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自考英语 英语写作基础汇集20篇

导语:父亲节马上就要到了,你是否准备礼物了呢?下面是开学吧小编为大家整理的优秀英语作文,欢迎阅读与借鉴,谢谢!

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最新新闻写作基础知识

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新闻必须是新近发生和新近发现的事实;新闻所报道的事实必须是有价值的;新闻必须是对事件的“报道”。下面是小编为你带来的 最新新闻写作基础知识 ,欢迎阅读。

把新闻作为一门科学进行研究,从1845年德国学者普尔兹所著《德国新闻事业》算起,迄今不过一百多年。若以美国新闻教育和研究事业的兴起为标志,也仅为一个世纪左右。我国的新闻学研究迟于欧美国家,于二十世纪二十年代开始进行。由于该学科作为一门专门的研究对象起步较晚,所以,我们在学习新闻的过程中,有时会发现一些著作的提法或者分类并不统一,但它们的基本要求和基本原理都是相通的。我国的新闻理论主要借鉴了西方国家的新闻学理论,但又有所不同。

(一)新闻的定义

新闻有很多定义,在不同的国家,不同的研究者对它有不同的定义。比如,在西方,对新闻的严肃定义有:“新闻就是变迁的记录”——英国《泰晤时报》,“新闻就是新鲜报道”——英国《牛津字典》等等,在国外对新闻的幽默定义也有许多,比如:“狗咬人不是新闻,人咬狗才是新闻”——美国《纽约太阳报》博加特等。

我国学者对新闻也有一些定义,比如:“新闻就是广大群众欲知、应知而未知的很重要事实”——范长江;“新闻的定义,就是新近发生的事实的报道”——陆定一。

我们一般指的新闻,可以理解为:新闻是对新近已经发生和正在发生、或者早已发生却是新近发现的有价值的事实的及时报道。

这一定义体现了三个要点:新闻必须是新近发生和新近发现的事实;新闻所报道的事实必须是有价值的;新闻必须是对事件的“报道”。

新闻都是以事实为依据,真实性是新闻的生命,也是第一要素。

凡是新闻文体,不论消息报道,还是通讯、特写,在写作上都应当做到新、快、短、活。

(二)新闻的分类

新闻按体裁分类,大致可以分为:消息、通讯、新闻特写、以及新闻边缘体裁。新闻边缘体裁主要包括:报告文学、调查报告、采访札记、工作研究、来信等。

新闻分广义的新闻与狭义的新闻,上段的分类是按广义的新闻进行分类的,它们是报纸、广播、电视等媒体中常见的报道体裁。狭义的新闻专指消息,又称电讯(通过电报、电传、电子计算机传输的消息)。它是报纸上最经常、最大量运用的一种新闻报道体裁,也是最直接、最简练、最迅速地向读者传播新闻信息的报道方式。

(三)新闻的六要素

新闻要素,是指新闻构成的主要因素。交待新闻要素,是把事实报道清楚的起码条件。一般来讲,在传统的新闻学讲义中,我们常提到的是五要素,所谓五个W(When,Where,Who,What,Why——何时,何地、何人、何事、何故)。在西方新闻学有一个观点,认为新闻学除了五个W外,还应增加一个H(How——怎么样,何果),也称新闻六要素。新闻六要素近年来在国内一些教材中得到认可。

(四)新闻语言

在写新闻时,有的作者常用写散文或者写评论的方式写新闻,其实,它们之间的语言要求是不一样的。文学语言是艺术的语言,评论语言是说理性语言,新闻语言则是表述事实的语言。

新闻语言作为一种独立的书面语体,它服务于事实的报道,具有质朴、实用的语言形态,明快而富有表现力的语言风格,讲求信息的运载量,使之适宜于社会的广泛传播。

新闻语言的特色可以概括为:客观、确切、简练、朴实和通俗。

1、客观。新闻语言的主要功能用于表达客观事实,而主观认识和感情的强烈外露,势必干扰读者(听众、观众)对事情原貌的了解和把握。比如说,我们讲某某员工工作认真,某某领导身先士卒,则不如用一些事情把它反映出来,让读者去品味,而不一味去下结论。

新闻语言的客观性,通常表现为:

1)中性词多于褒贬词,即客观地描述,而不随便下结论,或者评论;新闻中一般不使用评议性的语言,即使是评述性消息,作者的评述语言也极少,多讲究分析对比,然后自然将极其精练的评述语言自然落笔。

2)修饰语的限制性多于形容性,举例:昨日气温已开始回暖,最高温度已达15℃,这是用数字进行限制;如果写成:昨日气温已开始回暖,大家感到比前些日暖和很多,这就成了形容词性,不宜用作写新闻。

3)句子的陈述口气多于感叹口气。把一些事件或者现象以第三者身份客观描述出来,而不是以第一人称或第二人称去下结论或发表感叹。

2、确切。确切,就是准确,贴切。在新闻语言的使用上,要求精确性较高,力除消除语言的含混性,但并不完全排斥语言的模糊性。新闻的模糊语言不是语言含混不清,而是相对于精确语言来说,其精确度较低,但又不失之确切。比如,“近200吨”比“几百吨”,“30多厘米”比“几十厘米”要精确。

3、简练。新闻以简练为贵,以烦冗为病。新闻语言应简洁、洗练,干净利落,切忌拖泥带水。正如鲁迅说过,“简洁的文字,有着穿透读者心胸的力量”。写新闻提倡写短句,说短话,强调简捷直叙,少曲迂回,尤其忌语言杂质,不要让复杂的结构和修辞手段、表情语言淹没事实。比如,“在……的大好形势下,在……鼓舞下,在……的基础上”等等繁冗的句子都应避免。

4、朴实。质朴无华,具体实在,这是新闻语言的又一特色。新闻语言讲究朴实,就要“有真意,去粉饰,勿卖弄”。

5、通俗。新闻语言的通俗,要求从读者(听众、观众)的认识水平出发,运用群众熟悉的语言形式,即接近口语的书面语。在写新闻时,用语不以作者的认识标准为准,也不以行业内的认识为标准,而应是最广大的读者认识为标准,对一些特殊用词,或者专有名词,应加必要的注释。

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篇1:电影文学剧本的写作基础

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电影剧本,包括着三种不同的剧本,即电影文学剧本、电影分镜头剧本和电影完成台本。小编收集了电影剧本的写作基础。欢迎阅读。

电影剧本,包括着三种不同的剧本,即电影文学剧本、电影分镜头剧本和电影完成台本。今天,几乎任何一部发行放映了的国产影片都同时拥有这三种剧本。就一部影片所拥有的这三种剧本的内容而言,是大致一样的,但它们是由影片不同职务的创作人员完成的,而且在影片制作的不同阶段上出现,发挥着不同的作用。

一 、电影文学剧本

电影文学剧本的创作活动,是一部影片总体创作过程的第一个环节。它是由电影编剧来完成的。在影片的全部创作人员中,编剧是第一个接触生活素材的人,是他最先从生活中获得启示、灵感、冲动和思想,对素材进行分析、选择、加工、提炼,使之成为一部影片特定的题材,构思出人物和情节,并组织成一个完整统一的格局,设计出与内容相应的艺术形式的。

电影文学剧本是电影的基础,它对未来影片的主题、人物、情节、结构、以及风格、样式等等,都有明确的规定。导演在把一个电影文学剧本实现在银幕上的时候,对上述内容通常是无法作根本改动的。例如他不可能把在文学剧本中本来是顺序讲下来的故事改成插叙或回叙式的结构;他也不可能把一个喜剧剧本导演成一部悲剧。除非在拍摄之前他重新改写电影文学剧本,而这样的作法反而更加说明文学剧本乃"一剧之本"了。

电影文学剧本是一部影片成功的保障。一个导演只是在拥有一个好剧本之后才有可能组织创作班子,展开他的工作;一个电影厂的领导部门只有在审定了电影文学剧本并对它的思想艺术质量做出充分估价之后,才有可能下达生产命令,投放摄制经费。

二 、电影分镜头剧本

又常被称为导演台本或导演剧本。

电影是由一个个场景和一个个镜头组成的。导演在拿到满意的文学剧本之后,就要作一些更为具体细致的拍摄计划,比如这一段戏用多少镜头拍,这些镜头是从什么角度、什么距离、什么方式(推、拉、摇、移……等)去拍。在这个剧本中,哪些戏可以在同一个景里拍摄?哪些戏可以在同一个季节里拍摄?等等。所有这一切,在文学剧本中通常规定的并不是十分明确,有些问题甚至根本不去规定它(例如不规定拍摄的镜位、景别),所以导演要以电影文学剧本为依据,在电影分镜头剧本中把它们制定出来。只有这样,摄制组全体人员才能根据分镜头剧本的十分具体的指示,着手自己的工作。

分镜头剧本的写作方式因导演的习惯而不同。有的导演喜欢自己单独来干,有的导演则喜欢同它的主要创作人员(摄影师、美工师、录音师、化妆师、道具师……)一齐讨论研究,最终把它制定下来。

三、 完成台本

又常被称作镜头记录本。这是在整部影片拍完之后,由场记完成的工作。导演在拍片过程中并不总是按照分镜头剧本进行。他经常灵机一动地改变自己在分镜头剧本中订下的方案,作一些增删改动。完成台本的任务就是把拍成并定了稿的影片中一切技术、艺术内容,原原本本地记录下来,并详细写明每个镜头的呎数。每卖出一个影片拷贝,都附上一册完成台本。这样,电影理论工作者可以把它作为一种研究资料,比如通过它与文学剧本、分镜头剧本的对比,看看其间作了哪些改动,琢磨一下改动的原由。电影放映部门可以根据它对拷贝作检查,看看它的损坏程度,并据此进行修复。最后,我想说明一点:在口语中,我们又常常习惯地把电影文学剧本简称为电影剧本。在这本书中,我们也认同这种习惯式的说法,把电影文学剧本称为电影剧本

电影剧本的文字形式

可以肯定地说,电影剧本不象写信或打电报那样有个固定的文字形式。它的文字形式甚至比话剧剧本更自由。譬如话剧剧本大约总是先在起首写上时间,地点,人物表之类,然后再写内容----台词,和写在台词缝隙里,用括号括起来的情景说明。电影剧本却没有这一套成规。一个电影剧作家可以根据自己的喜好习惯或剧本内容的需要,决定采用什么样的文字形式。在此,我只能根据一种约定俗成的习惯,把电影剧本的文字形式粗分为两大类。

一 、可读性较强的剧本

这种类型的剧本在苏联和我国较为流行。它们的文字形式大都有如下几个特点:(1)剧本不但是可供拍摄的(习惯上称为"可拍性"),而且也很注意文字语言的修辞和文采。它既为导演拍摄提供了基础,又能成为一种普通读者直接阅读欣赏的文字读物。例如《甲午风云》、《红色娘子军》、《归心似箭》、《巴山夜雨》等等;我国已经翻译出版的苏联电影剧本《夏伯阳》、《红莓》、《恋人曲》等等,即便作为读物阅读,它们所给予人的审美快感也不亚于小说。(2)往往以场景的时空变化来划分剧本的文字段落,但不在每次时空转换的时候标明时间,地点之类。而是通过对情节的描述自然而然地把那些内容体现出来。这样就可以使读者在阅读时保持住情绪的连贯性,不被"5.县城火车站。寒冷的冬夜。"之类的文字打断。例如《夏伯阳》中的这一段:

小县城的火车站上,停着客车。司令部车厢的车窗里,灯火辉煌。传来断续的铜号声,火车头调度的汽笛声,缓冲器的铿锵声,挂车员的口笛声…… 在司令部华丽的车厢里,一个穿着卡别列夫中尉军服的军官站在一大幅标着战线的地图前面。

如果按照镜头记录式剧本的写法,这两段前边都会标明时间,地点,比如第二段文字起首可能专用一行文字写上:"6.司令部车厢内景。夜。" 甚至有这样一些剧本,编剧为了不打断读者在阅读时情绪上的连贯性,索性不以场景的时空转换来划分文字的段落,而是以情节发展相对完整的阶段来划分。例如美国电影剧本《克莱默夫妇》在同一文字自然段落中写下了一系列不同时空中发生的场面:先写父亲特德带儿子在公园里玩,同女邻居聊天,再写他在办公室给儿子打电话的情景,而后又写俩人一同在家中用晚餐…… (3) 不对拍摄技术作明确的规定(比如注明什么"特写"、"推"、"淡出"之类),而是通过对艺术形象的直接描写把那些内容暗示出来。例如苏联电影剧本《应该为她辩护》(又译《辩护词》)的开头这样写道:

熙熙攘攘的大街上,站着一位面目清秀的青年,他身体斜倚、臂肘撑住铁栅栏,正在等待什么人。我们从裁缝店里偷偷地注视着他,仔细地打量他,简直出了神。那女裁缝干脆凑在玻璃窗前看。后来,她终于转过身来对我说:

这段文字虽未写明用什么具体方法拍摄,但有经验的导演却不难想象出摄影机的拍摄位置。例如被我加了着重号的那句话,暗示出摄影机是由屋内对准街窗方向拍摄的,而且会出现女裁缝的近景。最后一句则暗示出境头里该出现正试穿衣服的女主角了。这样的写法有一定的好处,它可以使导演能动地发挥自己的创造性,也不使读者因被那些技术术语干扰而破坏了阅读时的情绪。

二、 可读性不强的剧本

这类剧本在西方国家和日本比较流行。它们大致有如下几个正好与前一类相反的特点:(1)编剧把提供导演拍摄作为自己唯一的责任和目的,并不准备使自己的剧本成为一种文字读物。因此,多采用对动作或画面的直接白描,不追求文采,所以也就没有什么可读性。例如日本影片《裸岛》的剧本:

2. 黎明

海还在沉睡。

人也在沉睡。

晨雾中传来橹声。

一只小舢板靠近岸边。

船上有一对贫苦农民夫妇,那是千太和阿丰。

千太是个三十五、六岁动作笨拙的矮胖汉子。

阿丰是个二十六、七岁,脸色微黑肩膀很窄的妇女。

船上放着四只木桶。

两人各自用扁担挑起木桶,走上岸边。

象这样的剧本,普通读者是读不出什么味道来的。(2)以场景(有时甚至细致到以镜头)来划分文字的自然段落。在每段之首专用一行文字标明场(或镜)号,场面发生的地点、时间等等。例如上面列举过的《裸岛》中的那段文字,一开始就标明了场号和时间:"2.黎明"。后面的段落又有标明地点的,如:"22.梯田"、"23.干旱的大地"。而"24.海滩上的松球"就写下了镜头内容,这一文字段落是一个仅仅包括一个空镜头的场面。(3)这类剧本经常明确地从技术上规定拍摄的方法,甚至详细地对摄制组的其他创作人员(导、演、摄、录、美……)也做出许多的较为具体的指示。例如法国电影剧本《广岛之恋》开头的这一段文字的描写:电影开始时,两对赤裸裸的肩膀一点一点地显现出来。我们能看到的只有这两对肩膀拥抱在一起---头部和臀部都在画外,上面好像布满了灰尘、雨水、露珠或汗水,随便什么都可以。主要是让我们感到这些露珠和汗水都是被飘向远方、逐渐消散的"蘑菇云"污染过的。

剧作者在这段文字里十分明确地在拍摄方法上、镜头的距离上、画面构图上、人物造型上提出了技术方面的要求。由于这类剧本看上去较接近于导演的分镜头剧本,故而人们又常常称其为镜头记录式剧本或技术剧本等等。

当然,这两种不同文字形式的剧本的划分只是相对而言的,有很多剧本是介于两者之间的,它们既追求文字语言的文采,又在必要的时候对摄法作一些简要的提示。这种剧本在今天的我国是较为普遍的,《祝福》就采用了这种文字形式。我见过不少初学者采用镜头记录式剧本的写法,行文之间加入了很多技术术语,诸如"特写" 、"淡出"、"推"、"拉"之类。由于他们尚未弄懂那些导演术语的内涵和使用时的逻辑根据,而仅仅是为了装点自己的剧本,让人读来似乎很有点象个电影剧本似的,其实,那些术语常常让内行人看了以后不免皱眉摇头,有时甚至感到有些画蛇添足。例如有个青年写道:"一缕轻烟从铜烟锅上冉冉升起(特写)。"其实,稍有点电影常识的人看了这句话就知是个特写镜头,这时再标明"特写",就显得多余了。

我以为,初学者不宜采用镜头记录式剧本的文字形式。那种文体应建立在你对电影的导演和制作知识有了较深入的了解基础之上,没有这个基础反倒会弄巧成拙的。

03 小说和电影剧本的不同?

经常可以见到这样的情况:一些颇有水平的小说家对写电影剧本发生了兴趣,但在他们花费了不少的时间和精力之后,写出的东西却常常无法拍摄,或者即使拍摄了也不是什么好作品。这使他们非常恼火,因为若把这部分生命用来写小说,成果要比这大得多。于是他们乘兴而来,扫兴而去,从此以后再也不敢轻易地去写什么电影剧本,并告诫别的小说家也不要去写电影剧本。

为什么会出现这种情形呢?

原来,小说和电影剧本虽说都是用笔在纸上写故事,但叙事的方法、手段和构思的规律却是有差别的。写小说和电影剧本虽说都需要运用形象思维,但电影的形象思维特殊一些,它叫做电影思维。这种思维要求剧作者在构思的时候,时时刻刻站在摄影师的立场和视点展开艺术想象。他的脑海里总是张挂着一个银幕,构思中的一切生活都只能在这个四方框框里出现。这就好像戏剧家在构思的时候,脑海里总有一个舞台是一个道理。我们知道,凡是出现在电影银幕上的一切内容都是十分具体的、实实在在的。如果一辆车迎面驶来,那就一定是一辆汽车或是一辆火车,不可能又是汽车又是火车或随便什么车。这一特点与小说相去甚远,小说的文字描写需通过读者头脑中的想象才能变成形象。例如《红楼梦》中的贾宝玉,不同的读者就可能想象出不同长相的贾宝玉来。但一旦把《红楼梦》拍成电影,贾宝玉就只能是具体地由一位演员扮演的贾宝玉了。正因为电影有这么个特点,所以电影思维也就要比小说思维更为避虚就实。

比方说肖像描写吧,你写"一人走来,四十多岁年纪,一看便知是个善良和气、讨人喜欢的人。"这就不符合电影剧本避虚就实的要求。因为"善良和气、讨人喜欢"只是对性格抽象的、虚泛的形容,导演无法得知这些性格是具体通过什么形象一看便知的。你不如这么写:"一个人走来,四十多岁年纪,胖乎乎的脸上带着一种颇有感染力的心满意足的微笑,他不断对身边走过的人点头打招呼,那些熟人们---不论年长年轻--都亲切地拍拍他的肩,拉拉他的手,甚至刮刮他的后脑勺。"当然,这不一定是段好文字,但至少它是可拍的。

小说家企图通过文字描写使读者对人物外表特征有个正确的想象,往往需要对肖像作十分细致入微的描绘。有时,这种肖像描写甚至是连篇累牍的。电影剧本中的肖像描写虽求具体,但又不能过于繁杂琐细,因为一个人物的造型最终还要由导演、演员、化妆师、服装师等一系列创作人员的合作实现在银幕上,规定得过于具体是没多大意义的,只需抓住关键性的、能从某一侧面反射出人物个性特征的细节具体地描写出来就行了。

电影剧本中的景物描写也应该遵循这样的原则,语言尽可能简洁,但又绝不能虚泛、抽象。比如,"夜,甜蜜而温柔的夜。"这样的写法就要不得。你必须把"甜蜜而温柔"这层意思通过视听形象表露出来才行。比如你可以写:"街道旁的垂柳隐退到暮色里,街灯向路面喷洒下金红色柔美的光,一辆洒水车从街上缓缓驰过,湿湿的路面便映出灯光,象是闪光的河。一对情侣相偎而来、飘然而去。晚风里远远传来隐约的圆舞曲声……"这样,你就通过具体的视听形象所体现出的舒缓的节奏和韵律,把那种"甜蜜而温柔"的情绪传导出来了。

在一部电影剧本中,最重要的还是写好人物的行动。电影剧本中的行动描写与小说中的行动描写之间的差异也许是最突出的。小说家写人物行动,常常用很多抽象的语言直接分析人物的内心活动,却不一定直接描写这些内心活动是通过怎样的外部行为表现出来的。现在,我信手从中篇小说《万元户主和猫》中摘来这样一段:他家的大花猫病得厉害。按理说,他不能去开会,要想办法抓紧诊猫病。但他怕人家说他装大、装阔,发了财就喊不动了。他之所以能混到眼下这步田地,当初离不开干部们呢。人在得意的时候,引人注目的时候,千万不可傲慢哩。

第一句就不符合电影的要求。在电影剧本中不能只写"猫病得厉害",要具体写出"厉害"成什么样子才行,否则就等于把编剧的责任推给了导演。后面的句子就更无法拍了,他们都是写对人物内心矛盾的直接介绍,至于这时的人物是站着还是蹲着?是坐在炕沿上叹气还是准备出门?我们一概不得而知。当然,机械地要求电影剧本中的每一句话都是具体的形象也是不对的。其实,在不少时候,编剧对自己设计的人物动作加上一些解释,也是必要的和允许的。例如《裸岛》中有这样一段文字:

11. 村里的路上

阿丰挑着空木桶边走边向来往的行人恭敬地行礼。因为阿丰一家在村里所处的地位低于村里所有的人,所以不得不走向对方恭敬地行礼。

"因为……"后面的这句话,就是对阿丰前边行为的解释性语言。我们可以看出,这种解释性语言与小说中直接描写人物内心活动的语言不一样。它有一个重要的存在前提,即这种解释是依附于具体的动作描写的,是能通过那个动作表现出来的。创作者之所以写入这类句子,一定是他认为有必要让导演和演员知道自己前边写下那个动作的用意,以使他们更好地把那层意思通过动作表现出来。比如上边这一例中,如果不作解释,"阿丰对人行礼"这个动作的意义可能会被导演和演员忽视。经编剧一解释,他们得知剧作者如此设计的苦心,在表现这个动作时就会掌握恰到好处的心理依据,通过行礼表现出因地位低下而露出的卑谦来。但又要注意,如果导演和演员通过行动描写完全可以看出人物做出这些行动的内心动机和内心依据,编剧如再用一些话语把它们解释一番,就是不必要的了。电影剧本的行动描写还不允许小说中常见的那种对动作过程的"虚处理"。例如,"转眼间十几年过去了,兰兰已长成了大姑娘。""他找遍了大街小巷,可就是寻不见小佳佳。""他夜以继日一连苦战三天,终于攻克了最后一道技术难关。"这些句子都是无法直接搬上银幕的。例如中间那一句,除非你把他写成这样:

"人群熙攘的公园里,他焦急地寻找、呼唤着小佳佳。

街头,他焦急地向警察询问。

他在百货商店里的人群中挤来挤去地寻找着……

他精疲力竭地坐在街头一家商店的台阶上。

电影剧本与小说的又一不同之处是它不允许写入视、听以外的内容,比如肤觉、味觉、嗅觉等。"他和她走在一起,她身上散发出的香味使他迷醉。""脸孔开始象针扎般发痛。"这些句子如果出现在小说里不算稀奇,可是一旦你把它们写入电影剧本,人家就会说你是外行,因为再高明的导演也不可能把它们表现清楚。

最难办的是,小说作者只管写他要写的一切,完全不必顾及自己与被表现的对象之间的距离和角度之类的问题,而一个电影剧作家却不能这样,在他头脑中出现的不再是随心所欲的漫无边际的生活场景,而是一个又一个有着具体的方位、具体的视句和拍摄方法的镜头。他在稿纸上写下的,实际就是在他的大脑银幕上由这一个个镜头组成的影片。而这部影片的包括导演、表演、摄影、剪辑等等一切制作过程,都是由剧作者一个人预先在自己的大脑中完成的。一个人的文字表达能力再强,如果没有这种电影思维,写出的东西也往往只能读,不能拍。我们从下面这些例子中可以看出这一点。

例一:"车身上,北京开往C市直快的白牌。"

也许,我们在小说中写什么"M君"、"S市"尚无不可,但如果表现在银幕上,这块牌子莫非写成"北京--C"吗?这不是苛求,这暴露出作者在写它的时候头脑里没有画面感觉,而这对写电影剧本的人来说是至关紧要的。

例二:"在场的三人,眼光对视着。"

如果我们在写的时候考虑到了演员的表演,就会发现,要么是其中一人与另外两人对视着,要么是其中两人对视着,而第三人左右地观察他们。三人对视是不可能表演的。

例三:"从海边吹来一阵风,吹动了果实累累的树枝。真奇怪,这棵被无花果树紧紧环绕起来的苹果树上有多少个苹果成熟了啊!累累的苹果!你看!这面是粉红色的,那面是金黄色的,仿佛被太阳射透了似的。本可以靠近来看它们,糟糕的是,大石头叠成的围墙挡住了我们。"

从表面上看,这段文字描写下的形象都是十分具体的,但由于作者缺乏电影场面调度的知识,仍然无法拍摄。作者详细地描述了苹果的两面颜色和"被太阳射透了似的"形象,要想把它表现出来除非使用近景拍摄。然而,作者又告诉我们这苹果是被一圈无花果树环绕着的(且不说这环绕不好表现),无花果树挡住了镜头的视线。何况在最后一句里,作者又一次否定了我们靠近拍摄的可能性,让"大石头叠成的围墙挡住了我们"。

综上所述,一个电影剧作家的电影思维水平是建立在他对电影总体制作工艺的全面了解之上的,而这就不可能是一蹴而就的事。小说家已经习惯于不受限制地在纸上纵横驰骋,他不习惯把目光限制在镜头的取景框里,不习惯以镜头组接的方式来结构自己的作品,所以才会出现作家害怕写电影剧本的情形。

04 "人"是银幕形象的主题核心

这个问题可以从以下几个方面去认识:

一、人与环境

任何一部电影剧作都少不了对环境景物的描写。那么,什么样的景物描写才算得上是好的呢?标准很简单,就看那描写是否为塑造人物提供了有利条件或者直接成为人物思想情绪的体现者。从这点来看,倒与我国古典诗词有某些相似之处。在古诗里常有对景物的描写,但最终那描写要落在人的身上。例如:"碧云天,黄花地,西风紧,北雁南飞。晓来谁染霜林醉?总是离人泪。"前边写景的句子都在最后一句上找到了归宿。电影剧作中成功的景物描写也是如此。例如《城南旧事》的结尾处,影片充分发挥了环境描写的作用。台湾义地里,灰色的坟茔静卧于凄凄芳草之中,一团一团火红的栌叶在秋风中瑟索,霜天里传来乌鸦苍凉的叫声,再伴之以令人神伤的音乐,这一切构成了义地特有的情调。在此,剧作者显然不是在单纯地描绘美丽的秋天景色。对于全剧来说,这里是一个情绪高潮:英子长大了,经历了人世不少风雨了,她的性格至此已有较大的发展。她再不是那个无忧无虑,只知道唱"小麻雀"的小姑娘了。除了快乐之外,她明白了世间还有许多不平和痛苦,她学会了忧伤。影片结尾的这一系列景物描写,恰恰是通过画面的内涵、色调、节奏和韵律,将小英子那种与亲人(死去的父亲和离去的宋妈)、也是与自己的童年告别时那种凄切的离愁和怅惘的心绪外观化了。它折射出小英子的性格和情感,因而也才具有诱人的艺术魅力,使观众能从这景物描写之中对人生思索和品味一些什么……

由此可见,在剧本中景物是没有独立存在的意义的。离开了人,景物写得再美,也会令人生厌。这种毛病在今天的国产影片里还是较为普遍的。一些影片中的景物描写很多,也很美,但它们仍无法吸引观众。说到底,就因为人们在欣赏不同艺术的时候是采取不同标准,提出不同要求的。欣赏话剧,没有人会抱怨听不到唱腔:欣赏歌剧,听不到好的歌曲就不行了。观众欣赏电影,要看的就是人生--人的社会生活和人的命运。如果要看风景,他们就会去看摄影展览或风光旅游片去了。我们很多初学编剧的同志往往不懂这一点,片面地追求景物描写的文词华美,却忽视了多写人于人的关系,这是不对的。

二 、人与动物

确实,有不少影片直接描写人与动物的关系。例如苏联影片《白比姆,黑耳朵》中很详尽地写了一条狗的生活经历。表面上看,这部影片主要描写对象是条狗,但实际上剧作者正是通过这条狗在人类中的种种遭遇,揭示了苏联社会之中人与人的关系、不同人所体现出来的不同的道德情操。又如美国影片《大白鲨》用了很多的篇幅来写鲨鱼的凶猛残暴,从片名看,大白鲨成了影片的主角,而人倒反而成了辅助因素似的。其实不是这么回事。从头到尾,这部影片的诱人魅力都仅仅来自一个原因:观众在为剧中人物的命运担忧。他们关心的是,在突然降临的灾难面前各种人物的性格反映,以及人物之间相互关系的变化。他们期待着人能战胜这一灾难。如果这部影片不是以这些"人的问题"为核心的,这部影片就与电视系列片《动物世界》没有多大区别了。

也许有人会问,如果是一部纯粹以动物为描写对象的影片又怎么以"人"为核心呢?这样的影片确实是有的,比如日本影片《狐狸的故事》,美国影片《海鸥乔那森》,前者只写狐狸,后者只写海鸥。其实,如果我们细心对它们分析一下,便会发现它们实际上是寓言式的。其中的动物分明是人的化身,是拟人化了的。剧作者赋予它们的是人的思想情感,社会本质和社会关系,它们的生活就象征着人类的社会生活,因此,也就寄托着作者对人生的看法。如果不是这样,这些影片就与普通科教片无异了。

三 、人与技术

我曾听说这样一件事,有个同志写了一个反映炼钢工人的剧本给故事片厂送去,编辑看过之后却把它转到科教片厂去了。因为那个剧本把主要的精力用来描写炼钢的技术问题,却忘了塑造人物,忘了表现人与人之间的关系,以致编辑误以为它是部有关如何炼钢的科教片脚本。可以设想,一旦把这样的剧本拍摄下来,其结果会怎么样。

在故事片剧本中遇到技术问题的时候,最好的办法莫过于绕开它。比如你写石油战线的故事,其中写到井喷,你就没有必要通过人物之口详细讲解井喷的原因,只要暗示出它将造成的严重后果就行了。因为观众要看的是井喷以后人们的不同表现,而不想听那一大堆技术术语。

综上所述,我们可以充分地认识到:电影剧作家应时时刻刻把自己创作的目光对准人,他所感兴趣的只能是和人物的性格揭示有直接关系的事物,与此无关的他都不屑一顾。

05 性格

所谓性格,即指一个人较稳定的对现实的态度和与之相应的习惯化的行为方式。构成性格的因素是很复杂的,研究性格心理学的专家们经常要用大量的文字去分析、推论、总结、归纳它们。我们学习编剧的人在构思人物性格的时候更多地是从形象思维的角度出发的。没有必要象心理学家那样去一一剖析人物性格的构成因素。真那样去做,反而会把一个生动活泼的艺术创作弄得冷漠、机械。所以,我们只要从主要的方面把握人物的性格就行了。

在一个人的性格结构中,最主要的莫过于"倾向性"和"气质"这两个因素。一场大火燃烧起来了,烈焰正在吞噬着国家的财产。面对此情,有的人公而忘私、奋勇救火,有的人则贪生怕死、逃之夭夭。决定人们采取不同态度的,就是性格中的倾向性。所谓倾向性,即指人的世界观、人生观、立场、政治态度等等。它是性格结构的主要方面。它决定着人的行为的目的、意志、情感、生活计划,以及他的生活积极性的程度。很显然,性格结构中的倾向性是后天形成的。它的成因与人的社会经历、遭遇、家庭、阶级地位、出身、教育、职业……等等一系列社会因素有直接的关系。

一场大火燃烧起来了,两个人都把自己的生死置之度外,一心想着保护国家财产。但其中一人简单鲁莽,一下子冲进火海,反被烈火烧伤;另一人从容冷静、机智灵活,采取了有效措施。这两人的倾向性是相近的,这时决定他们行为方式不同的一个重要因素便是性格结构中的气质(当然,还有其他因素,比如对于救火知识是否了解熟悉)。在现实生活中有的人脾气火爆、容易激动;有的人沉静稳重、动作迟缓;有的人性情脆弱、内向娴静等等。这就是不同的气质表现。气质受先天影响很大,但是由于后天的生活环境和自然条件不断改变着人的生理素质,所以人的气质也会有所改变。

在人的性格中,倾向性和气质是密不可分的。我们不能错误地以为人的这一些行为取决于他的倾向性,而那一些行为取决于他的气质。人的任何行为都同时受着两个方面的因素的影响。并同时体现着这两个因素。我们在塑造人物的时候不仅要写人物做什么,而且要写出人物怎么做,而这些都是由人物性格中的倾向性、气质以及其他因素的共同作用下产生的。气质等等虽然不能改变人的倾向性,却能使倾向性呈现出丰富的个性色彩。

文艺作品中真正活生生的人物性格,是丰富复杂的,也是千差万别的。我在这里着重讲了"倾向性"和"气质",并不是说只注意这两个因素就够了。要从多方面去把握性格的各种因素和复杂表现,才能创造出独特的、丰富的人,一个立体的人物形象。

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篇2:英语写作素材之小学生经典英语格言

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积累一些英语格言,对英文写作有一定的帮助。以下是小编带来的小学生经典英语格言,希望对你有帮助。

A cat may look at a king. 猫也可以看国王。

A friend in need is a friend in indeed. 患难识知已。

A good marksman may miss. 智者千虑,必有一失。

A good maxim is never out of season. 至理名言不会过时。

A good medicine tastes bitter. 良药苦口,忠言逆耳。

A good winter brings a good summer. 瑞雪兆丰年。

All roads lead to Rome. 条条道路通罗马。

Better early than late. 宁早勿晚。

Better late than never. 迟做总比不做好。

Great minds think alike.英雄所见略同。

It is good to learn at another man’s cost.前车可鉴。

It is never too late to learn. 活到老,学到老。

Love me, love my dog.爱屋及乌。

Men learn while they reach. 教学相长。

Second thoughts are best. 三思而后行 。

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篇3:20个雅思写作基础作文题目集锦

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1。

You are an university student who are living in the accommodation at the campus。

One day you find something wrong with your accommodation。

So you write a letter to the House Officer to tell them what happened, the reason you think, what you decide to do, and whether if it is right。

2。

It is wrong that our government pay more money to the artist projects, for instance, there are more and more paintings and sculptures appearing at the public places, because there are more important thing to do。

Whats you opinion? Do you agree or disagree with it?

3。

writing to an English speaking college about qualification, accommodation, fee, what courses do you want to choose and why。

4。

Participating in a sport is as important for psychological health as it is for physical condition and social development。

5。

You have left college。

But you didnt say goodbye to your friend who live in the room with you because he had a course at that time。

Write a letter to him to appology and tell hem how you spend that days before you leave and how you get home。

Then invite him to visit you。

6。

Some people say the parents should except school to conduct their childrens behavior and tell them what is right or wrong。

Others say schools should take this responsibility。

Please give your point about it。

7。

Write to the agency officer and complain about the rent car which has sth wrong。

Tell them the problems of the car you rent from the agency and your requiring。

8。

As the developing countries and the third world countries, there are a funds, how to use it? Invest in the basic education or in the high-technology, for instance, computer? Whats your opinion?

9。

You are a foreign student。

Write to the Student Union, introduce your hobbies and interests and ask information of clubs and societies。

You want to join a club or society enjoy your time when you study there。

10。

Fast food is developing more and more popular。

It replaces other traditional food。

Some people think it is good, some people disagree with it。

Whats your opinion about it。

Give some reason of your opinion。

11。

A friend will visit Beijing。

You will meet him at airport。

But for some reason, you have to be late。

Explain the reason。

Since you havent meet each other, tell the friend where you will meet and how to recognize each other。

12。

More and more childrens writing math ability are affected by computers and calculators。

We should limit the use of those tools。

Disagree or agree。

13。

you have broke your leg and have to stayed in hospital。

you received many cards and letters from your classmates。

write a letter to tell them your detail of your position and thank them at the same time。

14。

some people say that it is impossible for women to be an effective women and to be a good mother in home at the same time。

they also suggest that the government should give the salary to mothers who stay at home to take care of their children。

15。

Your friend write to you and tell you that he is hesitating to chose computer or history as his major in university。

Write to him and tell him your opinion。

16。

Participating in a sport is as important for psychological health as it is for physical conditions and social development。

17。

You live in a room in college which you share with another student。

You find it very difficult to work there because he or she always has friends visiting。

They have parties in the room and sometimes borrow your things without asking you。

Write a letter to the Accommodation officer at the college and ask for a new room nest term。

You would prefer a single room。

Explain your reason。

18。

Who has responsible for our old people?

19。

Write to the agency officer to complain about a rent house by them。

Tell them the problems of the house and your requiring。

20。

You read an ad about a sale of a shop in the local newspaper, when you came to buy the goods you wanted, you find the sale had ended。

Write to the shop manager and complain about this。

Require for the compensation。

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篇4:电影剧本的写作基础知识

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电影剧本是部故事片的指南或概要吗?是蓝图吗?是图表吗? 小编收集了电影剧本的写作基础,欢迎阅读。

第一章电影剧本是什么?

在本章我们将介绍戏剧式结构的示例

电影剧本是什么?

是一部故事片的指南或概要吗?是蓝图吗?是图表吗?

是一系列通过对话和描写来叙述的形象、场景、段落等,就像一串联系在一起的珍珠项链一样吗?是 一幅梦境中的风景画吗,是一些思想的汇集吗?

电影剧本究竟是什么?

首先,它不是小说,当然它也绝对不是戏剧。

如果你看一部小说而且尝试着去确定它的基本特性时,你会发现那种戏剧性行为动作、故事线等,时 常是发生在主要人物的头脑中。我们(读者)是在偷窥主人公的思想、感情、言语、行为动作、记忆、梦 幻、希望、野心、见识和更多的东西。如果出现了另外一位人物,那么故事线则随着视角而变化,但时常 是又返回到原来的主要人物那里。在小说中,所有的行为动作都发生在人物的头脑中──在戏剧性行为动 作的“头脑幻景”之中。

在戏剧(舞台剧)中,行为动作和故事线则发生在舞台前拱架下面的舞台上,而观众是第四面墙,偷听舞台人物的秘密。人物用语言来交谈他们的希望、梦幻、过去和将来的计划,讨论他们的需求、欲望、恐惧和矛盾等。这样,戏剧中的行为动作产生于戏剧的对白语言之中,它本身就是用口头讲述出来的文字

电影则不同。电影是一种视觉媒介,它把一个基本的故事线戏剧化了。它所打交道的是图像、画面、一小片和一段拍好的胶片;一个钟在滴滴答答地走动、一个窗子正在打开、一个人在看、两个家伙在笑、一辆汽车在弯道上拐弯、一个电话铃在响等等。一个电影剧本就是由画面讲述出来的故事,还包括语言和描述,而这些内容都发生在它的戏剧性结构之中。

一部电影剧本就是一个由画面讲述出来的故事。

它象名词(noun)──指的是一个人或几个人,在一个地方或几个地方,去干他或她的事情。所有的电影剧本都贯彻执行这一基本前提。

一部故事片是一个视觉媒介,它是把一条基本的故事线加以戏剧化。如同所有的故事一样,它有一个明确的开端、中段和结尾。如果我们拿来一个电影剧本,把它象一幅画那样挂在墙上来审视,那么它看起 来就象下面那个图表。

第一幕 第二幕 第三幕

开端(beginning) 中段(middle) 结尾(end)

│ │

A──·───┼───·───────┼─────Z

│ │

建 置(setup) 对抗 (confrontation) 结 局(resolution)

第1~30页 第30~90页 第90~120页

情节点Ⅰ(Plot Point) 情节点Ⅱ

第25——27页 第85——90页

所有的电影剧本都包括这一基本的线性结构。

我们把这一电影剧本的模式称之为示例(Paradigm)①。

它就是一个模特儿,一个式样,一个构思的规划。

表中的示例象一张桌子:一张桌面加上(通常是)四条腿。在此示例范围内,可有方桌子、长桌子、圆桌子、高桌子、矮桌子、矩形桌子、可调节的桌子等等。以此示例为样板,我们可以随意制作各种各样的桌子──反正都是一张桌面加上(通常是)四条腿。

这个示例是确定无疑的。

上面的图表就是一个电影剧本的示例。

下面我们将其分解:

第一幕,或称开端

一个标准电影剧本的篇幅大约有120页,或长两个小时。

不论你的剧本全用对话、全用描写,或两者兼有之,均可按一分钟一页来计算。

规矩是不变的──电影剧本中的一页等于银幕时间一分钟。

第一幕是开端,可看成建置(setup)部分,这是因为你要用30页左右的稿纸去建置(确定)你的故事。如果你去看电影,你时常会自觉或不自觉地做出判断──你是否喜爱这部影片。今后看电影时,请注意一下,你需要多长时间做出你是否喜爱这部影片的决定。一般大约十分钟左右。也就相当于你写的电影剧本的头十页。你应该及时地抓住你的读者。

你应该用大约十页的篇幅来让读者明白谁是你的主要人物,什么是故事的前提,故事的情境是什么。以《唐人街》(Chinatown)为例:第一页使我们知道杰克·吉蒂斯(杰克·尼科尔森JackNicholson饰)是地区调查所的一位不拘小节的私人侦探。在第五页我们认识了一位墨尔雷太太(狄安娜·莱德Di-

aneLadd饰)。她要雇用杰克·吉蒂斯去调查“我丈夫和谁正在乱搞”。这是这部电影剧本的主要问题,而且它提供了一股导致最后解决的戏剧动力。

在第一幕结尾处要有一个情节点。所谓情节点就是一个事变或事件,它紧紧织入故事之中,并把故事转向另一方向。这一事件一般出现在第25~27页之间。在《唐人街》之中,当报纸上发表了声称墨尔雷先生在“爱巢”之中被人抓住的故事之后,真的墨尔雷太太(费伊·邓纳维FayeDunaway饰)和她的律师来到事务所,恐吓说要提出诉讼。她是不是那位雇用杰克·尼科尔森②的真的墨尔雷太太?又是谁雇人冒充墨尔雷太太呢?这一切都是为什么?这个事件就把故事转引到了另一个方向:杰克·尼科尔森作为事件的幸存者必须弄清楚,是谁在摆布他,并且为了什么。

第二幕,或称对抗

第二幕是你故事的主体部分。一般是在剧本的第30页至90页。它之所以称为电影剧本的对抗部分,是因为一切戏剧的基础都是冲突(conflict)。一旦你给自己的人物规定出需求(need),亦即在剧本中他想要达到什么目的,他的目标是什么,你就可以为这一需求设置障碍(obstacles),这样就产生了冲突。在《唐人街》这个侦探故事中,第二幕就是杰克·尼科尔森与一些势力发生了冲突,这些势力不愿意让他调查出谁应该对墨尔雷先生之死以及争水丑闻负责。杰克·尼科尔森所需要克服的障碍支配着这个故事的戏剧动作(dramaticaction)。

第二幕结尾处的情节点一般发生在第85页至90页之间。在《唐人街》中,第二幕的结尾的情节点就是:杰克·尼科尔森在墨尔雷先生被谋杀的水池中找到了一副眼镜,并知道它不是墨尔雷的就是属于那个谋杀者的。这样就把故事引入到结局部分。

第三幕,或称结局

第三幕通常发生在第90页至第120页之间,是故事的结局。

故事是如何结束的?主人公怎么样了?他是活着还是死了?

他是成功还是失败了?等等。你的故事需要有一个有力的结尾,以便使人理解并求得完整。那种模棱两可,含义暧昧的结尾,现在已经过时了。

所有的电影剧本都贯彻着这一基本的线性结构。

戏剧性结构可以被规定为:一系列互为关联的事情、情节或事件按线性安排最后导致一个戏剧性的结 局。

如何安排这些结构组成部分,决定了你的电影的形式。以《安妮·霍尔》(AnnieHall)为例,它是一个由闪回来叙述的故事,但也有一个明确的开端、中段和结尾。《去年在马里昂巴德》 AnneederniereaMarienbad)也是一样。《公民凯恩》(CitizenKane)、《广岛之恋》(Hiroshimamonamour)和《午夜牛郎》(MidnightCowboy)都是如此。

所以这个示例是起作用的。

第一幕 第二幕 第三幕

│ │

────·─┼──────·─┼─────

│ │

建置 对抗 结局

情节点Ⅰ 情节点Ⅱ

Ⅰ Ⅱ

它是一个模特儿,一个式样,一个构思的规划;一个技巧高超的电影剧本就是这个样子的。它为我们提供了关于电影剧本结构的总观。如果你弄清楚了它就是这个样子的话,你可以简单地把你的故事“装”进去就行了。

所有的好电影剧本都符合这个示例吗?

肯定是的。

但不必盲目相信我的话。你把它当成一件工具来使用它;对它发生疑问,去研究它,并且思考它。

也许有人不相信它。可能不相信会有什么开端、中段和结尾。你可能说:艺术如同生活一样,它充其量不过是在某个巨大的中间部分中偶然发生的几个个人的“重要时刻”,并没有什么开端也没有什么结尾。它正如库特·冯尼格特(KurtVonnegut)所称,是“一系列偶然的时刻被随意地串联在一起”。

我不同意上述这种看法。

请问:一个人出生、生活到死亡,难道不象是开端、中段和结尾吗?

想一想伟大文明的兴起与衰亡吧──如:古埃及、古希腊、古罗马帝国,它们都是从一个小小的社团萌芽,发展到权力鼎盛时期,然后衰败直至覆灭。

想一想一颗星的诞生与消亡,或者宇宙的开端,根据现在大多数科学家已经赞同的“大统一”理论,如果宇宙有其开端的话,那它必然也应该有一个结尾。

想一想我们身体的细胞吧!它们从补充、恢复到再生这一循环周期要用多少时间呢?只要七年──在七年中我们身体中一些细胞要死亡,别的一些细胞要生殖、活动、死亡,然后再生。

想一想你获得某项新工作的第一天吧!你要和新同事相识,要承担一些新的职责,直到后来你决定离职、退休或者被解雇。

电影剧本也毫无例外。它们有自己明确的开端、中段和结尾。

这是戏剧性结构的基础。

如果你不相信这个示例的话,那请再做一次检验,来证明我错了。请去看一部影片或看几部影片,看一看它们是否符合这个示例。

如果你对电影剧本写作感兴趣的话,你就应该时常这样去做。你看的每一部影片都能成为你的学习材料,帮助你理解什么是故事影片,什么不是故事影片。

你还应该尽可能多读电影剧本,以便使你明白剧本的形式和结构。现在很多电影剧本印成了书,在许多书店里出售。也有一些剧本已绝版了,但你可以在自己的藏书里去找,或者从大学里的戏剧艺术部的图书馆里去借阅。

我让我的学生们阅读并研究一些电影剧本,如:《唐人街》、《网络》(Network)、《洛奇》(Rocky) 、《秃鹰的三天》(ThreeDaysoftheCondor)、《非法挣钱人》(Hastler)(选自简装本的罗伯特·罗逊的《三个剧本集》,现已绝版)、《安妮·霍尔》,《哈罗德与摩德》(HaroldandMaude)等。

这些剧本都是很好的教材。如果找不到它们,那就读一下你所能看到的任何电影剧本,读得越多越好

示例是有用的。

它是所有好的电影剧本的基础。

练习:

到电影院去看电影。当影院光线暗淡下来影片开始后,请问一下你自己究竟需要多少时间能做出“喜 欢”或“不喜欢”这部电影的决定。一旦你明确做出决定后,请看一下手表,记下时间。

如果你发现一部你真正欣赏的影片,不妨再看一遍。看一看这部影片是否真正符合这个示例。再看一看你自己能否分解出各个部分,找出它的开端、中段和结尾。记下:故事是如何开始建立的,你需要多少时间能知道这个影片讲的是什么,你是否被这部影片所吸引,或者是被硬拖到影片故事中去。然后再找出

第一幕结尾处与第二幕结尾处的情节点,看看它们是如何导致结局的。

————————

①原文Paradigm本书均译为“示例”。但这个词的实际意义比通常我们所理解的示例有更广泛的外延 涵义。在语法学中,这个词专指(动词、名词的)词形变化表。而本书作者使用这一词则指电影剧本结构的变化表,为了统一,本书内则把此词译为“示例”。

②本文作者在分析电影剧本及影片时,习惯把剧中人和扮演者混在一起议论。

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篇5:英语高考作文预测及写作指导

全文共 1874 字

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英语是占据分数比较多的,所以写好英语作文很重要。小编整理了关于文明的英语作文,快来看看吧。

预测作文】文明旅游

【猜题理由】有些旅游景点的文物景观遭到了严重的破坏,致使最近文明旅游的倡议越来越受重视,因此就“游客可付费在仿造长城上涂写留言”发表看法。

【预测题目】文明旅游

写作内容:1. 以约30个词概括短文的要点;

2. 以约120个词写一篇短文,就“游客可付费在仿造长城上涂写留言”发表你的看法,内容包括:

(1)谈谈对某些人喜欢在旅游景点随便涂鸦留言的看法;

(2)对专门修一段仿造城墙让游客付高价留言的做法你是赞成还是反对,并简要陈述你的理由。

【参考范文】

It is reported that tourists to China’s Great Wall can now leave their mark on a fake wall recently built near the real wall in Badaling if they pay 999 yuan.

In China, many visitors have the hobby of carving graffiti on places of interest, especially on some famous cultural relics. Last year I went to the Great Wall and found many people had left names and ugly words on the Wall, which destroys many historic bricks. In my opinion, such people should feel ashamed of leaving their marks on the great relics which were created by our ancestors.

So personally I quite agree with this brilliant project though it has caused criticism from some people. The Great Wall would be ruined one day if we didn’t take any steps to protect it. The fake wall is a really good idea because it will protect our relics as well as making profits from the project.(124 words)

英语写作指导

英语学习中,在英语书面表达时,每次写作前问自己四个问题:这篇文章的体裁格式是怎样的?主体时态用什么时态?人称用第几人称?可以分几段,之间用什么过渡词、连接词?带着这四个问题去审题,搞清楚文章的主要内容,然后列出提纲。最后利用自己有把握的英语句子丰富自己的提纲就可以了。

(1)条理性。指的是合理布局文章结构。首先,在文章思路、组织材料、叙述顺序等方面要有一定的条理性。其次,根据需要,安排好段落,各段之间要层次分明,也要重视每一段的开头和结尾,开头语往往是总起句,结尾语往往是总结句。

(2)准确性。指要求写出语法正确的句子,包括时态、语态、用词和句法等,要准确、地道地表达。必须要牢牢掌握一些常用句型或习惯表达,避免中式英语,在实践中不断总结中英用法的差异,养成用英语思维写作的习惯。高考英语作文素材。

(3)流畅性。指根据整篇文章思想的需要,有效采用不同的连接手段,清晰段落,使文章层次清楚、行文连贯。

(4)简洁多样性。简洁性就是语言简洁,不重复。多样性就是能随情景内容的变化写出句式多样的语句。这也是新课程标准对写作的评价标准。

(5)思想性。新标准对写作的要求,增加了情感因素,在准确流畅表达写作要点的同时,适当增加句子的感情色彩,增加一些人情味,使文章读起来更亲切,完全达到与读者进行交流的目的。

(6)美观性。指的是卷面书写规范、清楚、干净、整洁。在高考书面表达中,书面整洁是也是一个主观评分标准,所以在高考中保持书面整洁是必要的。

总结:那么在高考作文中,除了自己的一些英语知识的巩固还需要的是自己的情绪和思维。写作期间保持稳定的情绪,按照自己的思维完成写作,从总结文章中—布置文章结构—使用表达的语句—下笔连贯。最后当然是要检查是否出现拼错字,句子语法有误等。

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篇6:英语写作经典句式积累

全文共 13591 字

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下面是语文迷网小编为大家整理的英语写作的经典句式,希望对你有帮助。

1. According to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.

依照最近的一项调查,每年有4,000,000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.

最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.

没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

4. People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.

人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。

5. An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.

越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。

6. When it comes to education, the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.

说到教育,大部分人认为其是一个终生的学习。

7. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.

许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

8. Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful effects of international tourism.

应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量,努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。

9. An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However, this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents, who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.

越来越多的专家相信移民对城市的建设起到积极作用。然而,越来越多的城市居民却怀疑这种说法,他们抱怨民工给城市带来了许多严重的问题,像犯罪和卖淫。

10. Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus, which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.

许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少,以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车,而车上可能已满载乘客。

11. There is no denying the fact that air pollution is an extremely serious problem: the city authorities should take strong measures to deal with it.

无可否认,空气污染是一个极其严重的问题:城市当局应该采取有力措施来解决它。

12. An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward retirement.

一项调查显示妇女欢迎退休。

12a. A proper part-time job does not occupy students too much time. In fact, it is unhealthy for them to spend all of time on their study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

一份适当的业余工作并不会占用学生太多的时间,事实上,把全部的时间都用到学习上并不健康,正如那句老话:只工作,不玩耍,聪明的孩子会变傻。

14. Any government, which is blind to this point, may pay a heavy price.

任何政府忽视这一点都将付出巨大的代价。

15.Nowadays, many students always go into raptures at the mere mention of the coming life of high school or college they will begin. Unfortunately, for most young people, it is not pleasant experience on their first day on campus.

当前,一提到即将开始的学校生活,许多学生都会兴高采烈。然而,对多数年轻人来说,校园刚开始的日子并不是什么愉快的经历。

16. In view of the seriousness of this problem, effective measures should be taken before things get worse.

考虑到问题的严重性,在事态进一步恶化之前,必须采取有效的措施。

17. The majority of students believe that part-time job will provide them with more opportunities to develop their interpersonal skills, which may put them in a favorable position in the future job markets.

大部分学生相信业余工作会使他们有更多机会发展人际交往能力,而这对他们未来找工作是非常有好处的。

18. It is indisputable that there are millions of people who still have a miserable life and have to face the dangers of starvation and exposure.

无可争辩,现在有成千上万的人仍过着挨饿受冻的痛苦生活。

19. Although this view is wildly held, this is little evidence that education can be obtained at any age and at any place.

尽管这一观点被广泛接受,很少有证据表明教育能够在任何地点、任何年龄进行。

20. No one can deny the fact that a persons education is the most important aspect of his life.

没有人能否认:教育是人生最重要的一方面。

21. People equate success in life with the ability of operating computer.

人们把会使用计算机与人生成功相提并论。

22. In the last decades, advances in medical technology have made it possible for people to live longer than in the past.

在过去的几十年,先进的医疗技术已经使得人们比过去活的时间更长成为可能。

23. In fact, we have to admit the fact that the quality of life is as important as life itself.

事实上,我们必须承认生命的质量和生命本身一样重要。

24. We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。

25. People believe that computer skills will enhance their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

人们相信拥有计算机技术可以获得更多工作或提升的机会。

26. The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that this knowledge may be less useful than most people think.

从这几年我搜集的信息来看,这些知识并没有人们想象的那么有用。

27. Now, it is generally accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduation.

现在,人们普遍认为没有一所大学能够在毕业时候教给学生所有的知识。

28. This is a matter of life and death--a matter no country can afford to ignore.

这是一个关系到生死的问题,任何国家都不能忽视。

29. For my part, I agree with the latter opinion for the following reasons:

我同意后者,有如下理由:

30. Before giving my opinion, I think it is important to look at the arguments on both sides.

在给出我的观点之前,我想看看双方的观点是重要的。

31. This view&nbsnbsp;is now being questioned by more and more people.

这一观点正受到越来越多人的质疑。

32. Although many people claim that, along with the rapidly economic development, the number of people who use bicycle are decreasing and bicycle is bound to die out. The information Ive collected over the recent years leads me to believe that bicycle will continue to play extremely important roles in modern society.

尽管许多人认为随着经济的高速发展,用自行车的人数会减少,自行车可能会消亡, 然而,这几年我收集的一些信息让我相信自行车仍然会继续在现代社会发挥极其重要的作用。

33. Environmental experts point out that increasing pollution not only causes serious problems such as global warming but also could threaten to end human life on our planet.

环境学家指出:持续增加的污染不仅会导致像全球变暖这样严重的问题,而且还将威胁到人类在这个星球的生存。

34. In view of such serious situation, environmental tools of transportation like bicycle are more important than any time before.

考虑到这些严重的状况,我们比以往任何时候更需要像自行车这样的环保型交通工具。

35. Using bicycle contributes greatly to peoples physical fitness as well as easing traffic jams.

使用自行车有助于人们的身体健康,并极大地缓解了交通阻塞。

36. Despite many obvious advantages of bicycle, it is not without its problem.

尽管自行车有许多明显的优点,但是它也存在它的问题。

37. Bicycle cant be compared with other means of transportation like car and train for speed and comfort.

在速度和舒适度方面,自行车是无法和汽车、火车这样的交通工具相比的。

38. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that advantages of bicycle far outweigh its disadvantages and it will still play essential roles in modern society.

通过以上讨论,我们可以得出结论:自行车的优点远大于缺点,并且在现代社会它仍将发挥重要作用。

39. There is a general discussion these days over education in many colleges and institutes. One of the questions under debate is whether education is a lifetime study.

当前在高校和研究机构对教育存在着大量争论,其中一个问题就是教育是否是个终身学习的过程。

40. This issue has caused wide public concern.

这个问题已经引起了广泛关注。

41. It must be noted that learning must be done by a person himself.

必须指出学习只能靠自己。

42. A large number of people tend to live under the illusion that they had completed their education when they finished their schooling. Obviously, they seem to fail to take into account the basic fact that a persons education is a most important aspect of his life.

许多人存在这样的误解,认为离开学校就意味着结束了他们的教育。显然,他们忽视了教育是人生重要部分这一基本事实。

43. As for me, Im in favor of the opinion that education is not complete with graduation, for the following reasons:

就我而言,我同意教育不应该随着毕业而结束的观点,有以下原因:

44. It is commonly accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduate.

人们普遍认为高校是不可能在毕业的时候教会他们的学生所有知识的。

45. Even the best possible graduate needs to continue learning before she or he becomes an educated person.

即使最优秀的毕业生,要想成为一个博学的人也要不断地学习。

46. It is commonly thought that our society had dramatically changed by modern science and technology, and human had made extraordinary progress in knowledge and technology over the recent decades.

人们普遍认为我们的现代科技使我们的社会发生了巨大的变化,近几十年人类在科技方面取得了惊人的进步。

47. Now people in growing numbers are beginning to believe that learning new skills and knowledge contributes directly to enhancing their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

现在越来越多的人开始相信学习新的技术和知识能直接帮助他们获得工作就会或提升的机会。

48. An investigation shows that many older people express a strong desire to continue studying in university or college.

一项调查显示许多老人都有到大学继续学习的愿望。

49. For the majority of people, reading or learning a new skill has become the focus of their lives and the source of their happiness and contentment after their retirement.

对大多数人来讲,退休以后,阅读或学习一项新技术已成为他们生活的中心和快乐的来源。

50. For people who want to adopt a healthy and meaningful life style, it is important to find time to learn certain new knowledge. Just as an old saying goes: it is never too late to learn.

对于那些想过上健康而有意义的生活的人们来说,找时间学习一些新知识是很重要的,正如那句老话:活到老,学到老

51. There is a general debate on the campus today over the phenomenon of college or high school students doing a part-time job.

对于大学或高中生打工这一现象,校园里进行着广泛的争论。

52. By taking a major-related part-job, students can not only improve their academic studies, but gain much experience, experience they will never be able to get from the textbooks.

通过做一份和专业相关的工作,学生不仅能够提高他们的专业能力,而且能获得从课本上得不到的经验。

53. Although people’s lives have been dramatically changed over the last decades, it must be admitted that, shortage of funds is still the one of the biggest questions that students nowadays have to face because that tuition fees and prices of books are soaring by the day.

近几十年,尽管人们的生活有了惊人的改变,但必须承认,由于学费和书费日益飞涨,资金短缺仍然是学生们面临的最大问题之一。

54. Consequently, the extra money obtained from part-time job will strongly support students to continue to their study life.

因此,业余工作挣来的钱将强有力地支持学生们继续他们的求学生活。

55. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw a conclusion that part-time job can produce a far-reaching impact on students and they should be encouraged to take part-time job, which will benefit students and their family, even the society as a whole.

通过上面的讨论,我们不难得出结论:业余工作对学生们会产生深远的影响,我们应鼓励学生从事业余工作,这将有利于学生和他们的家庭,甚至整个社会。

56. These days, people in growing numbers are beginning to complain that work is more stressful and less leisurely than in past. Many experts point out that, along with the development of modern society, it is an inevitable result and there is no way to avoid it.

现在,越来越多的人们开始抱怨工作比以前更有压力。许多专家指出这是现代社会发展必然的结果,无法避免。

57. It is widely acknowledged that computer and other machines have become an indispensable part of our society, which make our life and work more comfortable and less laborious.

人们普遍认为计算机和其他机器已经成为我们社会必不可少的一部分。 它们使我们的生活更舒适,减少了大量劳动。

58. At the same time, along with the benefits of such machines, employees must study knowledge involved in such machines so that they are able to control them.

同时,随着这些机器带给我们的好处,员工们也必须要学习与之相关的知识以便使用它们。

59. No one can deny the basic fact that it is impossible for average workers to master those high-technology skills easily.

没有人能否认这一基本事实:对于一般工人来讲,轻松掌握这些技术是不可能的。

60. In the second place, there seem to be too many people without job and not enough job position.

第二方面,失业的人似乎太多而又没有足够的工作岗位。

61. Millions of people have to spend more time and energy on studying new skills and technology so that they can keep a favorable position in job market.

成千上万的人们不得不花费更多的精力和时间学习新的技术和知识,使得他们在就业市场能保持优势。

62. According to a recent survey, a growing number of people express a strong desire to take another job or spend more time on their job in order to get more money to support their family.

根据最近的一项调查,越来越多的人表达了想从事另外的工作或加班以赚取更多的钱来补贴家用的强烈愿望。

63. From what has been discussed above, I am fully convinced that the leisure life-style is undergoing a decline with the progress of modern society, it is not necessary a bad thing.

通过以上讨论,我完全相信,随着现代社会的进步,幽闲的生活方式正在消失并不是件坏事。

64. The problem of international tourism has caused wide public concern over the recent years.

近些年,国际旅游的问题引起了广泛关注。

65. Many people believe that international tourism produce positive effects on economic growth and local government should be encouraged to promote international tourism.

许多人认为国际旅游对经济发展有积极作用,应鼓励地方政府发展国际旅游。

66. But what these people fail to see is that international tourism may bring about a disastrous impact on our environment and local history.

但是这些人忽视了国际旅游可能会给当地环境和历史造成的灾难性的影响。

67. As for me, Im firmly convinced that the number of foreign tourists should be limited, for the following reasons:

就我而言,我坚定地认为国外旅游者的数量应得到限制,理由如下:

68. In addition, in order to attract tourists, a lot of artificial facilities have been built, which have certain unfavorable effects on the environment.

另外,为了吸引旅游者,大量人工设施被修建,这对环境是不利的。

69. For lack of distinct culture, some places will not attract tourists any more. Consequently, the fast rise in number of foreign tourists may eventually lead to the decline of local tourism.

由于缺乏独特的文化,一些地方不再吸引旅游者。因此,国外旅游者数量的快速增加可能最终会导致当地旅游业的衰败。

70. There is a growing tendency for parents to ask their children to accept extra educational programs over the recent years.

近些年,父母要求他们的孩子接受额外的教育呈增长的势头。

71. This phenomenon has caused wide public concern in many places of world.

这一现象在全世界许多地方已引起了广泛关注。

72. Many parents believe that additional educational activities enjoy obvious advantage. By extra studies, they maintain, their children are able to obtain many kinds of practical skills and useful knowledge, which will put them in a beneficial position in the future job&nbsnbsp;markets when they grow up.

许多家长相信额外的教育活动有许多优点,通过学习,他们的孩子可以获得很多实践技能和有用的知识,当他们长大后,这些对他们就业是大有好处的。

73. In the first place, extra studies bring about unhealthy impacts on physical growth of children. Educational experts point out that, it is equally important to take some sport activities instead of extra studies when children have spent the whole day in a boring classroom.

首先,额外的学习对孩子们的身体发育是不利的。教育专家指出,孩子们在枯燥的教室里呆了一整天后,从事一些体育活动,而不是额外的学习,是非常重要的。

74. Children are undergoing fast physical development; lack of physical exercise may produce disastrous influence on their later life.

孩子们正处于身体快速发育时期,缺乏体育锻炼可能会对他们未来的生活造成严重的影响。

75. In the second place, from psychological aspect, the majority of children seem to tend to have an unfavorable attitude toward additional educational activities.

第二,从心理上讲,大部分孩子似乎对额外的学习没有什么好感。

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篇7:六年级语文写作基础

全文共 1981 字

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升初作文怎么写,怎么才能构思一篇好作文。孩子在忙碌的同时,家长也开始为孩子忙碌着,或在图书大厦买作文书,或要孩子背诵一篇好文章按题目套文,其实这样的方法是有一定风险的。撞中了叫运气,反之则倒霉。

那么在小升初的作文中,孩子们到底该从哪些方面去着手准备呢?

一、素材的多角度立意

意大利着名画家达芬奇的老师对达芬奇所说的自己画蛋的体会:即使是同一只蛋,只要变换一下角度,形状便立即不同了。这告诉我们对生活中发生的事件我们可以多角度分析。文章源于生活,它的立意亦应多角度进行。

我们以一个发生在同学们身边的事件为例。

今年春天,我和爸爸来到高尔夫球场,第一次学打高尔夫球。看教练做很简单,我按照教练的要求去做,却发现和想象的不同,要么杆碰不上球,要么球出去就偏离了方向,经历了一次次失败,我终于成功了。

就这一事例,我们可从如下角度立意:

1、最大的敌人是自己,战胜自己就会走向成功;

2、一招一式,看似简单,做起来难,失之毫厘,谬以千里;

3、成功需要方法;四、运动带来快乐

这样,一个素材,可以根据命题的不同,确定立意,设置情节,确定描写重点。但无论从哪个角度立意,打球的动作细节是不能丢的。

二、练习写好文章的细节

学生练习作文的过程中,很多孩子注意了情节的起伏,语言的流畅,但总感觉文章空泛,这是为什么呢?忽视了细节描写。

怎样写好细节,简单地说,细节描写要还原生活,去发现场景细节、服饰细节、语言细节、动作细节、心理细节等,按照生活本来的面目去描摹。一篇文章,恰到好处地运用细节描写,能起到烘托环境气氛、刻画人物性格和揭示主题思想的作用。

如何将陌生叔叔帮我把车修好写细,我们首先要还原生活场景,在头脑中勾勒出雪中修车图,再从这一图画中去寻找描写的细节。

这是一位同学的作文片断:叔叔迅速地摘下手套,用右手拿着链条,左手帮着把链条搬过去,链条一点点地扣上去了,一节一节地扣住了后轮的齿轮。咣当一声,链条滑了出来,这一次努力前功尽弃。我的心咯噔一下,万一叔叔告诉我修不好,我该怎么办呀!可事情并非如我想象,只见叔叔向拢起的双手呵了呵气,又蹲下了身子。他为了不让链条弹开,用右手把链条往前面齿轮上套住,然后右手拉住链条往后齿轮上移,左手护住链条不让它再滑出来。后来,他看到位置有些偏,就用左手把它移正再装,洁白的雪花落在了他冻得通红的满是油污的手上,我知道他的手一定很冷,很冷,可他的心一定很热,很热。终于,链条一节一节地和齿轮扣住了。他猛一转脚踏板,车子居然又完好地转动起来。文章中最直观的细节是叔叔修车的动作细节,摘、拿、套、拉、护、移、转等动词的使用,写出了叔叔雪中修车的不容易,突出了人物精神。其次应当是外貌细节和心理细节的描写衬托了人物美好的心灵。

每个人观察生活的角度和经历不同,再现的生活场景也就不同,但无论采用怎样的方法,我们达到这样一种境地为最好做到写人则如见其人,写景则如临其境。

三、整理生活中的素材

努力回忆六年来的校园生活,家庭生活中记忆尤为深刻的小事,哪怕是一次单手磕鸡蛋的经历都不要放过。因为孩子有对生活的观察、积累,有真实的体验、感受,他的表述一定会具体而生动,他所表达的情感一定是真实的。翻翻过去的作文、周记,从多个角度,搜集这样的素材,将细节完整地记录下来,进行分类整理。

有些家长大量地看作文选、杂志,想帮助孩子从上面搬些素材下来。我不大同意这样的做法,因为那不是孩子的生活,他很难像成人一样具有缜密的思维,进行合理的想象情节,他也很难描摹当时的细节,这样的作文不能打动读者。不如让作文选、杂志成为勾起孩子回忆生活的媒介,从与作者相似的经历中挖掘写作素材。如:从作文选上看奶奶为我掖被子的细节,想到冬天,妈妈买药回来,为我滴眼药时怕我嫌凉而搓手的动作,这样一来写母爱的文章就有了素材。

四、努力锤炼文章的语言

佳酿总是经过酿造才有它独特的芳醇,文章也是一样,经过锤炼的语言才是有生命力的语言,孔子说言之无文,行而不远。说的就是这个道理。

我们可尝试这样的几种方式,让语言焕发色彩。

在句式变换上下工夫。在表达强烈的情感时,可以将陈述句用反问、设问或感叹句的形式表达。

在准确地运用词汇上下工夫。在文章中可以用一些拟声词来丰富表达;另外,可使用叠词使描绘更加准确,而且能使语言具有节奏感,从而让语言富有音乐美。再有,四字词语和成语的使用,会使语言表达更为简练。 在恰当地运用修辞上下工夫。修辞不但使文章语言生动活泼,而且能调节音节,增强语言的音乐美,提高语言的表达效果。例如:风追着雨,雨赶着风,风和雨联合起来追赶着天上的乌云,整个天地都处在雨水之中一句,意思是说大雨来了。但是作者使用了拟人的手法,把风、雨当作正在奔跑的人,飞快地追赶天空的乌云,这样一说比大雨来了更能表现出雨来的之快、之急、之大。当然,修辞方法还有引用、夸张、排比、设问、反问等等,我们应根据需要采用。

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篇8:高考英语写作素材:100个高分句子

全文共 14027 字

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下面是语文迷网精心为大家整理的关于高考英语作文素材,背熟以下句子有助于你的写作哦。

1、 Success is dangerous. One begins to copy oneself, and to copy oneself is more dangerous than to copy others. It leads to sterility. -Picasso , Spanish artist 成功是危险的。一个成功的人开始模仿自己,而模仿自己比模仿别人更加危险。因为这样做将毫无结果。 ── 毕加索 , 西班牙画家

2、 But failure also taught me that life is a road with unpredictable forks and unexpected tomorrows. 但是, 失败还使我懂得, 生活的道路充满了无法预测的岔路口和无法预料的明天。

3、 The common idea that success spoils people by making them vain, egotistic, and self-complacent is erroneous; on the contrary, it makes them, for the most part, humble, tolerant, and kind. Failure makes people cruel and bitter. -W. Somerset Maugham , British author 人们普遍认为成功使人变得虚荣、自以为是、自满, 从而毁了他们, 但这种看法是错误的;恰恰相反, 成功在很大程度上使人变得谦恭、宽容、善良。失败则使人变得残忍、怨愤。 ── W•萨默塞特•莫姆 , 英国作家

4、 Against all the odds she achieved her dream of becoming an actress. 她冲破重重困难,实现了当演员的梦想。

5、 He is too smart not to jump at the chance. 他这个人很精明,不会错过这个机会的。

6、 I’m not sure if I’ll succeed, but I certainly hope so. 是否成功我没有把握, 不过我当然希望会成功

7、 I wish you every success. 祝你万事如意!

8、 He seems to be successful in anything he tries. 他好像不论做什么事都能成功。

9、 Experience shows that success is due less to ability than to zeal. 经验告诉我们,成功与其说是由于才能,不如说是由于热情。

10、 Ambition is to life just what steam is to the locomotive. 抱负之于生活, 恰似蒸汽之于火车头。

11、 With their advanced features and compact size, portable electronic devices offer consumers freedom, productivity, and organization. 由于本身小巧玲珑, 又具备种种先进的特点, 便携式电子设备为消费者带来了自由, 提高了生产力, 改进了对信息的组织。

12、 However, the ease and speed with which messages can be sent and received has increased and accelerated to such an extent that many people are receiving hundreds of electronic messages of all kinds each day. 但是, 信息发送与接收的便捷发展得如此之快, 以至于很多人每天都会收到各种各样、成百上千的电子邮件。

13、 Weak men wait for opportunity, but the strong men make it. 弱者等待机会,强者创造机会。

14、 Opportunity meets the prepared mind, as the old saying goes. 正如俗话所说,机遇只属于那些有心理准备的人。

15、 Perseverance is failing nineteen times and succeeding the twentieth. 十九次失败,到第二十次获得成功,这就叫坚持。

16、 He tried hard to learn, and to be a good boy, and he succeeded fairly well. 他用心学习,又很听话,因此一切倒还顺利。

17、 In fact, there’s an old Chinese saying which goes, “He who hasn’t been to the Great Wall is not a true man.” 实际上,中国有句古谚语说:“不到长城非好汉。”

18、 A man is not old as long as he is seeking something. -John Barrymore只要一个人还有所追求, 她就没有老。 ── 约翰•巴里莫尔

19、 To take advantage of them, you can’t let yourself be destroyed by a defeat, or let others set the limits on your ability to achieve. 利用它们, 你就不会被一次失败击倒, 也不会让别人来限制住你成功的能力。

20、 Only those who have the patience to do simple things perfectly ever acquire the skill to do difficult things easily. 只有有耐心圆满完成简单工作的人才能够轻而易举地完成困难的事。

21、 The most important thing in life is to have a beautiful dream and good ways to realize it. 人生最重要的是要有美梦,并有好的方法去实现它。

22、 We must carry on till success in spite of the extremely difficult conditions. 尽管条件极端困难, 我们必须坚持下去, 直到成功。

23、 This belief in equal opportunity has produced a spirit of competition. It’s like a race to the top of the success ladder. 这种机会均等的信念造就了一种竞争的精神, 它就像一场通往成功之梯顶端的比赛一样。

24、 Just as history has shown that species which fail to adapt die out, businesses will die out if they don’t get to grips with the Internet. 正如历史所示, 适者生存, 企业如果不紧跟互联网就将退出历史的舞台。

25、 Television is different from radio in that it sends and receives pictures. 电视与无线电不同, 电视能播送和接收图像。

26、 When people master the digital organization, it will greatly simplify and improve both their professional and personal lives. 当人们掌握了这种数码管理方法后, 他们的工作与个人生活都会得以极大地简化并改善。

27、 A new IT high-tech park in Beijing is helping the city keep its promise to be the country’s center of the knowledge-based economy. 一所焕然一新的IT高科技园帮助北京实现了它的诺言:成为全国知识型经济的中心。

28、 Observation is the best teacher. 观察是最好的老师。

29、 Imagination is more important than knowledge. 想像力比知识更重要。 ── 爱因斯坦

30、 Knowledge is a treasure, but practice is the key to it. 知识是一座宝库,而实践是开启宝库的钥匙。

31、 We can kill two birds with one stone by combining our honeymoon with our business trip. 我们可以把蜜月和出差合在一起,这样一举两得。

32、 Greatly inspired, he made up his mind to read as much as he could, and what’s more, he would study harder than ever before. 他深受鼓舞,决心尽可能多读书,而且,比以往任何时候都努力学习。

33、 Nothing in all the world is more dangerous than sincere ignorance and conscientious stupidity. 世界上再也没有比实实在在的无知和认认真真的愚蠢更危险的了。

34、 Eat to live, but live to eat. 吃饭是为了生存而不是生存为了吃饭。

35、 To my knowledge, my daughter has never told a lie before. 据我所知, 我女儿以前从未说过谎。

36、 In the long run, basic knowledge and technological applications go hand in hand—one helps the other. 归根结蒂, 基础知识和技术应用是并进的, 相辅相成的。

37、 Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body. 读书之于思想, 就如运动之于身体。

38、 English is now the international language for airline pilots, scientists, medical experts, businessmen and many others. Consequently, more and more people are learning it. 现在, 对于航空公司飞行员、科学家、医学家、商人及许多其他行业的工作者来说, 英语是一门国际性语言, 因此越来越多的人开始学习英语。

39、 Unlike many other widely used languages, English can be correctly used in very simple form with less than one thousand basic words and very few grammatical rules. 与许多其他被广泛应用的语言不同, 英语仅凭借将近一千个基础词汇和很少的语法规则,就能够用简单的形式正确地表达意思。

40、 English will doubtless continue to change and develop as a living language always does. 毫无疑问, 英语将像一种活的语言贯常的变化和发展一样继续变化和发展下去。

41、 Another reason for the popularity of English is that English-speaking countries are spread through out the world. 英语流行的另一个原因是说英语的国家遍布世界各地。

42、 Genius is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration. 天才是百分之一的灵感和百分之九十九的汗水

43、 An estimated 310 million people in Britain, U.S.A., Canada, Australia, South Africa, etc. use English as their mother tongue. 据统计,在英国、美国、加拿大、澳大利亚和南非等国有三亿一千万人以英语为母语。

44、 It is surprising that some students have little or no knowledge of English. 令人感到吃惊的是, 有些学生英语懂得很少, 或者根本不懂英语。

45、 The rush to learn English has reached even China. 这种学习英语的浪潮甚至波及到中国。

46、 Washington is known as “the father of his country” and is one of those “larger than life” historical figures who are known around the world. 华盛顿被称为“美国国父”,是一位誉满全球的具有传奇色彩的历史人物。

47、 Many immigrants have come to this land of opportunity for that reason-to seek a better future. 许多移民基于这个缘故来到了这块充满机会的土地上──为了追求一个更好的未来。

48、 Not all Americans are rich, but most are concerned about money. Success-oriented Americans often measure people’s worth by how much they have. 并非所有的美国人都很有钱, 但大多数美国人都在乎钱。以成功为取向的美国人常常用人们拥有财产的多少来衡量他们的价值。

49、 As a result, nearly half of foreign students in the U.S. are concentrated in just 100 out of 2,500 post-secondary institutions, mostly brand-name schools. 结果, 在美留学生几乎有一半集中在2500所高校的仅100所, 这些学校大多是名牌学校。

50、 Credit cards symbolize American shopping habits: “Buy now, pay later.” 信用卡反映美国人的购物习惯:“现在买, 以后付。”

51、 In general, the act is designed to keep the U.S. high-tech industry on top by filling the need for skilled technology workers. 总之,这个法案是为了填补美国对熟练技术工人的需求,以保持美国在高科技工业中的领先地位而制定的。

52、 Tom’s college education gave him an advantage over boys who had not been to a university. 汤姆的大学教育使他比没上过大学的男孩们占优势。

53、 Educators also claim that calculators are so inexpensive and commonplace that students must become competent in using them. 教育家们还声称, 计算器如此便宜而又普遍, 学生必须学会熟练使用。

54、 He already has five honorary doctorates-the latest bestowed upon him by Yale University late of May, 2002-but what he really wanted was this humble bachelor’s degree. 斯皮尔伯格已获得5个荣誉博士头衔,其中最近的一个是在2002年5月下旬由耶鲁大学授予的,然而他最想得到的却是这个不起眼的学士学位。

55、 Calculators do have their place in the world outside school and, to a limited extent, in higher-level math classes, but they are hardly education tools. 计算器在学校之外的社会中的确有其地位, 在高等数学课堂上也有一定的作用, 但它们很难算得上是教育工具。

56、 Very heavy objects or bulky materials like coal, cement, mineral ore, and the like, are weighed in tons. 非常重的物体或者像煤、水泥、矿石等堆积如山的原材料用吨计重。

57、 By the end of this century, about 5,000 modern windmills will be in operation, generating about 20% of the electricity of the country. 到本世纪末, 将有5000架现代化的风车投入运行, 生产约全国20%的电力。

58、 Deep down, they realize that happiness can’t be bought, but it can be given away. 在内心深处,他们认识到幸福是买不来的, 但却可以与人分享。

59、 It is wrong to define happiness as owning a lot of money, but some people take it as their life philosophy. 把幸福定义为有很多钱是错误的,但是有些人却把它奉为人生哲学。

60、 He is rich in terms of money, but not in terms of happiness. 从钱的角度说他是富有的,但从幸福的角度说他不是。

61、 All happy families resemble one another, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way. —Leo Tolstoy 所有幸福的家庭彼此都很相似,而每个不幸的家庭却各有各的不幸。 ── 托尔斯泰

62、 Unfortunately, there are still some people who do not look after their pets properly or are even cruel to them. 遗憾的是,仍然有一些人对他们的宠物不好好照管甚至虐待它们。

63、 She sat up straight and pretended to believe in herself, so much so that she actually started believing in herself. 她坐直了身子, 假装对自己充满信心, 装得连她自己都开始以为自己确实很有信心。

64、 It’s not easy to keep in touch with friends when they are far away, however, they are always on her mind. 和远方的朋友保持联系不是一件容易的事,但是她一直记挂着他们。

65、 Agriculture will have to undergo a drastic change to meet the needs of the new situation. Otherwise, the country will starve. 农业必须进行深入的改革, 以满足新形势的需要。否则, 国家将遭受饥荒。

66、 In the northern area, it is necessary to plant varieties which are outstandingly resistant to low winter temperature. 北部地区只能种植确实能抗冬季低温的品种。

67、 Synthetic, or man-made, diamonds have been manufactured from carbon since the mid-1950s, when General Electric Co. developed the process for making small diamonds for industrial uses. 人们从20世纪50年代中期就开始用碳来制造或人工合成钻石,当时通用汽车公司开发出了生产工业用小钻石的工艺。

68、 The WTO’s creation on January 1 1995 marked the biggest reform of international trade since the Second World War. 1995年1月1日世贸组织的诞生,标志着第二次世界大战之后国际贸易的最大改革。

69、 A student who has grown up with a calculator will struggle with both strategies and computations. 一个伴着计算器长大的学生既要对付解题策略, 又要对付实际运算。

70、 Students learn far more when they do the math themselves. 学生自己进行数学运算所获得的收益远比依赖计算器多。

71、 A student who learns to handle numbers mentally can focus on how to attack a problem and then complete the actual calculations easily. 学会心算的学生能把注意力集中到如何解题上, 然后轻而易举地完成实际运算。

72、 It’s my mother who has been encouraging me never to lose heart when I had difficulties in study. 这些年来,当我在学习中遇到困难时,是我的母亲一直在鼓励我从不要泄气。

73、 With more students applying to college than ever before, admissions directors are paying especially close attention to essays, interviews, and teacher recommendations. 由于有比以往更多的学生申请上大学, 招生部主任将格外注重作文、面试和教师的推荐信。

74、 Calculators prevent students from seeing this kind of natural structure and beauty in math. 计算器妨碍学生认识数学中这类自然结构和美。

75、 If we don’t require students to do the simple problems that calculators can do, how can we expect them to solve the more complex problems that calculators cannot do? 如果我们不让学生做那些计算器能代劳的简单的运算, 又怎么能期待他们去解决计算器解决不了的更为复杂的问题呢?

76、 Your parents are the people responsible for helping you make decisions until you’re 18. 父母是有责任帮助你在18岁之前做决定的人。

77、 But he is too young to understand cheating won’t do him any good in the long run. 就长远而言, 他太小, 还不懂得欺骗会给他带来害处。

78、 What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the soul. 教育之于心灵, 就如雕刻术之于大理石。

79、 He began to study accounting at night sessions of the City University of New York, earning his tuition during the daytime. 他开始晚间在纽约城市大学学习会计,白天做工赚学费。

80、 Those who educate children well are to be more honored than the parents, for the latter only give them life while the former teach them the art of living well. —Aristotle 把儿童教育好的人们甚至应该比他们的父母更受尊敬,因为后者仅仅给予他们生命,前者却教给他们生活好的艺术。 ──(古希腊)亚里士多得

81、 The cloning of Dolly the sheep nearly 5 years ago raised the hopes of transplant scientists looking for an endless supply of lifesaving organs. 将近5年前,克隆羊多莉给寻求无穷无尽的救命器官供货的移植学家带来了希望。

82、 I would rather join you in research work than go on a holiday to the seaside. 我与其到海滨去度假,倒不如和你们一起参加科研工作。

83、 The further that Joy dug into the cutting edge of research in the new technologies-robotics, genetic engineering and nanotechnology-the more horrified he became. 乔伊在机器人学、基因工程和纳米技术等新技术研究领域的前沿钻得越深, 就越感到恐惧。

84、 What Henry Ford is to the automobile, George Eastman to photography, and Charles Goodyear to rubber, Edison is to not one but several of today’s essential technologies. 对当今不止一项而是多项重要技术的贡献, 就如同Henry Ford 对汽车、George Eastman 对摄影、Charles Goodyear 对橡胶的贡献一样大。

85、 I am not afraid of tomorrow for I have seen yesterday and I love today. -W.A.White我并不害怕明天, 因为我已见过昨天而又热爱今天。 ── 怀特

86、 He invested his money in several different companies, by which means he hoped to reduce the natural hazards of investment. 他把自己的钱向几个不同的公司投资, 希望借此减少投资的自然风险。

87、 With the rise of the Internet, personal finance magazines and TV shows find information on investing. 随着因特网、个人理财杂志和专事选股的电视节目的兴起,人们很容易找到有关投资的信息。

88、 Nothing is more precious than time yet nothing is less valued. 时间最宝贵,却最不被爱惜。

89、 If indeed silence is golden, it is also becoming as rare as gold. 如果宁静真是贵重如金的话,那它也在变得像金子一样稀罕了。

90、 Man is not creature of circumstances, circumstances are the creatures of man. 人不是环境所造就的,乃是环境由人所创造。

91、 Pollution is a global problem which needs a global response. 污染是一个全球性的问题,需要全球关注。

92、 Greenhouse effect means the gradual warming of the air surrounding the earth. 温室效应意味着地球周围的空气逐渐变暖。

93、 Air is to us what water is to fish. 我们离不开空气, 就像鱼离不开水。

94、 As our country is populous, it is confronted with a more and more serious crisis of resources. 我国由于人口众多,面临着越来越严重的资源危机。

95、 The government has to provide against a possible oil shortage in the coming months. 政府不得不预防未来几个月里可能出现的石油短缺。

96、 Why do Americans emphasize money so much? Well, this “land of plenty” has long enjoyed abundant natural resources, and people have gotten used to material wealth. 为什么美国人这么看重金钱呢? 这么说吧, 这块“丰饶之地”久已享有充裕的自然资源, 而人们已习惯于丰富的物质财富。

97、 A slip of the foot you may soon recover, but a slip of the tongue you may never get over. -Benjamin Franklin 失足可以很快弥补, 失言却可能永远无法补救。 ── 富兰克林

98、 The earliest Mother’s Day celebrations can be traced back to the spring celebrations of ancient Greece in honor of Rhea’, the Mother of the Gods. 庆祝母亲节的习俗最早 可以追溯到古希腊, 当时人们在春天举行庆祝活动, 来向众神之母──莉雅女神表示敬意。

99、 I am grateful to you for the opportunity to express my conviction in this most important political question. 感谢你们使我有机会就这个最重要的政治问题发表意见。

100、 I am thankful for America and thankful that we are able to resolve our electoral differences in a peaceful way. 我感谢美国, 我们终于用和平的方式解决了选举中的分歧。

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篇9:小学生的半命题作文写作基础指导

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这篇关于小学生的半命题作文写作基础指导,是小编特地为大家整理的,欢迎阅读~希望对大家有所帮助!

这些年来,这类命题方式,已广泛而频繁地被语文老师运用到平时的作文训练中去了,诸如《——迷》、《我当——》、《我第一次——》、《我学会了——》、《请到——来》、《——给我温暖》、《我常常想起——》、《——,真有意思》、《——的一堂课》。《——见闻》、《——一角》、《怎样学——》、《读——后感》等等,都属这类作文命题。

考试时遇上了这类命题样式,并要写好这类作文,必须注意以下两点:

一、是认真审题。大凡这类命题样式,命题者在题目的前后总会有比较具体的要求的,对横线上所填入的内容,更有明确的提示,而这些要求或提示正是正确、全面审题的前提,一定要仔细审清。

比如《我学会了——》这个题目,命题者对横线上填人的对象作如下提示:“凡是你生活、学习实际中确实学会了的,都可以写。审题时,可以从这一提示中确定选材范围(是生活、学习中的),确定写作对象(技能、方法)。

这样审明白了,心中有谱了,还得注意前面的“我学会了”。所谓“学会”,“学”反映一个过程,是“会”的前提,“会”,则反映了这一过程的程度和结果,是“熟练”和“能运用”的体现。“会”可以说是题眼,如果忽视了这一题眼,必定不能很好地反映出文章的中心。认真审明“学会”的含义,对确定填人横线上的写作对象,很有作用。否则,你可能填人的写作对象只是“学了”或“会一点”,而不是“学会”。

二、是认真选材。这类作文的选材与在横线上填人的写作对象是一致的,只是前者具体后者概括而已。因而,要所选材料达到新颖独特,首先横线上填人的写作对象必须新颖独特,与众不同。

怎样才能如此呢?要有发散性思维,或者要有求异性思维。这就是说。面对考题,先进行一番发散性思维,即跳出命题者提示的写作对象进行广泛的思考,想到很多很多。然后集中起来,分析比较,逐一筛选。筛选的原则是自己最熟悉、感受最深刻的,别人没有经历过,或根本想不到的。

这样的写作对象一经确定,选择材料也就有依据了。有一年,一所初中的作文考试题目是《我第一次———》,面对这样的考题,我们应该怎样在认真审题的基础上,充分展开了求异思维呢?我们应该怎样写,才能得高分呢?

题目:我第一次———审清题意这是半命题作文,题目所给出的一半“我第一次”是对内容的限制,要求写生活中的某种第一次经历,题目中所要补充的一半,是习作者的亲身经历,如第一次种花、买菜、做饭、洗衣服、坐飞。机、制做科技小制品等。

确定文章中心记叙生活中的第一次经历的事情,说明从中所受到的教益或产生的欢乐心情。在生活中,我们经历的第一次太多了。但事情有大、小、好、坏之分,应该选择有意义的事情来写,第一次做事情做的成功,会产生喜悦;第一次做的失败,会留下深刻的教训。事情的成功与失败,都会对同学有教益。

为什么有的同学观察的非常细致,可写出的文章却有不少毛病呢?没有意义呢?主要是因为这些同学不会对材料进行加工、提炼。1、加工提炼材料。我们知道,作文的材料来自于生活,但生活和文章之间不能划等号。生活不等于文章。文章是作者对生活的观察分析之后写出来的。所以,我们在观察生活,获得写作素材之后,还必须认真进行研究,哪些地方要补充细节,哪些内容应该舍弃,经过周密的思考,经过周密的分析,精心组织材料才能写出中心明确而又有意义的文章。

2、要学会在文中穿插写其他人物。写自己第一次经历的事情,要用第一人称,这样写真实可信亲切感人。为了避免叙述呆板,可以在故事中穿插有关的人物。我们发现不少的同学在作文中,常常只管写“我、怎样怎样做”,“我怎样怎样说”,忽视了有关的人和事,因市把故事写得呆板、枯燥。

其实生活中,我做事情往往会涉及到其他的人和事。如果在作文里能够有选择地穿插写有关的人,可以使文章生动活泼。叙事当中穿插写人,不要节外生枝、画蛇添足。穿插写其他人物,要能帮助突出中一心。叙事中穿插其他人物,但仍以写“我”为主。巧妙地穿插可以使故事的情节曲折动人。

3、会用点题的方法。在写人叙事的过程中,要学会用简炼的语言点清题意,这是小学生写作文的基本功之一。学会点题加强文题和内容之间的联系,更好地突出中心思想,在何处点题应当根据故事情节的推进人物性格的发展而定。可以在篇首、篇末或篇中点题之法,落笔重在故事情节的关键之处。在篇首点题,重在开宗明义;在篇未点题,重在深化中心;在篇中点题,重在因势利导。点题之笔要精炼,富有概括力,具有启发性。

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篇10:大学英语四级写作方法

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Where possible, reduce the use of "which," "who" "that" "whom" "whether... or not" etc.

少用关系代词

学会运用关系代词是你学习英文过程中的一个重要的阶段。学会少用它们则表明你取得了更大的进步。在校对你的作品时,仔细检查一下所有的which’s, who’s that’s和whom’s是否必要。删除不必要的关系代词会使你的文章更精彩。

Example:

Unnecessary: It is a truth that is universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.

(用两个 that’s,读起来很别扭)

Better: It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.

-- Jane Austin

注:被动语态修饰的名词通常不须用关系代词。

Unnecessary: In 1970 India dedicated a nuclear power plant near Bombay, which was built with American assistance.

Improved: In 1970 India dedicated a nuclear power plant near Bombay, built with American assistance.

Unnecessary: During this period, Churchill spoke for a nation which was undivided and curiously happy, as it has never been in my lifetime, before or since.

Improved: During this period, Churchill spoke for a nation undivided and curiously happy, as it has never been in my lifetime, before or since.

Unnecessary: Justice theories have a long tradition, which goes back to Plato and Aristotle in the 5th century B.C.

Improved: Justice theories have a long tradition, going back to Plato and Aristotle in the 5th century B.C.

Unnecessary: Shirley Temple’s father blew nearly the entire $3 million that she made by tap dancing which made her famous in the movies.

Improved: Shirley Temple’s father blew nearly the entire $3 million she made tap dancing her way to fame in the movies.

Unnecessary: We told them they were the victims who deserved sympathy the most.

Improved: We told them they were the victims, most deserving of sympathy.

Unnecessary: Only a person who is oblivious* to the facts of modern life would doubt the need of vocational education today.

Better: Only a person oblivious to the facts of modern life would doubt the need of vocational education today.

Unnecessary: Not everyone in North America likes the taste of green tea, whether it contains caffeine or not.

Better: With or without caffeine, not everyone in North America likes the taste of green tea.

Unnecessary: Usually the Washington family married people who were socially better off than themselves, but the second marriage of George’s father was an exception.

Better: Usually the Washingtons married their social betters, but the second marriage of George’s father was an exception.

Unnecessary: In some instances, a letter can take ten days by air and six to eight weeks by ship to reach the person to whom the letter is addressed.

Better: In some instances, a letter can take ten days by air and six to eight weeks by ship to reach its intended receiver.

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篇11:写作基础:把叙事与描写结合的写作方法

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下面是小编整理的把叙事描写结合写作方法,欢迎阅读。

在写记叙文时,如果要使文字内容更具体,不空泛,一定要把叙述与描写结合起来。那么如何才能结合好呢?我们首先需要了解一下这两者的基本概念和作用。

叙述和描写。是作文中两种不同的表现方式。我们这里说的叙述是指把人的经历行为或事件的发生、发展变化表述出来的一种表达方式,它常常把分散的场景,片断的故事和人物的身世,地位,经历,事迹等贯穿起来。它要求做到头绪清楚,脉络分明,有条有理,重点突出。

在记事、写人、状物的文章中,叙述是不可少的,尤其是在介绍人或事物变化为主的文章中叙述的作用更大,甚至有的文章专以叙述为长。我们本讲选的优秀作文《男班长,女班长》就是一个很好的例子。文章中描写部分很少,介绍事件发展过程的叙述占了很大的篇幅,如开头对男女班长来自何方的介绍,女班长对男班长的观察,正副班长必须合作的现实,以及同学们的揶揄,思想的顾虑,同学开玩笑不断,“收到副班长纸条”,到结尾“男女班长仍然合作着处理班里的事务”。这篇文章用很短的篇幅,以叙述为主,把一波三折的事件按发展轨迹清晰有序地介绍出来。对发展过程虽是梗概地介绍,但文章的思想内涵却非常丰富,也可以说在写法上是比较巧妙的。

叙述在按事件发生发展、人物经历的时间来划分,可以有顺叙,倒叙、插叙、补叙等方式,我们在写文章时,可以根据表达的需要去选择叙述的方式。

描写是对人物,事物和环境所作的具体的描绘和摹写,描写是再现描写对象状态的一种表达方式。描写需要采用绘声绘色的办法,把事物的状貌、神采和动态,具体地、真切地饱含情意地勾画出来。写人要使其声可闻,其容可睹;写物要使之可见,可闻,可触,可感;写景要意境鲜明,使读者产生仿佛置身其间的幻觉。

在我们学过的课文中,传神的描写是很多的。如《天山景物记》中对天山深处的描写,“山色逐渐变得柔嫩,山形也变得柔和,很有一伸手就可以触摸到凝脂似的感觉。这里溪流缓慢,萦绕着每一个山脚,在轻轻荡漾着的溪流的两岸,满是高过马头的野花,红、黄、蓝、白、紫,五彩缤纷,像绵延的织锦那么华丽,象天边的彩霞那么耀眼,像高空的长虹那么绚烂。”这段描写抓住山色、溪流、野花这三种最能表现天山特点的事物,重彩浓墨,绘声绘色地把天山美景表现出来。既能使读者如身临其境,也增添了作品的文采。我们在作文时,如果能恰当地运用描写来表现形象,借以表达某种强烈的思想感情。文章的感染力就一定能有所增强。

叙述和描写在记叙性的文字中都是不可缺少的表现方式。叙述着重于一般情况过程的交待,描写则着重形象的描摹和刻画;如果说叙述是纵的绵延,那么描写便是横的扩展。一篇文字若无叙述,就会显得杂乱无章;没有描写,则会干瘪枯燥,毫无生气可言。

实际上,成功的作品中,常常是叙述与描写交错在一起的。我们所选优秀作文,《奶奶与花》就是叙述与描写交融在一起的,近似于一线串珠式的一篇记叙文。

文中以时间为序,先从小时候家门前有一个很大的“花园”叙述开始,然后再描写人物行为语言、花的形态、气味。从而表现我“深深地爱上花”的过程。接着叙述自己病中见到花的情景,描写花的形态,写出自己感受到“花能给人一种强盛的生命力”。接着是叙述“随着年龄的增长,这种认识愈来愈深”又通过对“死不了”“仙人球”的描写,感悟出“花,让我感到一种无尽的生命力,一种明亮的期望”。第五自然段叙述自己养花的过程。这里又运用描写的方式,描绘出花园的美丽,各种花的特点,表现出花可以陶冶情操的作用。这段描写是比较突出的,描写了花的各种色彩,各种形态,用排比、比喻的手法绘色绘形,有丰富的想象力。为了把文章写得曲折有致,第七段、第八段叙述搬进高层楼房前、后我与奶奶对花的珍爱,对小花园的怀念,这里又有对人物的心理、动作的描写,为“小花园”遭到破坏,我和奶奶沉痛心情做了铺垫。

这篇文章用叙述的方式。介绍了事件发展曲折过程,使文章头绪清楚,脉络分明,重点环节突出。这是文章的一条线。在每个重要环节上,作者都生动形象地描绘了人物的行为、场景、物态,内容丰满。叙述和描写有机地结合在一起,深刻地表达了文章的主题思想,增强文章的感染力。

在作文时,恰当地运用叙述与描写,做到有机结合,要注意以下几点。

一、要熟练掌握叙述与描写的功能,注意二者之间互相依存、互相交通的关系。根据作文内容和思想表达的需要,交错运用。

二、在描写范围比较大、内容比较丰富的地域景物或事物状貌时,(例如《天山景物记》等一些游记式的文章)需要有一条贯穿始终的线索,有一个逐步转移、推进的过程,那么这个线索或过程就要依靠叙述来表现。如我们常讲的“移步换景”的写法,其中对“移步”的交代,往往需要叙述。用时间推移来描写事物或人物的发展变化时,对每个阶段的交代,一般也是要运用叙述来完成的。在这种情况下描写的条理性要依靠叙述来体现。

三、在写故事情节比较强文章时,人物的语言,行动往往是构成情节的重要因素、情节又要依靠叙述来展开,这就需要描写人物语言行动与铺叙故事情节同时进行,也就是说要把叙述故事融化在描写中,或把描写融化在叙述情节中。我们仔细玩味一下作文《奶奶与花》,其中有些地方就是把描写与叙述这样融合在一起的。

我们就应当多选读一些优秀作文或名家的文章,刻意体味一下的相依关系,学习二者的结合形式。使自己的作文能更加条理清晰,情节曲折跌宕,内容丰富有致,更具有感染力。

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篇12:写作基础:把叙述与描写结合起来

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在写记叙文时,如果要使文字内容更具体,不空泛,一定要把叙述描写结合起来。那么如何才能结合好呢?我们首先需要了解一下这两者的基本概念和作用。怎么结合呢?下文是小编整理的相关内容,欢迎阅读参考!

叙述和描写。是作文中两种不同的表现方式。我们这里说的叙述是指把人的经历行为或事件的发生、发展变化表述出来的一种表达方式,它常常把分散的场景,片断的故事和人物的身世,地位,经历,事迹等贯穿起来。它要求做到头绪清楚,脉络分明,有条有理,重点突出。

在记事、写人、状物的文章中,叙述是不可少的,尤其是在介绍人或事物变化为主的文章中叙述的作用更大,甚至有的文章专以叙述为长。我们本讲选的优秀作文《男班长,女班长》就是一个很好的例子。文章中描写部分很少,介绍事件发展过程的叙述占了很大的篇幅,如开头对男女班长来自何方的介绍,女班长对男班长的观察,正副班长必须合作的现实,以及同学们的揶揄,思想的顾虑,同学开玩笑不断,“收到副班长纸条”,到结尾“男女班长仍然合作着处理班里的事务”。这篇文章用很短的篇幅,以叙述为主,把一波三折的事件按发展轨迹清晰有序地介绍出来。对发展过程虽是梗概地介绍,但文章的思想内涵却非常丰富,也可以说在写法上是比较巧妙的。

叙述在按事件发生发展、人物经历的时间来划分,可以有顺叙,倒叙、插叙、补叙等方式,我们在写文章时,可以根据表达的需要去选择叙述的方式。

描写是对人物,事物和环境所作的具体的描绘和摹写,描写是再现描写对象状态的一种表达方式。描写需要采用绘声绘色的办法,把事物的状貌、神采和动态,具体地、真切地饱含情意地勾画出来。写人要使其声可闻,其容可睹;写物要使之可见,可闻,可触,可感;写景要意境鲜明,使读者产生仿佛置身其间的幻觉。

在我们学过的课文中,传神的描写是很多的。如《天山景物记》中对天山深处的描写,“山色逐渐变得柔嫩,山形也变得柔和,很有一伸手就可以触摸到凝脂似的感觉。这里溪流缓慢,萦绕着每一个山脚,在轻轻荡漾着的溪流的两岸,满是高过马头的野花,红、黄、蓝、白、紫,五彩缤纷,像绵延的织锦那么华丽,象天边的彩霞那么耀眼,像高空的长虹那么绚烂。”这段描写抓住山色、溪流、野花这三种最能表现天山特点的事物,重彩浓墨,绘声绘色地把天山美景表现出来。既能使读者如身临其境,也增添了作品的文采。我们在作文时,如果能恰当地运用描写来表现形象,借以表达某种强烈的思想感情。文章的感染力就一定能有所增强。

叙述和描写在记叙性的文字中都是不可缺少的表现方式。叙述着重于一般情况过程的交待,描写则着重形象的描摹和刻画;如果说叙述是纵的绵延,那么描写便是横的扩展。一篇文字若无叙述,就会显得杂乱无章;没有描写,则会干瘪枯燥,毫无生气可言。

实际上,成功的作品中,常常是叙述与描写交错在一起的。我们所选优秀作文,《奶奶与花》就是叙述与描写交融在一起的,近似于一线串珠式的一篇记叙文。

文中以时间为序,先从小时候家门前有一个很大的“花园”叙述开始,然后再描写人物行为语言、花的形态、气味。从而表现我“深深地爱上花”的过程。接着叙述自己病中见到花的情景,描写花的形态,写出自己感受到“花能给人一种强盛的生命力”。接着是叙述“随着年龄的增长,这种认识愈来愈深”又通过对“死不了”“仙人球”的描写,感悟出“花,让我感到一种无尽的生命力,一种明亮的期望”。第五自然段叙述自己养花的过程。这里又运用描写的方式,描绘出花园的美丽,各种花的特点,表现出花可以陶冶情操的作用。这段描写是比较突出的,描写了花的各种色彩,各种形态,用排比、比喻的手法绘色绘形,有丰富的想象力。为了把文章写得曲折有致,第七段、第八段叙述搬进高层楼房前、后我与奶奶对花的珍爱,对小花园的怀念,这里又有对人物的心理、动作的描写,为“小花园”遭到破坏,我和奶奶沉痛心情做了铺垫。

这篇文章用叙述的方式。介绍了事件发展曲折过程,使文章头绪清楚,脉络分明,重点环节突出。这是文章的一条线。在每个重要环节上,作者都生动形象地描绘了人物的行为、场景、物态,内容丰满。叙述和描写有机地结合在一起,深刻地表达了文章的主题思想,增强文章的感染力。

在作文时,恰当地运用叙述与描写,做到有机结合,要注意以下几点。

一、要熟练掌握叙述与描写的功能,注意二者之间互相依存、互相交通的关系。根据作文内容和思想表达的需要,交错运用。

二、在描写范围比较大、内容比较丰富的地域景物或事物状貌时,(例如《天山景物记》等一些游记式的文章)需要有一条贯穿始终的线索,有一个逐步转移、推进的过程,那么这个线索或过程就要依靠叙述来表现。如我们常讲的“移步换景”的写法,其中对“移步”的交代,往往需要叙述。用时间推移来描写事物或人物的发展变化时,对每个阶段的交代,一般也是要运用叙述来完成的。在这种情况下描写的条理性要依靠叙述来体现。

三、在写故事情节比较强文章时,人物的语言,行动往往是构成情节的重要因素、情节又要依靠叙述来展开,这就需要描写人物语言行动与铺叙故事情节同时进行,也就是说要把叙述故事融化在描写中,或把描写融化在叙述情节中。我们仔细玩味一下作文《奶奶与花》,其中有些地方就是把描写与叙述这样融合在一起的。

我们就应当多选读一些优秀作文或名家的文章,刻意体味一下的相依关系,学习二者的结合形式。使自己的作文能更加条理清晰,情节曲折跌宕,内容丰富有致,更具有感染力。

[写作基础:把叙述与描写结合起来

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篇13:应用文写作基础知识精选

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能力目标:

正确理解应用文写作知识,并会具体运用写作知识进行写作实践。

教学设计 :

通过具体的实例讲解 应用文写作基础知识

导入 :

“博士”寻驴

从前,有一位老先生,号称学富五车、才高八斗,方圆百十里地享有很高的声望,人称“博士”,他也因此得意洋洋、自视很高。这一天,家人来向他报告:家里一头最精壮的黑驴莫名其妙地丢失了,而眼下正是田里、家里活儿最多、最需要牲口的时候,请老爷赶紧想办法或者找回黑驴、或者重买一头新驴。当时一头正值壮年的驴也还很值几个钱,于是有好事者提醒博士说,还是先写个寻驴启事,也许还能找回来呢!博士连连点头称是。于是磨墨铺纸,提笔运腕,一张寻驴启事一气呵成,墨迹未干就赶紧让家人拿出去,张贴在闹市口了。

可是,转眼几天过去了,一点黑驴的消息也没有,博士决定亲自到街头去看一看、听一听,了解了解关于黑驴的消息。来到闹市口,自己写的启事还在,还真有不少人在围观,博士混入人群,心下得意,想听听大家的说法。只听得有好事者正摇头晃脑地给大家念着:“……,我中华古国、历史悠久,文化灿烂、民风淳朴、文明教化,……盘古开天……,唐宗……,宋祖……”“什么嘛!什么嘛!”“什么意思!瞎耽误工夫!”围观的人没等好事者念完,就已连连唾弃着地四下散去。原来,“博士”真不愧为博士,一个寻驴启事洋洋洒洒上万字下去,还没提到一个驴字,难怪他等了好几天没有任何消息呢!原来大家还没等他讲到驴就早已不耐烦读下去了!

那么,到底什么是应用文呢?

关于应用文的概念, 1979 年上海辞书出版社出版的《辞海》的解释是:应用文是人们在日常生活、工作和学习中所应用的简易通俗文字,包括书信、公文、契约、启事、条据等。定义很简单,但没能概括出应用文的本质特征,仅仅指出应用文的“简易通俗”,这才只是应用文的一些方面,而不是全部特征。

根据国务院办公厅颁布的《国家行政机关公文处理办法》中对公文的定义,推广开来,应用文的定义应为:应用文是机关团体、企事业单位以及人民群众在日常工作、生产和生活中办理公务以及个人事务时,交流情况、沟通信息,具有直接实用价值和惯用格式的一种书面交际工具。这个定义规定了应用文的本质特征,使它明显区别于其他文体,又涵盖了应用文的基本特性。

应用文的起源至迟可以追溯到殷商社会晚期,也就是距今 3000 多年前,可以说我国有初步定型文字的最初年代也就伴随着有了应用文的使用。殷墟出土的甲骨卜辞,商周时期的钟鼎文,《周易》中的卦、爻辞等,都是应用文的原始形态。所以,如果说,神话是中国文学的“祖先”,那么甲骨文则是应用文的“祖先”了。

应用文的使用非常广泛,几乎涉及各个领域、各个部门、各个阶层、每个个人。比如,科研单位的人员,需要用学术论文;政府机关指导工作,需要用公文;工商企业经营,需要用合同;打官司,需要用诉状;即使个人今天生病了、不能上课,也需要用到请假条;……。相对于其它文体来说,应用文的使用频率要高得多:许多人可以一辈子不写小说、剧本、诗歌、散文,但他在工作、生活、学习中却免不了要写应用文,小到写张请假条,大到计划、总结、论文等。正如 叶圣陶 先生所说的那样:“大学毕业生不一定能写小说诗歌,但是一定要能写工作和学习中实用的文章,而且非写得既通顺又扎实不可。”

可以这么说,应用文使用的广泛,已经到了无所不在的程度。今天在中国特色的社会主义市场经济条件下,应用文是任何企事业单位和个人日常工作、生活中不可缺少的一个重要工具。

应用文同别的文体比较,有共性,也有个性。共性是他们都是对客观事物的反映,都要谋篇布局、用词造句、使用标点符号,讲究条理性、逻辑性,同样使用叙述、说明、议论等表达方式,要求准确、鲜明、生动的文风。具体表现在以下几方面。

教学内容:

第一节 应用文的主题

应用文写作基础知识既有与一般文体写作的共通之处,更多的是其在写作知识运用上的独特性,只有掌握其独特性,才能正确、规范地写好应用文体。

主题先行性

一、主题的特点 主题单一性

主题显露性

应用文的主题就是解决问题的方法、建议。其主题是十分明确直接的,主题的确立大多不是写作者有感而发,而是应客观实际的需要,为解决实际问题而产生的,由此可以说应用文主题就是解决问题的具体方法。因此应用文的主题具有以下特点:

文学作品的主题是从生活中、从已获取的材料中提炼出来的,往往反对主题先行。而应用文主题的确立与文学作品主题的确立不同,其主题确立在全文写作之前,所谓“意在笔先”。因为应用文总是先产生了具体问题而后产生写作的需求,而解决这一问题的方法、结论往往也产生在文章写作之前;同时执笔者的写作行为往往也是被动的,是应解决问题而动笔,写作的过程更是确切地体现主题。如《国务院关于同意黑龙江省调整哈尔滨市部分行政区划的批复》一文就是为答复《调整哈尔滨市部分行政区划的请示》而写的文章,表示同意请示提出的请求事项而作,主题一定是确立在写作之前。

一般说文学作品的主题具有其复杂性,对主题的理解更呈多元化。然而应用文的主题则必须单一、明确,读者对主题的理解不允许多元,而要求理解上的同一性,这样才利于统一认识,更有利于问题的解决。如:《关于当代青年消费问题的调查报告》一文就消费观念、消费现状、消费趋势和消费结构等四个方面,展开调查,尽管涉及面广,材料较丰富,但文章紧紧围绕“当代青年消费”这一中心,内容集中,一题一议,主题单一、明确。

文学作品的主题要求含蓄、曲折,令人回味。而应用文写作就不同,要求直截了当地点明主题,表明态度,提出解决问题的措施和办法,对文章所涉及的各类问题,必须有明确的观点立场,应该怎么做,解决什么问题,达到什么目的,都要明确地表达出来。

标题显旨

二、主题的表现方法 开头点旨

结尾点旨

应用文主题的表达要做到明确、显露。那么怎么才能做到主题从文章中显露出来呢?下面就给大家介绍几种表现方法:

标题显旨,就是在文章的标题中直接点明主题。如《三季度物价水平再次转降,出口增速趋于稳定》,这篇经济活动分析报告的标题就直接点明了主题,让人一看就大致明白了文章的主要内容,主题十分显露。这不失为是一种使主题显现的好方法。

这种方式是在文章的开头或每一段落的开头用简短的语句陈述主题,使主题凸现出来。如《 2001 年经济形势展望》一开头就指出: “展望 2001 年,经济回升的势头还比较微弱,促进经济的持续向好仍然需要克服许多困难。” 开宗明义,点明主题。再如《靠名牌赢得市场——关于深圳市飞亚达(集团)股份有限公司的调查》一文在 “启示:现代企业必须重视实施名牌战略” 的小标题下,分三段来阐述这一问题,在每段开头用段首句点明主旨:第一段的段 首句: 实施名牌战略是提高产品质量、提升企业品味的内在要求。 第二段的段首句: 实施名牌战略是企业参与市场竞争尤其是国际市场竞争的客观需要。 第三段的段首句: 实施名牌战略是增强国家经济实力的重要手段。 在这三句主题句的提示下,每段的中心就十分明了。

这种方式是在文章的的结尾之处点明文章主题。如李政道的论文《基础、应用科学与生产三者关系》一文就是采用这一方法结尾。文章的结尾指出: “我再重复一下,没有基础学科就没有应用学科,没有应用学科就没有生产学科,三者是紧密结合在一起的。” 非常清晰地显示了主题。

主题决定材料的选取

三、主题的作用 主题决定文种的选用

主题决定结构的安排

主题决定表达方式的选用

实训:

根据下面材料概括出主题,并用主题句表现出来。

1 .目前,全世界的年教育经费已超过 2000 亿美元,在公共资金的支出中仅次于军事经费,占第二位。世界工业化国家人口只占世界人口约三分之一,其教育经费比发展中国家多十倍以上。中国人口占世界总数超过五分之一,但教育经费仅占约三十分之一。按 1982 年的数字算,人均教育费为 11.2 元人民币,属世界 14 个人均教育经费不足 5 美元的国家之一。

2 .国外有两家鞋厂,各派一位推销员到太平洋某岛国去推销本厂的鞋子。上岛后不久,他们各发回一份电报。一位的电文是:“此岛上的人都不穿鞋,明天我就回去。”另一位的电文是:“太好了!这个岛上的人都没穿上鞋子,我打算长驻此岛。”

第二节 应用文的材料

材料的真实性

一、材料的特点 材料的现实和新颖性

材料的典型性

应用文写作对材料是十分依赖的,常言道“巧妇难为无米之炊”,为了表现主题我们需要收集一系列材料,或综合或舍取运用到文章的写作之中,使主题真实立体地表现出来。应用文材料的使用除了与文学作品有共通之处外,更多地体现自身特点:

应用文在材料的选用过程中不准改变材料本身性质,必须保持材料的真实性,对材料的时间、地点、数据、事实过程及结果都不能任意改动,否则就会使材料本身的价值发生变异,导致歪曲事实的真相,弄虚作假的后果,失去应用文的主题应有的价值,不仅不能解决问题,反而于事无补。应用文要求的真实是“绝对的真实”,也就是说所有材料要确凿无误、持之有据。不仅对搜集到的材料要反复核实,在材料的解释上,也要有科学的态度,实事求是。

应用文写作是为了解决现实问题而作的即时之作,其主要的材料需选取能反映现实的新颖材料。所谓现实是指,围绕文章要解决的问题所存在的事实(数据)材料而非通过联想和推论得到的材料。如在《新的消费热点:出门旅游过年》一文中,为了陈述出门旅游过年的现状,就采用了大量的事实(数据)材料: “根据国家旅游局对江苏、广东、云南、海南、北京、福建、广西、四川、黑龙江、湖南、山东、山西等 13 个省、自治区、直辖市的调查,……今年春节期间,这些地区直接由旅行社接待的国内旅游人次比往年至少有 15 %的增长……以上 13 个省、区、市的旅行社,春节期间共接待旅游者 124 万人次,旅行社营业收入 14 亿元。” 文中采用的材料都是新近现实发生的,这是大多数应用文材料的特点。所谓新颖是指,材料本身是新近产生的,如新事实、新政策、新的统计数据、新发现的问题等和用新的角度重新审视其新意。

所谓典型性是指那些最能支持主题和说明问题的材料。典型材料可以是一个具体的事例,一些有说服力的数据和一些带有普遍性的现象。如题为《“小解放”为何俏销湖北》的市场调查报告中,在说明“优质服务获得良好口碑”这一经验时,采用了这样一则事实材料: “去年 10 月的一天傍晚,河南省郑州市某单位的一辆小解放牌车在去广州途径武汉时,在武汉黄鹤楼处出现问题,求助电话打到了该销售中心,中心经理立即亲自带队迅速赶到现场,发现该车是用户对后驱动桥端面螺丝没拧紧而发生齿轮油漏尽,导致差速器锥齿烧损。当维修人员在后半夜将修好的车交给用户时,用户激动地说虽然我们不属于该省管辖,又没带保用手册,并且问题又是因我们使用不当所致,你们还这样及时周到地服务,太让我们感动了!‘小解放走到哪服务到哪,此言不虚,以后再买车,还买‘小解放。” 这一材料就是一则很能表现主题的材料,是典型的材料。 直接获取

获取材料的方法

二、材料的选取 间接获取

围绕主题,挖掘材料的意义

材料的使用 根据主题的需要,进行详略处理

合理安排材料,注重条理

如何获取材料,哪些材料是应用文写作值得关注的?下面我们谈谈这个问题:

在实践之中积累材料。在自身及周围同事的工作实践中做个有心人,时刻关注有价值的事件及数据,如在工作中及时对做了什么工作、采用了什么方法、取得了什么效果、有哪些人参与等信息及时记录收集。

在观察中掌握材料。在观察时要做到实事求是,防止主观武断、先入为主,同时要全面、系统、动态地进行观察,以获取真实、广泛、完整的材料,并能把观察所得及时整理成文字,给写作提供基础。

在调查中拓展材料。个人的实践和视野总是有限的,观察也不可能做到深入细致,这样就需要走向实际、走向社会,向有关人士了解情况,做一些调查,以扩大自己的视野,获取材料上的补充。经济类的应用文,调查是必不可少的步骤,如市场调查报告,市场预测报告需在调查之后,才能动笔。

通过查阅文献资料获取材料。应用文写作材料常常从有关文件、正式出版物,以及会议资料中获取材料,为写入具体文章之用,因此大量查阅文献资料来获取材料,是应用文写作经常采用的方法。

获取材料是写作的第一步。总的来说,获取材料要求以多为好,以全为贵。材料多了,便于比较、鉴别,更有选择的余地;材料全面,观点才能不至于偏颇,因此,动笔之前,应当围绕主题,占有详尽而充实的材料。

其次,强调对感性材料的分析研究,不能停留在表面的认识上,要挖掘材料能凸现主题的一面,使其在文章中发挥挖掘主题的作用。如有这样一则材料 : 某日,某国驻广州领事馆的外交官员去珠江三角洲某市参观,市长亲自接待,但讲不好普通话请了一个翻译,本来 10 分钟就可以讲完的话,结果用了 20 分钟。此外交官用标准的普通话问:广东不是在大力推广普通话吗么? 这则材料从不同的角度可展现不同的主题,但意义深浅不一。从较粗浅的角度看,可表现“市长不重视说普通话”的主题;进一步挖掘可表现“我们的官员素质的高低,直接关乎办公的效率”。这样的材料还可以根据主题的需要进行开拓。同学可以动动脑筋来挖掘一下。

使用材料时,要分清主次。对材料的加工整理,无非是为了突出文章的主题,加强应用文的表达效果,处理材料的详略要以此为据。突出事件特征的材料要详写,一般材料可略写;处于主体地位的材料详写,处于从属地位、过渡的材料略写;读者不熟悉的材料详写,熟悉的略写;材料之间角度相异的详写,材料之间相同的略写。

根据主题的需要,按照一定的组织形式,安排材料的先后顺序,在安排顺序时要考虑材料的主次、时间的先后、材料间的逻辑顺序、人们认识事物的规律、事物发展的过程等因素。

最后,数字材料是应用文写作中十分重要的材料,数字有时比文字材料更具体、准确、更能说明问题。因此,要注意: ⑴ 真实、准确地用好数据材料。 ⑵ 运用统计数据,展开分析论证,更好地为主题服务。 ⑶ 适当地使用统计图表。 ⑷ 变抽象的数字为具体,使其形象。如有两篇介绍乐山大佛的文字,其中一篇在介绍时用了这样一些数字: “乐山大佛身高 71 米 ,头高 14 . 7 米 ,宽 10 米 。” 这些数字看似具体清晰,但比较抽象,大佛的高大这一主题没有凸现出来。另一段文字这样写道: “佛像有三十多层楼高,耳朵有四人高,每只脚背上可以停五辆解放牌汽车,脚大拇指上,可以摆一桌酒席。” 这段文字也用了数字,但采用文字叙述的方法,使抽象的数字形象了,大佛的高大形象仿佛就在眼前,极好地体现了主题。

实训:

概括下列材料的主题。

1 .随着市场的进化,专业化分工的加强,未来 10 年内,以往支撑家电企业的自营渠道因为成本原因将全面撤退,而其他大量零星的代理商将通过特许经营方式加盟到大的品牌渠道中,成为品牌渠道的连锁店。

2 .据 1987 年国家审计局的公报, 1985 —— 1986 年仅对 2700 多个县以上的教育主管部门的审核,查出被挪用、占用普教经费,竟高达 5 亿多万,占审计总额的 5 %,成了违纪金额中的主要项目。被占用的钱用来建干部宿舍、招待所、办工楼、买小汽车、经商办厂。一个县教育局竟把 40 万转入银行吃利息,而置全县二万多平方米的学校危房于不顾。

第三节 应用文的结构

固定性

一、应用文结构的特点 条理性

文种不同结构不同

应用文是经过长期写作实践,逐渐形成较固定的写作结构,以适应实际工作需要,使写作更快速,阅读更便捷,提高办事效率。特别是公文写作,其格式更规范,结构更固定。

应用文写作要求有严密的思路,表现在结构上以求清晰有条理。在写作中要根据主题的需要安排好结构。如写事件,就应按“开端——发展——结果”的顺序安排结构;写问题就应按“发现问题——分析问题——解决问题”的顺序安排结构。

凡文种都有相对稳定的结构样式,应用文写作结构安排需适应不同文体的要求。如写合同就需要将合同的条款按标的、数量、质量、价款等内容分条列项地写清楚;写通知要按目的依据、事项、执行要求的顺序安排结构。

二、常见的应用文结构模式

(一)单段式

正文内容用一个自然段来表达。用于内容少而单一,不便分开,往往采用一段文字来表达。如写在商品外包装上的说明文;公文中的函、批复,也常用一段文字来进行写作。“玉兰油”写在外包装上的说明: “经实验证明能帮助减少细纹。四星期内,肌肤重现青春光泽。请不要涂抹在眼睛及眼睑周围。如不慎入眼,即用清水彻底洗清。如有持续眼睛刺激,请向医生咨询。如有持续皮肤刺激,请停止使用。请置于儿童接触不到的地方。” 这就是单段式。

(二)两段式

正文内容用两个自然段来表达。用于内容简单,不需每层内容都分段。这种结构模式,一般用于以下几种情况:

1 .把结语部分内容和主体内容分开写,单列一个自然段,成为两段式。即行文的缘由和行文事项为一段,希望、要求等结语为一段。

2 .写作目的缘由、行文事项各为一段。

3 .在转发、发布性公文中,将发布或转发的文件名和发文意见列为一段,执行要求另为一段。

4 .在答复性公文中,将表示收到对方文件为一段,而答复事项为另一段。

5 .没有开头、结语部分,将主体内容列为两段。

(三)三段式

这是短篇应用文比较规范的常用模式。正文把写作目的缘由、写作事项、结尾分为三段来写。

(四)多段式

它用于内容较多,篇幅较长的应用文书,总共有四个自然段以上。一般是开头概述基本情况、说明原因、目的、依据,结尾单独成段或省略结尾,主体部分内容分为若干个段,各部分不分条列项。如短文式的说明书、简单的市场预测报告等。内容多、篇幅长的应用文书,一般不宜采用多段式,宜采用将主体内容分成几部分,用小标题或总分条文式。

(五)条款式

用分条列项的形式安排结构。规章制度、计划、合同和职能部门的一些文书,较多使用这种形式。全文从头到尾都用条款组织内容,给人以眉目清楚、排列有序的印象。

(六)表格式

这是应用文不同于其他文体所特有的一种结构形式。表格式通常有以下两种形式:

1 .由职能部门或企事业管理部门或企业如银行、厂矿、公司等单位,事先印制好表格式的规范文本,将有关内容分项列出,各项之后留下空白,让使用或合作单位和个人按规定填写。表格文书一般要注明填写要求和注意事项。如申请专利、商标的文书、合同、税务征管文书、财务会计文书,大都采用这种形式。

2 .作者单位临时制作的表格式文书。根据写作目的,将有关统计数据编制成表格。

三、应用文结构的基本内容及写法

(一)标题

应用文写作的标题,要求充分体现主题,有的标题还有规范要求。这与文学作品形式多样、灵活多变的标题有着明显的不同。应用文的标题通常有三种形式:

1 .公文式标题。这类标题程式性强,表达直接而少变化,主要用于公文。

2 .新闻式标题。新闻式标题通常又称文章式标题,又可分为单标题和双标题两种形式。单标题有的直接提出文章主题,如 “小商品也要高质量” 、 “做好纪检信息工作实践与体会” ;有的概述主要内容,如 “积极财政政策仍将持续至少两到三年的时间” ;有的在标题中提出问题,如 “日本经济何时走出低谷” 。

双标题是有正题和副题的双行标题,其中正题符合单标题的要求,更多地突出文章主题,副题则对正题起补充作用,常常说明应用文的内容范围和文种,如 “靠名牌赢得市场——关于深圳市飞亚达(集团)股份有限公司的调查” 、 “繁重 · 活跃 · 稳定 · 上升—— 2002 年国内市场发展趋势” 。

3 .论文式标题。这类标题或表达文章的观点和内容或点明所论述范围。如 “核心竞争力——企业制胜的根本” 、 “双峰县农村劳动力转移的调查与思考” 。

(二)开头

应用文写作开头担负着统领全文,揭示主题或全文的作用。开头要求开门见山,直接显露,常见的开头方式有:

1 .概述式。这种方式要求用简明扼要的语言,围绕主题介绍有关情况或背景。如一篇题为《加强民族团结 繁荣民族事业》的总结开头: “山东省青州市是少数民族居住比较集中的地区之一,有回、满、蒙古、朝鲜、土家等 27 个民族, 2 . 6 万余人,占全市人口的 2 .5 %。近年来,青州市积极加强 民族团结,繁荣民族事业,有力地推动了全市经济和社会各项事业全面发展。” 就是用了这一开头方式。报告、会议纪要、调查报告等文种也常用此开头方式。

2 .说明依据式。开头引用上级指示精神或有关法律,常以“根据”、“按照”、“遵照”等词语领起下文。如《关于粮食政策性财务挂帐停息的意见》一文的开头: “根据中共中央、国务院关于妥善解决粮食财务挂帐问题的一系列文件精神,结合各地清理粮食财务挂帐的实际情况,经过反复研究,对粮食财务挂帐实行停息的有关政策提出如下意见”。 这种方式常在通知、批复、通告、规章等文种的开头使用。

3 .陈述目的式。开头以简明的语言,直接说明写作的目的和意义,常用介词“为”、“为了”领起下文。如《国务院关于成立经济贸易办公室的通知》一文开头写道: “为适应加快改革开放和经济建设的新形势,加强宏观调控和协调日常经济工作,国务院第 100 次常务会议决定,……”。

4 . 说明原因式。开头常用“由于”、“鉴于”、“因为”等词领起下文,也可以简述发文原因,再引出写作目的。如《广州市建设用地起坟通告》的开头 “因建设的需要,经核准,市公安局天河区分局征用天河区东圃镇堂下乡(村)土地。为便利建设工程顺利进行,……”。

5 .议论式。开头用议论的表达方法,表达作者的看法,提出观点。如《现代化企业需要什么样的复合型会计人才》的开头: “随着社会主义市场经济的不断深入发展,会计工作也不断拓宽,过去那种单一的会计知识结构已远远不能适应会计管理工作的需要,会计人员作为企业经济管理的重要的专门人才,必须相应地提高自身的专业素质,改变原来那种单一的知识结构,以适应市场经济发展的需要。因此,培养造就一批复合型会计人才是当前会计工作的一项重要任务,也是企业发展向现代化迈进的关键所在。”

6 .提问式。先提出问题,然后引出下文。这种开头方式能引起读者的注意和思考。这种开头方式常见于调查报告、学术论文的写作。如《核心竞争力——企业制胜的根本》的开头: “在激烈的市场竞争中,一个企业制胜的根本是什么?为什么有的企业能长盛不衰,有的企业只能成功一时,而有的企业却连一点成功的机会都没有?笔者一直为这些问题所困惑。” 这篇论文就是采用了提问式开头。

(三)结尾

应用文的结尾讲究言尽意尽,不留“余味”,不添“蛇足,更不能草率。常用的结尾方法有:

1 .强调式。对文中提出的问题作强调说明,以引起重视。

2 .结论式。对文中的主要观点或问题,加以归纳总结或略作重申,以加深印象。

3 .说明式。对与主体内容有关但性质不同的问题或事项作补充交代、说明,以保证内容的完整性,如公文结尾交待施行日期、执行范围、传达对象、与该文规定不符的原有规定如何处置等;论文结尾处说明尚未解决而应另作讨论的问题。

4 .号召式。提出希望,发出号召,展望未来。如公文的通报、市场预测、计划等常用这种结尾形式。如《关于成都矿产综合利用研究所值班人员勇斗歹徒先进事件的通报》一文结尾就是采用这一方法。

5 .建议式。针对设定的施行目标、产生的问题提出意见和建议。

除了上述几种结尾方式,还有请求式、责令式、表态式等不一一列举,有的则没有结尾,自然收尾。

实训:

指出下列开头所使用的方式。

1 . 20 世纪 90 年代后,我国计算机市场随着信息化建设的启动和发展,进入前所未有的高速发展阶段, 1991 年至 1997 年间的平均增长速度高达 56.9 %。 1998 年由于受到亚洲金融危机的和我国经济出现通货紧缩等国内外宏观经济环境的影响,增长速度下降。此后,经过调整和转型,我国计算机产业和市场在发展速度、结构升级、市场拓展、出口贸易、企业转制等多方面均出现了飞跃性的进步。

2 .教育在社会发展中处于什么地位?它与科技、经济的关系如何?不久前,河南教委组织 17 个地区、 34 个县教育部门的同志对 100 多个村进行调查。

3 .根据《国务院关于建立职工医疗保险制度的决定》、《 ×× 省推进城镇职工基本医疗保险制度改革的意见》和《国务院办公厅转发劳动保障部财政部关于实行国家公务员医疗补助意见的通知》精神,结合我省公务员医疗保障的实际,制定本实施意见。

第四节 应用文的表达方式及语言

一、表达方式

应用文写作中常用的表达方式只有叙述、说明、议论三种,而描写、抒情一般在广告、调查报告、经济新闻等文体中偶尔使用。我们现在只谈叙述、说明、议论这三种方式在应用文体中的使用。

(一)叙述

叙述这种表达方式是应用文体写作常用的一种方法。有的以叙述事实作立论的依据,如通报、经济活动分析报告、市场调查、总结等;有的以叙述事实为依据进行决策和预测;有的对事实作如实反映和记载,如会议纪要、合同、诉讼公文等。叙述在应用文写作中有如下几个特点:

1 .以记事为主

应用文写作反映现实,解决问题,与记叙文以写人为主不同,而是多以记事为主,如反映经济活动状况、市场情况、经济信息、介绍典型经验、阐述事情原委、总结工作等,采用叙述来记事。

2 .叙述客观真实

文学作品的叙述可作艺术加工,所述事件不必是客观存在的事实。但应用文不同,其所述事实,必须客观真实,不允许对事实夸大或缩小,更不能歪曲事实或主观臆造,否则就会导致决策失误,使经济活动混乱,使企业和消费者蒙受损失。如市场预测所依据的市场事实失真,那么预测结果必定出现很大的偏差,从而导致决策的失误。

3 .以概括叙述为主

文学作品需通过叙述细节来塑造人物形象,展开故事情节。而应用文写作则是通过叙述为文章得出正确结论作依据。如通报的叙述是为后面阐述事实的性质,达到对这一事件学习,鉴戒或引起注意的目的而服务的。叙述本身不是全文的核心(主题)所在,因而应用文写作的叙述大多用简明扼要的概括叙述。

4 .多用顺叙

为使应用文条理清晰,让读者掌握理解所述的客观事实,在文章中常常使用顺叙。在叙述时有的按照时间顺序,有的以事件发展的顺序,有的按人们认识事物的客观过程来叙述,这样叙述能使较复杂的事实头绪清晰,一目了然。

5 .语言较平实

应用文的语言要求平铺直叙,较少使用修饰性词语,笔法较朴实。因为应用文语言是需把握问题实质,直接表现主题,为主题服务,而不像文学作品那样文笔的曲折,主题的含蓄 , 讲究语言的修饰性、词语的色彩,常用修辞手法,应用文的实用性决定了其语言的简洁朴实。

(二)说明

说明这一表达方式在应用文中是与叙述相结合的,起到对客观事物真实介绍说明的作用,有很多文种都依赖这一表达方式。如说明书、报告、请示、经济活动分析、合同、自荐书等,都离不开说明。说明在应用文写作中表现出以下几个特征:

1 .说明客观、科学

通过说明真实客观地反映事物的真实面貌,本质特征,这就要求说明需客观、科学、严肃。

2.多用数字进行说明

说明不但要客观真实,而且要做到准确无误,用数字进行说明就能起到这样的作用。因此在应用文写作中就少不了数字进行说明,特别是需要反映量的变化时,数字的作用就尤为突出。

3.综合使用多种说明方法

在说明方法使用的过程中,常常是多种方法结合同时使用。如数字说明和比较说明、定义说明和分类说明等说明方法结合运用,这样可以把事物说得更具体、准确。

(三)议论

应用文写作常常用议论的方式进行评论、分析,探寻事物发展的规律,阐述主题。其议论有以下几个特点:

1 .重数据、重材料

与议论文的议论不同,应用文中议论不是靠言论的雄辩,而是需要无可辩驳的事实材料和数据为依据,正可谓“事实胜于雄辩”。应用文反对不切实际的议论。如在一篇《三季度物价水平》的经济活动报告中,对该季度的物价水平转降的情况分析是这样议论的:“ 三季度,居民消费价格总水平同比上涨 0.8 %,涨幅比二季度缩小 0.8 个百分比,其中 9 月份已转为下降,同比下降 0.1 %;社会商品零售价格总水平同比下降 0.9 %,已连续 4 个月处于下降之中,并且降幅在不断增大;工业品出厂价格指标同比下降 1.7 %,降幅比二季度增大 1.4 个百分点。各种物价总水平再次全面转降在很大程度上是外生性涨价因素所致,但这也清晰地表明困扰我国经济的紧缩和总需求不足问题并未真正消除,而只是被外生性涨价因素掩盖起来了。一旦政策支持力度减弱,经济就会再次下降。” 这段文字在议论时采用了大量的数据材料,材料充分,议论切合实际,得出的结论有说服力。

2 .常与说明、叙述等方式结合使用

夹叙夹议、说议结合,是应用文中的议论特点。应用文写作往往不单独进行完整的议论,议论依赖于所叙述的事实和说明的现象,是在事实和现象的基础上进行议论。如在一篇《靠名牌赢得市场》的调查报告中,文章是这样写的:“ 90 年代初,瑞士、日本各种品牌的钟表开始大规模进入中国市场。面对严峻的市场形势,公司决策层认真研究数量和质量的辩证关系,决定借鉴国外钟表工业发展的成功经验,走‘少而精的道路,即以提高‘单位面积的产出取胜,生产高技术含量、高附加值的产品,在工艺上精益求精,把人、财、物集中用到刀刃上,争取在最短的时间里后来居上。 ”这段文字采用夹叙夹议方法,材料具体,剖析深入,语言生动活泼。

二、 语言运用

应用文的语言与文学创作的语言有较大的差别,其主要特点是:

(一)程式化

程式化的语言是写作实践的产物,是应用写作实践中常用的习惯用语,这种语言已经约定成俗,得到广泛的认可和共识。学习掌握这种语言的关键是表达要简明合乎规范。程式化的语言根据功用不同,可大致分为下列几方面内容:

举例

称谓语

本人、我、你、贵、该

起始用语

兹因、据核实、关于、鉴于、为了

结尾用语

为荷、为盼

表态用语

照办、可行、同意

谦敬用语

请、承蒙、惠示、惠允

时限用语

当即、立即、从速

期望用语

务希、务请、如蒙、勿误

列举概括用语

各类、多起、数事、上项、如下

特殊含义的用语

签发、核查、归口、取缔、缺口、责成、任命、复议、追加

(二)书面化

应用文的写作性质决定其语言风格表现为简明、规范、严肃,而书面语能较好达到这一语言要求,因而应用文语言大多采用书面语进行书写。如《中共中央关于接受宋庆龄同志为中国共产党正式党员的决定》中写道: “她一贯是共产党最亲密的战友,是中国各族人民包括台湾同胞和海外侨胞衷心敬爱的领袖之一,是爱国主义、民主主义、国际主义和共产主义的伟大战士,是保卫世界和平事业久经考验的前驱,是全体中国少年儿童的慈爱的祖母……。” 中的“同胞”、“战士”、“祖母”等用的都是书面语,改为口语就不合适了。

(三)常用数词

应用文写作常用数字来说明问题,因此经常大量使用数字。在分析问题、说明问题时,运用数字,可以比较明确地表达事物的状态,从而加深对该事物的认识。如一个企业管理是否先进,只有运用同行业国内外的对比数字才能说明。邓小平同志在《关于科学和教育工作的几点意见》中,讲到我国科研人员少、队伍小时用了三个数字:美国科研队伍有 120 万人;前苏联是 90 万人;我们是 20 多万人。这三个数字勾勒出三个国家科研队伍的基本状况,十分清晰地说明了我国科研人员少、队伍小的现状。应用文常用的数字有以下几种:

举例

绝对数和概数

乐山大佛身高 71 米 ,头高 14 ﹒ 7 米 ,宽 10 米 。

平均数

力争五年内人口年平均增长率控制在千分之十二点五左右。

百分数

2003 年,我国粮食增长 16 %,棉花增长 66 %,糖料增长 83 %。

对比数

甲比乙多生产了两倍。

(四)运用应用文语言的要求

1 .叙述语言需简洁、概括。

在进行叙述时要用最简短的语言陈述特定时空的信息,通过概述事实的主干,而不应纠缠于耗时费事的具体情节之中。如有一篇表彰通报是这样写的: “ ××× 在科学研究上走的是一条不平凡的路,他全心扑在科研上,而忘记了个人的事。有一次孩子病了,他妻子在家里忙着护理,打电话到 ××× 单位叫他赶回家把孩子送医院治疗。 ××× 接了电话答应后,电话筒一放他又埋进了实验。他妻子在家中左等右等等不到他回家,急得像热锅上的蚂蚁,又往 ××× 单位打电话,这时 ××× 正潜心做实验,电话铃声都没听见了。他妻子又急又气只好打 120 急救中心的电话,才把孩子送往医院治疗。他的小孩高烧退后,还在问他妈妈:‘爸爸又出差了吗?或者还没下班……” 该公文将 ××× 先进事迹作为表彰决定的理由时,不懂得以最简洁的文字陈述特定时空的信息,通过快叙概述事实的主干,而仍用记叙文慢叙写话的方法表述公文事实,结果摆脱不了耗时费字的情节纠缠,公文内容冗长,不简明扼要,失去了公文的品味,违背了文约事丰的要求。

2 .语言表达要严谨、有分寸。

应用文语言表达是否严谨有分寸,关系到对问题的判断、处理是否合理、准确。如一份处理决定,其中这样写道: “李××在 1998 年 9 月间收受×××工程公司的 50 万元的巨款。案发后李××还和×××工程公司经理及会计订立攻守同盟,妄图掩盖其过错”。 文中“过错”一词有失严谨,表述与事实不符,李××的行为不是过失而是严重犯罪。

3 .数据语言书写要规范、清晰、准确。

具体要做到以下几点:( 1 )在同一篇文章中序数数字的体例要统一,不能体例混杂。如 “农历初一至初 7 放假” 一句,前后数字体例书写不规范,需统一书写。同时分数与小数的体例也必须统一。如 “该县企业所得税收入完成 95.6 万元,比去年增长百分之十三 ” 也出现了混写的错误。( 2 )表示公元世纪、年代、年、月、日、时刻均需使用阿拉伯数字 , 而星期则用汉字。如” 21 世纪 ” 、“ 90 年代 ,“星期五”。( 3 )邻近两个数字并列表示概数时,应该用汉字书写,数字与数字之间不能用顿号将其隔开。如“ 3 、 4 天 ” 应写成”“三四天”,“七、八种”的“七”和“八”之间不能用顿号隔开。

4 .朴实、简洁。

应用文的语言要求准确无误,朴实无华,简洁有力,不像有些文学作品用华丽多彩的语言去描摹事物,呈现事物的形象,而是提倡朴素美,简洁美。如一篇公文是这样写的: “ 2000 年某天深夜,乌云密布,雷声隆隆,大雨倾盆而下,刹那间,美丽富饶的鱼米之乡被一片汪洋吞没。接连几天如注的暴雨,淹没了田野、冲毁了村庄和工厂,交通、电力、通讯一度中断。这百年不遇的特大洪涝灾害,给我乡造成了不可估量的损失。……” 这段语言就违反了应用文语言的写作要求,带有浓厚的文学色彩,不够朴实、简洁,也有失真实。

实训:

指出下面语段中语言表达的错误。

( 1 ) ××× 收受包工头的贿赂几十万元,造成国家直接或间接经济损失二千多万元。

( 2 ) ××× 自 1998 年以来用五年的时间,先后完成了省部级的科研成果十多项,多次获得国家省部级的奖励。

( 3 )国际化的经济浪潮汹涌澎湃,怀有强国之梦的国家就是以能加入 WTO 为最高梦境的。随着入关的脚步一天天逼迫,我市的乡镇企业局深入学习“三个代表”重要思想,真抓实干,使我市乡镇企业的局面生机盎然,发展蒸蒸日上,千帆竞发,波澜壮阔,入关前的我市乡镇企业的形势十分喜人……

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篇14:浅谈中考英语作文题的写作技巧

全文共 592 字

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纵观近年各地中考英语写作题,题材一般是写人、写事、写物、写景、日记、书信、通知、便条等文体。一般来说,不同的写作题材,它的人物,时间,写作的重点也是不尽相同的。下面结合一些常见的题型介绍一下写作的注意事项以及写作技巧

1、以图表提供情景的作文要以读为主,首先要读懂图表中的数据、时间、编码、序号以及相互间的变化关系,对所给的信息加以分析、推断、筛选、概括、去粗取精;在写作时目的要明确,要注意内容的准确性和严肃性,尤其是图表中的数据、时间等不得有误。

2、以图画提供情景的作文应以看为主,通过细心观察图中的人物、景物、文字、环境、数字等,弄清写作的意图,通过分析思考把握逻辑联系,找出主题并借助所给的文字,把图中的信息转化成文章,但要注意,文章不能停留在图画的浅表,而要表达出提供情景的意图和内涵。

3、以提纲提供情景的作文。这种形式本身的要点已经很明确,重点也很突出,只要把各个提纲加以发挥,注意遣词造句的灵活性和语法规则的正确性,就不会造成审题不清而偏离主题,但要注意,文章必须覆盖所提供的各个提纲的要点。

4、以书信格式提供情景的作文。首先要了解书信的格式,英文书信格式与中文有所不同,

(1)一般在信纸的右上角写上写信人的地址和日期,地址应按从小到大的顺序排列;

(2)左边顶格写上收信人的姓名;

(3)正文部分;

(4)祝愿的话;

(5)写信人签名。信的内容一定要按所给的要求写,不要漏写。

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篇15:英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

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下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言,考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章,然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分,特别建议你熟读,背诵,因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白,表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累,潜移默化。从某种意义上说,提高英语写作能力无捷径可走,你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关,没有任何人能代替你过。

因此,建议你下点苦功夫,把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况,并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心:你可以这个星期背,下个星期忘。这没有关系,相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后,你会惊讶的发现:I can think in English now!

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

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篇16:中考英语作文写作技巧

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英语作文是最考察同学们英语功底的一类题型,也是在英语考试中所占分值很大的一类题型。所以在写英语作文的时候要掌握中考英语作文写作技巧才能够在中考的时候写出一篇优秀的英语作文。

初中英语作文分为四等。一等文:13-15分;二等文:9-12分;三等文:5-8分;四等文:0-4分。教给大家十个字,搞定初中英语写作,帮你拿到一等文。

要点+结构+逻辑+语法+亮点

要点:实际上中考英语写作就等于两个字,翻译!因为中考英语写作一般会给出几个要点,要求必须在文章中有所体现。文章写的再好,只要缺少要点就会扣分。所以要点,也就是文章的第二段内容,要做到全,围绕中心。

结构:中考最流行的结构就是三段式,深受各地区中考英语写作阅卷老师的喜爱。为什么尼?因为这种结构十分清晰。“观点——要点——总结”让人一目了然。三段式的第一段:简单明了,开门见山,不超过2句话,如,我们想表达小强很强壮,第一段直接说XQis extremely strong。观点明确,这一句足矣。

第二段:分2-3点说为什么他强壮。1. 每天吃10顿饭,He has ten mealseveryday!详举吃的是什么。2. 每天运动2小时,He does exercise 2 hours a day!详举做了什么运动。

第三段:经过第二段的论证,可以得出结论。但请注意,不能完全照抄第一段,要有升华。也可以提出希望和建议等。如,Howstrong and robust XQ is!I hope to be him one day!

逻辑:这里的逻辑实际指的就是逻辑词。最常用的就是表示递进的,转折的,总结的逻辑词等。递进:除了first,second,third,finally等还可以使用高级点的,如first of all(首先),in addition,whatsmore,moreover(都是另外的意思),in a word,all inall(表示总结的)。转折:but,yet,however等。真正有经验的阅卷老师会很注意这些逻辑连接词,因为这些词体现了这个文章的思路。

语法:其他几点都不是硬性的要求,不那样做不能说是错,只能说是不好,但是语法却是硬性的。如,单词的使用,时态等。

亮点:当我们将前八个字都做得很完美的时候也只能得到一个二等文的上。要想得到一等文,最后两个字,亮点至关重要。大家设想如果我们是阅卷老师。有两篇写人美丽的作文摆在我们面前,都是结构清晰的三段式,要点都很全,都用了一些逻辑词,都没有语法错误,但是A篇只用了beautiful,good-looking,B篇却用到了attractive,charming,catching等,我坚信正常人都会给B篇高分的。这些高级一点的词汇,词组,句型便是我们得到一等文的最有力的绝招。所以,以后写英语作文要养成一般词汇限量用的好习惯。

英语作文依靠的是同学们的语感和平时的积累,但是在面临中考的紧要关头,要想在短时间内提高英语写作水平不是一件容易的事情,这就需要同学们掌握中考英语作文写作技巧。

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篇17:雅思基础写作训练方法

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大多数中国考生的写作过程不是写作过程,而是翻译过程. Therefore, the ABC approach to improve the writing ability for IELTS candidates would be the application of the KISSable principle.

Keep It Short and Simple.

Please remember, in any language available now, there are basically two types of information involved in the communication process. Namely:

Action

State

Action is actualised by verbs, while State is shown by nouns, adjs or prepositional phrases.

It is strongly recommended that beginners of English writing start their practice by using this KISSable approach. Please heed the following examples:

科技改变了人们的日常生活。

食品安全问题始终是一个负责任的政府应该时刻关心的问题。

由于大多数雅思考生的汉语思维和汉语的语言能力已经达到了成人的水平,在翻译写作过程中出现了现有的英文水平对付不了比较复杂的汉语思维所产生的中文信息,从而导致有想法没办法,有思路没门路的尴尬情况。所以刚刚开始练习的考生可以把自己想法中的主要信息挑出来,分成是动作还是状态两种类型,使用简单的主+谓+结构;或者主+系动词+表语的模式来练习写作。 比如上文所提的例子:

Science and technology have altered our daily life.

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篇18:2024成人高考英语作文写作素材精选

全文共 1366 字

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Grasp all, lose all. 贪多必失.

Whats lost is lost. 失者不可复得。

Waste not, want not. 不浪费,不会穷.

Tomorrow never comes. 切莫依赖明天. / 我生待明日,万事成蹉跎.

No man is infallible. 没有人不犯错误。

Alms never make poor. 施舍穷不了人.

Love will find a way. 爱心所至,金石为开.

Manners make the man. 举止见人品。

Patience is a virtue. 忍耐是一种美德.

Pity is akin to love. 怜悯生爱.

Call a spade a spade. 是啥说啥,难听不怕。

Delays are dangerous. 因循出危险.

Diamond cuts diamond. 强中自有强中手.

Counsel is no command. 劝告不是命令.

Poverty tries friends. 贫穷考验朋友.

Once bitten,twice shy. 吃一次亏,学一次乖.

Pain past is pleasure. 痛苦过去即欢乐.

Leal heart lied never. 心诚无谎言。

Hot love is soon cold. 过热的爱情冷得快.

As good lost as found. 有得必有失. /得失同喜.

Every dog has his day. 瓦块也有翻身日,人人都有运来时。

Wise fear begets care. 懂得担心,就会小心.

"Never”is a long word. 不要轻易说“决不”。

After wind comes rain. 风是雨的头。

Nurture passes nature. 教养胜过天性.

Time tries all things. 时间检验一切.

Boys will be boys. 男孩子总是男孩子.

No song, no supper. 不出力,不得食.

The truth will out. 真相总会大白.

Time works wonders. 时间能创造奇迹.

To think is to see. 思考就是明白.

Truth will prevail. 真理必胜

A lie begets a lie. 谎言生谎言。

Years bring wisdom. 年岁带来智慧.

In love is no lack. 爱情不会感到缺乏.

Easy come, easy go. 来得容易去得 . /悖入悖出.

Every little helps. 点滴都有用.

Forgive and forget. 恢弘大度,勿念旧恶。

Manners maketh man. 举止造人品.

Laugh and grow fat. 心宽体胖 。

Knowledge is power. 知识就是力量.

Let the world slide. 人世沧桑,听其自然.

Love me,love my dog. 爱屋及乌.

Life means struggle. 生活就是斗争.

Fair plays a jewel. 比赛风格好,胜过珠宝.

Early sow,early mow. 种得早,收得早.

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篇19:2024年高考英语写作常用句型素材

全文共 1297 字

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1.According to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking. 依照最近的一项调查,每年有4,000,000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet. 没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

4. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a person’s physical fitness.

许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

5.写信的开头:Very glad to receive your letter of July 13.

6.One day after school,XiaoMing passed a Café on his way home.

7.The boss had no choice but to let him in.

8.How he enjoyed himself on the computer!

9.Walking home full of fear,he was sure that he would be scolded.

10.However,other students are against the idea.

11.Sometimes we have too many examinations which are too difficult for us.

12.today’s activity has taught us the new meaning of the spirit of LeiFeng:sharing with others what you have—you time,energy,or knowledge—makes you fell warm in you heart.It has truly a difference in how I feel about myself.

13.The girl whose composition was well written is spoken highly of.

14.No matter what he says,I won’t believe.

15. Thanks to the good weather,our journey was comfortable.

16. At the news of his death,she went pale with sorrow.

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篇20:中考英语作文的写作技巧

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要写好英语作文,还要带着敏锐的目光细心地观察,注意英语中一些表达上的习惯。小编收集了中考英语作文的写作技巧,欢迎阅读。

一、要善于模仿

对大多数学习英语的同学来说,英语的词汇量、句式的积累还极其有限,远不能达到用英文流畅表达,挥洒自如的境地。在这一阶段进行创作是不合时宜的,如果非要创造,只能写出“long time no see”这样的文字来。因此,模仿是这一阶段的必经途径。

谈到模仿,一些同学的办法就是背一堆范文,然后再到考场上进行一个“剪切”、“粘贴”的工作,效果可想而知。这不是真正意义上的模仿,充其量算是默写课文。如何模仿呢?

首先,模仿的目标要明确。模仿的重点永远要放在一定的句式结构上,而非个别的词汇。道理很简单:一个词,随着文章内容的变换,可能就不能用了;而句式结构是放置四海而皆准的东西,适用的范围广,学来对写作的帮助也就明显。

其次,模仿的材料要地道。像新概念英语这样的教材就提供了很多原汁原味的英语表达法。盲目选择文章学习,记一些不中不洋的句子,以讹传讹,浪费时间。

最后,模仿要体现在实际动笔上。比如说,新概念第三册有一个句式说:“…for the simple reason that…”表示某种现象的原因是什么,用在大学英语考试中,我们就可以拿来解释为什么自行车在中国如此的流行,表达为:“the bicycle is very popular in china for the simple reason that…”。然而,很多同学经常背了这些句式不用,一谈到原因仍然是“…because…”,等等。

二、要灵活变通

在批改英语作文的过程中,经常能发现一些将中文生硬地翻译成英文的表达法。由于中英文之间的差异和词汇量、表达法积累的不足,出现难于表达的情况是十分正常的。关键问题在于如何处理。有一句话叫做“立志如山,行道如水”,套用在这个问题上就很合适。写英文作文,一定要有决心把它写好,有信心把意思表达清楚,这是“立志如山”;但关键是遇到问题时要有个灵活的态度,能像流水一样变通解决问题。

有个翻译界的故事说:在某大型国际会议的招待会上,一道菜是用鸡蛋做的。与会的客人问翻译:“what is it made of?”本来是非常简单的一个问题,结果翻译太紧张,忘了“egg”这个词,但是他急中生智,回答:“it is made of miss hen’s son.”这里,就是一个灵活变通的范例。绕道表达,是写作中应该常常运用的一种方法。

三、要细心观察

要写好英语作文,还要带着敏锐的目光细心地观察,注意英语中一些表达上的习惯。

比如说,在正式文体的写作中,很少用 “it isn"t”这样的略缩形式,而往往是一板一眼地写作 “it is not”。同理,在正式文体中的日期一般不缩写,阿拉伯数字一般会用英文表达(特别长的数字除外)。

再比如说,翻翻新概念第三册所有的课文,会发现凡是一段文章的段首句出现转折时,转折词however都放在句子结构中的第二部分,以插入语的形式出现。分析原因,是因为段落一开始就用转折词,会时转折显得较生硬、突兀。

最后,许多同学在写作文时,习惯于把 “since” “because” “for”这样的词放在句首引导原因状语从句。事实上,在我们见到的英语报刊杂志文章中,这样的从句一般都是放在主句之后的。另外, “and”也常常被误放在一句话的开头,表示两个句子之间的并列或递进关系。其实,经常留心地道的英语文章能发现,如果是并列关系,完全可以不用连词;如果是递进关系,用 “furthermore” “what is more”更为普遍。

四、要心有全局

英文写作十分强调形式上的严谨性,特别是全局的丝丝入扣。如果写作时结构意识良好,应试写作就简化成为一个填空的过程了。框架万变不离其宗,适当地填如观点、素材,文章就自然而然地立起来了。

掌握了这些英文写作中的练习技巧,会使提高英文写作水平的努力有更大的收益。

下面智康教育跟大家分享写作的“五项基本原则” :

1、 长短句原则

工作还得一张一驰呢,老让读者读长句,累死人!写一个短小精辟的句子,相反,却可以起到画龙点睛的作用。而且如果我们把短句放在段首或者段末,也可以揭示主题:

as a creature, i eat; as a man, i read. although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy the intellectual need of mind, they are in a way quite similar.

如此可见,长短句结合,抑扬顿挫,岂不爽哉?牢记!

强烈建议:在文章第一段(开头)用一长一短,且先长后短;在文章主体部分,要先用一个短句解释主要意思,然后在阐述几个要点的时候采用先短后长的句群形式,定会让主体部分妙笔生辉!文章结尾一般用一长一短就可以了。

2、 主题句原则

国有其君,家有其主,文章也要有其主。否则会给人造成“群龙无首”之感!相信各位读过一些破烂文学,故意把主体隐藏在文章之内,结果造成我们稀里糊涂!不知所云!所以奉劝各位一定要写一个主题句,放在文章的开头(保险型)或者结尾,让读者一目了然,必会平安无事!

特别提示:隐藏主体句可是要冒险的!

to begin with, you must work hard at your lessons and be fully prepared before the exam(主题句). without sufficient preparation, you can hardly expect to answer all the questions correctly.

3、 一二三原则

领导讲话总是第一部分、第一点、第二点、第三点、第二部分、第一点… 如此罗嗦。可毕竟还是条理清楚。考官们看文章也必然要通过这些关键性的“标签”来判定你的文章是否结构清楚,条理自然。破解方法很简单,只要把下面任何一组的词汇加入到你的几个要点前就清楚了。

1)first, second, third, last(不推荐,原因:俗)

2)firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally(不推荐,原因:俗)

3)the first, the second, the third, the last(不推荐,原因:俗)

4)in the first place, in the second place, in the third place, lastly(不推荐,原因:俗)

5)to begin with, then, furthermore, finally(强烈推荐)

6)to start with, next, in addition, finally(强烈推荐)

7)first and foremost, besides, last but not least(强烈推荐)

8)most important of all, moreover, finally

9)on the one hand, on the other hand(适用于两点的情况)

10)for one thing, for another thing(适用于两点的情况)

4、 短语优先原则

写作时,尤其是在考试时,如果使用短语,有两个好处:其一、用短语会使文章增加亮点,如果老师们看到你的文章太简单,看不到一个自己不认识的短语,必然会看你低一等。相反,如果发现亮点—精彩的短语,那么你的文章定会得高分了。其二、关键时刻思维短路,只有凑字数,怎么办?用短语是一个办法!比如:

i cannot bear it.

可以用短语表达:i cannot put up with it.

i want it.

可以用短语表达:i am looking forward to it.

这样字数明显增加,表达也更准确。

5、 多变句式原则

1)加法(串联)

都希望写下很长的句子,像个老外似的,可就是怕写错,怎么办,最保险的写长句的方法就是这些,可以在任何句子之间加and, 但最好是前后的句子又先后关系或者并列关系。比如说:

i enjor music and he is fond of playing guitar.

如果是二者并列的,我们可以用一个超级句式:

not only the fur coat is soft, but it is also warm.

其它的短语可以用:

besides, furthermore, likewise, moreover

2)转折(拐弯抹角)

批评某人缺点的时候,我们总习惯先拐弯抹角说说他的优点,然后转入正题,再说缺点,这种方式虽然阴险了点,可毕竟还比较容易让人接受。所以呢,我们说话的时候,只要在要点之前先来点废话,注意二者之间用个专这次就够了。

the car was quite old, yet it was in excellent condition.

the coat was thin, but it was warm.

更多的短语:

despite that, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, notwithstanding

3)因果(so, so, so)

昨天在街上我看到了一个女孩,然后我主动搭讪,然后我们去咖啡厅,然后我们认识了,然后我们成为了朋友…可见,讲故事的时候我们总要追求先后顺序,先什么,后什么,所以然后这个词就变得很常见了。其实这个词表示的是先后或因果关系!

the snow began to fall, so we went home.

更多短语:

then, therefore, consequently, accordingly, hence, as a result, for this reason, so that

4)失衡句(头重脚轻,或者头轻脚重)

有些人脑袋大,身体小,或者有些人脑袋小,身体大,虽然我们不希望长成这个样子,可如果真的是这样了,也就必然会吸引别人的注意力。文章中如果出现这样的句子,就更会让考官看到你的句子与众不同。其实就是主语从句,表语从句,宾语从句的变形。

举例:this is what i can do.

whether he can go with us or not is not sure.

同样主语、宾语、表语可以改成如下的复杂成分:

when to go, why he goes away…

5)附加(多此一举)

如果有了老婆,总会遇到这样的情况,当你再讲某个人的时候,她会插一句说,我昨天见过他;或者说,就是某某某,如果把老婆的话插入到我们的话里面,那就是定语从句和同位语从句或者是插入语。

the man whom you met yesterday is a friend of mine.

i don’t enjoy that book you are reading.

mr liu, our oral english teacher, is easy-going.

其实很简单,同位语--要解释的东西删除后不影响整个句子的构成;定语从句—借用之前的关键词并且用其重新组成一个句子插入其中,但是whom or that 关键词必须要紧跟在先行词之前。

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