自考英语 英语写作基础（实用20篇）

要想学好作文就需要多看、多写、多练习，下面是小编为大家收集的关于作文写作基础教学，欢迎大家阅读!

一、用眼去学会观察，提高写作的兴趣。

观察是对事物的感性认识。生活中，因为学生缺乏这方面的认识。故而凭空设想的描写、生搬硬套的抒情议论是无味的。常言道：“创作于生活而又高于生活”。鲁迅曾说：“学习作文，第一须观察!”这就充分地说明了观察对写作的重要性。我们要从正面引导学生去观察和接触事物，注重学生观察能力的培养，使观察成为写作的第一手资料。那么，学生便水到渠成地写出真人真事，抒发出真情实感来。

观察不仅局限于“用眼看”，还用耳聆听，用身体去体会。

二、用口来学会说话，激活写作的表达能力。

说话是口语教学的实施，亦是口语教学的最终目的。新课标特别强调了口语交际的重要性。因此，我们要给学生创造说话的动机和机会，叫学生学会学语言，用语言。说话锻炼的方式很多，在生活中，笔者常从一下几点做起，收益甚多。其一，巧设课堂疑问，训练学生“答疑”的机会。多鼓励学生发表意见和见解，充分调动学生的积极性。其二，创设课堂情境，让学生在角色中“扮演”中说话。注重学生讨论。其三，图文并茂，让学生利用客观情景做“导游”者。启发学生从不同的角度学会观察、想象和言论。其四，针对突发事件，让学生有所“议”。从肯定中让学生感悟说话的信心和兴趣。培养学生的说话方法是多种多样的，我们应全方位多角度地给学生创造机会。

三、用手学会练笔，感染写作的动力。

矛盾说：“应当时时刻刻身边有一支笔和一本草薄，把你所见所闻所为所感随时记录下来……”的确，平时让学生多写日记，多写感言，多抒情议论，大到新闻论坛，小到遣词造句，灵感观后录等。久而久之，学生的语言也通顺了，素材也就丰富了。不但有话可说，而且越说越精了。不仅如此，我们在优化设计上给学生予以练笔，“临摹”写法上练笔，插图引发上指导练笔等。

四、用心学会推敲修改，领略写作的方法技巧。

写作中的推敲和修改，是写作灵感的源泉。常人说：“三分写七分改”;美国作家柯德说过：“我的作品不是写出来的，而是改出来的。”鲁迅说过：“作文没有什么秘诀，要说有，那就是多写多修改。”可见修改的重要性。教师要引导学生用心领会琢磨、修改。从字、词、句、段、篇，立意，语言特点、谋篇布局、手法结构等诸方面进行修改，学生从而从消化到整合，竟而达到“随模铸器”，写作便不失谱了。

五、用脑去学会联想，提升写作能力的提高。

在真情实感的同时，展开丰富合理的想像，习作会更生动形象。诸如看图作文，命题作文，材料作文等等。但是，联想的并非是胡思乱造，凭空设想，而是想像其隐藏的侧面或背景。中国教育学会“十一五”科研规划重点课题说道：“手脑潜能开发与高效学习方法的研究与实践”是手脑演写作文系列教程之一。发展儿童的观察、表达、想象、抽象思维等综合能力的训练，尤为重要!

如何提高写作的兴趣，让学生不但有话可说，而且说的精，形象生动，下笔形如汩汩流水，就要注重观察、说话、练笔、修改、联想式的综合改进，就要用眼、口、手、心、脑相结合的感官活动。

中考英语考试中“书面表达”往往是最后一项，怎么样在那么短的时间内尽可能的拿到高分呢?

一、中考英语写作的概述

你对于在中考英语写作中拿高分有把握吗?实际考试中，许多学生却常常有“无话可说”的感觉。那要如何我们才能克服这种无话的状态，取得高分呢?

归根到底这是一个英语基本功——单词、短语和句型的问题。

英语作文的前提条件是掌握了一定量的词汇、语法及体裁、题材等方面的知识。学生如果想要在写作方面有本质上的提升，必须进行多次的写作练习。因此，必须合理地设置训练步骤，遵循从初级到高级，从简单到复杂的原则去练习，经过一段写作实践之后，写作水平一定会有大幅度的提高。

中考英语作文对考生的要求有四点：1、内容要完整。2、语句流畅。3、没有语法错误。4、书写规范。

二、中考英语写作的评分标准

1、老师拿到的标准

写作水平的高低和文章的好坏，分数是最直接的评分标准，也是考生们最关心的。但是多少考生真正透彻知道中考英语写作的评分标准?什么样的文章才是阅卷老师眼中的好文章?

评分标准：

(1)整篇作文满分20分，其中内容8分，语言8分，结构4分。

(2)内容贴切，句子流畅，用语准确，加整体印象分1分。

(3)不满60个词，少1——5个词扣0.5分，6——10个词扣1分。

(4)所有给出问题涉及的三项内容，每少一项扣3分。

(5)每个拼写，大小写，标点符号等错误扣0.5分;同一的拼写错误不重复扣分，扣分总和不超过2分。

(6)语法错误每项扣1分，同一错误不重复扣分，扣分总和不超过2分。

2、老师想看到的标准

语言(8分)：

词——固定搭配、高频重点词汇;

句——复杂句(各种从句)、特殊句型、正确的句子!

内容(8分)：(总、分)论点、论据支持句;简洁、切合主题的记叙内容。

结构(4分)：

语言结构——句子重点突出、内容清晰;

内容结构——论点、论据以及记叙之间的逻辑关系;

句数控制——对于相对内容的句数掌握;

亮点、出彩点——排比、拟人、谚语、成语、押韵等。

三、扣分

内容方面：要点缺失，可酌情扣分。比如中考作文“Iwanttodosomethingformyschool”，若没有写一件具体的事情，是要扣3分以上的;若写的事情太过于虚幻，没有实际内容，也会扣1-2分。

字数：少于60字的作文要酌情扣分。

中考英语作文要求60字以上，标点符号不算，少了就要扣分。

但是60字的作文能不能得高分?从我们拿到的实例作文来看，16分以上的作文，没有少于75字的，甚至少于80字的也少之又少。

当然，也极少有超过100字的，因为中考试卷的短线格一共80个，在格子下面大约还有2行的空间，可以加20字左右，再多阅卷人就很难看清了，也会影响卷面的美观。

所以，同学们如果想让作文得到高分，最好是让字数在75-100字之间。

语法和拼写错误：每个扣0.5，重复错误不计;

标点错误：每4个扣0.5。

四、加分

作文的组织结构分。就是根据学生使用复杂句型、单词和谚语、俗语的情况来加分。只要文章中有1个亮点，基本就可以争取到1分(3分的文采分是很难全部拿到的)。而这1分的亮点，是可以提前准备的。

“万金油”式的复杂句型，例如强调句型、only相关的倒装句等，只要同学们多操练几次，几乎是一定能用到作文当中，从而为自己争取到这1分。

其次就是卷面分。很多家长(微博)和同学，尤其是部分书法并不是十分整洁的同学，都会关心是否真的有“卷面分”的存在。虽然在阅卷标准里面并没有卷面分这一项，但是这个分数却真切地反映在了同学们的分数里面。

据阅卷老师的经验，在阅卷的时候并不是按这3个部分逐项打分的，而是在第一遍读完全文之后，心里已经形成了一个“印象分”，然后再细读第二、三遍，把印象分分配到各个打分部分。

因此，这个“印象分”就非常重要，而同学们的书法，也正是在这个环节，影响到了自己的分数。所以初三的考生，如果书法不好，一定要注意。

一个句子必须按照一定的模式来组织，这个模式称为句式。下面是语文迷为大家提供的高考英语写作优秀句式，供大家参考。

1) on the other hand, the contribution of day schools cant be ignored.

2) due to high tuition fee, most of ordinary families cannot afford to send their children to boarding schools.

3) since it is unnecessary to consider students routinelife, day school can lay stress on teaching instead of other aspects, such as management of dormitory and cafeteria.

4) furthermore, students living in their own home would have access to a comfortable life and have more opportunities to communicate with their parents, which have beneficial impact on development of their personal character.

5) from what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that both of day schools and boarding schools are important to train young students for our society.

6) there is much discussion over science and technology. one of the questions under debate is whether traditional technology and methods are bound to die out when a country begins to develop modern science and technology.

7) According to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.

8) The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.

9) No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.

10) People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.

11) An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.

12) When it comes to education, the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.

13) Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.

14) Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful

15) An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However, this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents, who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.

16) Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus, which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.

17) There is no denying the fact that air pollution is an extremely serious problem: the city authorities should take strong measures to deal with it.

18) An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward retirement.

19) A proper part-time job does not occupy students too much time. In fact, it is unhealthy for them to spend all of time on their study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

20) Any government, which is blind to this point, may pay a heavy price.

21) Nowadays, many students always go into raptures at the mere mention of the coming life of high school or college they will begin. Unfortunately, for most young people, it is not pleasant experience on their first day on campus.

22) In view of the seriousness of this problem, effective measures should be taken before things get worse.

23) The majority of students believe that part-time job will provide them with more opportunities to develop their interpersonal skills, which may put them in a favorable position in the future job markets.

24) It is indisputable that there are millions of people who still have a miserable life and have to face the dangers of starvation and exposure.

25) Although this view is wildly held, this is little evidence that education can be obtained at any age and at any place.

26) No one can deny the fact that a persons education is the most important aspect of his life.

27) People equate success in life with the ability of operating computer.

28) In the last decades, advances in medical technology have made it possible for people to live longer than in the past.

29) In fact, we have to admit the fact that the quality of life is as important as life itself.

30) We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

31) People believe that computer skills will enhance their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

32) The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that this knowledge may be less useful than most people think.

33) Now, it is generally accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduation.

34) This is a matter of life and death--a matter no country can afford to ignore.

35) For my part, I agree with the latter opinion for the following reasons:

36) Before giving my opinion, I think it is important to look at the arguments on both sides.

37) This view is now being questioned by more and more people.

38) Although many people claim that, along with the rapidly economic development, the number of people who use bicycle are decreasing and bicycle is bound to die out. The information Ive collected over the recent years leads me to believe that bicycle will continue to play extremely important roles in modern society.

39) Environmental experts point out that increasing pollution not only causes serious problems such as global warming but also could threaten to end human life on our planet.

40) In view of such serious situation, environmental tools of transportation like bicycle are more important than any time before.

41) Using bicycle contributes greatly to peoples physical fitness as well as easing traffic jams.

42) Despite many obvious advantages of bicycle, it is not without its problem.

43) Bicycle cant be compared with other means of transportation like car and train for speed and comfort.

44) From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that advantages of bicycle far outweigh its disadvantages and it will still play essential roles in modern society.

45) There is a general discussion these days over education in many colleges and institutes. One of the questions under debate is whether education is a lifetime study.

46) This issue has caused wide public concern.

47) It must be noted that learning must be done by a person himself.

48) A large number of people tend to live under the illusion that they had completed their education when they finished their schooling. Obviously, they seem to fail to take into account the basic fact that a persons education is a most important aspect of his life.

49) As for me, Im in favor of the opinion that education is not complete with graduation, for the following reasons:

50) It is commonly accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduate.

51) Even the best possible graduate needs to continue learning before she or he becomes an educated person.

52) It is commonly thought that our society had dramatically changed by modern science and technology, and human had made extraordinary progress in knowledge and technology over the recent decades.

53) For lack of distinct culture, some places will not attract tourists any more. Consequently, the fast rise in number of foreign tourists may eventually lead to the decline of local tourism.

54) There is a growing tendency for parents to ask their children to accept extra educational programs over the recent years.

55) This phenomenon has caused wide public concern in many places of world.

56) Many parents believe that additional educational activities enjoy obvious advantage. By extra studies, they maintain, their children are able to obtain many kinds of practical skills and useful knowledge, which will put them in a beneficial position in the future job markets when they grow up.

57) In the first place, extra studies bring about unhealthy impacts on physical growth of children. Educational experts point out that, it is equally important to take some sport activities instead of extra studies when children have spent the whole day in a boring classroom.

58) Children are undergoing fast physical development; lack of physical exercise may produce disastrous influence on their later life.

59) In the second place, from psychological aspect, the majority of children seem to tend to have an unfavorable attitude toward additional educational activities.

60) It is hard to imagine a student focusing their energy on textbook while other children are playing.

61) Moreover, children will have less time to play and communicate with their peers due to extra studies, consequently, it is difficult to develop and cultivate their character and interpersonal skills. They may become more solitary and even suffer from certain mental illness.

62) From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that, although extra studies indeed enjoy many obvious advantages, its disadvantages shouldnt be ignored and far outweigh its advantages. It is absurd to force children to take extra studies after school.

63) Any parents should place considerable emphasis on their children to keep the balance between play and study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

64) There is a growing tendency for parent these days to stay at home to look after their children instead of returning to work earlier.

65) Parents are firmly convinced that, to send their child to kindergartens or nursery schools will have an unfavorable influence on the growth of children.

66) However, this idea is now being questioned by more and more experts, who point out that it is unhealthy for children who always stay with their parents at home.

67) Although parent would be able to devote much more time and energy to their children, it must be admitted that, parent has less experience and knowledge about how to educate and supervise children, when compared with professional teachers working in kindergartens or nursery schools.

68) From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw a conclusion that, although the parents desire to look after children by themselves is understandable, its disadvantages far outweigh the advantages.

69) Parents should be encouraged to send their children to nursery schools, which will bring about profound impacts on children and families, and even the society as a whole.

70) Many leaders of government always go into raptures at the mere mention of artistic and cultural projects. They are forever talking about the nice parks, the smart sculptures in central city and the art galleries with various valuable rarities. Nothing, they maintain, is more essential than such projects in the economic growth.

71) But is it really the case? The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that artistic and cultural projects may be less useful than many governments think. In fact, basic infrastructure projects are playing extremely important role and should be given priority.

72) Those who are in favor of artistic and cultural projects advocate that cultural environment will attract more tourists, which will bring huge profits to local residents. Some people even equate the build of such projects with the improving of economic construction.

73) Unfortunately, there is very few evidence that big companies are willing to invest a huge sums of money in a place without sufficient basic projects, such as supplies of electricity and water.

74) From what has been discussed above, it would be reasonable to believe that basic projects play far more important role than artistic and cultural projects in peoples life and economic growth.

75) Those urban planners who are blind to this point will pay a heavy price, which they cannot afford it.

76) There is a growing tendency these days for many people who live in rural areas to come into and work in city. This problem has caused wide public concern in most cities all over the world.

77) An investigation shows that many emigrants think that working at city provide them with not only a higher salary but also the opportunity of learning new skills.

78) It must be noted that improvement in agriculture seems to not be able to catch up with the increase in population of rural areas and there are millions of peasants who still live a miserable life and have to face the dangers of exposure and starvation.

79) Although rural emigrants contribute greatly to the economic growth of the cities, they may inevitably bring about many negative impacts.

80) Many sociologists point out that rural emigrants are putting pressure on population control and social order; that they are threatening to take already scarce city jobs; and that they have worsened traffic and public health problems.

81) Now people in growing numbers are beginning to believe that learning new skills and knowledge contributes directly to enhancing their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

82) An investigation shows that many older people express a strong desire to continue studying in university or college.

83) For the majority of people, reading or learning a new skill has become the focus of their lives and the source of their happiness and contentment after their retirement.

84) For people who want to adopt a healthy and meaningful life style, it is important to find time to learn certain new knowledge. Just as an old saying goes: it is never too late to learn.

85) There is a general debate on the campus today over the phenomenon of college or high school students doing a part-time job.

86) By taking a major-related part-job, students can not only improve their academic studies, but gain much experience, experience they will never be able to get from the textbooks.

87) Although peoples lives have been dramatically changed over the last decades, it must be admitted that, shortage of funds is still the one of the biggest questions that students nowadays have to face because that tuition fees and prices of books are soaring by the day

88) Consequently, the extra money obtained from part-time job will strongly support students to continue to their study life.

89) From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw a conclusion that part-time job can produce a far-reaching impact on students and they should be encouraged to take part-time job, which will benefit students and their family, even the society as a whole.

90) These days, people in growing numbers are beginning to complain that work is more stressful and less leisurely than in past. Many experts point out that, along with the development of modern society, it is an inevitable result and there is no way to avoid it.

1、Practice makes perfect.

熟能生巧。

2、Take care of the pence/pennies，and the pounds will take care of themselves.

积少成多。/小事谨慎，大事自成。

3、Swift to hear,slow to speak.

多听少讲。

4、Procrastination is the thief of time.

拖延就是偷走时间。

5、Tomorrow is another day.

明天又是新的一天。/明天还有指望。

6、Exploit to the full one’S favorable conditions and avoid unfavorableones.

扬长避短。

7、Promise little，but do much.

少许愿，多做事。

8、cripples learns to limp.

近朱者赤，近墨者黑。

9、Bend the willow while it is still youn.

修树要趁早，育人要趁小。

10、Knowledge is power.

知识就是力量。

11、Passion，though a bad regulator,is a powerful sprin.

激情虽难驾驭，却是强大动力。

12、Learn from other’S strong points to offset one’S weaknesses.

取长补短。

13、He than run fast gets the rin.

捷足先登。

14、We never know the worth of water till the well is dry.

井干方知水宝贵。

15、Our greatest glory consists not in never failin9，but in rising every time we fall.

人生最大的光荣，不在于永不失败，而在失败还能站起。

16、Ideals are like stars-we never reach them，but like marlners，we chart our courses by them.

人之需要理想，如水手之需星辰；星辰虽不可及，但可指引我们航程。

17、Youth’s stuff will not endure.

青春易逝。

18、A pet lamb makes a cross ralTl.

宠坏的羊羔会变成恶羊。

19、Prepare for the worst and hope for the best.

做最坏的准备，怀最好的希望。

20、Do not throw the baby with the bath water.

别把小孩和洗澡水一起泼掉。

21、Wisdom is only found in truth.

惟有在真理中才能找到智慧。

22、A stitch in time saves nine.

小洞不补，大洞吃苦。

23、An hour in the morning is worth two in the evenin9./The morning hour has gold in its mouth.

一天之计在于晨。

24、Where there is a will，there is a way.

有志者事竟成。

25、Broaden one’S scope ofknowledge and widen one’S horizon.

拓宽知识，开拓视野。

26、He that can have patience can have what he will.

惟坚韧者始能遂其志。

27、Thought is the seed of action.

思想是行动的种子。

28、As you give，as you receive./As you sow，you shall mow.

种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆。

29、Every man is the master ofhis own fogune.

每人都是自己命运的主人。

30、Good health is the best treasure a person can procure.

健康是一个人最宝贵的财富。

31、Disappointment is the nurse of wisdom.

失败是成功之母。

32、The first step to knowledge is to know that we are ignorant.

走向知识的第一步是知道自己无知。

33、Home-keeping youth have ever homely wits.

孩子不见世面，知识少的可怜。

34、People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.

自己有缺点，勿揭他人短。

35、Give me where to stand，and l will move the world.

给我一个支点,我可以跷起整个地球。

1、审题：审题是做到切题的第一步。所谓审题就是要看清题意，确定文章的中心思想、主题，并围绕中心思想组织材料。

2、进行构思，列出简单的提纲，打造文章之骨架：审好题、立好意后，就要写提纲，打造文章的骨架。文章布局要做好几件事：安排好层次段落，铺设好过渡，处理好开头和结尾。

3、扩展成文：根据字数多少扩展成篇。扩展的内容一定要紧扣主题，千万不要写那些与主题不相关的内容。展开的方式包括：顺序法、举例法、比较法、对比法、说明法、因果法、推导法、归纳法和下定义等。可以根据需要任选一种或几种方式。

在这一步骤中还需注意三方面问题：

1、确保提纲中段落结构的思路与各段主题句的一致性。只有这样，才能保证所写段落不偏题、不跑题。

2、要综合考虑各个段落的内容安排，避免段落内容的交叉。

3、用好连接词，注意段落间、句子间的连贯性。要做到所写文章层次分明，思路清晰，文字连贯，就需要在句与句之间、段与段之间架起一座座桥梁，而连接词起的正是桥梁作用。

在扩展的过程中也有些窍门，以下几点可供参考：

1、在整篇文章中，避免只是用一两个句式或重复用同一词语。英语中存在着极为丰富的同义词，准确地使用同义词可以给读者清新的感觉。同时要灵活运用各种句式，如倒装句、强调句、省略句、主从复合句、对比句、分词短语、介词短语等，从而增加文章的可读性。

2、使用不同长度的句子。如果一个意思用一句话写不清楚的话，通过分句和合句或用两句、三句来表达，增强句子的连贯性和表现力。

3、改变句子的开头方式，不要总是以主、谓、宾、状的次序。可以把状语至于句首，或用分词等。

4、学会使用过渡词。递进furthermore，moreover，besides，in addition，then，etc ;转折however，but，nevertheless，afterwards，etc ;总结finally，at last，in brief，to conclude，etc ;强调really，indeed，certainly，surely，above a11，etc ;对比in the same way，just as，on the other hand，etc。

5、确定文章用第几人称写，基本时态是什么。使用人称时人物不能张冠李戴或指代不明。时态要尽量保持一致。

检查修改：要检查复核，不要写完了事。

要留时间通读全文，修改可能出现的错误。检查上下文是否连贯，句子衔接是否自然流畅。检验的标准主要是句子是否通畅，该用连词的地方用了没有，所用的连词是否合适，是否有语法错误，主谓是否一致，动词的时态、语态、语气的使用是否正确，词组的搭配是否合乎习惯，是否有大小写、拼写、标点错误等，还有就是注意卷面整洁。

可归纳为：中心突出，主题明确;层次清楚，条理清晰;表达

小学阶段不同年级的作文有不同要求和写作技巧小学英语写作指导小学英语写作指导。

对于小学3年级的学生，在他们已经掌握好了如颜色(colour)、衣服(clothes)、数字(number)、星期(day of the week)、月份(month)、宠物(pet)、情感(feeling)、身体部位(body)、文具(school things)的基础上进行文章的填空，如果学生能够按照文章的要求写进相关的信息，那就已经很不错了。下面是一个自我介绍的简单例子：

Myself

Hello，my name is_____. I am_____years old.My favourite colour is_____，_____， and_____.My favourite pet is______，_____ and______. My favourite food is_____，______and______.My favourite day is______. My favourite school thing is______and______.My favourite number is and______.I am______today.

上面的这个例子，如果学生能够依次能吧自己的姓名、年龄、喜欢的颜色、喜欢的宠物、喜欢的食物、喜欢的日子、喜欢的文具、喜欢的数字和今天的心情准确无误地写出来，那么就已经能够完成了3年级阶段的作文要求。

对于4年级的学生，可以写一篇介绍自己课室或者自己卧室的文章。下面是一篇4年级学生的介绍课室范文。

My classroom

I am studying at Tongji primary school.I am in Class Two, Grade Four. (介绍自己所在的学校和所在的年级) There is a blackboard in front of the classroom. There are twenty-five desks in our classroom, they are brown. There are many books on the desk. There are fifty students, thirty boys and twenty girls. There is a picture on the wall. There are two fans on the wall. (用there+be句型把班里和摆设和班上的人数都表达出来了) It is tidy and clean.I like my classroom very much.(最后是作者的总结)

对于5年级的学生，作文的要求也提高了很多，很多学生在介绍别人或者是写自己喜欢的小动物的时候很容易忘了第三人称单数动词要加ses，如：He get up at 7 o’clock(get忘了加s)，在用到现在进行的时候动词很容易忘了加ing(如I am play the piano，play就忘记了加ing)，介词和介词短语也占了很重要的位置如介词in，on，at，of。介词短语如dream of(区分dream that)和be afraid of都是很重要的介词短语，很多学生忘记了介词后面要加动词小学英语写作指导少儿基础英语。

对于6年级的学生，作文考查的是英语的综合应用能力，而且出的题目大部分都是看图作文，这就在一定程度上增加了写作的难度，它也是综合了3年级的分类词汇，4年级的句型，方位介词，5年级的重点介词短语和时态，不过我相信只要平时多点积累单词和句型、多点动笔、多注意语法上的问题、多看作文书，那么就能写出流畅、有深度的文章。

英语作文是最考察同学们英语功底的一类题型，也是在英语考试中所占分值很大的一类题型。所以在写英语作文的时候要掌握中考英语作文写作技巧才能够在中考的时候写出一篇优秀的英语作文。

初中英语作文分为四等。一等文：13-15分;二等文：9-12分;三等文：5-8分;四等文：0-4分。教给大家十个字，搞定初中英语写作，帮你拿到一等文。

要点+结构+逻辑+语法+亮点

要点：实际上中考英语写作就等于两个字，翻译!因为中考英语写作一般会给出几个要点，要求必须在文章中有所体现。文章写的再好，只要缺少要点就会扣分。所以要点，也就是文章的第二段内容，要做到全，围绕中心。

结构：中考最流行的结构就是三段式，深受各地区中考英语写作阅卷老师的喜爱。为什么尼?因为这种结构十分清晰。“观点——要点——总结”让人一目了然。三段式的第一段：简单明了，开门见山，不超过2句话，如，我们想表达小强很强壮，第一段直接说XQis extremely strong。观点明确，这一句足矣。

第二段：分2-3点说为什么他强壮。1. 每天吃10顿饭，He has ten mealseveryday!详举吃的是什么。2. 每天运动2小时，He does exercise 2 hours a day!详举做了什么运动。

第三段：经过第二段的论证，可以得出结论。但请注意，不能完全照抄第一段，要有升华。也可以提出希望和建议等。如，Howstrong and robust XQ is!I hope to be him one day!

逻辑：这里的逻辑实际指的就是逻辑词。最常用的就是表示递进的，转折的，总结的逻辑词等。递进：除了first，second，third，finally等还可以使用高级点的，如first of all(首先)，in addition，whatsmore，moreover(都是另外的意思)，in a word，all inall(表示总结的)。转折：but，yet，however等。真正有经验的阅卷老师会很注意这些逻辑连接词，因为这些词体现了这个文章的思路。

语法：其他几点都不是硬性的要求，不那样做不能说是错，只能说是不好，但是语法却是硬性的。如，单词的使用，时态等。

亮点：当我们将前八个字都做得很完美的时候也只能得到一个二等文的上。要想得到一等文，最后两个字，亮点至关重要。大家设想如果我们是阅卷老师。有两篇写人美丽的作文摆在我们面前，都是结构清晰的三段式，要点都很全，都用了一些逻辑词，都没有语法错误，但是A篇只用了beautiful，good-looking，B篇却用到了attractive，charming，catching等，我坚信正常人都会给B篇高分的。这些高级一点的词汇，词组，句型便是我们得到一等文的最有力的绝招。所以，以后写英语作文要养成一般词汇限量用的好习惯。

英语作文依靠的是同学们的语感和平时的积累，但是在面临中考的紧要关头，要想在短时间内提高英语写作水平不是一件容易的事情，这就需要同学们掌握中考英语作文写作技巧。

在写记叙文时，如果要使文字内容更具体，不空泛，一定要把叙述与描写结合起来。那么如何才能结合好呢？我们首先需要了解一下这两者的基本概念和作用。

叙述和描写。是作文中两种不同的表现方式。我们这里说的叙述是指把人的经历行为或事件的发生、发展变化表述出来的一种表达方式，它常常把分散的场景，片断的故事和人物的身世，地位，经历，事迹等贯穿起来。它要求做到头绪清楚，脉络分明，有条有理，重点突出。

在记事、写人、状物的文章中，叙述是不可少的，尤其是在介绍人或事物变化为主的文章中叙述的作用更大，甚至有的文章专以叙述为长。我们本讲选的优秀作文《男班长，女班长》就是一个很好的例子。文章中描写部分很少，介绍事件发展过程的叙述占了很大的篇幅，如开头对男女班长来自何方的介绍，女班长对男班长的观察，正副班长必须合作的现实，以及同学们的揶揄，思想的顾虑，同学开玩笑不断，“收到副班长纸条”，到结尾“男女班长仍然合作着处理班里的事务”。这篇文章用很短的篇幅，以叙述为主，把一波三折的事件按发展轨迹清晰有序地介绍出来。对发展过程虽是梗概地介绍，但文章的思想内涵却非常丰富，也可以说在写法上是比较巧妙的。

叙述在按事件发生发展、人物经历的时间来划分，可以有顺叙，倒叙、插叙、补叙等方式，我们在写文章时，可以根据表达的需要去选择叙述的方式。

描写是对人物，事物和环境所作的具体的描绘和摹写，描写是再现描写对象状态的一种表达方式。描写需要采用绘声绘色的办法，把事物的状貌、神采和动态，具体地、真切地饱含情意地勾画出来。写人要使其声可闻，其容可睹；写物要使之可见，可闻，可触，可感；写景要意境鲜明，使读者产生仿佛置身其间的幻觉。

在我们学过的课文中，传神的描写是很多的。如《天山景物记》中对天山深处的描写，“山色逐渐变得柔嫩，山形也变得柔和，很有一伸手就可以触摸到凝脂似的感觉。这里溪流缓慢，萦绕着每一个山脚，在轻轻荡漾着的溪流的两岸，满是高过马头的野花，红、黄、蓝、白、紫，五彩缤纷，像绵延的织锦那么华丽，象天边的彩霞那么耀眼，像高空的长虹那么绚烂。”这段描写抓住山色、溪流、野花这三种最能表现天山特点的事物，重彩浓墨，绘声绘色地把天山美景表现出来。既能使读者如身临其境，也增添了作品的文采。我们在作文时，如果能恰当地运用描写来表现形象，借以表达某种强烈的思想感情。文章的感染力就一定能有所增强。

叙述和描写在记叙性的文字中都是不可缺少的表现方式。叙述着重于一般情况过程的交待，描写则着重形象的描摹和刻画；如果说叙述是纵的绵延，那么描写便是横的扩展。一篇文字若无叙述，就会显得杂乱无章；没有描写，则会干瘪枯燥，毫无生气可言。

实际上，成功的作品中，常常是叙述与描写交错在一起的。我们所选优秀作文，《奶奶与花》就是叙述与描写交融在一起的，近似于一线串珠式的一篇记叙文。

文中以时间为序，先从小时候家门前有一个很大的“花园”叙述开始，然后再描写人物行为语言、花的形态、气味。从而表现我“深深地爱上花”的过程。接着叙述自己病中见到花的情景，描写花的形态，写出自己感受到“花能给人一种强盛的生命力”。接着是叙述“随着年龄的增长，这种认识愈来愈深”又通过对“死不了”“仙人球”的描写，感悟出“花，让我感到一种无尽的生命力，一种明亮的期望”。第五自然段叙述自己养花的过程。这里又运用描写的方式，描绘出花园的美丽，各种花的特点，表现出花可以陶冶情操的作用。这段描写是比较突出的，描写了花的各种色彩，各种形态，用排比、比喻的手法绘色绘形，有丰富的想象力。为了把文章写得曲折有致，第七段、第八段叙述搬进高层楼房前、后我与奶奶对花的珍爱，对小花园的怀念，这里又有对人物的心理、动作的描写，为“小花园”遭到破坏，我和奶奶沉痛心情做了铺垫。

这篇文章用叙述的方式。介绍了事件发展曲折过程，使文章头绪清楚，脉络分明，重点环节突出。这是文章的一条线。在每个重要环节上，作者都生动形象地描绘了人物的行为、场景、物态，内容丰满。叙述和描写有机地结合在一起，深刻地表达了文章的主题思想，增强文章的感染力。

在作文时，恰当地运用叙述与描写，做到有机结合，要注意以下几点。

一、要熟练掌握叙述与描写的功能，注意二者之间互相依存、互相交通的关系。根据作文内容和思想表达的需要，交错运用。

二、在描写范围比较大、内容比较丰富的地域景物或事物状貌时，（例如《天山景物记》等一些游记式的文章）需要有一条贯穿始终的线索，有一个逐步转移、推进的过程，那么这个线索或过程就要依靠叙述来表现。如我们常讲的“移步换景”的写法，其中对“移步”的交代，往往需要叙述。用时间推移来描写事物或人物的发展变化时，对每个阶段的交代，一般也是要运用叙述来完成的。在这种情况下描写的条理性要依靠叙述来体现。

三、在写故事情节比较强文章时，人物的语言，行动往往是构成情节的重要因素、情节又要依靠叙述来展开，这就需要描写人物语言行动与铺叙故事情节同时进行，也就是说要把叙述故事融化在描写中，或把描写融化在叙述情节中。我们仔细玩味一下作文《奶奶与花》，其中有些地方就是把描写与叙述这样融合在一起的。

我们就应当多选读一些优秀作文或名家的文章，刻意体味一下的相依关系，学习二者的结合形式。使自己的作文能更加条理清晰，情节曲折跌宕，内容丰富有致，更具有感染力。

人类因梦想而伟大，人生因拼搏而精彩。梦想引领人生，拼搏创造传奇!下面是语文迷小编整理的关于梦想的英语名言，希望对你有帮助。

the important thing in life is to have a great aim, and the determination to attain it. (johan wolfgang von goethe, german poet and dramatist)

人生重要的事情就是确定一个伟大的目标,并决心实现它。(德国诗人、戏剧家 歌德. j. m.)

the man with a new idea is a crank until the idea succeeds. (mark twain, american writer)

具有新想法的人在其想法实现之前是个怪人。 (美国作家 马克·吐温)

the only limit to our realization of tomorrow will be our doubts of today. (franklin roosevelt, american president)

实现明天理想的唯一障碍是今天的疑虑。(美国总统 罗斯福. f.)

when an end is lawful and obligatory, the indispensable means to is are also lawful and obligatory. (abraham lincoln, american statesman)

如果一个目的是正当而必须做的,则达到这个目的的必要手段也是正当而必须采取的。(美国政治家 林肯. a.)

ideal is the beacon. without ideal, there is no secure direction; without direction, there is no life.( leo tolstoy, russian writer)

理想是指路明灯。没有理想,就没有坚定的方向;没有方向,就没有生活。(俄国作家 托尔斯泰. l.)

if winter comes, can spring be far behind ?( p. b. shelley, british poet )

冬天来了,春天还会远吗?( 英国诗人, 雪莱. p. b.)

if you doubt yourself, then indeed you stand on shaky ground. (ibsen, norwegian dramatist )

如果你怀疑自己,那么你的立足点确实不稳固了。 (挪威剧作家 易卜生)

if you would go up high, then use your own legs ! do not let yourselves carried aloft; do not seat yourselves on other peoples backs and heads. (f. w. nietzsche, german philosopher)

如果你想走到高处,就要使用自己的两条腿!不要让别人把你抬到高处;不要坐在别人的背上和头上。(德国哲学家 尼采. f. w.)

it is at our mothers knee that we acquire our noblest and truest and highest, but there is seldom any money in them. ( mark twain, american writer )

就是在我们母亲的膝上,我们获得了我们的最高尚、最真诚和最远大的理想,但是里面很少有任何金钱。(美国作家 马克·吐温)

living without an aim is like sailing without a compass. (alexander dumas, davy de la pailleterie, french writer)

生活没有目标就像航海没有指南针。 (法国作家 大仲马. a.)

the ideals which have lighted my way, and time after time have given me new courage to face life cheerfully 19 have been kindness, beauty and truth.(albert einstein, american scientist)

有些理想曾为我们引过道路,并不断给我新的勇气以欣然面对人生,那些理想就是--真、善、美。 (美国科学家 爱因斯坦. a.)

the dream is not a dream, the difference between the two usually have a very worth pondering the distance.梦想绝不是梦，两者之间的差别通常都有一段非常值得人们深思的距离。

“two gates there are for dreams," said penelope to odysseus after his ten years’ wandering had ended. "one made for horn and one of for ivory. the dreams that pass through the carved ivory delude and bring us tales that turn to naught;those that can come through polished horn accomplish real things whenever seen."“梦想有两扇门，”在奥德修斯结束了十年的漂泊后，潘尼洛对他说，“一扇是号角制成，一扇是象牙制成。通过精雕细缕的象牙门得梦想不过是一场会归于无的海市蜃楼的童话;而那些通过磨砺的号角门的梦想才会成为真实，为人所见。”

who has the material to survive, people have a dream only talk about life. you have to understand life and life different animal survival, while others life.人有了物质才能生存，人有了梦想才谈得上生活。你要了解生存与生活的不同吗?动物生存，而人则生活。

the dream was always running ahead of me. to catch up, to live for a moment in unison with it, that was the miracle.梦想总是跑在我前面，追寻它们，乃至仅有一瞬间的与梦想合而为一，也都是动人的生命奇迹。

a person rich money is not certain, but if the man is not a dream, the poor people.一个人有钱没钱不一定，但如果这个人没有了梦想，这个人穷定了。

if winter comes, can spring be far behind ?( p. b. shelley, british poet )冬天来了，春天还会远吗?( 英国诗人, 雪莱. p. b.)

dont part with your illusions. when they are gone you may still exist, but you have ceased to live. (mark twain, american writer)不要放弃你的幻想。当幻想没有了以后，你还可以生存，但是你虽生犹死。((美国作家 马克·吐温)

to accomplish great things, in addition to dream, must act.要想成就伟业，除了梦想，必须行动。

when you truly want something, all the universe conspires to help you finish it.当你真心渴望一件东西的时候，整个宇宙都会联合起来帮你完成它。

everything is now for the future of dream weaving wings, soar to great heights to dream in reality.现在的一切都是为将来的梦想编织翅膀，让梦想在现实中展翅高飞。

11、human nature is the most pathetic: we always dream of the horizon of a wonderful rose garden, not to enjoy today in our window open rose.人性最可怜的就是：我们总是梦想着天边的一座奇妙的玫瑰园，而不去欣赏今天就开在我们窗口的玫瑰。

faith consists in believing when it is beyond the power of reason to believe. it is not enough that a thing be possible for it to be believed.当还缺乏产生信仰的足够理由时，要用信念去包涵。模棱两可不足以支持一个信仰。(伏尔泰)

the dream is the other shore, the reality is that on this side, action is the bridge connecting.梦想是彼岸，现实是此岸，行动是那座连接的桥。

a heart will not be hurt for pursuing a dream, when you truly want something, all the universe conspires to help you complete the.没有一颗心会因为追求梦想而受伤，当你真心想要某样东西时，整个宇宙都会联合起来帮你完成。

dreams don’t abandon a painstaking pursuit of the people, as long as you never stop pursuing, you will bathe in the brilliance of the dream.梦想不抛弃苦心追求的人，只要不停止追求，你们会沐浴在梦想的光辉之中。

导语：要学好写英语短文，就必须经常练习写作。记日记是提高书面表达能力的有效方法之一。下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的优秀英语作文指导，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

一、日记的格式

英文日记通常由书端和正文两个部分组成。日记常以第一人称记下当天生活中的所见、所闻、所做或所想的事情。中、英文的日记三格式大致一样。英语日记的书端是专门写日记的日期、星期和天气的。左上角是日期(年、月、日)、星期。右上角写上当天的天气情况，如：Sunny，Fine，Rainy，Windy，Snowy，Cloudy等。

1、日期表达有多种形式。年、月、日都写时，通常以月、日、年为顺序，月份可以缩写，日和年用逗号隔开。例如：

A)September 1，2004或September 1st，2004也可省略写成Sept. 1，2004或Sept. 1st，2004;the 1st of September in 2004(月份不可以缩写)

B)只有月、日：September 1或September 1st(月份可以缩写)

C)只有年、月：September 2004或the September of 2004(月份不可以缩写)

以上的1或1st都应读作the first.

2、星期也可以省略不写，可将其放在日期前或后，星期和日期之间不用标点，但要空一格，星期也可缩写。如：

Saturday，October 22nd，2004;October 22nd，2004 Saturday

3.天气情况必不可少。天气一般用一个形容词如：Sunny，Fine，Rainy，Snowy 等表示。写在日期之后，用逗号隔开，位于日记的右上角。如：

Saturday，March 4，2004，Windy;1st January，2004，Fine

二、日记的要求

日记的正文是日记的主要部分，写在星期和日期的正下方，可以顶格写，也可以内缩3至5个字母的空间。由于记载的内容通常已经发生，谓语动词多用一般过去时。但也可根据具体情况，用其它时态。如：记叙天气、描写景色，为了描写生动，可以使用现在时，以表现当时的情景。再如文后发表感想或评论可用现在时态或将来时态。记日记力求简单明了，有连贯性。若有文字提示，则应重视提示，把握要点。在句式上尽量使用简单句，以防繁杂，造成语法、句型错误。

三、日记的类型和训练

日记分为记事型、议论型、描写型和抒情型。建议大家在学习写日记的过程中，可按以下步骤进行：

①将一天所经历的主要事情和过程依次简要地记下来，不附加任何感情色彩，这是最简单的记日记的方法;

②阅读别人的日记，并利用所学过的句型来表达个人在一天中观察到的或感受到的事情。

「范文与点评」

March 12th，2003，Tuesday Sunny (Fine)

Today is Tree Planting Day. At 7∶30 in the morning，all the students in our class met at the school gate. We walked to the park. Miss Gao and other teachers went and worked with us. All the students worked very hard，and we planted about 200 trees. Though we were dirty and tired，we still felt very happy.

这是一篇记叙型的日记。结构严谨，中心突出，有选择地记录当天的见闻(人或事)，并加以分析和评论。

领导讲话是秘书部门常见的文字材料，是秘书人员必须熟悉和掌握的一种文体。怎样撰写领导讲话，笔者根据自己十年办公室工作的实践认为，应从以下三个方面去努力。

一、在写作特点上，注意奏好四部曲

第一，进入领导角色。进入领导角色是写好领导讲话的前提。因为领导讲话是领导意志的直接反映和完整表述。如果不能站在领导的高度，就写不出符合领导要求的好稿来。因此，秘书人员要有意识地使用领导眼光，运用领导魄力，高屋建瓴，观察问题，分析问题，处理问题，使所写的讲话材料既有气势，又有魄力;既有广度，又有深度。不能脱离领导，站在局外，凭自己的主观想象去东拼西凑。

第二，展示领导艺术。领导讲话是一种论事说理的文字材料，是一种展示领导才华的公开形式，应认真对待。讲话的内容一般包括三个方面：上级机关要求做什么，为什么;我们要做什么，怎样做;不能做什么，为什么不能。因此，它要求讲话材料既要体现一定的理论水平，又要展示高超的领导艺术。

第三，推出领导举措。领导讲话通常是为了部署某项工作或开展某项活动而作出的。因此，必须有明确的指导思想和过硬的工作举措。常见的领导举措有：提高认识、加强领导、抓点带面、督促检查、总结评比等。

第四，运用领导语言。正确运用领导讲话时的特殊语言，可以起到加强效果的作用。必须认真研究语言表述问题，努力做到全面、完整、准确、肯切。讲话材料中常见的领导语言有：传达精神的概括语言;分析形势的完整语言;布置工作的肯切语言;开展动员的激励语言。

二、在写作方法上，注意定好六步棋

一是查阅文件，吃透精神。对上级机关下发的正式文件和上级领导作出的重要讲话，要认真阅读，细心研究，把握要点，吃透精神。只有这样，才能使所撰的讲话材料体现上级文件精神，符合上级政策规定。

二是深入调查，摸清情况。要写好领导讲话，就要熟悉基本的和全面的情况。只有深入细致的调查，才能得到准确的情况。“没有调查，就没有发言权”，道理就在于此。调查没有深度，讲话就没有力度。因此，起草讲话稿之前，要主动深入基层，运用多种方式，从不同角度、各种层次、多个侧面做“解剖”性调查。通过实地调查，获得来自基层单位的实际情况。

三是研究消化，提炼升华。对调查获得的材料进行梳理筛选，去粗取精，去伪存真，再经过理性的分析研究，使零乱松散的素材达到凝炼升华的高度，形成一个鲜明的主题。

四是征求意见，罗列提纲。形成文字材料之前，必须慎重地向领导本人征求意见，包括篇幅的长短、内容的多少、表扬事项与批评事项等等。征求意见之后，就可以根据领导的要求、调查的情况和会议的主旨，拟定提纲了。

五是挥笔疾书，一气呵成。文章的框架扎好了，就如画家画梅有了主干，下一步就是添枝加叶、排花润色了。经过一番构思酝酿之后，若要动笔行文，最好找个安静的地方，集中精力，一次完稿。如果断断续续，“三天打鱼，两天晒网”，就可能影响到文章的连贯性和逻辑性。

六是字斟句酌，严审细核。一次写成的稿子毕竟有点粗糙，必须认真细致地进行修改和校核。讲话材料的修改，要从整体着眼，从局部入手。不仅要从大的方面如观点、材料、结构等方面考虑，而且要从小的方面如题目、语言、标点等方面加以修改。

三、在写作技巧上，注意把好三道关

领导讲话的结构一般包括导言、主体和结尾三部分，也就是通常所说的“三道关”。

(一)导言。导言是文章的先导语言，是讲话稿的开头，类似于新闻报道中的导语。其内容可以是全文提要，也可以是概括介绍。一般介绍会议的性质、背景、主题、任务、形式、程序、目的以及方法步骤等。这段文字尽管在整个报告中份量不大，但颇为重要。它既是标题及事由的承接，又是主体内容展开的序幕，对全文起着提纲挈领的作用。

(二)主体。主体部分是领导讲话的核心，可分为“上级指示精神”和“本地工作部署”两个部分。“上级指示精神”主要包括：会议的性质和概况;对当前形势的最新看法;对某种工作的评价和估量;对下级工作的指示和要求。传达上级指示精神应坚持详尽的原则，该写的一定要写清楚。“本地工作部署”，主要包括的内容有：本地区在全局范围内所处的位置;过去工作积累的经验;当前的有利条件;落实上级机关或领导指示精神的举措;总结评比和奖惩办法。进行工作部署是落实上级指示精神的关键环节，要注意必要性和可能性的有机结合，注意全局利益与局部利益的有机协调。安排“上级指示精神”与“本地工作部署”所占篇幅时，应注意两点：当领导讲话的重点是传达精神时，“上级指示精神”所占篇幅要长;当领导讲话的重点是部署工作时，则“本地工作部署”所占篇幅要长。

(三)结尾。结尾是领导讲话的收尾部分。一般表明讲话人对会议的看法、希望和祝愿，是对全篇讲话内容的总结、概括和升华。领导讲话的结尾通常可分为“升华主题”和“祝愿会议”两个部分。“升华主题”所起的作用是强调前面的讲话内容，把会议的气氛推向高潮，其形式有五种：一是总结式。对全文进行总结概括，起强调作用。二是召唤式。向参加会议的同志或一定范围内的同志发出号召。三是预测式。对某项工作的完成情况作出分析与预测。四是希望式。对会议或某项工作寄予的希望。五是鼓舞式。为完成某项重要工作任务而鼓劲加油。“祝愿会议”所起的作用是表明对会议的态度。常用的祝词有“预祝大会圆满成功”、“祝各位代表身体健康”等。

写作领导讲话的各个部分应遵循三条原则：一是导言部分的简明原则;二是主体部分的详尽原则;三是结尾部分的升华原则。

关于领导讲话稿的写作基础：

第一部分 起草领导讲话稿的基础工作

领导讲话稿是情况信息的积累与凝聚、政策的阐发、理论的深化、工作的要求、研究的结晶、实践的总结和领导意图的体现。要起草好领导讲话稿，关键是要做好与起草领导讲话稿相关的基础工作。

一、起草领导讲话稿的主要基础工作

起草领导讲话稿的基础工作主要包括三个大的方面:一是政策理论和业务准备。二是情况资料准备。三是对领导意图、脉搏的把握、准备。具体包括以下七个方面内容:

(一)资料工作。第一，尽可能全面、客观、准确地掌握情况信息，即做到搜集资料不厌其多、整理资料不厌其烦、储存资料不厌其杂。第二，搜集的资料必须分门别类，分专题或专卷存放。第三，对搜集的资料要及时学习、分析、研究，真正把“死东西”变成“活东西”。第四，搜集资料的方式既可以个人单独搞，也可以集体统一搞，理想的模式是个人与集体结合起来搞。

(二)综合工作。第一，根据起草领导讲话稿的需要，经常自觉地开展自我服务性的综合工作。第二，根据领导的决策需要，开展为领导决策服务的综合工作。第三，综合工作贵在经常有用。第四，为起草领导讲话稿所做的综合工作，应有别于一般的综合材料工作，应以短小精悍的小综合材料为主。

(三)调查研究。第一，要经常围绕领导决策和公安中心工作，抓住一些鱼待解决的重大问题和突出矛盾，深入调查研究，力争发现一些重要的倾向性问题，提出一些有重要参考价值的意见或建议。第二，要通过调查研究摸到重要的有用情况，研究出有价值的成果。

(四)形势分析。第一，当前情况与未来发展趋势相结合。第二，既要看到有利形势，又要看到不利形势。第三，要有深入、精辟的分析，既有鲜明的论点，.又有充足的论据，一还要有科学的论证。

(五)政策理论学习与研究工作。一是马列主义、毛泽东思想、邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想。二是党和国家历史与现实的路线、方针、政策，三是法律、法规尤其是与公安工作有关的法律、法规。四是历史的和现实的公安工作的大政方针。第一，提高政策理论水平的唯一途径是学习、学习、再学习。第二，要多研究政策理论，多研究问题。第三，一要注意把理论与实践结合好，创造性地提出工作措施和要求。

(六)渊博的知识基拙。要具备文学知识、社会学知识、政治学知识、历史学知识、经济学知识及科技知识等。

(七)把握领导意图。第一，多留心、多留神，精心捕捉领导意图。第二，对于捕捉到的领导意图及时进行文字处理、归纳和提炼。第三，要注意加强对领导意图的研究、升华与正常发挥。

二、做好起草领导讲话稿基础工作的主要途径

(一)思想重视，增强意识。

(二)突出重点，有的放矢。

(三)注重实用，讲究实效。

(四)分工协作，共同负责。

(五)处处留心，时时动手。

(六)运用科技，提高质效。

(七)不断总结，逐步提高。

第二部分 领导讲话稿的起草工作

一、领导讲话稿的特点

(一)领导讲话稿本身的特点。第一，要有一定的高度，有的还要求有一定的理论色彩。第二，要有很强的实战性。第三，要有很强的针对性。第四，格式非常灵活。第五，语气特征非常讲究。第六，领导讲话的个性语言非常突出。

(二)领导讲话稿起草过程中的特点。第一，起草时间的有限性和时间分配的不确定性。第二，起草内容的不确定性。第三，领导讲话稿定型时间的后延。

二、领导讲话稿的种类

(一)从领导讲话的场合看，可以划分为汇报稿、发言稿、指示稿。

(二)从领导讲话的内容看，可以划分为工作报告、形势报告、动员报告、情况介绍、经验介绍等。

(三)从讲话的形式看，可以划分为正式发言稿、即席讲话稿、开幕词、闭幕词、电视讲话稿、广播新闻稿、讲课稿。

(四)从会议上讲话的具体时间看，可以划分为开始时的报告与结束时讲话两种基本形式。

三、领导讲话稿的基本结构

(一)“三段论”结构:第一部分主要是情况、工作，第二部分是问题、原因，第三部分是措施、建议。

(二)“独联体”结构:领导讲话稿的每一部分都独立成篇，各个部分可连接起来成文。 第一，领导讲话稿的长短要考虑讲话的时间要求。第二，根据讲话的重点，合理安排结构。第三，领导讲话稿的结构中，要注意导语部分、过渡段和结束语，以免使文章显得干瘪和突兀。第四，领导讲话稿的标题一般有直录式、点题式或主附式两种。

四、起草领导讲话稿的步骤

起草领导讲话稿的步骤一般要经过明确起草目的即审题，搜集、整理资料，确定主题和设计提纲，写作、修改、成文等过程。

(一)确定提纲。第一，要事先征求讲话者本人的意见，拟出提纲后交讲话者本人审定。第二，提纲最好是比较详细的纲目式的。第三，拟定提纲要尽量有新意。

(二)起草工作。第一，要注意提炼观点。第二，要特别强调逻辑性。第三，内容要高度概括，用语简炼、明快。第四，初稿起草时，要多从内容上、从大的方面考虑问题。第五，大、小标题都要准确、鲜明地概括本段、层的内容。

五、领导讲话稿的语言特点

(一)语言要符合讲话人的身份和场合。从身份上来讲，不同职位身份的人，讲话语言的虚、实程度不同。从场合来看，不同的场合，语言特点就有很大差别。

(二)语言要符合讲话人的个性特征。要在注意适当口语化的同时，从讲话者本人的角度出发，写出符合讲话者个人风格、特征的稿件。

(三)语言要讲究准确。包括情况、观点要准确，概念要明确，判断要恰当。

(四)语言要鲜明。一要观点鲜明。二要在布局谋篇上做到突出重点，论据充分，论点、证据、论证融为一体，能够纲举目张。三要在结构安排上层次清楚、分明。四要讲究方法。五要句子结构规范、简炼。

(五)语言要讲究生动。一要内容充实，分析精辟透彻。二要注意修辞方法的运用。三要注意提炼出有特色的文字。

六、领导讲话稿修辞上的特点

(一) 用词避免太专业化。

(二) 绘性用词要注意变换。

(三)恰当地使用限制性词语。

(四)规范地使用简化词。

(五)一些名词排列要规范。

七、起草领导讲话稿需要注意的一些问题

(一)要体现领导意图。

(二)要有新意或者说要求变化。

(三)要突出重点，不要面面俱到。

(四)要把握好起承转合。

第三部分 领导讲话稿的修改工作

修改领导讲话稿主要是在领导审定前、领导提出修改意见之后、正式印刷之前及形成正式文件之前。

一、领导讲话稿修改的重点

(一)主题思想:一是领导讲话稿的主题和提出的观念、观点、思路、目标、口号以及引申等，是否领导意图。二是这些观点、思路、目标是否符合客观形势和工作实际的要求。三是是否非常重要而又非讲不可。

(二)政策措施:包括方案、意见、政策、措施等方面，是否符合国家的法律、法规;是否符合党和政府的方针、政策及有关规定;是否符合本地实际，是否符合人民群众的根本利益和要求;是否具有较大的适用性和可操作性。

(三)文字表达:包括结构、层次、标题、语言、材料、引文、典型、事例等方面，是否符合事实、_符合逻辑、符合语法，是否鲜明生动。

(四)文面要求:即体式、款式、字体、字号、书写、序号、时间、页码、署名等是否规范。

二、领导讲话稿修改的原则

(一)在指导思想上:必须遵循实事求是、精益求精的原则。

(二)在工作作风上:必须遵循谦虚谨慎、认真负责、讲究效率的原则。

(三)在工作组织上:必须遵循多方求教、集思广益的原则。

(四)在具体工作上:必须遵循服从主题、提高质量、从大到小、从粗到细的原则。

三、领导讲话稿修改的组织形式

(一)集体修改。一是起草人员集体讨论，专人修改。二是起草人员集中一起，边讨论边修改。三是向会议或非与会人员印发征求意见稿，书面广泛征求意见。四是专门邀请有关领导或其他人员讨论修改。五是讲话者与起草人员共同修改。六是有重点地走访上级、基层，面对面地征求意见。

(二)个人修改。一要舍得割“爱”，并力戒片面性。二要多换一个角度认识问题，换一个思路考虑问题，换一种提法表述问题。三要与有关领导和人员多沟通，多虚心求教。

四、领导讲话稿中常见的问题

(一)主题思想方面:主题没有体现领导意图，认识不深刻，观念不新颖，概念不对，概括不当，观点不鲜明、不清晰、不全面、不准确等。

(二)政策体系方面:与上级政策相悖，与有关政策不衔接或政策不配套，政策界限模糊、失度等。

(三)文字材料方面:篇幅冗长、布局不合理、标题大而空、 典型不鲜明等。

(四)文面要求方面:行文不规范。

五、领导讲话稿修改的具体方法

(一)集体修改领导讲话稿的具体操作方法:边读边改法、 读后修改法、综合整理书面意见法、现场听取意见法等。

(二)个人修改领导讲话稿的具体操作方法:抓住重点深入 思考与推敲的多思法、反复阅读修改法、请人指正法等。

1 写

写作写作，第一步首先是写!可以拿考题多加练习。

2 仔细对比

第二个就是仔细对比，写完后对照范文从三个方面去研究：第一个是内容，也就是构思和原文有何区别;第二个是语言，也就是用词、用句和原文有何区别?第三个是结构，就是你的行文思路和原文有什么区别?写作的区别其实就是写作的弱点。

3 背诵

第三步骤就是背诵：也就是可以去背诵一些范文。有的同学说了，范文我背过了，但是写作的时候还是不会写。有两个原因，第一个原因是你背得不熟，背得结结巴巴，还不如不背;第二个原因是没有练过，只是死记硬背。背到什么程度，我们讲，有12个字“滚瓜烂熟、脱口而出、多多益善。”要背到不需要去想，不需要去动脑子!如果背一篇文章还需要去想，那就证明还背得不熟。大家上考场，如果能想起平时的70%，那已经是相当不错了。所以一定要背熟，这就是第三个步骤。

4 默写

第四个步骤就是默写：背熟后把书合上，把这篇文章默写下来。默写后，做一个工作：仔细对比原文发现写作弱点，你会发现你默写的文章和原文会有一些出入。包括拼写、语法、标点，这种错误就是你写作的弱点，把这些错误用红笔标出来。大家为什么写作拿不到高分，根源只有一个——错误太多。很多错误自己都不知道。

5 仿写

第五个步骤就是仿写：什么叫仿写?就是模仿你背过的文章再写出一篇新文章。在背完一篇文章后，要想想这篇文章有什么精彩的词组、词汇和句型可以使用。然后换一个话题，把这篇作文用一下，用里面词汇、词组和句型去构思另一篇文章。

作为职业经理人,尤其是每天批文十数件以上,且直辖员工达到5人以上的,你们是否经常因为文件起草不标准的问题而烦恼?那么今天，我们将为您解决这个困扰!——起草公文的基本排版格式

标题：二号方正大标宋(党口公文)，二号方正小标宋(政口公文)

副标题为三号宋体加粗，格式为右对齐，作者单位全称、作者职务、姓名(注明“根据录音整理”及讲话的时间)

一、标题规范

1、标题字体。

标题字体为华文中宋，小二号字，加粗，格式为居中。副标题为宋体，三号字，加粗，格式为右对齐。

2、作者与题注。

一般公文只有标题，没有作者和题注。

如属讲话稿之类要标明作者的，应在标题下一行加上作者单位全称、作者职务、姓名，职务与姓名之间空一格。如属汇报类公文，则标明汇报单位全称，用楷体，三号字，加粗，居中。

如果属录音整理则应在讲话者的下一行注明“根据录音整理”及讲话的时间;如属汇报类公文，则要标注汇报时间。这一行全部用楷体，三号，加粗，居中;这一行往往要用小括号括起来。

二、抬头规范

请示、报告、函等公文应有明确的抬头。有抬头的，抬头顶格。一般发往全系统的文件抬头为“各地级市工商行政管理局”;要发往含广州、深圳在内的全系统则为“各地级以上市工商行政管理局”;如果仅发往部分市局则用“珠海、汕头等市工商行政管理局”。发往省局机关内部则是“省局机关各处室、直属各单位”;如果仅发部分处室则是“省局机关有关处室，直属有关单位”;收文单位少的，则直接用收文单位规范简称(见省局电话号码表)。同时发往市局与省局机关处室的，市局与省局机关处室之间用逗号，处室与直属单位之间用顿号。发往其它单位的公文一律用规范名称作抬头。

原则上省局不直接往县级单位发文。

三、纲目规范

1、一级标题。

一级标题为黑体字，标号后用顿号，标题尾无标点符号。一级标题应单独为一段。(例：一、标题规范)

2、二级标题。

二级标题用国标楷体，加粗，标题用括号;标号与标题之间没有符号，标题尾用句号。二级标题原则上应单独为一段。(例：(二)二级标题。)

3、三级标题。

三级标题用阿拉伯数字，标题文字用国标仿宋，加粗;标号与标题之间用小园点(要用全角)，标题尾用句号。三级标题可根据实际情况单独或不独立设为一段。(例： 3.三级标题。)

4、四级标题。

四级标题用小括号阿拉伯数字，字体字号与正文一致;标号与标题之间没有符号。四级标题原则上不单独设段。(例：(4)四级标题。)

5、正文。

抬头与正文一律用国标仿宋，小三号，两端对齐，段前空两格(一般是中文两个汉字的距离)，标点符号一律用全角。文本用标准A4纸，页面设置用标准格式(即页边距设置为上、下为2.54厘米，左右为3.17厘米，页眉1.5厘米，页脚1.75厘米，文档网络设置为“只指定行网络”，每页44行)。

标题之前空一行;标题与正文之间空一行;正文中一般不出现空行。

四、落款规范

如起草省局文件，应在文章结尾、正文右下角标注时间，但不标注起草单位(落款处发文时盖章);如果起草素质教育中心文件，则应在文章结尾标注单位和时间;如起草领导讲话及汇报等公文，因题注部分已经有作者和时间，不再另添加落款和时间。

如果属录音整理，应在文章结尾标明整理人，整理时间。

其它文体可不标注单位和时间。标注时间用“插入”中的“插入时间”(中文格式)例如“二○一五年五月二十日”。

任何公文、记录、整理都应插入页码。

以上是应用文写作的基本标准，在实践过程中，企业可根据实际情况合理修订。

高考作文是高考的半壁江山，但高考作文的备考工作确实让人犯难。学生在经过高中三年的写作训练之后，对各种文体的写作都有了整体的感知。但在具体写作时，常常内容单薄，空洞无物，或者是不知如何选材表达怎样的主题。

其主要原因还是在于平时缺少甚至没有积累相关的素材，能够有力地表现和说明中心的材料太少，或是所选的材料不够典型、新颖，素材贫乏，缺乏积累与运用。高考作文的实质，关键是立足在考场作文上实现“两个转化”：

第一，由“物”到“意”的转化;第二，由“意”到“文”的转化。由“物”到“意”的转化，就是怎样从积累的生活素材、知识素材中提炼出作者的思想，作为文章的立意;由“意”到“文”的转化，就是把自己的思考、思想和文章的立意用文字表达出来。所以说，考场作文的写作过程，就是用最好的文字把最好的思想表达出来的过程。

最好的思想表达，来自对知识素材的积累，来自对生活素材的内化。因此，我们在高考作文备考之中，一方面要指导学生如何积累作文素材;另一方面就要训练学生在作文写作当中灵活运用素材的能力，其基本策略是：积累——内化——运用(表达)——反思比照。

一、积累归纳

首先要指导学生重读在必修、选修教材中的经典文段，着重在于指点学生从以下几个方面进行积累，并思考这些素材可以应用到作文的哪些方面。

下面以教材中王安石的《游褒禅山记》为例，谈谈重读文本，积累作文素材有哪几方面：

(一)积累作者文章的观点或文章的中心(以文章中的第3段为例)

如：“古人之观於天地、山川、草木、虫鱼、鸟兽，往往有得，以其求思之深，而无不在也。”

——知微见著，很多大道理往往存在于细微的事物之中，要善于发现和思考。

“而世之奇伟、瑰怪、非常之观，常在於险远，而人之所罕至焉，故非有志者不能至也。”

——世间美好的风景常在路途险远、人迹罕至之处，只有不畏惧艰辛的人才能看到最美丽的景色。

(二)积累课文中出现过的哲理故事或文章表述的事例

如在《游褒禅山记》一文中的主题是什么?可以进行归纳整理并复习：本文记叙了王安石和几位同伴游褒祥山的经过，并借此生发议论，提出了做人和做学问的道理。

(三)积累作者生平的轶事

根据课文提供的作者生平经历或写作背景作为线索，查找相关的资料，积累作者的1—2个小故事，在作文中可以充当有效的事实论据。

(四)积累文章中优美的语句段落、旬式或古诗文中的经典名句

王安石的名句积累：不畏浮云遮望眼，只缘身在最高层。(《登飞来峰》)

(五)积累文章结构的写法

【积累写法】本文在记游的基础上说理，记叙和议论相结合，前后照应。

二、理解内化

在积累的基础上，第二步要做的就是，引导学生进一步加深对课文素材的理解，尝试将一些显浅的话题勾连起来，发散思维，看看从课内积累的素材实际上可以怎样用。

这个阶段，我们可以创设一些情景，让学生将类似的人物，或者类似的经历，进行梳理，给出一些拓展学生思维的练习，让学生对素材的使用有个总体概念。

如以下的“思维热身”活动：

根据课前预习完成的作文素材积累表格中的课文事迹、作者事例和名言警句，试从以下十个素材中任选三个连成一段有明确中心论点的话：

司马迁;袁隆平与“野稗”;贝多芬《命运交响曲》;谢坤山《在画布里搏斗的人生》;杜甫“安得广厦千万问，大庇寒士俱欢颜!风雨不动安如山，呜呼!吾庐独破受冻死亦足”;鲁迅;文天祥“留取丹心照汗青”;“布衣总统”孙中山;曹操“山不厌高，水不厌深”;比尔盖茨。

学生刚开始运用并不是太熟练，只能勉强地运用三个素材，在表述方面可能还不够准确，这个阶段教师要注重看学生用得对不对，三个类似的素材得出的观点是不是一致，是不是一个明确的中心论点。

这个活动，可以放在每一节课的前五分钟，如同是一个热身游戏，启发学生思维，激发学生兴趣。开始时可先由教师进行点评，训练一段时间之后，就可以换成由学生互相评点。这样则更有利于训练学生在考场作文上正确选材，富有针对性，从而使论据更丰富二

三、运用表达

在运用的过程中，如写议论文要引用到课内素材作为论据材料说明中心论点，那么具体还要注意以下几个原则：第一，议论文中事实材料运用的基本要求是准确到位、简洁流畅。第二，材科运用要紧扣话题提炼出来的中心论点，最好能够点出话题的关键词。第三，对

话题的思考辨析不能只是简单的观点加例子，还应有个性的思辩和分析。

在备考之中，这个环节是成败的关键。有效备考能够落实就看最岳这一步怎样引导学生从积累到内化之后的运用。

我们可以分为三个时期来强化训练：第一阶段着重在议论文的框架式练习;第二阶段着重在全文的架构，即准确审题立意后，选材写提纲;第三阶段着重是全文写作，高考作文的实战训练，提升语言和提高发展得分。

(一)第一阶段的操作

这个阶段主要是任意给出1个话题，让学生写出文中论据部分，要求引用课文事例、作者事迹或名言名句：(10分钟)

如：阅读下面材料，按要求作文一：

每一个人都不可能孤立地生活在这个世界上，作为国家、民族的一员，你必须承担责任;作为学校、家庭的一员，你也必须承担责任;对你自己，你更是 责无旁贷。

请以“承担责任”为话题，自定立意，自选文体，自拟标题，写一篇不少于800字的文章。所写内容必须在话题范围之内。(参考“四步十三句”格式)

————————————。立论点)

————————————。(摆论据)

————————————。(议道理)

这个阶段，主要训练学生运用课内素材的能力。启发学生从看到一个话题，经过审题和思考后，能够准确地选出一个阐明中心论点的素材进行论述。

训练时以片段练习为主，在片段写作中强化议论文的写作技巧，运用“四步十三句”的快速成文方法，夹叙夹议，有理有据，规范行文，防止一些学生无的放矢，乱写一通。

(二)第二阶段的操作

这个阶段可以给出1个高考话题作文，让学生在课堂上以即场研讨为基础，运用课本积累的相关素材进行写作。列写出提纲。请同学展示，并点评。(15分钟)

如：2006年高考作文江苏卷：

有人说，世上本无路，走的人多了，也便有了路。有人说，世上本有路，走的人多了，也便没了路。还有人说……请以“人与路”为题写一篇文章。

题目——

第一步——定题【用句：(1)】

第二步——开篇【用句：(2)一(3)】(点材料引入，确立全文论点)

第三步——论证[用句(4)—(11)]

列事例l.第一层(或正或反)【用句(4)—(7)】(立论点——摆论据——议道理)

2.第二层(或反或正)[用句(8)—11)](立论点——摆论据——议道理)

3.可填加事例或多角度排比论证

第四步——收篇[用句：(12)一(13)】(收拢全篇，总结议论)

这个阶段主要是训练学生对议论文整体结构的把握，通过审题、立意后精选素材活用到写作当中，给予他们一个写作的架构，可以帮助大部分畏惧写议论文或者不会写议论文的学生，让他们有据可依，抓住扶手慢慢一步步学写。

(三)第三阶段的操作

这个阶段主要是给予各种作文题目让学生强化练习。从选材构思到下笔实战，这个阶段着重是整体批改学生的作文，给予点拨指导建议。另一方面就是让一些已经熟练掌握这一技巧的学生尝试抛弃第二阶段的格式，让他们多从几个角度来思考，多元选材，锤炼语言，使作文的思路更开阔，行文更流畅，文采更优美。

四、反思比照

以积累课内素材活用为作文论据的复习方法，能够有效备考高考作文：一方面，主要是让学生通过重新阅读学过的课文梳理出有效的资讯;另一方面，能够让学生在短时间里复习高一高二学过的必修、选修课文。

通过复习、整理归纳出教材中的素材，可以打开写作思路，将课文所学内容灵活运用到平时和考场写作中，就能让作文更加丰满，论据更加充实，再不用畏惧字数不够，没话可写等等。

经过一段时间的训练，按照我设计的思路一步步地分专题给予学生定时定量的作文训练，学生提高的效果是比较明显的。主要体现在几次的段考以及全市的一模、二模，学生的作文成绩稳步提高，能够保持好成绩，发挥一直比较稳定，也为语文总分奠定了坚实的基础。

导语：记叙文六要素一般指时间，地点，人物，事情的起因，经过，结果。

有人认为此提法不妥，一般的记叙文中经常出现时间模糊、地点不明甚至不交代的情况。其实此处的“要素”是写记叙文时必备的，孩子从小写习作必须交代清楚六要素，至于现在文学的模糊性，是一个时代的产物，可是这些基本的文体知识还是需要严格掌握的。

还有一种说法是记叙文三要素为环境，人物，主要内容下面小编就给大家整理了详细记叙文六要素。欢迎大家阅读!

作用：

第一要素是时间，年，月，日，时写清楚。

第二要素是地点，要写环境和发生事情的地点。

第三要素是人物，写事情里的人物。

第四要素是起因，为何发生这件事。

第五要素是经过，来龙去脉写清楚;

第六要素是结果，交代好结局。

大家千万要记住，文章要具体，主题才突出。

记叙顺序：顺叙，倒叙，插叙，补叙，分叙。

表达方式：叙述，描写，议论，说明，抒情。

人物描写：肖像，语言，神态，动作和心理描写。

环境描写:自然环境和社会环境描写。

记叙文的写法:

1：时间

2:地点

3:人物

4:事件与事件背景

5:反映的道理(主题)

6:自己在这个事件中的顿悟，体会，感想。

这些都同样重要，如果少了其中任意一点，就不是记叙文了。

常用修辞:

比喻

根据事物的相似点，用具体的、浅显、熟知的事物来说明抽象的、深奥的、生疏的事物，即打比方。作用：能将表达的内容说得生动具体形象，给人以鲜明深刻的印象，用浅显常见的事物对深奥生疏事物解说、帮助人深入理解。比喻的三种类型：明喻、暗喻和借喻。 明喻 甲像乙 出现 像、似的、好像、如、宛如、好比、犹如 如： 那小姑娘好像一朵花一样 暗喻 甲是乙 出现 是、成为 如：那又浓又翠的景色，简直就是一幅青山绿水画 借喻 甲代乙 不出现无知：地上射起无数的箭头，房顶上落下万千条瀑布。

拟人

把物当做人写，赋予物以人的言行或思想感情，用描写人的词来描写物。 作用：把禽兽鸟虫花草树木或其他无生命的事物当成人写，使具体事物人格化，语言生动形象。 如：桃树、杏树、梨树、你不让我，我不让你，都开满了花赶趟儿。

夸张

对事物的性质，特征等故意地夸张或缩小。 作用：提示事物本质，烘托气氛，加强渲染力，引起联想效果。 类别 特点 例句 扩大夸张 对事物形状、性质、特征、作用、程度等加以夸大柏油路晒化了，甚至铺户门前的铜牌好像也要晒化 缩小夸张 对事物形象、性质、特征、作用、程度等加以缩小 只能看到巴掌大的一块天地 超前夸张 把后出现的说成先出现，把先出现的说成后出现 她还没有端酒杯，就醉了。

排比

把结构相同或相似、语气一致，意思相关联的句子或成分排列在一起。 作用：增强语言气势，增强表达效果。 如：他们的品质是那样的纯洁和高尚，他们的意志是那样的坚韧和刚强，他们的气质是那样的淳朴和谦逊，他们的胸怀是那样的美丽和宽广。(魏巍《谁是最可爱的人》)

对偶

字数相等，结构形式相同，意义对称的一对短语或句子，表达两个相对或相近的意思。 作用：整齐匀称，节奏感强，高度概括，易于记忆，有音乐美感。 如：横眉冷对千夫指，俯首甘为孺子牛。(鲁迅《自嘲》)

反复

为了强调某个意思，表达某种感情，有意重复某个词语句子。 反复的种类：连续反复和间隔反复，连续反复中间无其他词语间隔。间隔反复中间有其他的词语。 如：山谷回音，他刚离去，他刚离去。(柯岩《周总理你在哪里》)(连续反复) 好像失了三省，党国倒愈像一个国，失了东三省谁也不想，党国倒愈像一个国。(鲁迅《“友邦惊诧”论》)(间隔反复)

设问

为了引起别人的注意，故意先提出问题，然后自己回答。 作用：提醒人们思考，有的为了突出某些内容。 如：花儿为什么这样红?首先有它的物质基础。(贾祖璋《花儿为什么这样红》)

反问

无疑无问，用疑问形式表达确定的意思，用肯定形式反问表否定，用否定形式反问表肯定。 如：我呢，我难道没有应该责备的地方吗?

引用

引用现成的话来提高语言表达效果，分直接引用和间接引用两种。 如："虚心使人进步，骄傲使落后"，我们应该记住这一真理。

借代

用相关的事物代替所要表达的事物。 借代种类：特征代事物、具体代抽象、部分代全体、整体代部分。 如：不拿群众一针一线。(《三大纪律八项注意》) 先生，给现钱，袁世凯，不行么?(叶圣陶《多收了三五斗》)

反语

用与本意相反的词语或句子表达本意，以说反话的方式加强表达效果。有的讽刺揭露，有的表示亲密友好的感情。 如：(清国留学生)也有解散辫子，盘得平的，除下帽来，油光可鉴，宛如小姑娘的发髻一般，还要将脖子扭几扭，实在标致极了。(鲁迅《藤野先生》)

对比

对比是把两种不同事物或者同一事物的两个方面，放在一起相互比较的一种修辞。 例如： 有的人活着，他已经死了;有的人死了，他还活着。(臧克家《有的人》)(编录人教版小学语文六年级上册)

运用对比，必须对所要表达的事物的矛盾本质有深刻的认识。对比的两种事物或同一事物的两个方面，应该有互相对立的关系，否则是不能构成对比的。

1.至于我，在某种程度上我同意后面的观点，我认为……

As far as I am concerned, I agree with the latter opinion to some extent.I think that ____。

2.总而言之，整个社会应该密切关注……这个问题。只有这样，我们才能在将来……

In a word, the whole society should pay close attention to the problem of ______.Only in this way can ______in the future。

3.但是，……和……都有它们各自的优势(好处)。例如，……，而……然而，把这两者相比较，我更倾向于(喜欢)……

But ______and ______have their own advantages.For example, _____, while_____.Comparing this with that, however, I prefer to______。

4.就我个人而言，我相信……，因此，我坚信美好的未来正等着我们。因为……

Personally, I believe that_____.Consequently, Im confident that a bright future is awaiting us because______。

5.随着社会的发展，……因此，迫切需要……如果每个人都愿为社会贡献自已的一份力量，这个社会将要变得越来越好。

With the development of society, ______.So it“s urgent and necessary to ____.If every member is willing to contribute himself to the society, it will be better and better。

6.至于我(对我来说，就我而言)，我认为……更合理。只有这样，我们才能……

For my part, I think it reasonable to_____.Only in this way can you _____。

7.对我来说，我认为有必要……原因如下：第一，……; 第二，……;最后……但同样重要的是……

In my opinion, I think it necessary to____.The reasons are as follows.First _____.Second ______.Last but not least,______。

8.在总体上很难说……是好还是坏，因为它在很大程度上取决于……的形势。然而，就我个人而言，我发现……

It is difficult to say whether _____is good or not in general as it depends very much on the situation of______.However, from a personal point of view find______。

9.综上所述，我们可以清楚地得出结论……

From what has been discussed above, we may reasonably arrive at the conclusion that____。

10.如果我们不采取有效的方法，就可能控制不了这种趋势，就会出现一些意想不到的不良后果，所以，我们应该做的是……

If we can not take useful means, we may not control this trend, and some undesirable result may come out unexpectedly, so what we should do is_____。

环保是一个热点话题，下面语文迷网整理提供了关于环保的英语写作素材，希望对你有帮助。

环保的英语名言

1、 Dont litter the floor.不随地扔垃圾。

2、 Governments of many countries have established laws to protect the air, forests and sea resources and to stop environmental pollution.许多国家制定了法律来保护大气、森林和海洋资源，制止环境污染。

3、 Please keep off the grass.不要践踏草坪。

4、 It’s our duty to save water节约水是我们每个人的责任。

5、 Safety First.安全第一。

6、 Earth is our home, you rely on green.地球是我家，绿化靠大家。

7、 Environmental problems directly affect the quality of peoples lives.环境问题直接影响人们的生活质量。

8、 Lets do our best to make it more beautiful.让我们尽力让它更美丽。

9、 If we dont save water, the last drop of water will be a tear-drop of us.如果我们不节约水，那么最后一滴水也许会是我们人类的眼泪。

10、 Handle with Care.小心轻放。

11、 No climbing.禁止攀爬。

12、 Save the earth, Our Only Home.保护地球，我们唯一的家。

13、 As we know , water is very important to man.我们知道，水对人类来说是非常的重要。

14、 Most environmental litigation involves disputes with governmental agencies.许多环保诉讼都涉及与政府机构的争端。

15、 Do not throw rubbish onto the ground. Do not waste water. Use both sides of paper when you write. Stop using plastic bags for shopping. Make classrooms less noisy.不要在地上扔垃圾。不要浪费水。当你写字时要在纸的两面都要写。停止使用塑料袋去购物。减少教室里德吵闹声。

16、 The most important question in the world today is pollution.当今世界最重要的话题就是污染问题。

17、 No one can live without water or air.没有人能离开水和空气生存。

18、 We should stop factories from producing harmful gases.我们应该阻止工厂生产有害气体。

19、 Many rivers and lakes are seriously polluted.很多河流湖泊已经受到严重污染。

20、 Without the shade from trees, Earth would get too hot to live on.没有了树荫，地球将会变得太热而不能生存。

21、 We need to protect Earth because it is our home.我们需要保护地球因为它是我们的家。

22、 Discharge pipes directly take pollutants away from the plant into the river.排泄管道直接将污染物从工厂排入河流。

23、 Please shut the door after you.出入请关门。

24、 We should plant more and more trees in order to live better and more healthy in the future为了将来我们的生活过得更好、更加健康我们应该种更多的树。

环保的词汇

21世纪议程：Agenda 21世界环境日(6月5日)：World Environment Day (June 5th each year)

世界环境日主题：World Environment Day Themes冰川消融，后果堪忧!(2007年)Melting Ice–a Hot Topic!

莫使旱地变荒漠!(2006年)Deserts and Desertification–Dont Desert Drylands!

营造绿色城市，呵护地球家园!(2005年)Green Cities – Plan for the Planet!

海洋存亡，匹夫有责!(2004年)Wanted! Seas and Oceans – Dead or Alive!

水——二十亿人生命之所系!(2003年)Water - Two Billion People are Dying for It!

让地球充满生机!(2002年)Give Earth a Chance!

世间万物，生命之网!(2001年)Connect with the World Wide Web of life!

环境千年-行动起来吧!(2000年)The Environment Millennium - Time to Act!

拯救地球就是拯救未来!(1999年)Our Earth - Our Future - Just Save It!

为了地球上的生命-拯救我们的海洋!(1998年) For Life on Earth - Save Our Seas!

为了地球上的生命!(1997)For Life on Earth我们的地球、居住地、家园：(1996)Our Earth， Our Habitat， Our Home国际生物多样性日(12月29日)：International Biodiversity Day (29 December)

世界水日(3月22日)：World Water Day (22 March)

世界气象日(3月23日)：World Meteorological Day (23 March)

世界海洋日(6月8日)：World Oceans Day (8 June)

植树节(3月12日)：Arbor Day (12 March)

1.According to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking. 依照最近的一项调查，每年有4，000，000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet. 没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

4. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a person’s physical fitness.

许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

5.写信的开头：Very glad to receive your letter of July 13.

6.One day after school,XiaoMing passed a Café on his way home.

7.The boss had no choice but to let him in.

8.How he enjoyed himself on the computer!

9.Walking home full of fear,he was sure that he would be scolded.

10.However,other students are against the idea.

11.Sometimes we have too many examinations which are too difficult for us.

12.today’s activity has taught us the new meaning of the spirit of LeiFeng:sharing with others what you have—you time,energy,or knowledge—makes you fell warm in you heart.It has truly a difference in how I feel about myself.

13.The girl whose composition was well written is spoken highly of.

14.No matter what he says，I won’t believe.

15. Thanks to the good weather，our journey was comfortable.

16. At the news of his death，she went pale with sorrow.

通讯是以叙述、描写为主要表达方式，将具有新闻价值的人物或事件及时、具体、生动地予 以报道的新闻体裁。

一、通讯特点

通讯作为报刊、电台等媒体最主要的体裁之一，新闻性显然是基本的特征。而新闻性中，真 实、时效、思想性及典型意义构成了它的不同层面。就报道对象言，或是人物、事件，或是 经验、成果、工作情况、社会风貌等，都必须是真实的，不允许虚构或“合理想象”，而且 报道对象应该具有必须的思想性和典型意义。就报道时效言，通讯虽不及消息这般快速敏捷 ，有时为将人物、事件报道细致完整需时较长，但也必须及时，仍须有很强的时效概念。除 去真实、时效的新闻性特征，通讯的主要特点有：

1、生动性。

通讯尤其是人物通讯具有一定的文学色彩。消息在表达上主要 是平面的叙述，语言追求简洁 、明快、准确。通讯则较多借用文学手段，可以描写、抒情、对话，可以用比喻、象征、拟 人等修辞。因此通讯在语言和表达方法上都具有一定的文学性，它在报道真实的人和事的过 程中，善于再现情景，平添许多生动和形象，给人以立体感、现场感。

此外，通讯虽然一般以第三人称叙述为主，但在“见闻”、“采访记”一类的通讯中，也采 用第一人称。不过其中的“我”主要起见证人或采访线索的作用。在效果上第一人称的使用 也增加了一些亲切感。

2、完整性。

通讯须相对完整、具体地报道人物或事物的过程。消息侧重写 事，叙述 简明扼要，一般不展开情节。通讯可写人物也可写事件，其材料比消息丰富、全面，其容量 比消息厚实、充足。它要求详尽、具体地报告事件的经过、演绎人物的命运，充分展开情节 ，甚至描写细节和场面。这些既是生动性的表现，同时也是内容完整性、具体化的要求。

3、评论性。

通讯须运用夹叙夹议的方法对人或事作出直接的评论。消息是 以事实说话，除 述评消息一般不允许作者直接发表议论。通讯则要求在报道人物或事件的同时，表露记者的 感情与倾向。然而通讯的评论不同于议论性文体的论证，它须时时紧扣人物或事件，依傍事 实作适时的、恰到好处评价点拨。因此这是一种通过描写、叙述、抒情等表达手段进行的议 论，它的特点是以情感人，理在情中。

二、通讯种类

1、人物通讯

是以人物的思想、言行、事迹和命运为报道内容的通讯。 人物通讯并非仅仅 是“名人通讯”，报道对象的选择取决于其蕴含的新闻价值，一般来说人物必须具有先进性 或典型性。在取材上可写“全人全貌”，也可截取片断着重写人物的某个侧面或阶段。此两 类一般以人物的“行”为主，而“人物专访”则以写人物的“言”为主。通过记者的专访， 记述人物的谈话，从而揭示其精神世界。

2、事件通讯

是以具典型意义的事件为报道对象的通讯。事件通讯时效 性较强，它围绕中 心事件选材，虽不着力刻划人物，但往往通过典型事件表现一群人或一个集体。所以它通过 较为详尽地展示事件的完整过程，挖掘其意义，揭示其本质，进而反映社会风尚，弘扬时代 精神。? 除人物通讯与事件通讯外，另有：“工作通讯”，这是介绍某单位先进事迹，传播其典型经 验和做法，以指导一般的通讯;“概貌通讯”，这是记述某地区、部门、行业、工程的新面 貌、新气象的通讯。报刊上常见的“见闻”、“纪行”、“巡礼”、“散记”均属此类。此 外，还有以写一段片断、一个场景、一场冲突为对象的“新闻故事”、“小通讯”之类，它 们以生动、快捷的形式宣传新人新事新风尚，实为通讯家属中不可忽视的一员。

三、通讯写作

1、关于选材与提炼主题

占有材料对通讯写作来说就是通过扎实细致的采访广泛搜集第一手材料。随后在纷繁的直接 材料中剥离出典型材料、背景材料。这些材料不仅要求真实，而且要有意义，具有典型性、 指导性，同时还要有意味，具有具体、完整、感人的生动性、情节性。在这般基础上根据深 和新的原则提炼主题，通讯才可能呼应社会关注热点，反映时代风尚特点，宣传党的路线方 针，从而以正确的舆论引导人，以先进的人物激励人，以真实的事件震撼人。然而通讯写的 是真人真事，其主题必须从实际生活中提炼而来，不能随意“拔高”，更不能虚构夸大，它 永远不能违背新闻的真实性原则。

2、关于写人

事因人生，人以事观。人与事虽不可分，但在人物通讯与事件通讯中的确有以人为主和以事 为主之别，为叙述方便故而分之。? 写人在文学创作中已积累丰富经验，在“非虚构”的原则下，我们不妨可借用其多种手段， 并注意以下三个方面：第一，形与神兼备。即不仅要写出人物的行为和事迹，更要展示其精 神世界;第二，言与行统一。人物语言、行为表达、传递出人物的思想，而不同的语气、句 式、词汇及动作表情、神态等是极富个性色彩的内心表露形式。写好了人物的言与行，无疑 是写活了人;第三，画龙必须点睛。如果说言行、事例、情节勾勒出人物的整体形象称为“ 龙” ，那么揭示人物行为意义，指出人物个性特点的评点便是“睛”。“画龙”用的是纪实的叙 述、描写，“点睛”则是超脱的议论或抒情。

3、关于叙事

通讯离不开写事，事件通讯更须完整地叙述事件的起因、人员、场面、结果等，以交待事件 的复杂性和社会影响度。叙事要注意两点：第一，理清主线、丰满细节。一个新闻事件的发 生、发展过程中，有因有果，有人有事，头绪多而关系复杂，作者须理清主线，按事件原貌 将其完整地、动态地、立体地呈现给读者。而为实现这一目标，就须选择典型的细节。一篇 优秀的事件通讯，必然有几个生动感人的细节来充分展示主线，使作品丰满而具现场感。第二，时间为经、时间为纬。通讯须有一定的时间要领因为事件、故事总在于一定的时间和空间中。纺织好时空画面既是一个结构总是也是一个表达方法问题。篇幅不长而情节不太复杂的事件通讯可多运用插叙、补叙、分叙等手段，充分展开矛盾和利用背景材料，使文章有变化起伏。容量大而情节复杂的事件通讯则常常运用时空交叉方式，以时间推进、空间变换等手段来切割事件，构成若干侧面。经过作者精心的组合剪辑将事件完整而利落地报告于世。

显然选材与提炼主题是各类通讯写作中必须面对的，而写人与叙事则因通讯品种不同而有所侧重。但是通讯的写作模式也必然带来约束，因而通讯的散文化写法亦开始为人注目。所谓 的散文化倾向有以下几个特点：(一)生活面更趋广阔，(二)结构不拘一格，(三)技法更多样 化，(四)报道呈系列化。

思考与练习：

一、阅读下列消息，然后给它拟写引题和正题：

本报讯(记者董洪亮)我国唯一的教育艺术刊物《教育艺术》杂志日前度过了五 周岁生日。冰心老人、贺敬之等知名人士为之题词致贺。

《教育艺术》由中华教育艺术研究会暨中华教育艺术家协会、首都师范大学青年教育艺术研 究所共同主办，李燕杰教授担任社长。该刊以“激扬正气，振奋民魂”为办刊宗旨，主要栏 目有“名家谈教育艺术”、“时代精神磁场”、“青春思絮”、“教育艺术一千问”等。《 教育艺术》杂志被海内外读者誉为“青年的良师，家长的益友，干部的参谋，教师的助手” 。

(《中国教育报》1994年11月17日第2版)

二、一件新闻在不同的报纸上刊出时，会因编辑的眼光不同而出现不同的标题。请就近日发 生的一件重大新闻，比较、分析各大报纸刊出时的标题有何不同。

三、写一篇新闻，报道学校或班上新近组织的某项活动。时间、地点、事件要交代清楚，还 要注意详略得当，有条有理。? 四、下面这则题为《卫生部写信感谢空军某部官兵》的消息与通讯《为了六十一个阶级弟兄 》是同题材的报道，请仔细比较两文章，谈谈通讯与消息在确立主题、写作方法等方面的异 同。

新华社20日讯卫生部最近写信给人民解放军空军领导机关，表扬和感谢空军某 部 官兵为了抢救平陆县公路工地食物中毒的员工，克服各种困难，完成了空投药品的任务。

信上说，2月3日，山西省平陆县风陵渡公路工地上发生六十多人食物中毒事故，当地县委 来 电话后，经与你们联系，立即得到大力支援，派专机前往空投药品。飞行员们为了抢救工人 阶级兄弟的生命，毫不犹豫地连夜起飞，迅速地执行这一任务。由于药品的及时供应，使全 体中毒员工经过抢救脱离了生命危险。这一英雄行为，充分说明了人民空军战士有高度的为 人民服务的精神和共产主义风格。

信上还说，空军战士抢救中毒工人的事迹，大大地鼓舞了病人和平陆县全县人民的革命意志 ，他们纷纷写信感谢党中央和毛主席对他们的关怀，感谢人民空军的大力支援。中共平陆县 委还将此事件写成材料，向全县人民进行教育，学习人民解放军忠于祖国、忠于人民的高贵 品质。

(原载《人民日报》1960年2月21日)

五、阅读近期报纸，书面推荐人物通讯、事件通讯、概貌通讯各一件。

六、实地采访，写一篇通讯。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

要写好英语作文，还要带着敏锐的目光细心地观察，注意英语中一些表达上的习惯。小编收集了中考英语作文的写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

一、要善于模仿

对大多数学习英语的同学来说，英语的词汇量、句式的积累还极其有限，远不能达到用英文流畅表达，挥洒自如的境地。在这一阶段进行创作是不合时宜的，如果非要创造，只能写出“long time no see”这样的文字来。因此，模仿是这一阶段的必经途径。

谈到模仿，一些同学的办法就是背一堆范文，然后再到考场上进行一个“剪切”、“粘贴”的工作，效果可想而知。这不是真正意义上的模仿，充其量算是默写课文。如何模仿呢?

首先，模仿的目标要明确。模仿的重点永远要放在一定的句式结构上，而非个别的词汇。道理很简单：一个词，随着文章内容的变换，可能就不能用了;而句式结构是放置四海而皆准的东西，适用的范围广，学来对写作的帮助也就明显。

其次，模仿的材料要地道。像新概念英语这样的教材就提供了很多原汁原味的英语表达法。盲目选择文章学习，记一些不中不洋的句子，以讹传讹，浪费时间。

最后，模仿要体现在实际动笔上。比如说，新概念第三册有一个句式说：“…for the simple reason that…”表示某种现象的原因是什么，用在大学英语考试中，我们就可以拿来解释为什么自行车在中国如此的流行，表达为：“the bicycle is very popular in china for the simple reason that…”。然而，很多同学经常背了这些句式不用，一谈到原因仍然是“…because…”，等等。

二、要灵活变通

在批改英语作文的过程中，经常能发现一些将中文生硬地翻译成英文的表达法。由于中英文之间的差异和词汇量、表达法积累的不足，出现难于表达的情况是十分正常的。关键问题在于如何处理。有一句话叫做“立志如山，行道如水”，套用在这个问题上就很合适。写英文作文，一定要有决心把它写好，有信心把意思表达清楚，这是“立志如山”;但关键是遇到问题时要有个灵活的态度，能像流水一样变通解决问题。

有个翻译界的故事说：在某大型国际会议的招待会上，一道菜是用鸡蛋做的。与会的客人问翻译：“what is it made of?”本来是非常简单的一个问题，结果翻译太紧张，忘了“egg”这个词，但是他急中生智，回答：“it is made of miss hen’s son.”这里，就是一个灵活变通的范例。绕道表达，是写作中应该常常运用的一种方法。

三、要细心观察

要写好英语作文，还要带着敏锐的目光细心地观察，注意英语中一些表达上的习惯。

比如说，在正式文体的写作中，很少用 “it isn"t”这样的略缩形式，而往往是一板一眼地写作 “it is not”。同理，在正式文体中的日期一般不缩写，阿拉伯数字一般会用英文表达(特别长的数字除外)。

再比如说，翻翻新概念第三册所有的课文，会发现凡是一段文章的段首句出现转折时，转折词however都放在句子结构中的第二部分，以插入语的形式出现。分析原因，是因为段落一开始就用转折词，会时转折显得较生硬、突兀。

最后，许多同学在写作文时，习惯于把 “since” “because” “for”这样的词放在句首引导原因状语从句。事实上，在我们见到的英语报刊杂志文章中，这样的从句一般都是放在主句之后的。另外, “and”也常常被误放在一句话的开头，表示两个句子之间的并列或递进关系。其实，经常留心地道的英语文章能发现，如果是并列关系，完全可以不用连词;如果是递进关系，用 “furthermore” “what is more”更为普遍。

四、要心有全局

英文写作十分强调形式上的严谨性，特别是全局的丝丝入扣。如果写作时结构意识良好，应试写作就简化成为一个填空的过程了。框架万变不离其宗，适当地填如观点、素材，文章就自然而然地立起来了。

掌握了这些英文写作中的练习技巧，会使提高英文写作水平的努力有更大的收益。

下面智康教育跟大家分享写作的“五项基本原则” ：

1、 长短句原则

工作还得一张一驰呢，老让读者读长句，累死人!写一个短小精辟的句子，相反，却可以起到画龙点睛的作用。而且如果我们把短句放在段首或者段末，也可以揭示主题：

as a creature, i eat; as a man, i read. although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy the intellectual need of mind, they are in a way quite similar.

如此可见，长短句结合，抑扬顿挫，岂不爽哉?牢记!

强烈建议：在文章第一段(开头)用一长一短，且先长后短;在文章主体部分，要先用一个短句解释主要意思，然后在阐述几个要点的时候采用先短后长的句群形式，定会让主体部分妙笔生辉!文章结尾一般用一长一短就可以了。

2、 主题句原则

国有其君，家有其主，文章也要有其主。否则会给人造成“群龙无首”之感!相信各位读过一些破烂文学，故意把主体隐藏在文章之内，结果造成我们稀里糊涂!不知所云!所以奉劝各位一定要写一个主题句，放在文章的开头(保险型)或者结尾，让读者一目了然，必会平安无事!

特别提示：隐藏主体句可是要冒险的!

to begin with, you must work hard at your lessons and be fully prepared before the exam(主题句). without sufficient preparation, you can hardly expect to answer all the questions correctly.

3、 一二三原则

领导讲话总是第一部分、第一点、第二点、第三点、第二部分、第一点… 如此罗嗦。可毕竟还是条理清楚。考官们看文章也必然要通过这些关键性的“标签”来判定你的文章是否结构清楚，条理自然。破解方法很简单，只要把下面任何一组的词汇加入到你的几个要点前就清楚了。

1)first, second, third, last(不推荐，原因：俗)

2)firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally(不推荐，原因：俗)

3)the first, the second, the third, the last(不推荐，原因：俗)

4)in the first place, in the second place, in the third place, lastly(不推荐，原因：俗)

5)to begin with, then, furthermore, finally(强烈推荐)

6)to start with, next, in addition, finally(强烈推荐)

7)first and foremost, besides, last but not least(强烈推荐)

8)most important of all, moreover, finally

9)on the one hand, on the other hand(适用于两点的情况)

10)for one thing, for another thing(适用于两点的情况)

4、 短语优先原则

写作时，尤其是在考试时，如果使用短语，有两个好处：其一、用短语会使文章增加亮点，如果老师们看到你的文章太简单，看不到一个自己不认识的短语，必然会看你低一等。相反，如果发现亮点—精彩的短语，那么你的文章定会得高分了。其二、关键时刻思维短路，只有凑字数，怎么办?用短语是一个办法!比如：

i cannot bear it.

可以用短语表达：i cannot put up with it.

i want it.

可以用短语表达：i am looking forward to it.

这样字数明显增加，表达也更准确。

5、 多变句式原则

1)加法(串联)

都希望写下很长的句子，像个老外似的，可就是怕写错，怎么办，最保险的写长句的方法就是这些，可以在任何句子之间加and, 但最好是前后的句子又先后关系或者并列关系。比如说：

i enjor music and he is fond of playing guitar.

如果是二者并列的，我们可以用一个超级句式：

not only the fur coat is soft, but it is also warm.

其它的短语可以用：

besides, furthermore, likewise, moreover

2)转折(拐弯抹角)

批评某人缺点的时候，我们总习惯先拐弯抹角说说他的优点，然后转入正题，再说缺点，这种方式虽然阴险了点，可毕竟还比较容易让人接受。所以呢，我们说话的时候，只要在要点之前先来点废话，注意二者之间用个专这次就够了。

the car was quite old, yet it was in excellent condition.

the coat was thin, but it was warm.

更多的短语：

despite that, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, notwithstanding

3)因果(so, so, so)

昨天在街上我看到了一个女孩，然后我主动搭讪，然后我们去咖啡厅，然后我们认识了，然后我们成为了朋友…可见，讲故事的时候我们总要追求先后顺序，先什么，后什么，所以然后这个词就变得很常见了。其实这个词表示的是先后或因果关系!

the snow began to fall, so we went home.

更多短语：

then, therefore, consequently, accordingly, hence, as a result, for this reason, so that

4)失衡句(头重脚轻，或者头轻脚重)

有些人脑袋大，身体小，或者有些人脑袋小，身体大，虽然我们不希望长成这个样子，可如果真的是这样了，也就必然会吸引别人的注意力。文章中如果出现这样的句子，就更会让考官看到你的句子与众不同。其实就是主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句的变形。

举例：this is what i can do.

whether he can go with us or not is not sure.

同样主语、宾语、表语可以改成如下的复杂成分：

when to go, why he goes away…

5)附加(多此一举)

如果有了老婆，总会遇到这样的情况，当你再讲某个人的时候，她会插一句说，我昨天见过他;或者说，就是某某某，如果把老婆的话插入到我们的话里面，那就是定语从句和同位语从句或者是插入语。

the man whom you met yesterday is a friend of mine.

i don’t enjoy that book you are reading.

mr liu, our oral english teacher, is easy-going.

其实很简单，同位语--要解释的东西删除后不影响整个句子的构成;定语从句—借用之前的关键词并且用其重新组成一个句子插入其中，但是whom or that 关键词必须要紧跟在先行词之前。