SAT英语写作技巧之首段与主体段【精选20篇】

我们每一个人实际上从一出生就会抒情。小孩子见到妈妈时会兴奋地发出“咿咿呀呀”的简单的音节，饥饿时会“哇哇”地大哭，这都是在抒情。等到长大了，逐渐掌握了更多、更复杂的语言，逐渐学会了书写，将这些语言组织起来，以描述自己的主观感情，并形成书面文字，这就是抒情文。

抒情，就是对主观感情的抒发和表达。抒情文则是以情感的抒写作为主要写作目的的文章。抒情是一种重要的写作手法，抒情文也是重要的散文形式之一。

抒情贵在真实。初写抒情文，一定要抒写自己真实的思想情感，切忌矫揉造作、感情虚假。我国宋代的着名词人辛弃疾有过这么一句词：为赋新词强说愁。它的意思是说，一个人本没有愁，或者说并不真正懂得愁，但是为了写出一首好词，却故意在那里说自己怎么怎么地愁。对于作家、诗人来说，这是写作的需要，但对我们初学写作的人，这就是无病呻吟，是作文中的大忌。我们在写作抒情文章时，一定要想写什么就写什么，心中有什么就写什么，只有这样，文章中表达的情感才会可亲、可信，真实、感人。

从情感的表达方式上讲，抒情有直接抒情和间接抒情之分。

“我爱你，中国!我爱你，中国”这是直接抒情。直接抒情比较直白、热烈，多用带有浓重感情色彩的判断句、陈述句等，同时经常会在句中使用感叹词，如“好美啊”、“真想你呀”。间接抒情则比较含蓄。它往往借助于叙述、描写和议论等手法来抒发感情。如“蓝蓝的天空白云飘，白云下面马儿跑……”用对草原上蓝天、白云、奔腾的骏马来表达心中的喜悦之情。

间接抒情方法很多。有的借助于人或物，通过对人物行为的描写来表达。如一位同学在作文中写到：“妈妈欣慰地笑了。她的眼睛亮晶晶地、盯着我看了很久很久。”通过对妈妈笑了、眼睛亮晶晶地、盯着我看等行为描写，来表现妈妈因“我”的进步而高兴、“我”因自己的行为使妈妈欣慰而自豪的情感。这是“借人抒情”。有的借助于物，在对事物状态的描摩中抒发感情。如：“在这个长满红锈的鱼钩上，闪烁着灿烂的金色的光芒!”(引自《金色的鱼钩》)有的“借事抒情”，将主观感情隐藏在对事件的记叙之中。有的是“借景抒情”，融情于景，通过描写景物来达到抒情的目的。有的是通过议论抒情，把自己真实的思想情感寄托在几句点睛式的议论之中，如“这就是我们新中国的总理。我看见了他一夜的工作。他是多么劳苦，多么简朴!”(引自《一夜的工作》)。

抒情时，应该灵活运用各种表达技巧，如拟人、比喻、对比、象征、衬托、联想、夸张等等。如《美丽的小兴安岭》一文的结尾，小兴安岭是一座巨大的宝库，也是一座美丽的大花园。“运用比喻手法，将小兴安岭的美丽和作者对它的喜爱之情恰到好处地表达了出来。

直接抒情和间接抒情在抒情文中的运用又是如何呢?

一般来说，直接抒情多与写人、记事、写景、状物结合使用，在这些写作的基础上，画龙点睛或是点明题意。直接抒情还经常用于作者感受最深刻、感情最强烈的地方，以精练的语言表达浓郁的感情和强烈的感染力。间接抒情因其表现手法的多样和含蓄，运用和也比直接抒情要广泛。但在大多情况下，两者是结合使用的，在间接抒情的基础上，以直接抒情点题或是升华情感，效果往往不错。

名人名言，指为人类发展做出贡献的，富有知识的名人所说的能够让人懂得道理的一句较为出名的话，也是我们常用的写作素材。下面是语文迷整理的有关励志、梦想、坚持的名人名言，希望对你有帮助。

一、励志名人名言

1、All things in their being are good for something.

天生我才必有用。

2、Difficult circumstances serve as a textbook of life for people.

困难坎坷是人们的生活教科书。

3、Failure is the mother of success.——Thomas Paine

失败乃成功之母。

4、For man is man and master of his fate.

人就是人，是自己命运的主人。

5、The unexamined life is not worth living.——Socrates

混混噩噩的生活不值得过。——苏格拉底

6、None is of freedom or of life deserving unless he daily conquers it anew.——Erasmus

只有每天再度战胜生活并夺取自由的人，才配享受生活的自由。

7、Our destiny offers not the cup of despair, but the chalice of opportunity. So let us seize it, not in fear, but in gladness.——R.M. Nixon

命运给予我们的不是失望之酒，而是机会之杯。因此，让我们毫无畏惧，满心愉 悦地把握命运。——尼克松

8、Living without an aim is like sailing without a compass.——John Ruskin

生活没有目标，犹如航海没有罗盘。-- 罗斯金

9、What makes life dreary is the want of motive.——George Eliot

没有了目的，生活便郁闷无光。——乔治·埃略特

10、Towering genius disdains a beaten path. It seeks regions hitherto unexplored.——Lincoln

卓越的天才不屑走旁人走过的路。他寻找迄今未开拓的地区。

11、There is no such thing as a great talent without great will - power.——Balzac

没有伟大的意志力，便没有雄才大略。——巴尔扎克

12、The good seaman is known in bad weather.

惊涛骇浪，方显英雄本色。(励志名言)

13、Fear not that the life shall come to an end, but rather fear that it shall never have a beginning.——J.H. Newman

不要害怕你的生活将要结束，应该担心你的生活永远不会真正开始。——纽曼

14、Gods determine what youre going to be.——Julius Erving

人生的奋斗目标决定你将成为怎样的人。——欧文

15、An aim in life is the only fortune worth finding.——Robert Louis Stevenson

生活的目标，是唯一值得寻找的财富。-- 史蒂文森

16、While there is life there is hope.

一息若存，希望不灭。——英国谚语

17、Try not to become a man of success but rather try to become a man of value.——A. Einstein

不要为成功而努力，要为做一个有价值的人而努力。——爱因斯坦

18、You have to believe in yourself. Thats the secret of success.——Charles Chaplin

人必须有自信，这是成功的秘密。——卓别林

19、Pursue your object, be it what it will, steadily and indefatigably.

不管追求什么目标，都应坚持不懈。

20、We must accept finite disappointment, but we must never lose infinite hope.——Mattin Luther King

我们必须接受失望，因为它是有限的，但千万不可失去希望，因为它是无穷的。——马丁·路德·金

21、Energy and persistence conquer all things.——Benjamin Franklin

能量加毅力可以征服一切。——富兰克林

22、Nothing seek, nothing find.

无所求则无所获。

23、Cease to struggle and you cease to live.——Thomas Carlyle

生命不止，奋斗不息。——卡莱尔

24、A thousand-li journey is started by taking the first step.

千里之行，始于足下。

25、Strength alone knows conflict, weakness is below even defeat, and is born vanquished.——Swetchine

只有强者才懂得斗争;弱者甚至失败都不够资格，而是生来就是被征服的。——斯威特切尼

26、The people who get on in this world are the people who get up and look for circumstances they want, and if they cannot find them, make them.——Bernara Shaw

在这个世界上取得成就的人，都努力去寻找他们想要的机会，如果找不到机会， 他们便自己创造机会。——萧伯纳

27、A strong man will struggle with the storms of fate.——Thomas Addison

强者能同命运的风暴抗争。——爱迪生

28、He who seize the right moment, is the right man.——Goethe

谁把握机遇，谁就心想事成。——歌德

29、Victory wont come to me unless I go to it.——M.Moore

胜利是不会向我们走来的，我必须自己走向胜利。——穆尔

30、Man struggles upwards; water flows downwards.

人往高处走，水往低处流。

二、梦想的名言名言

1、every life is a boat, the dream is the boat sail.每个人的生命都是一只小船，梦想是小船的风帆。

2、it is difficult to say what is impossible, for the dream of yesterday, today is the hope, but also can become tomorrow’s reality.很难说什么是办不到的事情，因为昨天的梦想，可以是今天的希望，并且还可以成为明天的现实。

3、to me, they hide in the depths of your soul; be a distant dream, every dream will exceed your goal.努力向上吧，星星就躲藏在你的灵魂深处;做一个悠远的梦吧，每个梦想都会超越你的目标。

4、how far you go in life depends on your being tender with the young, compassionate with the aged, sympathetic with the striving and tolerate of the weak and the strong. because someday in life you will have been all of this.你的生活深度取决于你对年幼者的呵护，对年长者的同情，对奋斗者的怜悯体恤，对弱者及强者的包容。因为生命中总有一天你会发现其中每一个角色你都扮演过。(乔治·华盛顿)

5、most of the time, our rich pocket, but poor head; we have a dream, but the lack of thought.很多时候，我们富了口袋，但穷了脑袋;我们有梦想，但缺少了思想。

6、the ideals which have lighted my way, and time after time have given me new courage to face life cheerfully 19 have been kindness, beauty and truth.(albert einstein, american scientist)有些理想曾为我们引过道路，并不断给我新的勇气以欣然面对人生，那些理想就是--真、善、美。 (美国科学家 爱因斯坦. a.)

7、dont part with your illusions. when they are gone you may still exist, but you have ceased to live. (mark twain, american writer)不要放弃你的幻想。当幻想没有了以后，你还可以生存，但是你虽生犹死。(美国作家 马克·吐温)

8、to accomplish great things, in addition to dream, must act.要想成就伟业，除了梦想，必须行动。

9、when you truly want something, all the universe conspires to help you finish it.当你真心渴望一件东西的时候，整个宇宙都会联合起来帮你完成它。

10、everything is now for the future of dream weaving wings, soar to great heights to dream in reality.现在的一切都是为将来的梦想编织翅膀，让梦想在现实中展翅高飞。

11、human nature is the most pathetic: we always dream of the horizon of a wonderful rose garden, not to enjoy today in our window open rose.人性最可怜的就是：我们总是梦想着天边的一座奇妙的玫瑰园，而不去欣赏今天就开在我们窗口的玫瑰。

12、faith consists in believing when it is beyond the power of reason to believe. it is not enough that a thing be possible for it to be believed.当还缺乏产生信仰的足够理由时，要用信念去包涵。模棱两可不足以支持一个信仰。(伏尔泰)

13、the dream is the other shore, the reality is that on this side, action is the bridge connecting.梦想是彼岸，现实是此岸，行动是那座连接的桥。

14、a heart will not be hurt for pursuing a dream, when you truly want something, all the universe conspires to help you complete the.没有一颗心会因为追求梦想而受伤，当你真心想要某样东西时，整个宇宙都会联合起来帮你完成。

15、dreams don’t abandon a painstaking pursuit of the people, as long as you never stop pursuing, you will bathe in the brilliance of the dream.梦想不抛弃苦心追求的人，只要不停止追求，你们会沐浴在梦想的光辉之中。

16、everything i do is just to weave my wings for my dream now so that it can hover in the real world.我所做的一切都是为将来的梦想编织翅膀现在这样可以悬停在现实世界。

17、the man with a new idea is a crank until the idea succeeds. (mark twain, american writer)具有新想法的人在其想法实现之前是个怪人。 (美国作家 马克·吐温)

18、youth is to prepare the material, want to build a bridge to the moon, or on the ground and two palaces or temples. middle age, finally decided to put up a shed.青年时准备好材料，想造一座通向月亮的桥，或者在地上造二所宫殿或庙宇。活到中年，终于决定搭一个棚。

19、the important thing in life is to have a great aim, and the determination to attain it. (johan wolfgang von goethe, german poet and dramatist)人生重要的事情就是确定一个伟大的目标，并决心实现它。(德国诗人、戏剧家 歌德. j. m.)

20、the pursuit of a cause of the people, can "dream" doing higher. although at the beginning of a dream, but as long as you keep doing, do not easily give up, dreams can come true.一个有事业追求的人，可以把“梦”做得高些。虽然开始时是梦想，但只要不停地做，不轻易放弃，梦想能成真。

21、the dream is not a dream, the difference between the two usually have a very worth pondering the distance.梦想绝不是梦，两者之间的差别通常都有一段非常值得人们深思的距离。

22、“two gates there are for dreams," said penelope to odysseus after his ten years’ wandering had ended. "one made for horn and one of for ivory. the dreams that pass through the carved ivory delude and bring us tales that turn to naught;those that can come through polished horn accomplish real things whenever seen."“梦想有两扇门，”在奥德修斯结束了十年的漂泊后，潘尼洛对他说，“一扇是号角制成，一扇是象牙制成。通过精雕细缕的象牙门得梦想不过是一场会归于无的海市蜃楼的童话;而那些通过磨砺的号角门的梦想才会成为真实，为人所见。”

23、who has the material to survive, people have a dream only talk about life. you have to understand life and life different animal survival, while others life.人有了物质才能生存，人有了梦想才谈得上生活。你要了解生存与生活的不同吗?动物生存，而人则生活。

24、the dream was always running ahead of me. to catch up, to live for a moment in unison with it, that was the miracle.梦想总是跑在我前面，追寻它们，乃至仅有一瞬间的与梦想合而为一，也都是动人的生命奇迹。

25、a person rich money is not certain, but if the man is not a dream, the poor people.一个人有钱没钱不一定，但如果这个人没有了梦想，这个人穷定了。

26、if winter comes, can spring be far behind ?( p. b. shelley, british poet )冬天来了，春天还会远吗?( 英国诗人, 雪莱. p. b.)

27、as wishes may inspire dreams, so dreams may inspire wishes.正如心愿能够激发梦想，梦想也能够激发心愿。

28、ideal is the beacon. without ideal, there is no secure direction; without direction, there is no life.( leo tolstoy, russian writer)理想是指路明灯。没有理想，就没有坚定的方向;没有方向，就没有生活。(俄国作家 托尔斯泰. l.)

29、it is at our mothers knee that we acquire our noblest and truest and highest, but there is seldom any money in them. ( mark twain, american writer )就是在我们母亲的膝上，我们获得了我们的最高尚、最真诚和最远大的理想，但是里面很少有任何金钱。(美国作家 马克·吐温)

30、plain ordinary dream, we used the only adhere to the belief to support the dream.平凡朴实的梦想，我们用那唯一的坚持信念去支撑那梦想。

三、坚持英文名人名言

1、Don’t lose faith, as long as the unremittingly, you will get some fruits. —— Tsien Hsueshen

不要失去信心，只要坚持不懈，就终会有成果。——钱学森

2、With strong will, is equivalent to the feet to a pair of wings.—— Bailey

有了坚定的意志，就等于给双脚添了一对翅膀。——贝利

3、Rome wasn’t built in one day.

伟业非一日建成。

4、Persistence will enable us to succeed, and perseverance of the source is to do not waver in the least, we should take to achieve the necessary means to success.—— Chernyshevsky

只有毅力才会使我们成功，而毅力的来源又在于毫不动摇，坚决采取为达到成功所需要的手段。——车尔尼雪夫斯基

5、Daily good, not afraid of thousands of miles; often do, not do things.

日日行，不怕千万里;常常做，不怕千万事。

6、Once they start they can always continue to cause people is happy.—— Herzen

朝开始便永远能将事业继续下去的人是幸福的。——赫尔岑

7、Although patience and persistence is a painful thing, but it can gradually bring you good.—— Ovid

忍耐和坚持虽是痛苦的事情，但却能渐渐地为你带来好处。——奥维德

8、Nothing is impossible to a willing heart.

心之所愿，无事不成。

9、People lack the willpower, rather than strength.—— Hugo

世人缺乏的是毅力，而非气力。——雨果

10、No human can repel a firm hope.—— Kingsley

永远没有人力可以击退一个坚决强毅的希望。——金斯莱

11、Heaven revolves, the gentleman to unremitting self-improvement. —— Wen Tianxiang

天行健，君子以自强不息。——文天祥

12、As long as the continuous efforts, unremitting struggle, there is no things that can not be conquered.—— Seneca

只要持续地努力，不懈地奋斗，就没有征服不了的东西。——塞内加

13、Once you choose your way of life, be brave to stick it out and never return.—— Zola

生活的道路一旦选定，就要勇敢地走到底，决不回头。——左拉

14、No patient who, who has no wisdom.—— he di

谁没有耐心，谁就没有智慧。——萨迪

15、It is dogged does it. The days of easy, but careless people. —— Yuan Mei

天下无难事，只怕有心人。天下天易事，只怕粗心人。——袁枚

16、Poor and stronger, not falling Albatron ambition. —— Wang Bo

穷且益坚，不坠青云之志。——王勃

17、We should have the perseverance, must have the self-confidence especially! We must believe, our talent is used to do something. —— Mrs. Curie

我们应有恒心，尤其要有自信心!我们必须相信，我们的天赋是要用来做某种事情的。——居里夫人

18、Determined to not firm, with nothing.—— Zhu Xi

立志不坚，终不济事。——朱熹

19、One day, the ten day of ten money, money. Little strokes fell great oaks. Dripping water wears through a stone.

一日一钱，十日十钱。绳锯木断，水滴石穿。

20、Pursue your object, be it what it will, steadily and indefatigably.

不管追求什么目标，都应坚持不懈。

成为一位优秀的作家并不是一件容易的事情。你需要艰苦卓绝的努力，但是这些支出的努力是值得的。只要你从今天做起，一点一滴的努力，你一定可以成为一个优秀作家。小编准备了15条建议希望对你有所启迪，共勉吧。

1、阅读优秀的作品：这是显而易见的，但立竿见影的方法。如果你不读更多的好作品，你就不知道如何写出更好的作品。优秀的作家都是从阅读别人的佳作开始，接着开始模仿，最后超越他们，形成自己的风格。尽可能的多读名著，在看内容的时候，更要留意文章的问题和写作的技巧。

2、尽可能多的写：每天都写，如果可能话，每天写几次。你写得多了，也就写得好了。学习如何写作和其他的学问道理是一样的，熟能生巧。写写你自己，写写博客，向出版社投稿。只是写，全情投入的写，练得越多，你的写作水平就提升得越快。

3、随时随地记下你的灵感：随身带一本小笔记本(纳博科夫身上装满了小卡片)，当你对你构思的小说，文章，或是小说里的人物有什么灵感的时候，马上记下来。当你听别人谈话时的只言片语而所有顿悟时，或看到一段散文诗或是一句歌词让你很感动时，都可以马上当他们记下来。灵感总是转瞬即逝，你及时的记录下来，便可以成为你写作的素材。我的习惯是，为我的博客要写的文章列一个清单，不断的补充它。

4、专门的写作时间：每天找一个没有任何打扰的时间段作为专门的写作时间，让这成为习惯。对我而言，清晨的时间是最佳的，午饭，傍晚，或者深夜的那段时间也可以。无论你是做什么工作的，把写作当作每天必须完成的任务去做。每天至少写半个小时，当然有一个小时更好。若你同我一样，是一个全职的作家，那么你需要写更多的小时，请你不要担心，这只会让你写得更好。

5、随便涂鸦：面对整张的白纸，整版的白屏，无从开始，肯定恐怖。你会想：我还是看看邮件或是小憩一会了吧!先生，千万别这样。马上开始写，马上打字，你写什么没有关系，只是让我听到你敲键盘的声音吧。只要你开始写了，什么都好办了。像我的话，我喜欢先敲上我的名字和文章的标题，这应该不难吧，然后再慢慢的展开情节，全身心地融入进去…关键是：开始可以随便写写，随便涂鸦，但是尽快开始写正文。

6、集中精神：写作是一件一心一意的事情，在嘈杂的环境或是同时干着别的事情，是不可能写好的。写作需要一个安静的环境，需要一点点柔和的背景音乐。即使是最低要求，你也需要在全屏(没有其他软件得干扰)的条件下，使用WriteRoom， DarkRoom，Writer这些写作软件，不受打扰的写作。关掉邮箱，关点MSN和Gtalk，关掉电话和手机，关掉电视，清理掉书桌上无用的东西。清除与写作无关的一切杂念，现在就是写作的时间，好像把自己放进一个盒子里，在没有任何打扰下进入写作状态。

7、先计划，再写： 这好像和“随便涂鸦”有些矛盾，实际上不是这样。在坐下来正式写之前，先做个计划或是脑子里先预演一下，这是非常管用的办法。每天跑步的时候想想要写的东西，或是散步的时间来个头脑风暴;然后把想到的记下来，做一个扼要的提纲;等真正准备好开始写了，可以很快的展开，因为思路和想法都有了。这里，有一个构思小说的三部曲，可以参考这个：Snowflake Method.

8、创新： 你需要模仿名家，这并不意味你要跟他们写得一模一样。你可以试试新的写法，从这里学一点，从那里学一点。渐渐地，你就会有了自己的风格，自己的文体，自己的思路。试试一些不一样的表达，或创造一些与众不同的表达方式，每一方法你都可以尝试，看看它到底怎么样，不好就不用呗。

9、修改： 你开始构思你的文字，然后试着写，让故事情节展开，最后你需要回过头再看看你都写了什么。这点很重要，很多写手一旦写好就不想修改，已经费时费力地写好了，还要再花时间修改，实在是一件吃力不讨好的活。但如果你想写得更好，你就要学会如何修改。好的作品是经过反复的推敲和修改而成的，这会让你的作品从平庸中脱颖而出。看看你写的东东，不仅仅是那些拼写和语法错误，还有那些无意义的词，混乱的结构，和让人搞不懂的句子。修改的目标是：更清晰，更直接，更鲜活。

10、简明扼要： 这是你在修改的过程中，最重要的一件事情。一句句，一段段的修改，把无关主题的统统都删掉。一个短句比一段冗长的废话更具说服力，大白话比晦涩的专业术语更受欢迎。记得：简单就是力量。

11、富于感染力的句子：在短句中使用富有感染力的动词，当然，并没有要求每一句都是这样，你需要变化。但是，多试试能够吸引人的句子。而且，你没有必要等到你要修改的时候再用，你刚开始写的时候就要考虑这个问题。

12、获取别人的反馈： 闭门造车不会有任何进步，让别人读读你的文章给你回馈，最好有经验的作家和编辑。他们见多识广，会给你很中肯和有见地的建议。认真的听，即使是一些批评，也接受它，忠言逆耳，这样只会让你写得更好。

13、是骡子还是马，拉出来溜溜：就你而言，你需要让别人读到你的作品。你的作品不是你想谁看谁就看的，让所有的人都读到你的文章。你就要出版自己的书，发表自己的短篇小说和诗歌，给出版社供稿。如果你已经开始写博客了，恭喜你，这是一个好的开始。若现在还没有人浏览过，你就需要把它放到流量更大的博客服务网站上去，让读者给你留言，给你提出建议。所有的人都会看你写东西，也许刚开始时会是件伤脑筋的事情，但这是每一位作家成长的必由之路，马上发表你的文字吧。

14、采用对话式的文体： 很多人的写作都很正式，但是我发现像我们说话一样写作会使文章更流畅(没有叹生词)。这样一来，读者看起来会更舒服。刚开始这么写并不容易，你需要坚持这么做。也许，会带来另一个问题，为了读起来更口语化，你需要打破一些语法规则(就像我的前一句那样)。因为如果生搬硬套语法，会让你的文章看起来很不自然。若没有其他原因，就不要破坏语法规则。你需要知道你在做什么和为什么这样做。

15、好开头和结尾： 开头和结尾是文章的重点。特别是开头。如果你不能在故事的开始就吸引读者，那他们就很难有耐心把整篇文章读完。所以投入更多的时间去考虑怎么写好开头，读者一旦对你开头感兴趣，他们会想知道得更多...写好开头后，再弄一个精彩的结尾，这会让读者更加期待你的下一篇佳作。

曾经见过这样一段精彩的话：“一个人在路上走着，是散文；一个人在路上走着掉进了沟里，是小说；一个人在路上走着，忽然飞上了天，是诗歌。”这段话非常形象地指出了不同文体的特点。小说靠情节，诗歌在于想象，而散文贵在平实而富有情感。或者说情感自然真挚地抒发，是散文的灵魂所在。

刘勰在《文心雕龙情采》中说道：“圣贤书辞，总称文章，非采而何？夫水性虚而沦漪结，木体实而花萼振，文附质也……文采所以饰言，而辩丽本于情性。故情者文之经，辞者理之纬；经正而后纬成，理定而后辞畅：此立文之本源也。”他认为，文章的情感是第一位的，是文章的根本，语言是为表情达意服务的。一篇没有真挚情感的文章，就没有了灵魂。没有灵魂的文字是没有价值可言，也就失去了生命力。

我们常常困惑于散文的写作水平无法提高，就下功夫在语言上进行雕琢，在文章的形式上进行结构，或者追求文章内容的新奇刺激。其实，当我们尝试散文的写作时，当我们的文字足以恰当地表情达意，我们的语言就足以胜任散文的创作了；当我们用纯熟的语言把想要表达的东西条理清晰地呈现出来，说明我们已经具备了足够的语言组织能力，具备了写好一篇散文的基础。如果写出来的文章还不能令人满意，可能就不单单是技巧问题，说明文章并没有把作者的真情实感表现出来，或者是文章缺少最真挚的情感，而没有真情实感的文字就如同没有了灵魂。没有灵魂的文字又如何打动读者呢？我们不妨这样想一想，当我们动笔写一篇散文的时候，我们是否倾注了最真挚的情感？如果我们的文字连我们自己都打动不了，我们又如何希望我们的文字打动读者呢？

散文是需要技巧的，但所有的技巧都是为抒发情感服务的。如果我们不能明了这一层，我们就会陷入散文写作的误区。读过很多这样的文字，有非常高的表达技巧，语言的运用可以说已经出神入化、炉火纯青了。可文章就是无法打动读者，让人感觉像是一片浮萍，飘在水面，看起来很美，却缺少内涵，不够厚重，感情苍白，没有灵魂。

一个人若没有了灵魂，就是行尸走肉；一篇文章若没有了灵魂，无异于一堆毫无生气乱码。用虚构的人物和编造的情节来欺骗读者，就违背了散文的创作原则。散文不能真挚地抒发情感，尽管文字的技巧很高，终究还是没有生命力的。散文不是小说，应该时刻记得有一个真我在。用手中的笔，写自己独特的感受，抒发内心最为真挚的情感，这才是我们所提倡的。我们可以寄情山水，我们可以托物抒怀，我们可以发思古之幽情，我们可以关注社会、关注人生。无论我们写什么，那种感受都是自我而独特的，那种情感的抒发都是自然而真挚的，这样的文字就自然会有新意，有真情，有灵魂。

我们所熟知的司马迁的《报任安书》，韩愈的《祭十二郎文》，诸葛亮的《出师表》，李密的《陈情表》，朱自清的《背影》等等，哪一篇不是情真意切，读来潸然泪下呢？所以南宋谢枋得在其《文章轨范》中引用安子顺的话说：“读《出师表》不哭者不忠，读《陈情表》不哭者不孝，读《祭十二郎文》不哭者不慈”。真挚的情感是一篇文字的灵魂，只有有了这样的灵魂，你的散文有可能达到最高境界。

所以，只满足于熟练掌握了散文写作的技巧是不够的，只有我们在写作的时候倾注了我们真挚的情感，我们才能创作出高品位的作品。动手写文章之前是否问一问自己，所抒发的情感是否发自我们的内心深处，我们的情感是否真挚？否则，我们不要去写。因为每一篇文字要想打动读者，首先要感动作者，自己要感动，就必须是发自内心的，最真挚的情感，否则是难以做到的。蕴含了真挚情感的文章就有了灵魂，有灵魂的文字是会获得读者的认可和喜爱的。

用优美的文笔，抒发真挚的情感，这样的散文才会是上乘之作。

一、几点重要原则

1.智者利用押题，傻子依赖押题!

2.书面表达整篇背诵绝无必要，可以以看读为主，关键是从中汲取一些常用的词汇和表达，并能得体熟练地运用。考场上应变能力很重要!

3.英文写作模仿很重要。有时也很有效。但不能过于牵强，尤其是对一些长难句的刻意模仿使用。

4.文似看山不喜平，起承转合一定要有!

5.“见微知著，一叶知秋”，几个亮点足矣：有道是：浓妆淡抹总相宜，作文写得简洁到位要比长篇大论更显功力。

6.心不为形役。不要身陷逐字逐句“英汉对号”式的字面翻译，要把表达的主动权始终握在自己手里。

二、善用万能句以不变应万变

历届高考，书面表达考得最多是提示作文，即提供一定的情景内容，要求考生完成100词左右的短文。

从命题方式看，有短文提示、要点提示、图画提示、情景提示以及图表提示等；体裁以应用文为主，记叙文为辅：题材为广大中学生所熟悉的日常生活。从提供要点的情景方面看，历届高考书面表达题均属供料小作文，采用文字供料或文字说明加图画(图表)的方式供料。

备考时，同学们要利用有限的时间把以前背的范文整理一下，从中选出不同体裁、不同题材的范文各一篇(范文以高考真题的高分作文为佳)，把它们重新记忆，一定记牢。这样，高考时不管什么样的文章都可套用背诵好的格式。避免考场上因紧张而无章可循。

最后阶段，还要总结一下写作时常用且能出彩的固定句型、句式，比如强调句型、定语从句、名诃性从句等，牢记英语的五个基本句式，背诵平时老师总结的万能句。以不变应万变。

考场答题前，应仔细审题，研究所提供的文字和图画(图表)材料和作文要求。分析、提炼要点，理顺要点，确立基本的写作思路，不要忽略任何一个词。关键的词更不能遗漏，构思好写几个方面，缺一不可。

写作时，尽量用学过的英语句型和词组。少写长句和复杂句以免弄巧成拙、漏洞百出。但目前高考有关书面表达的评分标准要求作文中应有“较多的语法结构和词汇”，因此同学们在书面表达中不能都写小句、短句和单句，还要正确运用高级词汇和复杂结构。恰当运用过渡词，使写出来的文章含金量更高，更具可读性。

三、高分作文六大特性

1.条理性。指的是合理安排文章结构。首先，在文章思路、组织材料、叙述顺序等方面要有一定的条理性。其次。根据需要，安排好段落，各段之间要层次分明，也要重视每一段的开头和结尾，开头语往往是总起句，结尾语往往是总结句。

2.准确性。指要求写出语法正确的句子，包括时态、语态、用词和句法等，要准确、地道地表达。必须要牢牢掌握一些常用句型或习惯表达，避免中式英语，在实践中不断总结中英用法的差异，养成用英语思维写作的习惯。

3.流畅性。指根据整篇文章思想的需要，有效采用不同的连接手段，使文章层次清楚、行文连贯。

4.简洁多样性。简洁性就是语言简洁，不重复。多样性就是能随情景内容的变化写出句式多样的语句。这也是新课程标准对写作的评价标准。

5.思想性。新标准对写作的要求，增加了情感因素，在准确流畅表达写作要点的同时，适当增加句子的感情色彩，增加一些人情味，使文章读起来更亲切，完全达到与读者进行交流的目的。

6.美观性。指的是卷面书写规范、清楚、干净、整洁。

四、怎样才能有‘拽”的感觉

1.高考写作的实质——变相考查句型与词汇的灵活应用

英语写作不同于语文作文的写作，如果说语文作文是一个自由发挥的舞蹈，那么高考英语写作就是带着枷锁在跳舞。我之所以这样来形容，是因为高考英语写作的内容都已经通过文字、表格、图片这三种形式给定，内容方面，不需要学生进行发挥，大家所需要发挥的就是不要老去给这个不变的内容穿毫无变化的校服(简单句)，而要去穿一些不一样的衣服，让它显得不那么单调，让阅卷老师能看到不同，而那些所谓的衣服也就是多变句型与词汇。

2.写作的评分标准——怎么去迎合评卷老师的胃口

我了解到目前很大一部分学生的作文都处在15分左右，写作满分25分，15分也就是个及格分，那么15分和20多分的作文到底差在哪里?这个问题很容易回答。15分的作文中规中矩，该对的都对，包括内容要点的完整，语法与词形的正确，但是全都是简单句子的堆砌，没有任何亮点。而20多分的作文在句型词汇方面就做了很好的包装，它的句子穿的衣服已经不是校服，而是李宁、耐克，或者是阿迪，所以让人觉得很“拽”，而高考英语写作要的就是这种很“拽”的感觉。

3.写作提分的三要素——句型。连词。高级词汇

句子是我们写作文最大的单位。有了漂亮的句子。用好的连词将其连句成段，再加上一些如星星般亮点词汇的点缀，一篇好的高考英语作文就诞生了。而这三个因素中最容易把握的是句子，最难的是高级词汇，限于大家的词汇还比较有限。一篇文章中出现那么一两个就够了。我们应该把重心放在句型上，因为这个最容易把握。

但是大家又有这样的困惑，学校里老师也给了我们很多的句型啊，动辄成五十上百句的，大家背得挺多，但是面对考试的时候，发现背的那些怎么也用不上。其实不是那些东西没有用，而是它们太干了，就好比一根干骨头，大家嚼起来很没有味。也不知道该把它们往哪里放。

在这里我给大家提供一种比较切实可行、迅速提高的练习方法，在接下来的时间里只要大家按照这个方法来，就一定会有收获。

找出历年真题，一周只需要写两篇。但是要这么来写。

1.把你要写的内容要点用九到十句的汉语表达出来。

2.逐一地进行翻译，不是用简单句。而是要刻意地去想：

(1)可以用什么样的复杂句；

(2)怎样去避开不会的表达，转义。

例如：

这本书是如此的有趣，以至于我读了一遍又一遍。

1.This book was so interest，ing that l read it again and again，

2.This was such an interest，ing book that l read it again andagain，

3.This was s0 jnteresting abook that l read it again and a—gain

4.So interesting was thisbook that l read it again and a—gain

这四句译文当中无疑评卷老师最欣赏的是第四句，因为它用了倒装。

1.一题多变，训练多用文

一题多变，最简单的理解就是从一个基本作文题，变出多个相类似的题目。就好比孙悟空有七十二般变化，所以深得孩子们的。如果我们老师也有“七十二般变化”，学生肯定会非常佩服和羡慕。而“多用文”就更好理解了，就是一篇文章适合多个作文题目。当然，实际操作中也并不像说的那么简单。下面我们就一起来试试。

如人教版六年级上册第五组的习作训练，是写人的作文，练习中有两个角度。角度一，用一两件事介绍自己的小伙伴，注意要写出小伙伴的特点。角度二，发挥想象，将发生在“我”和好朋友间的一件事情的经过和结果写清楚，写具体。在复习要指导学生用先概述后举例的方法写一个人，写出人物优秀品质。在复习时，可以引导学生想一想，还能找出多少相类似的题目?细细回忆一下，学生会发现在五、六年级的习作训练中有好几个题目都是类似的。比如《我熟悉的人》、《一个_____的人》、《我尊敬的人》、《我的好_____》等。

刚才我们看到的是一组写人的作文题，写事的可以吗?写一件事，要写清楚事情的起因、经过和结果。注意语句通顺。在五、六年级的习作训练中有好几个题目都是与其类似的，如《这件事_____》、《一件难忘的事》、《记亲身经历的一件事》、《童年趣事》等。至此，大胆的教师可能会有这样的想法：一篇写人加一篇写事足矣!我们先不下结论，让我们一起来看看往年毕业考的作文题。《一个──的晚上》，《我学会了──》，以《在老师家里》为题续写，给亲友写一封信，告诉对方一件事，《_____进步了》，《想起这件事，我真_____》，写一篇体现情谊的作文，《我给全家带来欢乐》，《我长大了》……其中奥妙留待大家细细体会。当然新课标强调的是语文素养，实行的是元、更。

2.整体把握，增强计划性

教师在指导学生进行作文复习时，以下问题首先必须心中有数：《课程标准》是怎样要求的，教材是怎样安排的，学生的水平怎样，哪些地方还有待解决，复习时间如何分配等等。教师要在复习之前，立足作文复习的总体要求，制订一个较好的计划。

(1)整体把握。把握课程标准。课程标准在情感态度方面提出了明确的写作目的：“懂得习作是为了自我表达和与人交流。”它也指出：第三学段注重培养创新精神，鼓励自由表达，强调习作的个性化，尊重并重视学生的主观感受。比如“有意识地丰富自己地见闻，珍视个人地独特感受，积累习作”。“独特感受”即鼓励学生想人所未想，言人所未言──培养学生地创新意识。在过程和方法方面，课程标准进一步提出了重视修改地要求;在知识和能力方面，课程标准提出“能写简单的记实作文和想象作文”;在作文条理性方面提出了“能根据习作内容和表达的需要，分段表述”的要求。这里要强调的是，一定要落实“感情真实”的要求，要力戒目前习作中普遍存在的“假情”、“矫情”。“真情”表现的不仅是文品，更是人品;要提倡学生自主拟题，少写或不写命题作文。

把握教材。现行语文课本里作文训练主要分为两大类：一是记叙文，包括写人、叙事、科学小实验、想象作文等;二是文，包括感谢信、毕业赠言等。要根据《课程标准》要求和学生作文能力状况，以教材的作文训练系列内容为依据，立足整体，考虑作文复习。

(2)突出重点。整体把握，但切忌平均用力。首先，作文复习要突出重点。如命题作文中的“审题、选材、构思”训练;材料作文中的“围绕中心，重点发散”训练;看图作文中的“观察”训练;应用文中的“格式” 训练等。抓住这些重点复习就能收到事半功倍的效果。其次，对薄弱环节下功夫，比如记叙文中的叙事、状物 ，重在求“序”，即按一定顺序将事情的来龙去脉，物体的形状、作用叙述清楚;写人、写景，重在求“异” ，即抓住，写出该人物、景物与其他人物、景物的不同之处。

(3)有计划性。一是作文复习的时间安排要有计划性。作文复习的时间是有限的，必须根据复习总体目标及学生作文能力的状况合理安排。如记叙文与应用文的复习时间安排，前者要多一些，后者可少一些;再如作文复习的单项训练与综合训练要具有恰当的时间比例。二是作文复习的内容安排要有计划性。可先安排单项复习，然后再相对集中地进行综合能力的复习训练。三是每节课的作文复习要有计划性。每节课复习什么?要达到什么目的?怎样复习?要认真做好作文复习教学。

3.别具匠心，谱写生命文

掌握了“一题多变”，训练了“多用文”，是否就马到功成了?答案当然是非也。不妨让我们先来读读下面三个故事。

“马踏飞燕”是一件古代青铜艺术珍品。该作品巧妙地表现了马跑得快这一主题。看，骏马四蹄生风，后蹄踏在一只飞燕身上，令人叫绝的是，飞燕竟安然无恙!

由此让人联想到“深山藏古寺”一画的意韵：远山绵延起伏，林木茂盛。山脚下的小河中，一个小和尚正弯腰取水，身后石径蜿蜒，隐没于丛林之中。此画真是意境深远。

另传有人对郑板桥说：你画竹之所以栩栩如生，是因你“胸有成竹”，而这正是你天天观竹研竹的结果。你会画风吗?板桥沉吟片刻，泼墨挥毫，一丛丛墨竹做倒伏状，观看的人惊呼，好大的风!这是以有形的物表现无形的物，颇具匠心。这三个例子，有异曲同工之妙，艺术上均以构思奇巧见长，对我们学习写作文也有不同寻常的启示。看同学们的作文，似曾相识的多，老调重弹的多。为什么?构思不巧(内容不新，角度不巧等)，作文没有力，没有表现力，也就没有生命力。

作文怎样才能构思新巧且有生命力呢?可从两个阶段下点功夫。

厚积阶段：加强作文基本功的训练，广开渠道，学会观察、思维、表达、修改的方式方法，此为作文成功的必要前提。

薄发阶段：也是同学们动手写作文的阶段，不仅要充分调动生活积累，运用学会的写作技巧，更要善于捕捉灵感的火花，写出富有灵气，浑然天成的作品。

学生只有具备了深厚的生活底蕴，写起文章来才有可能得心应手。动手写文章时，更要精心选材、巧妙构思，创造性地发挥出自己的作文水平，才能写出令人拍案叫绝的作文来。

4.自编作文选，总结经验和教训

五、六年级，学生课内外写的作文加起来就不只十几篇，这些作文，大部分是在老师指导下写的，由老师认真批改、讲评过的。我要求每个学生利用节假日把自己写过的作文分类编成作文选，每到期末或毕业复习时，让他们重温自己的作文选，以学习小组为单位，每周一次作文展示活动，让每一个学生展示自己认为写得好的作文，读给听或者传阅，然后自己评，小组评，说说好在哪里，哪些地方需要改进，最后每个小组选出一、两位学生在全班交流。活动后，由学生自己再修改完善，然后把最好的作文誊写在班级作文选中。

在班上可以准备一个大作文选，把活动中大家一直认为优秀的作文誊写在上面，谁的作文入选了，就给他一页的位置，学生自己设计版面，除了在那一页誊写作文，还可以绘画、摘抄名言，写上毕业赠言，或者自己的简历等等，再由老师和学生在作文后加上点评。

通过在我们班里的实验，学生对这项活动非常感兴趣，因为他们觉得作文选上有自己的文章，这是一件特别荣幸的事情。这本作文选就放在教室的图书角，它是同学们最喜欢的课外读物。学生从作文选中，既能总结自己的成功经验，又能总结出自己的失败教训，而且还能够感受自己的进步，学到别人的长处。临场应考无论碰到哪种类型的题目，就能做到心中有数，思考有路，这比猜题碰运气更有把握。同时对于学困生来说，在这种相互交流的中读读同班同学的好作文，对他们既有激励作用，又有示范作用，容易激发写作欲望。

注意指导高年级段考试作文的方法

小学生到了高年级，已经经过了两年的说话训练，两年的习作练习，对于作文的知识有了一定的了解和感悟。一般来说，从三年级开始，每一学期都要经历作文考试。所以，对于作文考试并不陌生。对于高年级段的作文教学的复习，关于考试作文的方法必须要年年讲，期期讲。考场作文与平时作文有很大的不同，主要是考场作文是在气氛紧张、情绪紧张、心情紧张的情况下进行的，而考试作文的阅卷老师也是极为紧张的(时间紧张)。因此在复习时，教师指导学生在作文内容和形式上掌握一些技巧，会事半功倍，从而占据一定的得分优势。

关于考试作文的写法，我们在复习时应该指导学生过好四个关：

1.指导学生过好审题关

审题正确与否是写好作文的先决条件。如果把作文写得文不对题，作文就会“一败涂地”，因此，过好审题关是写好作文的重要条件。

随着近年作文的开放度和自由度越来越大，作文跑题现象也越来越严重，这也成为我班学生作文中常见的毛病之一、作文课或者考场上，有的同学一见作文题便匆匆忙忙拿起笔就写。由于事先没有经过仔细审题，有时写了很长一篇，才发现写跑了题，于是不得不从头写起，或者根本就无法弥补了，结果事倍功半，欲速不达，这样就严重地影响了考试成绩。所以，不管写那种题材的作文，我都特别强调学生认真审题，审题的目的是为了不偏题，不离题，让写出来的习作符合试卷题目的要求。

怎样指导学生正确审题呢?

(1)指导学会分析，从题目的总体认知上审题。

所谓分析，就是把构成题目的每一个词拆开，逐一推敲，分析每个词语的意义和各词语之间的关系，以区分题眼、中心词和修饰词语等，弄清题目规定的范围和重点。如我的第一位老师是篇命题作文，中心词是“老师”，属于写人记叙文;“我的”“第一位”则是关键词语，是用来修饰和限制“老师”的，这篇作文应当写“我”有生以来的“第一位”老师。至于中心思想，题目没有明确限制，就有待学生根据材料自己确定了。

分析法是审题活动中最常用的一种技法，这种方法要求对题目中的每一个字、每一个词的含义及其相互之间的关系都要认真地推敲、揣摩、辨析、然后综合起来，从总体上把握文章的题目。如“我班最近发生的一件新鲜事”这个句子告诉我们作文要写的是一件“事”，是什么样的事呢?不是平常的小事，也不是一般的好事，而是“新鲜”事。这种新鲜事不是许多件，是“一件”事，而且不是过去发生的，是“最近”发生的。同时，“我班”又对事情发生的空间进行了限制，在作这个题目时忽略了哪一个词都容易造成偏题，所以让学生正确理解题目中的每一个词、一个字的含义，这样题目才能审清楚。也就是说审题要审清题意，就必须弄清题目要写的对象(是写人，还是记事;是写景，还是状物;是日记，还是书信;是记叙文，还是想象作文……)弄清题目要写的范围(明确题目对作者所选材料在时间、空间、数量、对象及内容上有哪些限制)。 (2)指导学会比较，抓住不同题目的“题眼”审题。

所谓比较，就是把类似的两个或三个以上的题目并列在一起，通过比较分析来弄清它们之间取材范围的细微差异，以完成审题过程。如通过对比《我的老师》、《我爱老师》、《我和老师》这组题目，使学生明白：这三道作文题目都是写人的，但各有侧重。《我的老师》以写人为主，重点在于写老师，要具体地写出这位老师是个怎样的人;《我爱老师》以抒情为主，重点在于写“我”，要写出“我”爱老师的原因和具体事例;《我和老师》两者并重，要写的是发生在两个人之间的事。通过比较，学生就能加深对题目的理解，更好地把握每个题目的范围和重点，写出切合题意的文章来。

我针对学生审题马虎、不仔细和粗心大意的毛病。把一些的、意思相近的题目在一起进行审题练习，尽量找出这些题目的相同点和不同点。如：《我这个小孩》和《邻居家的小孩》，虽然都是写小孩，但前者是写自己，后者却是写别人。又如《我钦佩的一个人》与《我喜欢的一个人》，二者的内容虽都侧重于写人，但“题眼”不同，就决定了选材重点不同。前者的“题眼”是“钦佩”，后者的“题眼”是“”，两篇文章的重点分别为“钦佩”、“喜欢”，两篇文章的选材也要从“钦佩”和“喜欢”入手。用这样的方法来复习审题，可以把相似题目的微小差别区分开来，提高学生的审题能力。

当然作文复习时要根据不同体裁突出重点训练。如命题作文重点进行“审题、选材、构思”训练;材料作文中重点进行“围绕中心，思维发散”训练;看图作文重点进行“观察”训练;文则重点进行“格式”训练等，抓住这些重点进行复习就能收到事半功倍的效果，学生写出的作文一般能做到不偏不离。

(3)从反面提醒学生，明确题目的限制。

就是对作文题目提出“不应该那样写”，从反面加以限制，。以《校园新鲜事》为例，如果从反面加以限制，可以提出三个问题：(1)不是写家庭里、社会上发生的事;(2)不是写老一套的;(3)不是写一两件事。这样从反面一限制，学生对题意的理解就深刻多了。

(4)指导学生审题的基本要求。

①审清作文的类型。小学生的的作文要求是能写简单的记叙文和常用的应用文，做到有中心，有条理，内容比较具体，语句比较通顺，感情真实健康。简单的记叙文包括这样一些类型：叙事，记人，状物，写景。审题时首先要审清题目是属于哪一类作文的。如果审错了题目的类型，作文时就会离开作文的要求。怎样识别作文题目对作文类型的要求呢?

叙事的作文。有的作文题目直接点明是叙事作文。如《一件小事》，《一件难忘的事》，《童年趣事》，《家乡新事多》等。这些题目中决定作文类型的词是“事”。有的作文题目虽然没有一个“事”字，但暗含着所叙的是事情。如：《我有一个秘密》，“一个秘密”可以指自己所做的一件不让人知道的事情。《假如我是》。这个题目含着的意思是假定“我”当了什么，我会怎么做。“怎么做”包含着做什么，怎样做，记的是事情。《难忘的第一次》，题目中要填写的是一件事，如洗衣服，做饭，旅行等。《快乐的夏令营》，题目要求叙的是愉快的夏令营。《参观》，题目要求写参观一个地方的过程和感受，是叙述一件事情。

记人的作文。一般来说，记人的作文大多在题目中直接点明。如《我的同桌》，《我尊敬的人》，《新来的老师》，《珍惜时间的人》等，这类作文题很容易识别。但有的作文题不直接点明是记人的，要通过仔细审题才能领会题目的意思。如：《温暖》，不是写气候的暖和使人感到温暖，而是某人在别人有困难的时候给予真诚有帮助和鼓励，使别人在心里感到“温暖”。还比如《胜似亲人》，《老师的微笑》等。

值得注意的是，写人和叙事这两类作文有时较难区别。因为写人必须通过具体的事例来表现，叙事又离不开写人的活动，因为事情是人做的。但这两类作文还是有区别的，它们的对象和目的是不同的。如《爸爸的胡子》，这样的题目所涉及的事情与表现人物品质密切相关，所以是写人的题目。又如《放学以后》，虽然要写“谁”，但重点是写“谁”所做的事情。

状物的作文。状物的作文一般都能从题目中看出来。物体有静物和动物之分。所以，描写静物，动物够的形态，颜色，结构，动作的作文都是状物的作文。

写景的作文。题目中有要求描写季节，时间或游览，见闻意思的，一般是写景作文。如《春》，《 的早晨》，《春游 》，《秋色》等。写景的题目有时与状物的题目难以识别。一般来说，重点写景物中某一物体，那就是状物作文了。如《街头小书亭》，要写小书亭的位置，周围的环境，书亭的陈设等。

②看清题外的要求。有些作文题下面还有一些文字说明。这些大都是附加的要求，如“把事情经过写具体”，“展开合理的想象”，“字数在400字左右”，“字迹端正，格式正确”等。这类题外要求可以概括成两个方面，一是对作者选材，写作思路作出提示;二是对作文的篇幅，行款格式，字迹等作一些具体规定，作者作文时必须遵守。所以作文前要看清题外的要求，这是审题的一个组成部分。 2.指导学生过好选材关

人们常说，中心是文章的灵魂，材料是文章的血肉。在作文教学中，审题并确定中心之后，能否过好选材关，就成为作文成败的关键。指导学生选材时要让学生学会五看、两做到。五看：一看题目的要求;二看中心的需要;三看材料是否真实;四看材料是否熟;五看材料是否新。两做到：(1)宽打算。要训练学生按题目要求打开思路，从各种角度想一想，尽量多找一些材料，以从中择优而用。比如《发生在我们班里的一件事》，就可引导学生先理解“班里”这个词所指的范围，然后再让学生想想：除去课上、课下的事，校外的事算不算班里的事?这样一摆思路就宽了，可供选择的材料就多了。(2)细挑选。思路打开了，摆出的材料多了，就有挑选的余地了。怎样挑?一要细比较;二要严格选。细比较就是要求学生将想到的材料按题目的要求加以鉴别比较。严格选就是让学生在比较中严格地选出最典型、最熟悉、最新颖的材料来。在选好材料的基础上，还有个组织材料的问题。训练学生组织材料，要从四个方面做：一是让学生利用小标题将材料分类，把相同的材料归在一类中;二是让学生考虑一下开头写什么，中间写什么，最后又写什么，安排一个次序;三是寻找文章段落之间的联系手段，想一想怎样衔接好;四是考虑哪些材料详写，哪些材料略写。

我认为：训练组织材料的最好办法是让学生养成列提纲的习惯，因为提纲可把上面的四项要求用简明的语言明晰化。

3.指导学生过好提纲关

考场作文，一般来说时间很紧张，学生没有的时间打草稿，因此，我班大部分学生写作文，往往对想写的材料不做安排，想到哪里就写到哪里。他们这种随想随写，随写随想的情况，就很容易造成条理不清，层次混乱，详略不当……要想让学生在作文时节约时间，少走弯路，避免或减少刚才所说的种种毛病，我在作文复习时，就指导学生编写作文提纲。他们可以事先大略考虑一下：选取什么材料，哪些材料先写，哪些材料后写，哪些材料要写得详细，哪些材料可以简略，文章分几层意思来说，前前后后怎样把材料连贯起来，然后列个提纲，那样写起来就比较顺利，往往可以做到一气呵成，顺理成章。而且，有助于理清思路，巩固记忆，使学生不至于把原来准备写的某些内容忘掉，避免想到哪里写到哪里，又可以把作文写得重点突出，条理清楚。到了高年级，我们应该指导学生学会运用列写作提纲的方法，以训练学生选材、组织材料和布局谋篇。

怎样指导学生编写提纲呢?

我要求学生编写的提纲内容要简明，语言要准确。“简”，就是简单，没有多余的话;“明”，就是清楚明了，一看提纲，就了解全文的布局，各部分内容及详略安排。就像盖房子一样，先立好框架。在毕业复习的时候，由于时间相对比较紧张，我一般在课堂上出示作文题目和要求后，就只要求学生编写提纲，不要求作文。我觉得这种复习方法很快捷，因为编写提纲实际上是从审题到布局谋篇进行构思的全，不写成文章便于让学生在课堂上有的机会，集中精力考虑作文写什么和怎么写。而且可以有的时间让学生在小组和全班进行交流，这样既增加训练密度、节约训练时间，又培养了学生的快速思维，既能引导学生发现问题，寻找办法，又能互相学习，提高审题，选材和立意的能力。学生对自己的提纲感觉满意了，再进行作文。

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要写好记叙文，就必须要明确“为何叙”，即主题要明确。要主题明确可注意三点，小编收集了优秀记叙文写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

一、为何叙

记叙文一般可分为记人、叙事、写景、咏物等几种。记人，要表现人物的思想感情和性格;叙事，要写出事件所蕴涵的意义，这些意义可以是政治思想方面的，也可以表达某种哲理，或某种情趣;写景，要通过景物描写表现出个人某种感情或深刻的感悟;咏物，或透露出世间人生的某种乐趣，或托物言志，表现对社会上某种人某种现象的情感。因此，我们写记叙文总会有一定的目的，总要表达一定的思想和感情，实际上就是我们平常所讲的“文章的主题”，主题是文章的灵魂，它像一根红线贯串于文章的始终。没有明确主题的记叙文，只能是一篇流水帐，所以要写好记叙文，就必须要明确“为何叙”，即主题要明确。要主题明确可注意三点:第一，要有积极意义，即确定的主题思想感情必须是健康的，有意义的。

B，要集中，一篇文章只能有一个主题，全文要围绕这个中心来写。有的同学作文时，既想写这，又想写那，结果写出来的文章不是漫无中心，就是几个中心，多中心则无中心。

C，可含蓄一点，不一定直露。主题要蕴涵在具体的记叙和描写之中，一般不宜用明显的话语揭示出来，如表现人物勤劳的品质，要通过具体的事和生动的细节来表现，不宜将 "勤劳"二字当成标签贴在人物身上。又如要记叙一件有意义的事，也不宜空洞抽象地把其“意义”说上一大通，而应在具体的情节中自然地显示出来。恩格斯说过，事件的意义、人物的性格写得越隐蔽，作品的艺术魅力就越强。

二、叙什么

叙什么，就是写什么内容，在写记叙文时就要考虑选择哪些材料。选材时，要坚持三个标准，一是典型性，即选择出能充分表现中心的材料;二是真实性，即选出真人真事真景，包括来自现实生活的艺术真实;三是现实性，即选出有现实积极意义的材料。在选材具体操作时，最行之有效的选材方法是展开联想，联糸生活，即选材时可通过联想，从家庭生活、学校生活、社会生活等任意一个方面选出自己熟悉、感动的人和事。如在写《谢谢您给我的爱》(南京市95年中考作文题)时，我们不妨展开联想，从家庭生活方面选出祖辈、父辈给"我"爱的材料，从学校生活方面选出老师、同学给"我"爱的材料，从社会生活方面选出邻居、路人、警察等热心人给"我"爱的材料。材料选好，还需认真剪裁，做到详略得当，所所以还要注意两点:第一，要剪去雷同的材料。有些记叙文表现中心时不止用一个材料，那么这些材料应从不同侧面表现中心，如果从同一方面表现中心，那么其中的有些材料则属于“雷同”"的材料，应该删掉。第二，要注意详略得当。与中心关糸不大的材料要略写、与中心关糸极为密切的材料要详写。

三、怎样叙

怎样叙，就意味着怎样把一篇文章具体地写出来，这就牵涉到文章的结构、表达的方式、遣词造句等表现形式。

先说文章的结构，即所要写的这篇记叙文用什么结构来表现出来。它包括这篇文章分几层写，哪些材料先写，哪些后写，哪些详写，哪些略写，如何安排过渡，于何处伏笔，在哪里呼应，如何开头，怎样结尾，等等。从整篇记叙文来看、常见的结构有顺序、倒叙、插叙。顺叙，就是按照事情发生、发展的，过程进行叙述。包括以下几种情况:其一，按时间的推移来叙述;其二，按事情的发展来叙述;其三，按认识发展的过程来叙述;其四，按作者的行踪来叙述。倒叙，就是把事情的结局，或某个突出的精彩片断提到前边写，然后再按事件发生、发展的顺序叙述。倒叙的运用有四种类型:一种是把事件的结局提前，造成悬念，然后再按时间顺序叙述事情的发生与发展;一种是把事件中最精彩的或最紧张的片断截取下来，写在前面，震动和吸引读者，然后按时间的顺序叙述事件的起因、发展与结局;一种是先写眼前的事物，由此及彼，引起回忆，再追叙往事，形成倒叙，一种是先写当前情况，再回忆过去的情况，以形成鲜明的对比，给读者留下深刻印象。插叙，是在文章的叙述中，暂时中断叙述的线索，插入一些与中心事件有关的内容，然后再继续进行原来的叙述。插叙的具体内容和形式有种种不同:有的是追叙，对过去事件片断进行回忆，有的是补叙，对有关人和事作必要的补充、解释;有的是逆叙，对有关内容由近及远、由今及古地回溯，灵活多样的插叙，可以使主题开掘得更深刻，情节展开得更充分，内容表现得更充实，人物形象刻画得更丰满，避免了平辅直叙。

再说表达的方式。记叙文一般以记叙这种表达方式为主，但记叙文写人记事，写景状物，往往需要描写。对人物和环境作适当的描写，可以把人物、事件或景物写得有血有肉，有声有色，叫人看了如见其人，如临其境。描写的类型很多，从描写的对象划分，有人物描写和景物描写，人物描写中包括肖像、语言、行动、心理等描写方式。从描写的角度划分，有正面描写与侧面描写。这要在具体的写作中灵活运用。另外，在记人叙事的记叙文中，为了突出人物的高贵品质或突出事件的意义，有时要进行抒情和议论。再则，有时作者为抒发自己的感情，在记叙的基础上直接抒情，直接表露感情，或寓情于记叙之中，在记叙的过程中处处渗透着情感。这样综合运用好表达方式，写出来的文章就会摇曳多姿，绚烂多彩。

最后说说遣词造句。一篇记叙文最终是靠一句句话组成起来的，因此，大家在语言表达上要注意准确、鲜明、生动、形象。准确就是指用词合适、恰当;鲜明指一个词用在特定的语言环境中表示出的意思清清楚楚，明明白自，一点不含糊。生动形象，就是把词用得活泼，有声有色。这一点，就要多注意运用比喻、拟人、排比、对比、反复、夸张、反问、设问等多种修辞方法。

千描百绘的特写

考场记叙文，阅卷老师最看重有没有场面描写，看场面描写时，老师又最看重有没有特写镜头。因为写好特写镜头在阅卷老师看来，就是写好记叙文的最佳境界。什么是特写镜头，即考生借鉴电影艺术的表现手法，对人物、景物的局部特征加以浓墨重彩式的描写或精细刻画，从而凸现一个感人的形象，展示一个精彩的细节，使文章具有强烈的感染力的艺术手法。所以为了与一般平铺直叙式的记叙文境界有别，考生应该独辟特写的佳境，让考场记叙文因为特写而牵制住老师的眼球。

诗情画意的意境

考场散文的最高境界是诗情画意，有时即使寥寥几笔，也让阅卷老师如获至宝。意境就是作者的思想感情和客观事物的高度融合，就是作者所创造的那种情景交融、形神兼备的艺术境界。散文要富有诗意，就应有意捕捉优美的意象并寄托感情，形象一点说，就是要在写散文的时候，感到仿佛是在写诗和作画，要表达出情味、画面和韵致，同时要追求语言的诗化，主要表现在凝练含蓄、形象具体、音韵节奏等方面。要特别善于用精炼语句点染诗意，通过绘形绘色绘声的描写让阅卷老师生发丰富的联想和想象，从而满目生辉，满口溢香。

生动形象的说理

考场论说文的最高境界是议论生动形象，阅卷老师特别害怕大段罗列高深理论，板着面孔说教，愿意看到考生把议论中抽象的，难懂的道理或见解，采用一定的方法和手段，使之变得具体、变得形象;把议论中冗长的客观的论述，采用一定的技巧，使之变得生动活泼，摇曳多姿。比如使用比喻论证，因为喻体的为人熟知，而本体与喻体之间又具有相似点，议论起来就会独僻蹊经，别开生面。而如若在议论中始终贯穿生动形象的说理，则自成妙境。

慧眼传神的标题

要在考场中取悦阅卷老师，先用传神的标题去构建作文的佳境，尝言：标题是眼睛。好作文就要有一双迷人的慧眼。现在我们训练了大量的话题作文，大量同学却把标题拟得老气横秋，或者干脆用话题作为文章的标题，让人一看就不愿给高分。所以作为考生的你要充分意识到阅卷老师的疲惫，用尽量新、雅、美的标题去引起老师的注意，标题拟好了，实际上也是在为考场作文创设景致，而独特的标题更是作文独僻佳境的最好体现，会让人为之一震。

一言九鼎的识见

对于中学生的作文，阅卷老师尤其看重学生的思想认识与观点见解。在阅卷的过程中，老师始终在留意或寻找考生作文中最能代表其识见的内容。因为任何一篇文章总是为表达一定的思想主题服务的，识见的水平如何，直接关涉到作文得分的高低，因此作为考生应该不断磨砺语言，砥砺思想，尽可能在作文中表达一言九鼎的识见。而实践证明，精要而有深度的认识与见解，会使本来很平常的作文内容为之境界全新，无眼之龙也会因为你的点睛之笔而畅游九天之外。

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职称论文是要评职称用的，要和自己的所学专业、所从事工作有相关性，小编收集了职称论文写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

一、好论文的感觉

1、 您的论文可以用一句话来表达，这一句话可以长一点，但是表达很清楚;我们可以把这话叫做中心句。

2、 论文的框架(纲要)可以很快地表达出来，框架就是中心句的展开;

3、 论文的框架可以简明扼要地画出框图，看起来逻辑清楚，在一个表达的系统中;

4、 根据论文的框架(纲要);可以展开成整篇文章;

5、 好象你在画画，一开始就考虑好整篇文章的意旨、布局、重点、点睛处，这样争取一次性就把文章写好;

6、 写的文章是有价值的，能给读者带来受用;文章写起来感觉是在介绍经验;一边写文章一边有自豪感;

7、 科技技术类的选题有特别的角度，一般能套在“新、难、重、特”里面;

8、 写之前用至少看过3篇相近选题的文献;最好是5至10篇;

9、 行文格式标准，(只要去看文献就知道自己有哪些差距)。

二、怎么写好论文

1、写论文的准备工作

考虑自己评职称时的方向;

自己的工作领域;

可以取材的工程项目、论文相关的案例、工作经验、经历;

初步选几个题目;

根据初选的题目查询文献;

对比看哪个论文方向写起来在价值、表达方便、与自己结合上更合适。

2、确定题目

前面所说的在于选择大的选题方向，到这里的时候，要具体考虑细的题目、重点、聚焦点，题目能不能用一句话表达出来，这时候就要考虑清楚，这一句话可以很长，但是一句话出来的东西一定是逻辑很清晰的。往往的结构是“XX的XX的XX”这样表达的时候，文章的领域、着眼点、新颖点往往就被表达出来了。

3、快速撰写论文

因为能够用一句话一表达题目或者中心，所以写论文的时候就会比较快。

快速的写法是：

先根据那一句话，展开纲要，大概是二级目录就差不多了，就是1.1这样的级别;

之后，根据二级目录，可以很快地组织内容。

4、要点突出

这个时候再来比较内容与题目是对应性怎么样?是一致吗?要对题目做出轻微的调整，还是对内容做出轻微的调整?

哪一个部分是重点，哪个部分是重点的重点?文章的篇幅够了没有，是太多了，还是太少了?要不要修，修哪里?

这里的原则就是突出要点，如同画家画树，冬天时，有枝干而无叶，仍然是树，反过来就不行的。

5、整理

根据突出重点的原则，在保证主干清楚的情况下，进行增减。

根据国际单位制，对单位进行修改;

根据行文格式，对字体、大小、图片、参考文献等进行修改;

对摘要和关键词进行设定。

6、润色

对文章的创新点、系统性表述、逻辑清晰、文章的实用价值、可信度再行润色;

对语句的流利进行润色，最简单的办法，就是从头到尾出声地读一遍下来，边读边改，一定会好很多。

三、重点强调

1、选题

至关重要。

职称论文是要评职称用的，要和自己的所学专业、所从事工作有相关性，特别是与你所将要评的职称专业有较大的相关性。这点对于学历专业、工作经历多、跨专业评职称的人要特别注意。

2、表达系统性和逻辑性

系统性的表达。就是说一个东西的时候，你要把它说清楚，说全面。比如，你跟人家介绍自家的房子，你就要把厅、主卧、客户、书房、饭厅、、卫生间、阳台都说到，这样就叫系统。如果觉得内容太大，就光说客厅，那就要把客厅的四面、上下、中间都有什么说清楚;如果还嫌太大，光说吊顶，就把凡是光于吊项的风格、材料、做工、等等全部说清楚。这就叫做系统性。系统性的反面就是缺漏。

逻辑性的表达。就是说一个东西的时候，要先主后次，先上后下，等等，有一个符合那个东西的规律的表达。比如说家庭的成员，从老的到少的，从男的到女的，从直系的说到旁系的，一代说完再说一代，必要时配要图表来辅助，这就是逻辑性的表达。逻辑性的反面就是乱。

3、规范性

论文只是一种体裁，一种风格，一种方式，有着它区别于其它体裁的规定套路，这就是规范性。比如：摘要要怎么写、关键词要怎么设，参考文献是怎么来表达，标点、格式、单位等要怎么做，这是规范性。

记事作文以叙事为主，表现发生在活动场地、竞赛等事情的某种意义，反映作者对这些事情的态度和看法。下面是由小编为你精心编辑的六年级叙事作文写作技巧，欢迎阅读！

写谁(作文对象)：发生在活动场地、竞赛等事情。

写什么(作文目的)：反映作者对这些事情的态度和看法。

怎样写：通过一件事或几件事说明作文的目的。

写法：叙述事件，还可以在事件中进行有效的肖像、语言、心理、动作、细节描写。

注意事项：作文过程中，必须坚持始终要与所写这些事情的态度和看法相联系。

一、交代清楚事件发生的时间、地点、人物、起因、经过和结果，即六要素。

一件事总离不开这六要素，把这方面写清楚了，才能使读者了解事件的来龙去脉。

二、要围绕作文的中心选择事件，要选择最能表现作文中心思想的事件做为材料。

生活中有不少新鲜有趣和激动人心的事。因此，我们平日 要多观察，多想生活中遇到的事。选材要新颖，在别人的作文中常出现的事要少写或不写，这样写出来的作文才有吸引力，有新鲜感。

三、事件的主要部分要写具体。

每件事都有起因、经过和结果这样一个过程，只有把这个过程写清楚，给读者的印象才能完整而深刻。在事件中要进行有效的肖像、语言、心理、动作、细节描写，这一点很重要，这样写出来的作文才生动。要突出中心，详略得当，与主题无关的事不写。

第一类写家里的事

1.写家里的日常生活，表现家庭生活中有意思或有意义的内容；

2.写参加家里的劳动或跟家里人学习家务；

3.写发生在家庭中的一件事，反映出家庭成员的个性素质或思想品质；

4.写我与爸爸妈妈之间发生的事情，说明自己从中受到的教育和启发；

5.写家庭中的突发事件，来抒发自己的一种情感。

第二类写班级学校的事

1.写学校的一件事，表现学校的新面貌新气象；

2.写班级的一件事，反映出班级的班风和同学的精神面貌；

3.写发生在班级的一件事，表现班级同学之间的深厚友谊；

4.写发生在班级的一件事，表现出师生之间的亲密关系；

5.写发生在班级的一件新鲜事，反映新时代的少年风采；

6.写班级的一件大家议论纷纷或有争议的事情，表明自己的态度和想法。

第三类写校园外的事

1.通过一件事情，反映出社会的新面貌新风尚；

2.写一件在校外发生的事情，表达自己的思想感情，表现自己对社会的认识。

第四类写自己的事

1.写自己遇到的一件事，表现社会的新风尚；

2.写自己个人的一件事，写出自己从中所受到的教育；

3.写自己的一件事，表达自己的一种感情，表明自己的一种愿望；

4.写自己遇到的一次挫折，说明自己从中所得到的一种启示；

5.写自己的一件事，说明自己已经长大懂事了；

6.写自己的爱好和追求；

7.写自己的业余生活；

8.回忆自己童年生活的一件事，写出童年的可爱与美好。

第五类写与同学朋友的事

1.通过一件事情表现同学之间的友谊和合作；

2.写一件事，表明自己从同学身上学到的做人的道理或向上的精神；

3.写一件事，表达自己对同学朋友的深切思念；

4.通过与同学之间发生的矛盾，揭示某个道理或赞颂同学朋友的思想品质。

导语： 微型小说又名小小说，超短篇小说，一分钟小说。下面是小编整理的小小说写作技巧，同学们过来测试一下吧!

日本作家星新一指出：“很久以前就存在着类似超短篇小说的作品。……但是，超短篇小说这个名字的正式出现，是源于美国。”多数人推崇美国作家欧·亨利(1862-1910)是创始人。他的近三百篇作品，情节生动，笔调幽默。其中《麦琪的礼物》脍灸人口。

可以这么说，超短篇小说具有立意新颖、情节严谨、结局新奇三要素。即在1500字以内，要概括出普通小说应具有的一切。也可以说，微型小说是一种敏感，从一个点、一个画面、一个对比、一声赞叹、一瞬间之中，捕捉住了小说——一种智慧、一种美、一个耐人寻味的场景，一种新鲜的思想。

微型小说在写作上追求的目标是四个字：微、密、奇、新。

1、微。指的是篇幅微小，不超过一千五百个字。因此，构思和行文时必须注意字句的凝炼，不允许作品中有赘词冗句。如马克·吐温的《丈夫支出帐本中的一页》。全文只有七行字，却具有长篇小说的全部情节。

再如《三封电报》(美·佚名)：

伊莉薇娜的弟弟佛莱特伴着她的丈夫巴布去非洲打猎。不久，她在家里接获弟弟的电报：“巴布猎狮身死。———佛莱特。”

伊莉薇娜悲不自胜，回电给弟弟：“运其尸回家。”三个星期后，从非洲运来了一个大包裹，里面是一个狮尸。她又赶发了一个电报：“狮收到。弟误，请寄回巴布尸。”

很快得到了非洲的回电：“无误，巴布在狮腹内。———佛莱特。”(选自《世界微型小说精选简评集》)

这篇小小说是一家美国杂志以3000美元的悬奖征求“文字最简短，情节最曲折”的故事的获得首奖的作品。单一的情节里，事件完整、有冲突、呈现因果联系，这样，事件所呈现的面貌就不是简单、重复而没有变化了。

2、密。指的是结构严密。微型小说的作者在结构上，应力求时间、场所、人物都尽可能地压缩、集中，使作品结构简练、精巧，如同微雕工艺品那样。因此，特别要在选材、剪裁和布局上下功夫。

3、奇。指的是结尾要新奇巧妙，出人意料。微型小说的特点多半在于一个“奇”字。中外作家的许多优秀作品就常在结尾处使人拍案叫绝。如邵宝健的《永远的门》的结尾就出人意料。

4、新。指的是立意新颖，风格清新。星新一写作一分钟小说，就极力追求“新”。他写道：“有些评论家把我的小说与美国的超短篇小说(Short-Short)混为一谈，这是不妥当的。我是受了美国超短篇小说的影响。但是没有完全依靠，而是发挥了自己独特的风格和技巧。我的小说强调一个‘新’字，给读者以新题材、新知识，甚至让他们感到惊讶!”(星新一《一分钟小说选》)

为此，他常常借助于童话、寓言、科幻、推理等手法，通过非现实的题材或现实题材的非现实笔法，反映他在现实生活中的独特的感觉，表现清新的主题，如他的《保修》。当然，微型小说的立意和其它形式的小说作品一样，有时并不是一眼能看出的，有时主题并非一个，是多元化的，这都是可以的。例如美国著名科幻作家弗里蒂克·布朗写的一篇被称为世界上最短的科学幻想小说：“地球上最后一个人独自坐在房间里，虚这时忽然响起了敲门声……”就写得十分别致而耐人寻味。

导语：我们在小升初需要掌握那个写作技巧呢?小编给大家整理了一些，一起来看看吧!

一、审题

这是写作文首先要做好的事，否则，就会直接导致“文不对题”，“下笔千言，离题万里”。怎样才能审好题呢?根据通常的作文题目的形式来看，一般可分为命题作文和材料作文两大类。对命题作文的审题，就是要审查给定的文章题目确定的具体要求，审清文题意图，明晰题外要求，确定“题眼”。通过审题，明确作文的内容范围、时间范围、数量范围、人称范围、处所范围等。不能超出给定的范围。对材料作文的审题，主要从两个方面去把握：一是与材料的思想内容要“形影不离”，二是与作文形式的要求“丝丝入扣”。

命题作文

我们先重点谈一下关于命题作文的审题，要注意做好哪些事情。

确定内容范围

有的题目，对写作内容做出规定。所以，审题时，要确定题目规定的内容范围：记人的，要记什么人;叙事的，要叙什么事;写景的，要写什么景;状物的，要状什么物，等等。

精彩习作-----童年趣事

童年，是一方没有莠草、污秽的净土，是一片无遮无拦明朗的天空。这里流淌的纯真与甜美，总会使人产生难以忘怀的回忆。

记得我4岁那年，迷信的奶奶告诉我：“要是剪掉了胳膊上的毛，会变成疯子。”幼稚而好奇的我听了以后，半信半疑，手痒痒的，老是想试试看，但又怕家人和亲戚为我担心。可是没试，就老是惦记着，越惦记，就越是想试。

于是，我准备马上试。我拿出那可怕的剪刀，用颤抖的右手慢慢地靠近左手胳膊上的一根毫毛。刚要剪，我又停了下来。心想：“我要是真的变成一个疯子，会不会像老鼠过街一样人人喊打?爸爸、妈妈和奶奶会不会不再疼爱这个傻孩子了?”我越想越害怕。我犹豫了许久，才把胳膊上的毛剪掉了。一剪完，我什么都不顾地钻进被窝里，不知不觉就睡着了。醒来时，我发现，我还是原来的我，一个正常的小女孩。于是，我不顾一切，高兴地蹦到奶奶身边，撒娇地说：“奶奶呀，奶奶!我今天剪了胳膊上的一根毫毛，可没变成疯子啊!”奶奶听了以后，笑了笑，摸着我的小脑袋，没说什么。

这件童年趣事已留在我记忆的闸门里。但随着年龄的增长，我懂得了：凡事要相信科学，不能相信迷信。

精彩点击

①小作者通过回忆的方式，记述了剪胳膊毛的故事。这件事既是童年发生的，又十分有趣，符合文题要求。

②事情的过程交代得很清楚，人物心理描写生动、逼真。

③结尾点明从中懂得的道理，深化了文章主题。

导语：据说每个人都有自己的写作梦，不是人人都可以成为作家，但是每个人都应该把写作当中自己生活中的一部分，下面小编带来15条关于写作的建议，希望大家在读和写里面找到真正的自己。

阅读优秀的作品：这是显而易见的，但立竿见影的方法。如果你不读更多的好作品，你就不知道如何写出更好的作品。优秀的作家都是从阅读别人的佳作开始，接着开始模仿，最后超越他们，形成自己的风格。尽可能的多读名著，在看内容的时候，更要留意文章的问题和写作的技巧。

尽可能多的写：每天都写，如果可能话，每天写几次。你写得多了，也就写得好了。学习如何写作和其他的学问道理是一样的，熟能生巧。写写你自己，写写博客，向出版社投稿。只是写，全情投入的写，练得越多，你的写作水平就提升得越快。

随时随地记下你的灵感：随身带一本小笔记本(纳博科夫身上装满了小卡片)，当你对你构思的小说，文章，或是小说里的人物有什么灵感的时候，马上记下来。当你听别人谈话时的只言片语而所有顿悟时，或看到一段散文诗或是一句歌词让你很感动时，都可以马上当他们记下来。灵感总是转瞬即逝，你及时的记录下来，便可以成为你写作的素材。我的习惯是，为我的博客要写的文章列一个清单，不断的补充它。

专门的写作时间：每天找一个没有任何打扰的时间段作为专门的写作时间，让这成为习惯。对我而言，清晨的时间是最佳的，午饭，傍晚，或者深夜的那段时间也可以。无论你是做什么工作的，把写作当作每天必须完成的任务去做。每天至少写半个小时，当然有一个小时更好。若你同我一样，是一个全职的作家，那么你需要写更多的小时，请你不要担心，这只会让你写得更好。

随便涂鸦：面对整张的白纸，整版的白屏，无从开始，肯定恐怖。你会想：我还是看看邮件或是小憩一会了吧!先生，千万别这样。马上开始写，马上打字，你写什么没有关系，只是让我听到你敲键盘的声音吧。只要你开始写了，什么都好办了。像我的话，我喜欢先敲上我的名字和文章的标题，这应该不难吧，然后再慢慢的展开情节，全身心地融入进去…关键是：开始可以随便写写，随便涂鸦，但是尽快开始写正文。

集中精神：写作是一件一心一意的事情，在嘈杂的环境或是同时干着别的事情，是不可能写好的。写作需要一个安静的环境，需要一点点柔和的背景音乐。即使是最低要求，你也需要在全屏(没有其他软件得干扰)的条件下，使用WriteRoom， DarkRoom，Writer这些写作软件，不受打扰的写作。关掉邮箱，关点MSN和Gtalk，关掉电话和手机，关掉电视，清理掉书桌上无用的东西。清除与写作无关的一切杂念，现在就是写作的时间，好像把自己放进一个盒子里，在没有任何打扰下进入写作状态。

先计划，再写：这好像和“随便涂鸦”有些矛盾，实际上不是这样。在坐下来正式写之前，先做个计划或是脑子里先预演一下，这是非常管用的办法。每天跑步的时候想想要写的东西，或是散步的时间来个头脑风暴;然后把想到的记下来，做一个扼要的提纲;等真正准备好开始写了，可以很快的展开，因为思路和想法都有了。这里，有一个构思小说的三部曲，可以参考这个：Snowflake Method.

创新：你需要模仿名家，这并不意味你要跟他们写得一模一样。你可以试试新的写法，从这里学一点，从那里学一点。渐渐地，你就会有了自己的风格，自己的文体，自己的思路。试试一些不一样的表达，或创造一些与众不同的表达方式，每一方法你都可以尝试，看看它到底怎么样，不好就不用呗。

修改：你开始构思你的文字，然后试着写，让故事情节展开，最后你需要回过头再看看你都写了什么。这点很重要，很多写手一旦写好就不想修改，已经费时费力地写好了，还要再花时间修改，实在是一件吃力不讨好的活。但如果你想写得更好，你就要学会如何修改。好的作品是经过反复的推敲和修改而成的，这会让你的作品从平庸中脱颖而出。看看你写的东东，不仅仅是那些拼写和语法错误，还有那些无意义的词，混乱的结构，和让人搞不懂的句子。修改的目标是：更清晰，更直接，更鲜活。

简明扼要：这是你在修改的过程中，最重要的一件事情。一句句，一段段的修改，把无关主题的统统都删掉。一个短句比一段冗长的废话更具说服力，大白话比晦涩的专业术语更受欢迎。记得：简单就是力量。

富于感染力的句子：在短句中使用富有感染力的动词，当然，并没有要求每一句都是这样，你需要变化。但是，多试试能够吸引人的句子。而且，你没有必要等到你要修改的时候再用，你刚开始写的时候就要考虑这个问题。

获取别人的反馈：闭门造车不会有任何进步，让别人读读你的文章给你回馈，最好有经验的作家和编辑。他们见多识广，会给你很中肯和有见地的建议。认真的听，即使是一些批评，也接受它，忠言逆耳，这样只会让你写得更好。

是骡子还是马，拉出来溜溜：就你而言，你需要让别人读到你的作品。你的作品不是你想谁看谁就看的，让所有的人都读到你的文章。你就要出版自己的书，发表自己的短篇小说和诗歌，给出版社供稿。如果你已经开始写博客了，恭喜你，这是一个好的开始。若现在还没有人浏览过，你就需要把它放到流量更大的博客服务网站上去，让读者给你留言，给你提出建议。所有的人都会看你写东西，也许刚开始时会是件伤脑筋的事情，但这是每一位作家成长的必由之路，马上发表你的文字吧。

采用对话式的文体：很多人的写作都很正式，但是我发现像我们说话一样写作会使文章更流畅(没有叹生词)。这样一来，读者看起来会更舒服。刚开始这么写并不容易，你需要坚持这么做。也许，会带来另一个问题，为了读起来更口语化，你需要打破一些语法规则(就像我的前一句那样)。因为如果生搬硬套语法，会让你的文章看起来很不自然。若没有其他原因，就不要破坏语法规则。你需要知道你在做什么和为什么这样做。

好开头和结尾：开头和结尾是文章的重点。特别是开头。如果你不能在故事的开始就吸引读者，那他们就很难有耐心把整篇文章读完。所以投入更多的时间去考虑怎么写好开头，读者一旦对你开头感兴趣，他们会想知道得更多...写好开头后，再弄一个精彩的结尾，这会让读者更加期待你的下一篇佳作。

There is no consensus [knsenss] 一致of opinions among people about X(争论的焦点)。Some people are of the view that 观点1，while others take an opposite side, firmly believing that 观点2。As far as I am concerned, the former/latter notion(观念) is preferable in many senses. The reasons are obvious. First of all, 论据1。 Furthermore, 论据2。

Among all of the supporting evidences, one is the strongest. That is, 论据3。 A natural conclusion from the above discussion is that总结观点。 As a college student, I am supposed to 表决心. 或 From above, we can predict that 预测

1、充分发挥自己的优势。认识水平高、擅长理性思维的同学可选择议论文，擅长形象思维、会刻画人物的同学可选择微型小说，擅长抒情的同学可选择散文。

2、临场写作时可以根据题意和你的表达需要想像一个或一类读者就在你的面前。如以“沟通”为话题作文，写与家长的沟通，可想像父母就在身边;写“沟通”之艰难和必要，就好像误解过你的人正在听你倾诉;写国际间通过沟通走向合作，就设想自己参与了国与国的谈判。即使所写文章没有明确的阅读对象，你也可以想像此文是写给你的语文老师的。你要知道，你的文章的惟一读者是那位跟你的语文老师非常相似的人。写记叙文，且最好将主人公设定为自己。想想阅卷老师的喜好，说他们想听的话。尽可能赢得评卷老师的同情。

3、写法上可以求新。要考虑，怎样表现更智慧，更艺术，更有可读性;但更要求稳。我的意见是大家一定要在一种比较稳的情况下，确有把握时才可写小小说或者是写戏剧，或者是写别的，确有把握之后才写这种文体，如果没有把握的话，就选择比较稳妥的老的文体，老的写法。

4、不可按上年或前几年的高考作文思路行文。求新、求变是人们所追求的，高考作文也不例外。但若按上年或前几年的高考作文思路行文，甚至拿来套用，机械模仿，不懂灵活应变，就会吃力不讨好，这也是失分的点。因为阅卷者大都是相对固定的，对以前的高考作文非常熟悉。不主张写诗歌、文言文。

5、苦于材料缺乏则可以突出自己的爱好。你如果喜欢体育，那你就像体育记者一样，叙体育、议体育，只要切合题意就好。你如果喜欢听××的歌、看××的书、爱好上网……你就可以将自己这一方面的经历和感受与命题联系起来。那样就不愁内容贫乏、文思枯竭。不要瞎编乱造。靠编故事骗取老师的眼泪从而获得高分的时代已经一去不复返了。

6、要美化自己，而不是丑化自己。要显现自己的高境界、大抱负、多知识、同情心，要显现自己以天下为己任的豪情。不要出于反衬别人等考虑而故意丑化自己，如果让评卷老师以为你真就是那样，那就麻烦了，因为高考是选拔性考试。从某个角度讲，评卷老师评卷的过程就是一个选择淘汰对象的过程。

7、字数以900字左右为宜。不能给人凑字数的感觉，但也不能拖得太长，不允许加纸条。许欢写长文的同学，开篇要注意不要放得太开，开口不要太大，能跳过去的就跳过去，要相信读者的理解能力。要注意节省篇幅，要防止高潮来了没地方写了。切忌三段文。要突出的句子(扣题的、表现主旨的、文眼、点睛之笔、抒情议论、议论文的分论点等)最好单独成段。

8、文章要有一至两个亮点。如果是记叙文，应该用抓人的情节和生动的描写表现你的真情，记叙文不能没有描写。如果是议论文，就一定要有1--2个典型的论据，就应该有纵横捭阖，很深刻的见解。如果是微型小说一定要有巧妙的构思。这个亮点还可以是一句富有哲理的警句，也可以是一个精彩的比喻，也可以是一个超常的搭配(酽酽的歌喉)。总之，要能使评卷老师精神为之一震。

9、行文中要多次扣题，要一路扣题一路歌。材料、引语和话题中的相关文字至少在文中出现三次以上。开头三句话内应点题一次，结尾应回扣标题，“回眸一笑百媚生”。中间至少扣题一次。几次扣题事实上也是在不断地提醒自己不要跑题。有球场上叫暂停的效果，可以调整思路和写法。

10、思想要健康。“思想健康”不是说要你只说冠冕堂皇的话，不是要你刻意拔高，“健康”是针对“病态”、“庸俗”而言的，它的底线是不能欣赏违背法律法规和偏离社会道德的事。恋爱题材是考场作文的禁区，无论考生写得如何缠绵悱恻，真挚动人，因其行为是中学生日常行为规范所不允许的，这类作文自然得不了高分。

11、观点不可太绝对，要留有余地。“义正”未必要“辞严”，“理直”未必就要“气壮”。联系现实生活时，涉及社会黑暗面时，要有分寸，不要一味指责。“质问京山大冤案”。批评家长、老师和社会要与人为善，抱着协商与治病救人的态度，要提建设性意见。不可尖刻、讽刺、挖苦，甚至恶意地进行人身攻击。

12、看到题目后，可先搜索一下自己以往所写的优秀作文，看有没有可以再利用的。需要注意的是一定要不牵强。

13、精写前几段，给评卷老师留下一个好印象。要精雕细刻，要出彩。比如，可开门见山，直奔主题;可制造悬念，引人入胜;可提出问题，引人注意;或巧用排比、比喻、拟人等修辞手法，或巧述故事，引人入胜，或巧用题记，揭示主旨，或巧用诗文显诗意。写好结尾和过渡段。阅卷老师一般是S型的扫描全文。结尾可画龙点睛，发人深思;或总结全文，照应开头;或虚笔拓展，扩大容量;或精辟议论，深化主旨。

14、要给自己充足的构思时间，不要急于动笔。“宁停三分，不争一秒”，因为写作是“开弓没有回头箭”的，写到一半，突然发现，呀，把题目理解错了，或没领会好命题的要求。最可怕的是文章写到一半，又想另起炉灶。时间没了，心情也坏了，干着急。建议打草稿，防止“三边工程”(边立项，边设计，边施工)。考场作文不宜见异思迁，边写边改。要贯彻一种构思。一旦构思已定，就不要轻易改变。

15、要力避前松后紧、虎头蛇尾。有些同学构思、提纲拟好后，开头反复推敲，精雕细琢，后来发现时间不够，于是草草收兵。此外，要谨慎对待修改。今年实行网上评卷，更应慎重。修改一般只着眼于字词方面的，可用米尺比好之后划两横。结构方面不能修改。要保持卷面的整洁美观，要努力做到改动少而效果好。

16、如果偏题或者离题，作文的主要分数就失去了。为防止跑题，可从如下几点做出努力：一是将材料、引语和话题联系起来思考，不可单看话题;二是看自己确立的观点能否用话题所给材料来证明;三是想一想这则材料当初发在媒体上登载是要达到一个什么效果的。万一跑题了，要考虑逆挽，使文章形成一种欲扬先抑的结构形态。

17、一定要完篇。熟话说，好文章是风头、猪肚、豹尾。没有豹尾，老鼠尾巴也要有一个，绝不能写半头文。用半篇文章给你评分，怎么会得高分?

18、要重视拟题，特别要注意不能缺题。不是万不得已，不要以话题做标题。张伟民讲那是一种浪费。拟题是显示你才气的一个好的平台，不能轻易放弃。缺题影响远不止2分。正好给了评卷老师扣分的理由。

1、Practice makes perfect.

熟能生巧。

2、Take care of the pence/pennies，and the pounds will take care of themselves.

积少成多。/小事谨慎，大事自成。

3、Swift to hear,slow to speak.

多听少讲。

4、Procrastination is the thief of time.

拖延就是偷走时间。

5、Tomorrow is another day.

明天又是新的一天。/明天还有指望。

6、Exploit to the full one’S favorable conditions and avoid unfavorableones.

扬长避短。

7、Promise little，but do much.

少许愿，多做事。

8、cripples learns to limp.

近朱者赤，近墨者黑。

9、Bend the willow while it is still youn.

修树要趁早，育人要趁小。

10、Knowledge is power.

知识就是力量。

11、Passion，though a bad regulator,is a powerful sprin.

激情虽难驾驭，却是强大动力。

12、Learn from other’S strong points to offset one’S weaknesses.

取长补短。

13、He than run fast gets the rin.

捷足先登。

14、We never know the worth of water till the well is dry.

井干方知水宝贵。

15、Our greatest glory consists not in never failin9，but in rising every time we fall.

人生最大的光荣，不在于永不失败，而在失败还能站起。

16、Ideals are like stars-we never reach them，but like marlners，we chart our courses by them.

人之需要理想，如水手之需星辰；星辰虽不可及，但可指引我们航程。

17、Youth’s stuff will not endure.

青春易逝。

18、A pet lamb makes a cross ralTl.

宠坏的羊羔会变成恶羊。

19、Prepare for the worst and hope for the best.

做最坏的准备，怀最好的希望。

20、Do not throw the baby with the bath water.

别把小孩和洗澡水一起泼掉。

21、Wisdom is only found in truth.

惟有在真理中才能找到智慧。

22、A stitch in time saves nine.

小洞不补，大洞吃苦。

23、An hour in the morning is worth two in the evenin9./The morning hour has gold in its mouth.

一天之计在于晨。

24、Where there is a will，there is a way.

有志者事竟成。

25、Broaden one’S scope ofknowledge and widen one’S horizon.

拓宽知识，开拓视野。

26、He that can have patience can have what he will.

惟坚韧者始能遂其志。

27、Thought is the seed of action.

思想是行动的种子。

28、As you give，as you receive./As you sow，you shall mow.

种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆。

29、Every man is the master ofhis own fogune.

每人都是自己命运的主人。

30、Good health is the best treasure a person can procure.

健康是一个人最宝贵的财富。

31、Disappointment is the nurse of wisdom.

失败是成功之母。

32、The first step to knowledge is to know that we are ignorant.

走向知识的第一步是知道自己无知。

33、Home-keeping youth have ever homely wits.

孩子不见世面，知识少的可怜。

34、People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.

自己有缺点，勿揭他人短。

35、Give me where to stand，and l will move the world.

给我一个支点,我可以跷起整个地球。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

如果平时学习侧重吸收，那么写论文则是贵在创新。如同蜜蜂采花，最终是为了酿蜜。小编收集了社会科学论文的写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

一、选好题目

科学研究工作的首要一步是选题。选定题目并不难，选好题目则不易。有人说，选好题目是论著成功的一半，这是有一定道理的。因为只有选好题目，才能明确主攻方向，确定主要内容，体现出论文的特点和优点，反映出论文在学术研究中的地位和适应社会需求的程度。

有人认为选题很容易，随便选定本专业的任何一个题目，下一番功夫就能出成果;有人则把选题看得很神秘，左顾右盼下不了决心。这是两种偏向：前者带有盲目性，后者显出动摇性。选择题目一定要避免盲目性，克服动摇性;提高自觉性，明确目的性。

选题要考虑客观的需要。有的是教学中遇到的问题，只有经过一番研究才能满足教学需要，提高教学质量。有的是现实斗争和社会实践存在的问题，要求我们下功夫研究，从理论高度和深度提出解决问题的方案和对策。有的是科学发展的需要，在专业研究中有不少问题要求进行新的探索，或者对别人的研究成果有不同的看法需要开展争鸣。

选题要心中有数。不论选定什么题目，都得先熟悉前人研究的情况。通过查阅书目、报刊资料索引或请教老师和同行，了解前人对这个问题有哪些研究成果，达到什么程度，存在什么争论，还有什么空白或薄弱环节，以便继承前人成果，继续向前开拓。如果自己有不同看法，可提出商榷;如果是空白或薄弱环节，只要有条件就可以想法填补或加强。如果自己无力向前推进，那就不要选这个题目。

选题要考虑自己的条件。诸如个人的兴趣、爱好、基础、长处、掌握的外文语种和熟练程度、搜集资料的可能性等等。

选题时还有几个问题要具体分析：

选大题还是选小题?如果材料来源丰富，可以大题大做，写成大部头专著，或者把大题分成若干小题，各个小题分别逐步去做，集小成大，大部头专著也就出来了。或者小题大做。我手边至今还保存一本20世纪50年代翻译出版的苏联一位学者的博士论文《为苏维埃政权而斗争的水兵》，该文只写从1917年10月至1918年3月这半年时间内，海军士兵在建立和巩固苏维埃政权中的作用。由于作者运用了大量档案和报刊材料，所以全书竟达20.5万字。如果着重从发展规律上进行概括和分析，那么也可以大题小做，做到高屋建瓴、高瞻远瞩、纲举目张、鞭辟入里，这样有助于人们提高并加深认识。例如列宁写的《马克思学说的历史命运》就是大题小做的范文。全文只有两千余字，把马克思主义诞生以来近七十年间的历史划分为革命风暴、和平发展和新的世界风暴三个时期，概述了马克思主义在这三个时期中遇到的问题、经历的斗争和取得的成就。文中很多精辟的论点和精彩的论述至今还常为人们所引用。这类大题小做的题目，如果立意不新、立论不深、立足不高，就容易流为空泛或肤浅。在通常情况下，最好是中题中做或者小题小做，这样容易深入进去，见效较快。

选理论的题好还是选历史的题好?如果史料不多，前人理论分析较少，自己又能够深入进行理论分析，那就可以选理论方面的题目。如果史料较多，前人挖掘整理不够，那就可以选历史方面的题目。一般说来，最好是史论结合，有的可以偏论，有的可以偏史，但是不要写成纯理论或纯历史。纯理论不免抽象枯燥;纯历史是史料堆砌，难以成为论文。既是论文，总要就大量史料进行梳理和分析，提出自己的独立见解。

选热门题目还是冷门题目?热门题目一般都是现实意义较大的，应该注意研究;但是热门题目一般又是研究者较多的，一定要多下功夫研究，以求突破和进展。无论是哪类题目，都应从需要和可能出发，不要单纯“赶浪头”或“钻冷门”。还有一些不冷不热的题目可能更为合适，不要轻易放过。

选新题好还是选老题好?新题一般是前人研究较少的，甚至是空白点，容易出成果;当然新题可能材料少、难度大，要选就要多下功夫，那还是能写出新意的。一般说来，最好是选较新的题目，新题新做或老题新做，而不要老题老做或新题老做。

是先看了材料再选题还是选定了题再找材料?这两者不是截然对立的。选任何题目都要先看一定的材料，这样才能避免盲目性;可以在确定选题范围之后再继续搜集并阅读材料，进而把题目具体化、精确化。最后，选定的题目，文字表述要求尽量简短、鲜明，不要拖泥带水一长串。

二、深入研究

选好题目之后的第二步，就是花大量时间狠下苦功、深入研究。往往在深入研究的过程中还要对选题作局部调整，或者使选题更加具体化、精确化。

深入研究从何入手呢?也就是如何寻找突破口的问题。有人从阅读有关的理论著作入手，有人从阅读原始文献和资料入手，这样做难免会事倍功半，读了大量书籍还是发现不了多少问题。事半功倍的捷径是从阅读前人对这一问题的有关研究成果入手。即通过导师指点和查阅各种工具书———如历年来出版的《全国图书总目》《全国主要报刊索引》、中国人民大学书报资料中心编印的《复印报刊资料》有关专题、图书馆资料室收藏的专题索引、几种专业刊物以及外文书目和报刊资料索引等等，现在通过网络能更快地选编出书目，然后择要阅读。在阅读中要注意：前人已取得哪些成果?还有哪些薄弱环节或者空白点?在哪些问题上有待深入和提高?有哪些值得商榷之处或者能提出自己的新见解?在史料或者史实的运用上还存在哪些问题?

在吸收前人研究成果的过程中，也能发现前人引用过的资料及经典著作和原始文献，并编出更详尽的书目。

在阅读各种材料过程中，要开动脑筋、反复思考，大体形成一个研究提纲，把自己选好的题目分解为若干问题。各个问题再分为若干层次;然后按问题先后再细读各种有关材料。在研究过程中，要先从中文材料着手，详细地没有遗漏地熟悉掌握各种中文材料，再去查阅外文书刊，以求新信息、新看法和新资料。要特别注意挖掘第一手材料，同时也要留心第二手材料。

在研究材料的过程中，要用心、专心、细心，才能发现问题，稍微疏忽就会一纵而过，结果还要重花时间和精力去再查。好记性不如烂笔头，对各种有用或备用的材料都要手勤，用卡片或本子摘要记下或写索引，每条材料都要注明具体出处，以便日后引用和核对。材料积累多了还要分类排列，既便于检索，又能从中发现还缺少什么，以便进一步广为搜集。有的材料在研究过程中要反复读好几遍，有的还要相互参照比较。

研究过程就是从感性认识提高到理性认识的过程。在这个过程中，对材料要进行“去粗取精、去伪存真”的处理，对问题的认识要进行“由此及彼、由表及里”的思考。材料要广泛搜集，宽打窄用，在论文中最后精选最有典型性、最切题的材料。要善于发现互相矛盾的材料，下一番功夫辨别、考证清楚。“由此及彼”即考察事物上下左右以及内部与外部的各方面联系，开阔思路，进行比较研究。既要纵向比较，又要横向比较，还要正反面比较。“由表及里”即通过表面现象深入本质，把各个事物作为一个系统来考察，探索系统之内和各系统之间各种因素的错综复杂的关系，总结出规律性。要善于展开、深入分析事物的必要性和可能性、可能性和现实性、必然性和偶然性、绝对性和相对性、普遍性和特殊性、统一性和多样性、共性和个性、原因和结果、内容和形式、整体和局部、联系和区别、定性和定量、动态和静态、回顾和展望，等等。在研究过程中，最重要的是要思考自己对这一问题能从什么角度加深，能从哪些方面提高，如何进行新概括，做出新分析，运用新语言，补充新材料，提出新见解，得出新结论;不能只是利用别人的成果，改头换面，单炒冷饭。即便是炒冷饭也要添油加料，辅以鸡蛋、葱花、味精，如此才能做出一道别具特色的新食品。但是创新一定要在研究大量材料中解放思想、实事求是地形成，决不能靠零星材料、凭一知半解而轻率地标新立异;更不能胡乱提出新观点，片面进行论证。

三.精心写作

论文的最后一步是精心写作。动笔写作前，应该通盘整理一下研究成果，对研究提纲进行调整和补充，进一步衍化为写作提纲，对全文的布局、观点的体系、分析的层次、材料的使用作统一的安排。写作过程不是单纯记录研究成果的过程，而是继续深入研究的过程，是把研究成果精确化和完善化的过程。在写作过程中发现对哪些问题研究还不够深透、论证还不够充分，就要记下来继续攻关。

写社会科学论文要明确其性质和特点。论说文不同于记叙文、应用文和文艺作品，而是以议论为主的文体。但是，在论说文中，社会科学论文又具有独特之处：它不同于讲义材料、资料性文章、宣传性文章、通俗性读物。社会科学论文专业性很强，应有自己的研究心得，以表述自己的见解为主，应对学科建设起推动作用，至少也要在综合别人成果的基础上有所加深。更高的要求是填补学科的空白，一般要求超过前人已达到的成就，要有新的创见。写论文要力求删繁就简、突出重点，主要写自己的观点。在研究过程中所掌握的各种珍贵资料，则可以系统整理为若干专题，编入附件，留供答辩时用，或供别人参考。文前要概述前人的研究成果，并作出简要评价;文中引用别人观点或不同意别人某个观点，都要求注明出处;文末要求附中外参考书目，表明自己视野有多大，参照并吸收了哪些人的研究成果。

有人认为一篇论文包括观点和材料两个要素，我认为这样概括是不全面的，应该说论文含有论点、论据、论证、论述四个要素。论点即观点，论据即材料，论证指立论证明的方法和层次，论述指文字表述的要领和技巧。同样的观点和材料，有的人更善于归纳和演绎、概括和分析，有的人更善于表达和铺陈、炼句和修辞，结果写出来的文章就很不一样。可见，论证和论述这两者对于一篇论文的成功而言，应该说是不可缺少的有独立意义的要素。对这四个写作要素的基本要求，我想大体上可以编成四句顺口溜：论点方面，观点鲜明、有破有立;论据方面，材料充实、用心搜集;论证方面，分析细致、逻辑严密;论述方面，文字简炼、明确有力。

一篇论文总要提出问题、解决问题，总要主张什么、反对什么，提出并阐发自己的新见解应是论文的主干，同时还要批驳自己所不同意的其他观点，这样两相对照才更显得鲜明。文中除了突出自己的中心观点之外，还要展开写一系列派生观点，评论一系列别人的观点。

观点是从研究大量材料中形成的，所以各个观点都要以充实的材料加以佐证。在运用材料时，要注意目的性、典型性和真实性。如果目的性不明确，材料和观点就统一不起来，对不上号;如果使用的材料不具有典型性，就缺少说服力，从局部材料、个别情况就不能做出全局性、普遍性的结论;如果粗心大意，照抄别人搞错的材料，就会以讹传讹。总之，各种材料要用心搜集、细心筛选、精心辨别、耐心考证。

论证是在论点和论据统一的基础上层层展开，由此及彼、由表及里、由点到面、由简到繁，由因到果、由量到质、由浅入深、由始至终。对各个问题细加分析，其中要蕴含一些深邃的哲理，不仅令人折服，而且还能使人读后余味犹存，反复思索。全文从开头、主体到收尾，各个部分、各个段落、各个句子之间，结构、布局和叙述都要逻辑十分严密，一环扣一环，不能有漏洞，不能自相矛盾，或者相互抵消。写好一篇论文不能只着眼于主体，还要注重开头和收尾。古人评判佳作有所谓“豹头、熊腰、凤尾”之说。例如，著名的《共产党宣言》，不仅其主体具有深刻的说服力，而且开头就有很强的吸引力———“一个幽灵，共产主义的幽灵，在欧洲徘徊”，收尾提出“全世界无产者，联合起来”的口号，有何等强烈的号召力!

论述用词要简炼、鲜明、准确，还要生动活泼。用词要反复斟酌锤炼。用词还要多样化，尽量减少简单重复，这样才能使文章不单调乏味。尽量运用我国历史上流传下来的成语典故能使文章言简意赅。运用形象比喻能把道理说得更加透彻，并给人以深刻印象，又增添文采。例如马克思把暴力比喻为社会变革的助产婆，把分散的小农比喻为一麻袋土豆，列宁把帝国主义比喻为“泥足巨人”，斯大林把社会主义与工人运动的结合比喻为罗盘与大船，毛泽东把资产阶级的腐蚀比喻为“糖衣炮弹”等等。除用词外还要注意句式。老用陈述句未免单调呆板，间以疑问句、感叹句等，就显得丰富多彩。排比句、对偶句，能表达得更鲜明，又增加语言文字的美感，还便于记诵。如能适当引用一些古诗词和先哲的名言警句，则更能使文章光彩夺目。

写作至少要三遍定稿。第一稿先把自己的看法和该用的材料都汇总一起;第二稿主要在分析提高上下功夫，力求精炼，逻辑严密，富于哲理;第三稿主要在文字上推敲、加工，并核对引文和材料，力求准确而又有文采。这只是大体而言，实际上一篇论文往往要修改十多次，应该不厌其烦，精益求精。要使文章富于哲理又有文采，需要长期日积月累的理论素养和语言文字素养。平时要多读中外古今名篇佳作，从中领会写作方法和技巧。清朝名儒郑板桥在《楹联》中留下警言妙语：“删繁就简三秋树，领异标新二月花。”写出好文章正是要不断删繁就简、反复琢磨，如何突出自己的创新。

在完成社会科学论文之前，还可以把它分解为若干小题，然后加以汇总并进一步提高，这也不失为聚少成多、化零为整的捷径。在完成论文之后，还要求把它浓缩为几百字或千把字的提要，“纳须弥于芥子”(这是佛家语，意为把偌大的一座须弥山藏纳于细小的芥子中)，列于文首，便于别人掌握要点。

学士论文、硕士论文和博士论文，这是学位论文的三级，在题目大小、内容深浅和份量多少等方面体现出区别。层次越高，要求也越高。一般说来，学士论文万字左右，硕士论文约二三万字，博士论文可以写成十几万字。总的说来，质量比数量更重要，能有真知灼见，未必都要洋洋大观。

做实际工作的党政干部，如果掌握了写论文的要领，遵循写论文的三部曲，狠下功夫，也是能够把对实际工作的调查研究和自己的工作总结写成有份量的社会科学论文。毛泽东1927年的《湖南农民运动考察报告》和1928年的《井冈山的斗争》就是不朽的历史名篇。

需要格外强调的一点是：文章是写给别人读的，是写给并非研究这个专题的读者读的。因此一定要写得深入浅出，对事件、人物、时间、地点、专有名词等等都要交代清楚，这样才能使读者看得明白，而且有可读性和吸引力。有人论及活学与著述的关系时，把它区分为四种类型、四个等级：深入浅出好学问，深入深出深学问，浅入浅出没学问，浅入深出假学问。我们要力求写出深入浅出的好文章。

母亲节是美国法定的全国性节日。在每年5月的第二个星期日举行。为母亲过节最早源于古希腊的民间风俗。那时，古希腊人每年春天都要为传说中的众神之母、人类母亲的象征——赛比亚举行盛大的庆祝活动。但这时还未形成母亲节。

Mothers day in the United States legal a national holiday. Held on the second Sunday of May each year. Mother festival originated from the ancient Greek Folk customs. At that time, the ancient Greeks in spring every year as a symbol of the legend of the mother of the gods, human mothers -- Serbia held a grand celebration. But at this moment is not formed on Mothers day.

1906年，美国的安娜·贾维丝小姐遭受到母亲突然去世的强大打击，因为她太爱自己的母亲了。如何表达对母亲的怀念和感激呢?贾维丝小姐决定实现母亲生前渴望创立一个母亲节的遗愿。为此，她首先提出了设立母亲节的设想，并为此而四处奔走，历尽艰辛。同年，她还在家乡费城组织了第一次庆祝母亲节的活动。她还分别给国会议员、政府官员、教师以及新闻界写了上千封信，恳求帮助。她的热诚和努力，终于赢得了社会各界的普遍支持。1914年，美国国会通过决议，并由威尔逊总统亲自签署，将每年5月的第二个星期天定为母亲节。当时很多国家成千上万的欧战中阵亡将士的妻子、母亲正深陷在痛苦之中，美国母亲节的创立，使她们得到了极大的安慰，引起了强烈共鸣。母亲节的活动丰富多彩。节日这天，家庭成员都要做各种使母亲欢心的事情，并向她赠送礼品表示祝贺。

In 1906, the United States miss Anna Jarvis suffered a strong blow to the sudden death of her mother, because she loves her mother. How to express thanks and remembrance of her mother? Miss Jia Weisi decided to realize the mothers desire to create a mothers day wishes. To this end, she first put forward the idea of the establishment of mothers day, and this everywhere, experienced all kinds of hardships. The same year, she was at his home in Philadelphia organized the first mothers day celebrations. She also gave members of Parliament, government officials, teachers and journalists wrote thousands of letters to ask for help. Her hard work and dedication, won widespread support from all sectors of society. In 1914, Congress passed a resolution America, and by Wilson president personally signed, will be held on the second Sunday of May is mothers day. At a time when many countries of Europe in the memorials wife, mother is mired in pain, the creation of the United States Mothers day, so they are a great comfort, aroused a strong resonance. Mothers Day activity of rich and colorful. On this day, family members have to do to make mother happy things, and to congratulate her gifts.

各家的父亲在这天则主动管理家务和孩子，以便让妻子休息一天。美国加利福尼亚的芬德尔镇庆祝方式尤为独特，即在每年的这天都要举行为期一周的“活动雕塑比赛大会”。现在，世界上已有43个国家公认这一节日，可以说，母亲节已成为一个世界性的节日了。

The house and the children active management in this day the father, in order to let his wife one day of rest. California American fendall town celebration is particularly unique, in every year of this day will be held the week of "mobile game conference". Now, 43 countries in the world have recognized this holiday, it can be said, mothers day has become a worldwide festival.

作文的标题、开头和结尾是阅卷老师阅读的重要位置,是第一印象,因而很重要.

一、怎样拟好标题(龙眼级)

文章的标题就象龙的眼睛.眼睛有神龙会飞,标题有神文添彩.

拟好标题的要求是简洁、新颖、生动、切合文意,能使人一看到标题就有读文欲.那么,拟好标题方法有那些呢?

1、运用修辞.如《忠诚:沟通友谊的桥梁》用比喻;《我与自信签约》用拟人;《榜上无名,脚下有路》用对偶;《减负还是加负》用反问;《少年壮志不言愁》引用诗歌;《自考之路通罗马》用借代(罗马借代成功)等.

2、用数学式.如《减负≠减副》、《8-1>8》、《真诚+守信=真正的友谊》、《学校生活ABC》等.

3、直言事理.如《上网,让我欢喜让我忧》、《诚信抛弃不得》等.

4、反常求异.如《我想当个差生》.

在话题作文中,可用原题,也可另拟,只要所写内容在话题范围内即可.若原题太大,可拟小些的题目.如话题作文“以人为本”,可拟成“致富以人为本”等.

二、怎样写好文章的开头(凤头级)

文章的开头就象凤的头.凤头美好招人看,文头亮丽引人读.

文章的开头要简洁,入题要快,语言要有文彩,能使人一看开头就有想往下读的欲望.方法有那些呢?

1、引用诗词歌词开头.如“‘只要人人献出一点爱,世界将要变成美好的人间……’一听到这首《爱的奉献》,几天前在放学路上看到的那动人的一幕,就会浮现在我的眼前.(《爱心》)又如“无可奈何花落去,似曾相识燕归来”每当我想起这句诗,眼前就不禁会浮现出那圆的脸,那笔下流动的圆,耳边又想起钱氏英语.(《良师》)

2、设置悬念开头.如“挂钟不慌不忙,有节奏的走着,滴嗒,滴嗒……都快要4点了,妈怎么还没回来?”(《担心》)

3、写景状物开头.如“朝阳出来了,湖水为它梳妆;新月上来了,群星为它做伴;春花开了,绿叶为它映衬;鸟儿鸣唱,蟋蟀为它拉琴……天地万物都在向我们讲述着关爱的故事.”(《关爱永远》)

三、怎样写好文章的结尾(豹尾级)

文章的结尾应象老虎的尾巴那样,结实,有力.方法有:

1、卒章显志法,即末尾点明文章的中心.可用抒情议论句直接点出来.如“人们,请选择好你的染缸,点染好你的生活!”(《生活如染缸》)或引用诗词句点题.如一篇文章的结尾“人有悲欢离合,月有阴晴圆缺,此事古难全.”表达了师生间的依依惜别之情.或借用人物语言点题.如“不过,通过这次不平常的考试,我感到:一个人应该在别人困难时伸出援助之手.”(《一次不平常的考试》)又如“我要向您说一句:‘感谢您,老师!’”(《感谢您,老师》)

2、首尾呼应法.如“那天,阳光好暖,好暖……”(《那天,阳光好暖》)与开头的“一缕金黄色的阳光从窗口斜射在桌子上,照在信封上,那天阳光好暖啊……”呼应.

3、描景写事法.如上例便是描景结尾法.又如一篇题为《心结》的结尾“我走向了他……”,以写事法结尾,点出了事情的结局.

1) 主语+ cannot emphasize the importance of … too much.(再怎么强调……的重要性也不为过。)例如：We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

2)There is no need for sb to do sth. for sth.(某人没有必要做……)，例如：There is no need for you to bring more food. 不需你拿来更多的食物了。

3)By +doing…，主语can …. (借着……，……能够……)，例如：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy. 借着做运动，我们能够始终保持健康。

4) … enable + sb.+ to + do…. (……使……能够……)，例如：Listening to music enables us to feel relaxed. 听音乐使我们能够感觉轻松。

5) On no account can we + do…. (我们绝对不能……)，例如：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge.我们绝对不能忽略知识的价值。

6) What will happen to sb.? (某人将会怎样?), 例如：What will happen to the orphan? 那个孤儿将会怎样?

7)For the past + 时间，主语 + 现在完成式…. (过去……年来，……一直……)例如：For the past two years，I have been busy preparing for the examination. 过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。

8)It pays to + do….(……是值得的。)例如：It pays to help others. 帮助别人是值得的。

9)主语+ be based on….(以……为基础)，例如：The progress of thee society is based on harmony.社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。

10)主语 + do one’s best to do….(尽全力去……)，例如：We should do our best to achieve our goal in life.我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标