

(3)看材料是否符合主题、内容是否具体、完整。

(4)看语言是否通顺、用词是否准确,有无错别字。

(5)看标点是否正确。

(二)看图作文 “一看二写,四要两注意”

“一看二写”:先看图,再写作文。

“四要”:仔细观察图画;展开合理想象;突出主题、抓住重点;分清主次,具体描写。

“两注意”:看清全画面内容;分清图上内容主次和表达的中心。

(三)记叙文·记事

1. 写清楚事件发生的时间、地点以及事情的发生、发展和结果。

2. 事件经过写具体。

3. 按事件的发展顺序来写。

4. 注意表达真情实感。

(四)记叙文·写人

1. 确定写作对象。

2. 确定人物的思想品质。

3. 选择典型的具体事例。

4. 抓住最能表现人物思想品质的外貌、语言、动作、心理、环境进行描写。

5. 注意表达自己的真实感情。

(五)记叙文·状物——“五要三注意”

1. “五要”:

(1)抓住物的特征。

(2)按一定顺序写。

(3)既写静态又写动态。

(4)展开想象,运用拟人等手法把内容写具体。

(5)托物言志,借物抒情。

2. “三注意”:

(1)仔细观察、抓住特征。

(2)明确中心,展开想象。

(3)根据内容,安排顺序。

(六)记叙文·写景

注意六点:

1. 抓住景物特征。

2. 注意时间、地点、气候等因素的影响。

3. 景物特点安排恰当的顺序。

4. 采用多种手法表现景物特点及变化。

5. 写出自己的感受。

6. 借景抒情。

(七)应用文

1.应用文大多以记叙文为基础,但是还要特别注意的是各种应用文的格式。

2. 常见应用文类型:书信、读后感、通知、留言条、表扬信、建议书和日记。

3. 具体格式:

(1)标题居中。(除了书信、留言条和日记没有标题,其他皆有)

(2)正文:另起一行空两格。

(3)署名和日期:先写署名,另起一行写清“*年*月*日”。

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篇18:英语写作指导:如何写通顺的英语作文_1200字

全文共 1073 字

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如何写通顺英语

英语写作是语言应用的一个重要方面,也是语言能力测定的重要手段,衡量写作水平的标准便是看其是否能用学过的语言材料,语法知识等用文字的形式来表达描述。

书面语言表达一般分为三个过程:思维、组织、表达。先是思维,把要写的东西在脑中思考,这往往是个别的,孤立的一些素材,很凌乱琐碎;因此要对此进行组织,把这些思维作出整理,使其条理、系统化,但这还是较粗糙的,可能还有一些用词不当或语言错误;最后才是表达,把组织过的材料仔细推敲,确无问题了再落笔成文。

在撰写时要注意主谓语一致,时态呼应,用词贴切等,这就是写作。上述的三个过程,最难的就是第三个过程,这需要我们有较好的语法知识,掌握一定数量的句型,习惯用语,熟练的写作技巧,这样才能写出通顺生动的文章来。

总之,要提高英语写作水平,需要两方面的训练:一是语言基础方面的训练,要有扎实的造句、翻译等基本功,即用词法、句法等知识造出正确无误的句子;二是写作知识和能力方面的训练以掌握写作方面的基本方法和技巧。

那么,究竟怎样才能写好作文呢?

阅读优秀范文

首先要搞好阅读。阅读是写作的基础,在阅读方面下的功夫越深,驾驭语言的能力也就越强。所以要写好英语先要读好英语,在语言学习方面狠下苦功,教科书要读透,因为教科书中的文章都是一些很好的范文,文笔流畅,语言规范,精彩的一些课文段落要背诵。再就是要进行大量课外阅读,并记住一些好文章的篇章结构。

加强练词造句训练

其次,要加强练词造句的训练。词句对作文相当于造房的材料,无好材料就造不出好房子。平时在学习阅读时要注意收集积累,把好的词语、短语、句型做好笔记。平时在练习中的错误也要做好记录,再对照正确句子,使地道的英语句子如同条件反射,落笔就对。

了解英语写作格式

还有,要了解英语写作的不同体裁与格式。可以先看一本介绍英语写作入门的书,对英语写作有一个初步的概念,如怎么写议论文,如何提出论据,如何展开,如何确定中心句;又如,英语信的格式,如何根据不同身份写不同结束语等,然后根据不同的体裁进行写作练习。

用英语写日记

要养成记英语日记勤练笔的好习惯。经常用英语记日记,等于天天在练笔,这无疑是提高英语协作的行之有效的好办法。在记日记时,不要总是用简单句,要有意识地用一些好的词组、句型、关联词和复合句等,使文句更优美生动。还有要按照题目或所给情景写文章练笔。写好后对照范文,找出差距,然后再练习,这对提高英语作文也很有帮助,在游泳中学会游泳,只有多练习才能练好。

总之,平时学习语言素材积累多了,体裁格式记住了又经常练习不断提高,到作文下笔时就会得心应手,水到渠成。

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篇19:关于雅思如何准备写作之基础篇

全文共 1060 字

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对绝大多数学生来说,写作雅思4门考试中最难的。很多同学从来就没有用英文写过文章,但写作反应一个人的综合英语水平,它又是4门中最重要的。对于基础班的同学来说,他们最大的问题是词汇和语法,而语言恰恰是写作的评分标准之一,没有好的语言,思路和结构再好也没有用。所以提高语言运用的准确性是第一个要解决的问题。我最近刚开始教一个基础班,第一次不限字数让学生写一个印象最深的人。交上来的文章出现最大的问题就是语言表达。他们的思路很好,内容也比较充实,但是语法错误通篇都是,词汇量也很小。

对于这种情况,首先要做的就是帮助他们梳理语法结构。因为这些学生有一定的英语基础但是很不扎实,语法虽然知道但是漏洞很多,我给他们讲解语法时尽量简单,比如讲到动词不定式的复合结构作主语的情况时,必须要用形式主语来表示。学生会觉得这些理论知识很难记,这时我就让他们背这样一个一般结构:It is +adj+for sb. to do sth. 写作的最终目的是要写出准确的句子,所以在讲语法时给学生总结一些句型比单纯的讲语法会更容易让他们接受。又如,在讲到当动词不定式作定语时,一般与被修饰词有动宾关系,如果动词不定式为不及物动词,则在动词不定式后加上相应的介词。很多学生刚听这个会觉得很抽象,我就举了这个例子:Please give the child a pen to write with. 在判断到底要不要在动词后面加介词时,只要把to后面的动词和相应的宾语做一个动宾搭配,看意思是否正确即可,因为只能说write with a pen(用笔写),而不能说write a pen(写笔)。

语法的问题解决了,下面就是词汇量的问题了。我曾经给一个基础班的同学作过练习,发现他们的词汇量不算特别少,但是却很少会用一些固定搭配和句型。写作光有单词不行的,所以在强调词汇量的时候一定要突出词组和句型的重要性。对于一些基本的词组搭配可以参考四六级,有时候也要做些总结,如在讲到prefer这个字是,我要求学生熟记它的三个用法:prefer A to B;prefer doing A to doing B;prefer to do A rather than do B.不少学生一直搞不清prefer怎么有时候可以加to do, 有时候又能加doing, 光解释一致性原则他们还是会用错,所以就让他们记住这三个固定用法吧,所有人都会用了。在基础词组掌握了之后,可以补充一些和大小作文相关的词汇,让他们逐渐熟悉起考试的一些固定用法,为将来正式写作打下基础。

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篇20:英语作文写作万能格式佳句11句

全文共 919 字

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导语:英语作文也是需要日积月累的练习的,下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的优秀英语作文,欢迎阅读与借鉴,谢谢!

1. We re often told that ......But is this really the case ?

我们经常被告知......但事实真是这样吗?

2. People used to ......however , things are quite different today .

过去,人们习惯......但,今天的情况有很大的不同。

3.some people think that ......Others believe that the opposite is true . There is probably some truth in both sides.But we must realize that ......

一些人认为......另一些人持相反意见。也许双方的观点都有一定道理。但是我们必须认识到......

4.Recognizing a problem is the first step in finding a solution .

认识到问题是找到解决办法的第一步。

5. It is another new and bitter truth we must learn to face .

这是一个我们必须学会面对的痛苦的新情况。

6. In short , we must work hard to make the world a better place .

简而言之,为了把世界变成更美好的地方,我们必须勤奋工作。

7.Lost time is never found again.

岁月既往,一去不回。

8.Everybody should have a dream.

每个人都该有个梦想.

9.Hope for the best, but prepare for the worst.

抱最好的愿望,做最坏的打算。

10.Failure is the mother of success.

失败乃成功之母。

11.Lets look on the bright side.

让我们往好处想吧。

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