英语说明文常见写作方法(20篇)

说明文中，先说什么，后说什么，是必须要解决的问题。任何事物本身都有一定的条理性，而人们对于客观事物的认知过程，同样也有规律可循。因此，说明文的顺序不是可以任意安排的，今天，小编给大家带来说明文的说明顺序，希望通过分享说明文的说明顺序，能对提高同学们的说明文阅读能力有所帮助。

说明文是客观地说明事物的一种文体，它以解说或介绍事物的形状、性质、成因、构造、功用、类别等或物理的含义、特点、演变等为主要内容。说明文以说明为主要表达方式，兼用记叙、描写、议论。说明文主要是通过对客观事物或事理的介绍说明，达到以知识教人的目的。与记叙文、议论文相比，说明文更强调科学性、客观性。说明文以客观、准确为基本要求，强调知识性和科学性。

合理安排说明文的顺序是写好一篇说明文的重要一环。说明顺序主要有三种：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序。

一、逻辑顺序

逻辑顺序，即按照事物、事理的内在逻辑关系来说明的一种顺序。它具体体现在以下几个方面：1.由概括到具体；2.由主要到次要；3.从原因到结果；4.从整体到部分；5.从特点到用途；6.由个别到一般；7.由具体到抽象等。

凡是阐述事物、事理间的各种因果关系或其他逻辑关系，按逻辑顺序写作最为适宜。不管是实体的事物，如山川、江河、花草、树木、器物等，还是抽象的事理，如思想、观点、概念、原理、技术等，都适用于以逻辑顺序来说明。如2009年高考语文湖北卷中有关“数字海洋”的说明中，作者先是说明数字海洋的地位与作用，接着说明数字海洋的构成与属性，最后再写数字海洋的建设途径，由概括到具体，由特征到用途，层次清晰，脉络分明，使得读者对相对抽象的科普内容感到易于接受。

值得注意的是，以上说明顺序很多时候不是孤立地进行，而是相互综合运用，是不能截然分开的。如李峰的《人类最完美的战利品》中有关对“狗”的说明就综合采用了多种说明顺序。首先，从文章的整体布局来看，作者采用了逻辑顺序，先写狗的历史丰富，再写狗的种类繁多，接着写狗的特征鲜明，最后写狗与人类的亲密相处，使得说明对象的特点清楚、明了，便于读者接受。再者，从文章的局部来看，作者在追溯狗的丰富的历史时，又选用了时间顺序，从四千万年前的史新世写到一千多万年前的托马克，从一万五千年前的中世纪时代写到七千年前的我国的家狗化石，最后写到现代狗，给读者一条清晰的阅读脉络，让读者徜徉其中，如临幽境。

二、空间顺序

空间顺序也是说明文写作中常见的一种顺序。它是指按照事物空间存在的方式，或从外到内，或从上到下，或从整体到局部来加以介绍。这种说明顺序有利于全面说明事物各方面的特征。一般说明某一静态实体（如建筑物等），常用这种顺序。如《故宫博物馆》一文就按照先总后分的顺序，先概括说明故宫建筑物的总体特征，然后再具体介绍太和门——太和殿——中和殿——保和殿——乾清宫——御花园，而在介绍每一座建筑物的时候，则又按照先外后内、先上后下的顺序。这样安排合乎人们观察事物的习惯，是最合理的顺序。

三、 时间顺序

所谓时间顺序，即按照事理发展过程的先后来介绍某一事物的说明顺序。凡是事物的发展变化都离不开时间，如说明生产技术、产品制作、工作方法、历史发展、文字演变、人物成长、动植物生长等，都需要时间的检测与验证。所以，在说明这些事物的时候，适宜采用时间顺序。如2010年高考语文四川卷中《书画的装裱》一文就多角度使用了这一顺序。首先，作者在行文的整体思路上采用了时间顺序，在说明书画装裱的历史时，作者主要从三个时间段来写：两晋到五代时期是书画装裱的初创到初发展的时期，宋代是“书画名家层出不穷，书画装裱飞跃发展”的时期，明代是“我国绘画发展的重要时期”，也是“书画装裱进入发展的黄金时期”。再者，仅从书画装裱的初创到初发展的时期看，作者依然选用了时间顺序，作者从两晋写到南北朝，再写到唐代，然后写到五代。这样写，避免了内容上的相互交*，使得全文思路清晰，结构严谨。同样，2010年高考语文陕西卷中对有关“书法”历史演进的说明也是从晋代王羲之入手，然后写到唐代的颜真卿、柳公权，最后一直写到现代的各族书法家。作者以时间为脉，娓娓道来，使得行文流畅自然，事物介绍言简意赅。

总之，说明文写作对文章的顺序有很强的要求，它要求考生不能只停留在一种僵化的模式上，要多角度多层面认真思考。既要考虑人们认识事物的一般顺序，考虑所说明的事物的结构特点和事理的内在逻辑关系，又也要考虑说明的中心与材料的关系，然后再根据自己的说明对象与说明内容选取合适的说明顺序，使得文章条理清晰，因材制宜，言之有序。

以上简单介绍了说明文的说明顺序。说明文的阅读在中考和高考中都占有比较大的比重，掌握其阅读方法尤为重要。

职称论文一般是发表小论文，2000-3000字即可，有些内容特别饱满完整的写7-8000字符也可以的，只是字数越多，安排的版面越多，费用也就会增加的。很多普刊是比较容易发的，论文有这几部分即可，标题，摘要，关键词，正文，参考文献。然后文章抄袭率控制在20%以下即可，内容结构完整，基本上可以发表出来了。下面是小编整理的职称论文写作方法，以供大家学习参考

一、好论文的感觉

1、 您的论文可以用一句话来表达，这一句话可以长一点，但是表达很清楚;我们可以把这话叫做中心句。

2、 论文的框架(纲要)可以很快地表达出来，框架就是中心句的展开;

3、 论文的框架可以简明扼要地画出框图，看起来逻辑清楚，在一个表达的系统中;

4、 根据论文的框架(纲要);可以展开成整篇文章;

5、 好象你在画画，一开始就考虑好整篇文章的意旨、布局、重点、点睛处，这样争取一次性就把文章写好;

6、 写的文章是有价值的，能给读者带来受用;文章写起来感觉是在介绍经验;一边写文章一边有自豪感;

7、 科技技术类的选题有特别的角度，一般能套在“新、难、重、特”里面;

8、 写之前用至少看过3篇相近选题的文献;最好是5至10篇;

9、 行文格式标准，(只要去看文献就知道自己有哪些差距)。

二、怎么写好论文

1、写论文的准备工作

考虑自己评职称时的方向;

自己的工作领域;

可以取材的工程项目、论文相关的案例、工作经验、经历;

初步选几个题目;

根据初选的题目查询文献;

对比看哪个论文方向写起来在价值、表达方便、与自己结合上更合适。

2、确定题目

前面所说的在于选择大的选题方向，到这里的时候，要具体考虑细的题目、重点、聚焦点，题目能不能用一句话表达出来，这时候就要考虑清楚，这一句话可以很长，但是一句话出来的东西一定是逻辑很清晰的。往往的结构是“XX的XX的XX”这样表达的时候，文章的领域、着眼点、新颖点往往就被表达出来了。

3、快速撰写论文

因为能够用一句话一表达题目或者中心，所以写论文的时候就会比较快。

快速的写法是：

先根据那一句话，展开纲要，大概是二级目录就差不多了，就是1.1这样的级别;

之后，根据二级目录，可以很快地组织内容。

4、要点突出

这个时候再来比较内容与题目是对应性怎么样?是一致吗?要对题目做出轻微的调整，还是对内容做出轻微的调整?

哪一个部分是重点，哪个部分是重点的重点?文章的篇幅够了没有，是太多了，还是太少了?要不要修，修哪里?

这里的原则就是突出要点，如同画家画树，冬天时，有枝干而无叶，仍然是树，反过来就不行的。

5、整理

根据突出重点的原则，在保证主干清楚的情况下，进行增减。

根据国际单位制，对单位进行修改;

根据行文格式，对字体、大小、图片、参考文献等进行修改;

对摘要和关键词进行设定。

6、润色

对文章的创新点、系统性表述、逻辑清晰、文章的实用价值、可信度再行润色;

对语句的流利进行润色，最简单的办法，就是从头到尾出声地读一遍下来，边读边改，一定会好很多。

三、重点强调

1、选题

至关重要。

职称论文是要评职称用的，要和自己的所学专业、所从事工作有相关性，特别是与你所将要评的职称专业有较大的相关性。这点对于学历专业、工作经历多、跨专业评职称的人要特别注意。

2、表达系统性和逻辑性

系统性的表达。就是说一个东西的时候，你要把它说清楚，说全面。比如，你跟人家介绍自家的房子，你就要把厅、主卧、客户、书房、饭厅、、卫生间、阳台都说到，这样就叫系统。如果觉得内容太大，就光说客厅，那就要把客厅的四面、上下、中间都有什么说清楚;如果还嫌太大，光说吊顶，就把凡是光于吊项的风格、材料、做工、等等全部说清楚。这就叫做系统性。系统性的反面就是缺漏。

逻辑性的表达。就是说一个东西的时候，要先主后次，先上后下，等等，有一个符合那个东西的规律的表达。比如说家庭的成员，从老的到少的，从男的到女的，从直系的说到旁系的，一代说完再说一代，必要时配要图表来辅助，这就是逻辑性的表达。逻辑性的反面就是乱。

3、规范性

论文只是一种体裁，一种风格，一种方式，有着它区别于其它体裁的规定套路，这就是规范性。比如：摘要要怎么写、关键词要怎么设，参考文献是怎么来表达，标点、格式、单位等要怎么做，这是规范性。

作文是写人记事的，或多或少都要写到人，而那些专门写人物的作文如何才能写好呢？要写好一个人物，无外乎是写人物的语言、行动、外貌（肖像）、心理等等。鲁迅先生说：“人物语言的描写，能使读者由说话看出人来。”这说明人物语言的重要。此外，写人物的行动、外貌（肖像）、心理等，也是必不可少的惯常写法，同样重要。

下面我就自己的感受和经验谈几点切实可用的方法或注意点：

首先，要写好人物作文，就要写自己熟悉的人。只有自己熟悉的人，才能感受得最真切最鲜活，对他（她）的一言一行，一颦一笑，才能有最直接的、深刻的印象。如下面例文《我是你爹》（见后文），写的是作者非常熟悉的人，所以全文写来既栩栩如生，又给人非常亲切的感觉。如果你写一个陌生的人，虽然也能够写，但写出来的就可能毫无特色，会是千千万万个中的一个，这样写来不要说感动别人，有时就连自己都觉得别扭、生造。

其次，要凸显人物与众不同的个性。共性的东西人人都有，写得再多作用也是不大的。只有有特色的、独具个性魅力的东西，才能给人以冲击，才能给人留下深刻的印象，才能让人拍案称奇。

第三，不要什么都写，更不要事无巨细地写，要择其一二浓彩重墨地写。这当然是要根据主题需要去择取了，决不能无的放矢。如《我是你爹》中，“爹”的话语很少，前后加起来总共才三四句而已，可一个独特的“爹”的形象却跃然纸上了。

第四，要让人物的言行、心理、个性特征等符合人物的年龄、经历、身份、文化教养等特点。不要让一个两三岁的孩子说六十岁人的话，也不要让一个无文化的老太太专说些理论大话等，否则就是无视人物的年龄、经历、身份、文化教养等特点而乱写人物，是不能写好人物的，更谈不上写出个性特点了。

第五，写人物离不开写事、写细节。要仔细地观察人物的日常行为，挖掘他们的典型事例，而且事例要新颖，因为人物的性格和品质，是通过具体的事例表现出来的。比如我们要写一个热心肠的人，就要写他怎样帮助周围的人，或哪里有困难他就在哪里出现等事例。写事的时候，我们完全可以从细节方面入手。细节描写包括对人物的动作、语言、神态和心理活动以及特定的环境等的描写。描写一个人的时候，我们要把这个人的每一个能体现人物特点的动作都描写清楚、具体、详细。

我们来看这一段话：“回到教室，大家全都涌到郭枫面前，问：”坏小子，你捐一毛钱怎么能代表我们呢？‘郭枫眨了眨眼，骄傲地说：“其实我捐了100元！说捐一毛钱，那是逗你们玩的！’听了郭枫的话，同学们哭笑不得……”这一段话把细节描写得很好，“眨了眨眼”“骄傲地说”“哭笑不得”等词语把“郭枫”可气又可笑的性格描写得淋漓尽致。

自我鉴定是作为学生抑或是工作了的我们所必须要做的工作，毕业要鉴定、工作调动要鉴定、组织考察也要鉴定。因此，自我鉴定正如我们的档案，也是我们终身要做的事。那么如何写好自我鉴定，再这我分三个方面来讲：

一、什么是自我鉴定

字面理解就是自我的鉴别与肯定，鉴别自己在之前的一段时间里值得肯定的情况。那么书面化来描述是个人在一个时期、一个年度、一个阶段对自己的学习和工作生活等表现的一个自我总结，篇幅短小，语言概括、简洁、扼要，具有评语和结论性质，自我鉴定可以使自己查漏补缺，提升自己，重要的自我鉴定将成为个人历史生活中一个阶段的小结，具有史料价值，被收入个人档案。

二、学生自我鉴定写作方法

第一步，写标题“自我鉴定”，或者在自我鉴定前面加上称谓，如“大学生自鉴定”、“毕业生自我鉴定”等。

第二步，正文刚开始的第一段一般是将自己的姓名、年龄、出生年月等基础信息叙述一边，也就是先做一个自我介绍。

第三步，接下来一般从四方面来分段做自我鉴定，比如在思想方面，学习了什么思想，什么精神，什么理论，得到了什么思想感悟等等;在学习方面，将前一段日子学习了哪些类别的知识都简要叙述一边，讲一下学习的收获;在工作方面，把自己做过的一些主要工作简述一下，分析一下自己所做的成绩如何;在生活方面，将自己日常生活中的优缺点都说一下。

第四步，最后再总结一下，对日后工作或学习提出一些新的要求或者目标，今后为达到目标会更加努力。

三、工作人员自我鉴定写作方法

第一步，写标题“自我鉴定”或者“工作自我鉴定”。

第二步，正文开头是总结性地回顾一下以往的学习和工作情况，接下来具体的就从两方面来做自我鉴定，一方面是从取得的成绩、获得的荣誉以及优点长处等正面作出鉴定阐述，将之前一段日子里工作或者学习取得的荣誉和成绩、学习获得的心得等作出叙述，再将自己好的表现以及展现出来的优点简要叙述，给予自己肯定的评价;另一方面则是从自身的缺点出发，列出自己做的不足之处，提出需要改正或者改进的地方，客观的做自我批评。

第三步，最后依然是总结一下，对日后工作或者学习提出新要求，但是一般而言着重偏向改掉不足之处、完善自身，感谢领导之类。

2005年英语考纲有重大变化，其中之一就是作文考查的变化。新增加一篇小作文，使作文考查由一篇变为两篇，而原来的大作文的字数也由“不少于200字”调整为“150至200字”，满分20分。新增的作文是一篇100字左右的应用性短文，文体包括有信件、便笺、备忘录等，满分10分。既然是新增题型，就不会太难，但不好预测文体，这就要求考生复习时力求面面俱到，掌握写作规律及注意事项，尤其是对常见的应用文体如书信等

大作文的写作一般会给考生写作提纲，或图表，图画，或图文并茂。命题方式虽然多样，但题目涉及面往往是考生比较熟悉的内容，目的是测定考生语言的实际应用能力。要求表达清楚，文字连贯，中心突出，内容丰富，句式多变，句子结构和用词正确。

语言的应用能力不可能一蹴而就，必须厚积薄发，必须经过长期的实践锻炼。在提高英语写作能力方面，我觉得：一是要背大量的优秀范文，整段整篇地背，并转换为自己的语言，写作时自己能随心所欲支配。考试时避免套用以前死记硬背的几个范文，把一些不达意的词堆积在一起，没有统一性，无法很好地表现主题；二是要多动手。包括对背过的文章进行词语替换，句式转换，句子重组等，以及对某一主题展开写作。多动手才能提高笔下功夫，才能保证在考场上顺利写作。可以说背诵范文是培养语感，积累素材，掌握写作方法，动手写作是实践，是最终目的，这两者结合起来，就是“理论联系了实际”。另外，背诵范文应有针对性，写作训练也是一样，在训练中要掌握每一类型作文的写作规律，根据其每一类作文的写作特点——如提纲式作文就要求考生根据提纲提示的思路和规定的要点展开段落——全面训练，但不要带有押题的心理，靠背几篇范文就能应付考试的心态是不可取的。

下面说一下英语写作过程中的注意事项

一、认真审题

作文第一步是仔细审题，考生要仔细阅读试题要求及相关信息，如图表，图画，数字等，准确把握出题者意图。考研作文忌信手掂来，提笔就写，根本不审题，想到哪儿就写到哪儿，或完全凭自己想象编故事，置考试要求于不顾， “下笔千言，离题万里”。比如1998是一幅卡通画，老母鸡申明外加一首打油诗，讽刺一些企业把该尽职之事作为推销产品的承诺。如果考生说老母鸡很可爱，但爱自夸，然后说自己某个同学也爱自夸，这就偏离主题。2000年的作文“A Brief Histiry of World Commercial Fishing ”.它给出了两张图，从1900年的渔船和鱼量之比到1995年的渔船和鱼量之比的变化谈如何保护渔业资源，应从商业性滥捕鱼这一主题展开话题，有的考生却大谈环境污染。这就偏离了主题，因为题中自始自终都没有谈到环境污染问题。

有的同学没有审题习惯，或担心时间不够草草审题，最后发现文不对题，草草收场，这就影响了英语成绩，同时也会影响后两门考试的考试心情。

二、列出提纲

考试规定的时间是很有限的，所以不能花太多时间准备一个详细的提纲，但关键词提纲或粗略提纲还是非常有必要的。对原始材料分析归纳后要形成一个基本的框架。文章打算分几段写，每段大概怎样写，自数控制在多少，开头段落是道破主题，点名要旨，引人入胜还是先给出主题一般的背景情况和对主题进行浓缩的陈述呢，中间段落和结尾有怎样写呢。这些都要心中有数。有的考生习惯用汉语构思文章，逐句翻译提纲，当碰到某个词卡住时就翻译不下去，僵在那里。要注意列提纲是为了更好更全面的表达主题。主题的表达可有多种形式，不一定非要寻找一个特定的词或句子。考试时考生要充分调动大脑，灵活运用以前所学知识。

三、开始写作

一篇文章往往由四部分组成，标题(title)，首段(opening paragraph),主体(body paragraph),结尾段( concluding paragraph)。标题要新颖，能引起读者兴趣，首段的内容根据文章的体裁而变化，比如议论文可以从一种现象，一种观点出发引出作者的观点。记叙文往往交代人物和故事背景。主体是文章的主要部分，通过合适的语篇模式表达一定的观点，考生要围绕中心按一定顺序分层次有重点的展开叙述，描写，议论。结尾段是对全文的总结，论点上要与前面的叙述一致和统一。写作时要注意以下几点。

1、要统一，连贯。

选择那些最能体现中心思想最具代表性的材料，这些材料要共同表达一致的信息。选材时切忌胡子眉毛一把抓。词语堆积，不伦不类。前后及段落之间在逻辑关系上要紧密衔接，不能把没有任何逻辑关系的词放在一起。可以用恰当的关联词把思想连贯的表达出来。

2、用词准确，语法正确

考试时要特别注意语法，此语，语气，标点符号等，为了避免太多单词拼写错误，语法错误，不要为了追求词语的华丽而堆积一些自己也没把握的单词，不要刻意追求长句而写一些自己不知对错的有多个从句组成的长句。考试时最好选择自己最有把握的词汇，短语，句式。

3、足够字数，卷面整洁

绝对不能字数不够，即使一句话颠来倒去说也要凑够字数。字数不够，即使写的非常精彩，也不能拿高分。

四、修改

英语写作时考生由于仓促，紧张等原因，很容易犯一些简单的，一眼就能发现的错误。所以考生一定要留出几分钟时间用于修改。不要大幅度进行修改，更不要因为修改破坏卷面整洁，影响阅卷老师心情。修改时可以从以下几点进行

1、语法

包括时态是否一致，主谓是否一致，名词单复数是否对应，被动主动语态是否错用等

2、词汇

包括连接上下句或段落的关联词，习惯用语，固定搭配，词类混淆，误用及物不及物动词等。

3、拼写和标点符号

导语：要使得人物立起来，就必须注重细节描写，下面我们就来详细看看。

“人物”是文章的灵魂，但在学生的习作中常见的人物形象往往是千人一面，既无个性，又不生动，整篇文章显得干瘪乏味，缺少感染力。仔细阅读这些作品，就会发现这样一个共同的问题：往往只是一味地追求把某件事写完整，而忽略了进行生动具体、细致入微的细节描写。

细节描写的范围很宽广，它的作用也是多方面的，但主要还是刻画人物性格，塑造人物形象。一个个传神的细节，犹如人体身上的细胞，没有了它，人就失去了生命;文章少了细节，人物形象就失去了血肉和神采。作家李准说：“一个细节在揭示人物的性格特征的作用上，有时和一个情节、一场戏肩着同样的作用。”正如平常所谓的“于细微处见精神”。

文学大师的创作，就非常重视对细节的描绘。鲁迅的《阿Q正传》中有一段阿Q刑前画押的细节描写：“要画圆圈了，那手捏着笔只是抖，于是那人将纸铺在地上，阿Q伏下去，使尽平生的力画圆圈。他生怕被人笑话，立志要画得圆，但这可恶的笔不但很沉重，并且不听话，刚刚一抖一抖的几乎合缝，却又向外一耸，成了瓜子模样了。”这个行为细节，具体、形象、生动地反映了阿Q的性格特点──直到死还恪守着自欺欺人的“精神胜利法”。当人们读到这一细节描写时，谁又能不觉得阿Q的可笑、可悲、可怜?又怎么会不“哀其不幸，怒其不争”，进而深思国民劣根性?

不仅中国作家如此，外国作家亦然。如巴尔扎克的《欧也妮·葛朗台》中写葛朗台死前，当神甫把镀金的十字架送到他唇边让他亲吻基督的圣像时，“他却作一个骇人的姿势想把十字架抓在手里，这一下最后的努力送了他的命”，只这一细枝末节就活画出了这个守财奴贪婪成性、至死不变的丑恶形象。正是细节描写，使人物有血有肉，性格鲜明，形象栩栩如生;有了鲜活的人物，整篇文章因之而充满生机，产生强烈的感染力。

当然，并不是所有生活上的细节都具有价值，也不是只要写得“细”就可以了。好的细节描写必须是有用的、真实的、典型的。它必须为展示人物的精神风貌和深化文章的主题服务，它必须符合人物的性格特点，符合现实生活的实际，应最能突出人物的个性特征。

细节从哪里来?文学来源于生活，细节就在丰富多彩的生活之中。做个生活的有心人，时时处处留心观察身边的人和事，特别是自己的描写对象。绍兴街头，咸亨酒店，鲁迅潜心观察短衣帮与长衫客，才“画出沉默的国民的灵魂”。都柏林阴暗的咖啡室，乔伊斯冷峻地打量着游荡的女、骗子、精神病患者、乞丐和富人，酝酿着震惊世界的《尤利西斯》。古往今来，伟大的作家，总是终生用心捕捉那些使灵魂颤栗的人和事，熔铸成千古流传的篇章。捕捉细节、运用细节，让这一把金钥匙为你所用，使你的文章散发出熠熠光彩!

在写作活动中，作者对于客观事物的反映总是能动的、积极的。一篇文章的思想内容和艺术特色，不仅是作者某种写作意图和写作能力的直接体现，也是他整个人的思想、感情、阅历、个性特征、文化水平和个人风格的折光。所以人们常用“文如其人”来说明作者和文章写作的关系。加强作者自身的修养，全面地锻炼自己正是学好写作的根本条件。

首先，要锻炼思想，陶冶感情。鲁迅先生早在20年代就指出：“我以为根本问题是在作者可是一个’革命人’，倘是的，则无论写的是什么事件，用的是什么材料，即都是’革命文学’。从喷泉里出来的都是水，从血管里流出的都是血。”这就是说，作者的理想、情操和审美眼光，对文章的特色和价值是起决定作用的。对我们初学者来说，首先应该认真学习马克思列宁主义、思想和理论，树立科学的世界观和崇高的人生理想，积极自觉地参加各种有益于国家、集体或他人的实践活动，在广阔的社会生活中锻炼思想，陶冶感情，更好地增强自己的写作激情以及发现新事物、看出新问题的能力。

其次要积累生活，拓展知识。文章是客观事物的反映，生活是文章写作的源泉。文章的内容及其表达，和作者的生活知识储备有着密切的关系。生活阅历浅，知识贫乏，很难写出好文章。丰富的生活经验和广博的知识，不仅给作者提供了大量的写作信息，而且可以激发作者的写作欲望，充分调动作者的创造力和想象力，使文章写得更充实，更准确，更生动，更优美。我们要积极地投身生活，在生活的感知中积累经验，拓展知识，不断更新自己的知识结构，充实自己的头脑，为灵感的触发和文思的活跃提供更多的水源或燃料。

再次，要训练思维，提高智能。文章是客观事物的反映，但要根据客观事物制作成文章，还需要有多方面的智能。比如在认识和摄取客观事物时，作者需要有观察能力，发现能力，采集能力;在构思过程中，需要有综合、分析能力，筛选加工能力，想象能力和创造能力;在表达时，需要有结构能力，语言运用能力和修改能力。写作还需要有一定的技巧，技巧也是能力的体现。整个写作，要靠诸种智能和技巧的综合运用。在运用各种智能和技能的过程中，思维贯串于始终。写作正是以思维为核心组织各种能力和技巧的一种综合性智力活动。没有积极而富有创造性的思维，诸种智能和技巧难以发挥，写作对象也主很难如意地转化成理想的文章形式。为此，培养和发展思维品质，提高思维能力，正是发展智能、开拓思路、写好文章的重要一环，也是作者全面修养的一个重要组成方面。

多读、多写、多改，“在游泳中学会游泳”。

1、 博览，精读

写作和阅读不可分割。读写结合，从范文中借鉴，极有助于提高写作能力。古人说：“读书破万卷，下笔如有神”，“熟读唐诗三百首，不会吟诗也会吟”，“劳于读书，逸于作文”，这些经验之谈，是有道理的。

阅读对于写作的作用是多方面的。首先，博览群书，可以开阔思维，活跃文思。陆机说：“伫中区以玄览，颐情志于典坟。”他认为观察事物可激发文思，研读古籍也可以丰富文思。有些人写文章如行云流水，笔到之处，文意丰富，言辞自然，这和他读书多有极大关系。其次，阅读还可以吸取和丰富写作材料。从根本上说，写作中的材料都是取自社会生活，但一个人的阅历有限，不可能对宇宙间过去和现在的所有事物都去直接观察和感受。广泛阅读，则可以帮助我们了解自己不可能亲自去接触、认知的生活和知识，从而丰富自己的写作材料。第三，阅读又是掌握写作规律、学习写作方法的有效途径。别人的好文章读得多了，耳濡目染，便会懂得文章作法。鲁迅先生也特别提倡这一点。他说：“凡是已有定评的大作家，他的作品，全部就说明着‘应该怎样写’。”他称这为“实物教授法”。熟读名篇佳作，往往会从写法上加以效仿。读多了，效仿的次数多了，慢慢主会变成自己的方法，并能有所改进和创造。第四，阅读又可以丰富我们的词汇，提高运用语言的能力。一切古今中外名著，都是语言巨匠用提炼加工而成成的规范化的语言写成的，阅读名作，可以帮助我们更好地丰富语汇，了解更多的句式和修辞手法掌握运用评议的基本规律，提高运用评议的技巧。

2、 多写多练

写作方法和技巧的掌握，最主要的途径还是要靠自己的实践。凡是有成就的作者在谈写作经验时，没有一个不强调“做”字。清人唐彪对此有一段精辟的论述，他说：“学人只喜多读文章，不喜多做文章;不知多读乃藉人之功夫，多做乃切实求已功夫，其曾益相去远也。人之不乐多做者，大抵因艰难费力之故;不知艰难费力者，由于手笔不熟也。若荒蔬之后作文艰难，每日即一篇半篇无不可;渐演至熟，自然易矣。”他在另一段话里又说：“谚云，’读十篇不如作一篇’。盖常做则机关熟，题虽甚难，为之亦易;不常做，则理路生，题虽易，为之则难。沈虹野云：’文章硬涩由于不熟，不熟由于不做。’”这些话讲得都是极为中肯的。

练习写作，要端正态度，防止和克服一些不正确的思想。首先要有信心。初学写作，可能写不好，如同小孩子学走路，开始时总是要摔跤的，但走着走着，也就学会了。写作也是一样，开始写不好是正常的，关键是不要因此失掉信心。只要持之以恒，慢慢就会上路。一些写作上很有成就的文章家、作家，他们的文化程度原来并不高，开始时也写不好。但他们不怕失败，不怕别人讥笑，能从实践中总结经验教训，不断摸索，终而取得成功。

练习写作，要防止自卑或自负心理。有些人开始时劲头很大，但写一段之后就停下来，不是由于失败而自卑，就是由于自满而止步。这些都是提高写作能力的大障碍。鲁迅先生就：“一个作者，’自卑’固然不好，’自负’也不好;容易停滞。我想，顶好是不要自馁，总是干，但也不可自满，仍旧总是用功。”写作是一种相当复杂的精神劳动，想要一蹴而就，一下子就写出好文章是不可能的。“自卑”和“自负”都容易停滞、倒退，只有总是“用功”，不停的“干”，才能有所长进。

初学写作往往还有一种急躁情绪，一下子就想写长篇大作，而不注重基本功的训练。殊不知做任何事情都要注意打基础和练基本功。基础不牢，功底不厚，事情就很难办好，只有脚踏实地，由小到大，由简至繁，由粗到精，才能逐步掌握写作要领，真正有所成就。

3、 多听意见

文章是客观事物的反映。客观事物是复杂的，人们对客观事物的认识也要有个过程。只有深入思考，反复加工，才能正确、恰当地反映客观实际，表达好自己的思想感情。

修改是写作中的一个重要环节，是保证文章质量、提高写作水平的重要途径。有些人信奉所谓“一挥而就，文不加点”，写完后自己不看，不改，也不请教别人，这样就很难发现问题，更谈不到精益求精。有人是为了怕麻烦，写完了事，至于写得如何，他就不管了，这是一种不负责任的表现。它们都是提高写作水平的拦路虎、绊脚石。

修改文章，还要虚心求教，多听别人的意见。因为一个人的认识和能力总是有限的，只有躬身求教，博采众长，文章方能长进。古今中外许多大作家，不但善于向作家学习，还能向师友以及一般读者求教。相传唐代大诗人白居易“每作诗，令老妪解之，问曰：’解否?’妪曰：’解’，则录之，’不解’，则又复易之。”法国大作家莫里哀常把自己的作品读给女仆吃后悔药，每读完一部新作，女仆都称赞说写得好，莫里哀以为她文化低，是有意讨好主人。有一次，莫里哀故意把写失败了的剧本念给她听，结果女仆瞪大眼睛说：“这不是先生写的。”莫里哀听后非常震惊。可见文化低的人同样也能够鉴别文章的好坏。这里的关键是虚心，要有群众观点，放得下架子，才能得到有益的帮助。

重视写作基础理论知识的学习，提高以理论指导写作的自觉性，减少盲目性。

前面说过，写作是文章作者创造性的精神活动，也是社会性的文化现象。一篇文章的得失好坏，不仅决定于作者自身的个性、禀赋或努力程度，也和他对这一精神活动的客观规律以及与此相应的规范性要求的理解、把握程度有关。所谓写作理论，主要就是对于这些规律规范的概括和阐释。

有的同志轻视写作理念知识对于写作实践的指导作用，认为不学理念也可以写出文章，其根据是有的作家没有学习写作理念知识，也写出了很好的作品。这个看法是片面的。事实上，所有会写文章的人，都是自觉或不自觉地通过不同途径，在写作的规律性知识方面积累了较高理论素养或丰富的经验性体会的。有些人由于种种原因未能系统地学习写作理论知识，但他在练习写作的过程中，一定也阅读过许多范文，在这些范文中，就蕴含某些写作原理和规律，所以他也等于是在学习借鉴前人的写作实践中掌握了他们。同志在《实践论》中说过：“感觉到了的东西，我们不能立刻理解它，只有理解了的东西才更深广地感觉它。”系统的理论学习和具体的经验积累之较高的理论修养，自己在实践中就能自学地扬长避短，阅读别人作品也能更好地分辨精华、糟粕，对于写作能力的提高自然会有更大的帮助。

学习知识和理论，目的是指导实践，要在能力的转化上多下功夫。即使是对知识、理论掌握程度的考核，也就在把重点话如何运用知识、理念来分析问题、说明问题上面，而不以单纯地复述、背诵要领或条条为满足。再说，知识和理论的作用，主要在于说明写作活动自身的矛盾运动及其变化规律，帮助习作者端正学习态度，改进学习方法，而不可能提供什么一试就灵的仙丹妙药或是照搬不误的万能模式。

正因为如此，我们在重视学习科学的理论知识与前人成功经验的同时，还须与发挥自己独立的创造精神有机地结合起来。古人云：“文有大法无定法。观前人之法而自为之，而自立其法……不死，文自新而法无穷矣。”又说：“所谓法者，行所不得不行，止所不得不止……自神明变化于其中。若泥定此处应如何，彼处应如何，不以意运法，转以意从法，刚死法也。”今天我们同样需要有这样的学习态度和写作态度。

1994.6

Directions:

For this part , you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: The Career I Pursue.

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

1994.1

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic We Need to Broaden Our Knowledge.

You should write no less than 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1. 科学技术是社会发展所不可缺少的

2. 社会科学和自然科学相互渗透

3. 现代大学生需要广博的知识

1993.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic My View On Opportunity. You must base your composition on the following instructions (give in Chinese):

有的人认为机会是极少的，另一些人则认为人人都会有某种机会。你的看法如何？

写出你的理由并且适当举例。在你的文章结尾处不要忘记写出你的结论。

Your composition should be no less than 120 words. Remember to write it neatly.

1993.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: Motorcycles And City Traffic. You should base your composition on the following outline (given in Chinese).

1.近年来中国城市的摩托车

2.摩托车的优点和缺点

3.你对我国城市中摩托车发展的前景的看法

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

1992.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic Looking Forward to the Twenty-First Century. Your composition should be based on your answer to the following question written in Chinese:

1.新世纪科技发展的前景如何？

2.新的科学技术会给社会带来什么好处？

3.新的科学技术会带来什么问题？

4.你怎样对待新世纪的挑战战？

Your composition should be no less 120 words.

1992.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the following graph which shows the change in the number of film - goers and TV - watchers in a certain city. The title of the composition is: Film Is Giving Way to TV. You should write no less than 120 words for your composition and it must include the following ideas (given in Chinese):

1.电影观众越来越少

2.电视观众越来越多，因为……

3.然而，还是有人喜欢看电影,因为…….

Quote as few figures as possible. Remember to write your composition in readable handwriting.

1991.6

Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the graph below.

The suggested Title is: Car Accidents Declining in Walton City. Remember that your composition

must be written according to the following outline:

1.Rise and fall of the rate of car accidents as indicated by the graph;

2.Possible reason(s) for the decline of car accidents in the city;

3.Your predictions of what will happen this year.

Your composition should be no less than 120 words and you should quote as few figures as

possible.

1991.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition about Man Is to Survive. You should base your composition on the following outline:

1.人类面临的问题（如能源，疾病，污染，人口等）

2.悲观的看法（如人类将无法生存）

3.人类的智慧出路

Your composition should be no less than 120 words. Be sure to write your composition in readable handwriting.

1990.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic: How to Solve the Housing Problem in Big Cities. Four suggested solutions to this problem are listed below. You are supposed to write in favour of one suggestion (ONE only) and against another (ONE only). You should give your reasons in both cases. You should write no less than 120 words. Remember to give a short introduction and a brief conclusion. Write your composition clearly.

四种可能解决住房问题的方案：

1.多造高层建筑

2.向地下发展

3.建造卫星城市

4.疏散城市人口

1990.1

Directions: For this part you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic How to Solve the Problem of Heavy Traffic according to the following OUTLINE. Your composition should be no less than 120 words. Remember that the contents of the OUTLINE should ALL be included in your composition. But you are not supposed to translate the OUTLINE word for word.

OUTLINE

问题：城市交通拥挤

解决方案（solution）

1.建造(lay down)更多道路

优点：(1) 降低街道拥挤程度

(2) 加速车流（flow of traffic）

缺点：占地过多

2.开辟（open up）更多公共汽车线路

优点：减少自行车与小汽车

缺点：对部分人可能造成不方便

结论：两者结合

2016六级写作突破笔记(七)

题型分类 (Classification of every essay):

一、第一种题型（对比观点选择题；Essay I）:

(一)题型特点：

1、 大多为三点提纲，提纲模式一般为：有一些人……；还有人……；我的看法或观点；

2、少数时候也会出现两点提纲的情况，此时可以补充成三点提纲来写作。

(二) 历年真题：

2000.6； 1999.6； 1998.6； 1997.6； 1996.1；1995.6；1993.6； 1993.1

二、 第二种题型（社会热点话题；Essay II）:

(一)题型特点：

1、 应该为三点提纲，但是通常以两点提纲出现的题目居多，所涉及主题为当时社会热点；

2、如果是两点提纲，则补充成三点提纲写作。

3、通常模式为：现象概述--细节（原因、危害、方式等）--自我评论

(二)历年真题：

2002.12； 2000.12； 2000.1； 1999.1； 1997.12； 1995.1；

三、第三种题型（图标题；Report; Essay III）:

（一）题型特点：

1、 以图表作为信息来源的写作模式

2、通常模式为：描述图表--解释原因--自我评论

（二）历年真题：

2003.6; 2000.6； 1996.6； 1992.1； 1991.6

四、第四种题型（书信题； Essay IV）:

(一) 题型特点：

1、写书信

（二）历年真题：

2001.6； 2002.1；

五、第五种题型（谚语格言题； Essay V）:

(一) 题型特点：

1、文章题目为一句格言或谚语

2、通常模式为：解释谚语--举例论证--画龙点睛

(二) 历年真题：

1997.1；

1999.1

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic. Dont Hesitate to Say "No"

You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1.别人请求帮助时，在什么情况下我们说"不"。

2.为什么有些人在该说"不"的时候不说"不"。

3.该说"不"时不说"不"的坏处。

1998.6

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic Do "Lucky Numbers" Really Bring Good Luck?

You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1. 有些人认为某些数字会带来好运。

2. 我认为数字和运气无关，……

1998.1

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic My View on Fake Commodities.

You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given on Chinese) below:

1. 假冒伪劣商品的危害。

2. 怎样杜绝假冒伪劣商品。

1997.6

Directions: For this part you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic My View on Job-Hopping

You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1. 有些人喜欢始终从事一种工作，因为…

2. 有些人喜欢经常更换工作，因为…

3. 我的看法。

1997.1

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic Haste Makes Waste. You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1. 为什么说"欲速则不达"。

2. 试举例说明。

1996.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the grouphs below.

Heaalth Gains in Developing Countries

Life Expectancy Infant Mortality

1996.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: Why I Take the College English Test Band 6, You should base your composition on the following outline (given in Chinese).

1.有人认为没有必要参加大学英语六级考试

2.我参加CET－6考试的理由

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

1995.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: Should Firecrackers Be Banned? You should base your composition on the following outline (given in Chinese).

1.有人认为放鞭炮是好事，为什么？

2.有人认为放鞭炮是坏事，为什么？

3.我的看法

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

1995.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: My View on the Negative Effects of Some Advertisements. You should base your composition on the following outline (given in Chinese).

1.现在有些不良的商业广告

2.这些广告的副作用和危害性

3.我对这些广告的态度

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

2016六级写作突破笔记(三)

典型的对比观点选择题的文章逻辑结构：四段比较好

（启）Paragraph I：（1）引出将要评论的事物或者是观点；可以用问句开头How should people ……

（2）简明扼要的提出人们在这个问题上的两种不同看法。

（承）Paragraph II：（1）提出一种观点或优点；

（2）本段的支持性分论点；

（3）本段总结（可以省略）。

（转）Paragraph III：（1）承上启下的过渡句；

（2）提出另一种观点或缺点；

（3）本段的支持性分论点

（4）本段总（可以省略）。

（合）Paragraph IV：（1）平衡两种看法；

（2）给出自己的观点。

④14分

How should we read? Should we read selectively or extensively? Everyone has his own view.（启）

注：1.第一句提出问题，第二句提出两种见解

Some people think we should read selectively. They argue that with the development of modern science and technology, more and more books are published. It is impossible for us to read all the books. Whats more, there are many bad books that are poisonous to our mind, and we shouldnt read them. Since we cant read all the books and we shouldnt read bad books, we must read selectively.（承）

注：1.本段总分总结构

2.they argue that = they think that

3.with the development of...

4.whats more 递进关系，moreover

But others may not agree, they emphasize that todays society is not what it was. If one man has many kinds of knowledge, he will have more chances to succeed. If a man knows much in one field but knows nothing in other fields, he may be useless. Since we must have many kinds of knowledge, we must read extensively.（转）

注：1.But 转折词

2.they emphasize that = they think that

3.todays society is not what it was 现代社会今昔非比

4.许多知识 a wide range of/a large scope of/much；获取知识 acquire/get knowledge

5.knows nothing→little；he may be useless→he may not be of great use to the society 后者比前者更委婉

Whos right? I think both of them have something right. But I think we should read extensively first. We should read books in many fields, and read selectively in one field.（合）

There is a lot to be said for both sides on the argument. But I hold the opinion that……

①11分

When it comes to reading, some people think that reading selectively is a good way, but some other people do not agree with them, they think that reading extensively is better.

Those people, who think that reading selectively is better, believe that good books are as many as bad books. Those good books can give us pleasure and knowledge, while those bad books can only lead us to the wrong way. So, they suggest that we should only choose the good books to read and never touch the bad books.

注：1."people, who"应去掉逗号，改为非限制定语从句。

2.they suggest that = they think that

3.touch 碰，闪光点词汇，如教材P7：shoulder the responsibility of doing sth. 肩负起责任

But, the other people, who hold that reading extensively is better, think that one kind of books can only give us one aspect of knowledge. Even the best book only contains one field of information. So, they can easily come to the conclusion that "to know more, to read more". So they believe that reading extensively is better.

To my point, we should choose good books to read and read good books as many as possible. By this way, we can increase the quality and quantity of reading.

实例二 99年6月真题

Reading Selectively Or Extensively?

Outline: 1.有人认为读书要有选择

2.有人认为应当博览群书

3.我的想法

①11分

When it comes to reading, some people think that reading selectively is a good way, but some other people do not agree with them, they think that reading extensively is better.

Those people, who think that reading selectively is better, believe that good books are as many as bad books. Those good books can give us pleasure and knowledge, while those bad books can only lead us to the wrong way. So, they suggest that we should only choose the good books to read and never touch the bad books.

But, the other people, who hold that reading extensively is better, think that one kind of books can only give us one aspect of knowledge. Even the best book only contains one field of information. So, they can easily come to the conclusion that "to know more, to read more". So they believe that reading extensively is better.

To my point, we should choose good books to read and read good books as many as possible. By this way, we can increase the quality and quantity of reading.

②5分

I think reading not only selectively but also extensively. Because the two sides are not contradict. Our time is limited. So we can not read every book in the world. However, we will not be interested in every book. We should read those books may be useful to ours, read those books which we like. But those books which we choose must be extensively so it can give ours all kinds of knowledge, news and so on, it also make ours become a wise man. On the one hand reading selectively let ours not waste our time which it is limited. Moreover it can emphasis among all books that we can read. On the other hand reading extensively can deal with all kinds of need in our life. They are all useful to ours.

失分原因：分段太少，语法错误太多

③2分

Most people thought that read books should have been selective. But others believed reading extensively was correction.

Selective books or reading extensively?

Sure, you can choice one from previous ideas,

on one hand, There are too book to read for us. We should choose those which we interested, and it would be helpful for us.

On another hand. Someones interesting was wide. Each book could bring you specific contain we couldnt reading at only one level.

I confirmed all of these ideas were good but werent wise.

As a reader, the main task is to discover more and more books the second task is to held some which wonderful and helpful for us. Dont treat these books with reckless abandon.

The best technology of reading is connect.

失分原因：分段太多，语法错误太多

④14分

How should we read? Should we read selectively or extensively? Everyone has his own view.

Some people think we should read selectively. They argue that with the development of modern science and technology, more and more books are published. It is impossible for us to read all the books. Whats more, there are many bad books that are poisonous to our mind, and we shouldnt read them. Since we cant read all the books and we shouldnt read bad books, we must read selectively.

But others may not agree, they emphasize that todays society is not what it was. If one man has many kinds of knowledge, he will have more chances to succeed. If a man knows much in one field but knows nothing in other fields, he may be useless. Since we must have many kinds of knowledge, we must read extensively.

Whos right? I think both of them have something right. But I think we should read extensively first. We should read books in many fields, and read selectively in one field.

⑤8分

Some people think reading shall be chosen. Because some books are good to human beings and some books are harmful to people.

Some people think that men should read books widely. Because wide reading can help man get much knowledge. And man can use it to change the world.

It is my point that reading must be selectively. Because reading is important to man. Some books can help man but some books can lead some people to crime. It can be seen in the newspapers and watched on TV. We can make full use of some good books and gain more useful knowledge. It can make our life more beautiful. We must give up those unhelpful books. They are not good to us. Reading them is wasting time and money. So reading selectively is an important part in reading.

失分原因：结构失调，表述方式单一

写作原则

内容简单化

结构模式化（主题句-分论点-总结）

语言要包装

错误要回避

万能理由 (Omnipotence)：

1、方便：convenient/convenience

2、效率：efficient/efficiently/efficiency

3、节省和浪费：save time/money/space; economical, thrift

waste time/money/space; costly, lavish

4：人的心理健康：independent, cooperative, competitive,

considerate, confident, creative, sociable,

perseverance; selfish, isolated, conservative

5、人的身体健康：health, disease, strong, strength, energetic

6、娱乐：colorful, pleasure, joy, recreation, entertainment, relax

tired, boring, lonely

7、环境：environment, pollute, poisonous, dirty

8、安全和危险：safe, danger, risk

9、经验：experience, social experience, enter the society

10、人际：humane, fair, unfair, help, assist, freedom, freely

基本表达(Basic Elements of English Writing)：

越来越：be increasingly + adj., be on the rise, the growing number of

人们认为：it is generally/widely believed/held/agreed that

许多问题：a host of/a number of problems

引起人们注意：claim call/attract general/public/world attention to sth.

意识到：there is a growing awareness/realization of/that, awaken sb. to the fact/danger

适应新的形势/变化：adapt/adjust/accommodate oneself to new environment/change

接触各种思想/经历：be exposed to new ideas/experiences/problems

接触社会：come into frequent/close contact with the world/society

获得成功：achieve/accomplish success

提出观点/建议：advance / put forward / come up with the arguments/ideas/suggestions

作出努力：make tremendous/persistent/sustained effort to do sth., take great pains to do(with work/study)

影响学习/工作：interfere with studies/work

产生影响：have/exert a profound influence on life/personality, have a dramatic/undesirable effect on

较好地驾驭生活：be a better pilot of ones life

剥夺机会/权力：deprive oneself of the chance/right/opportunity

取代就的方式：substitute for/take the place of the old way

采取措施：take effective steps/measures to

控制我们的环境：take/gain increasing control over our own environment

躲避危险/挑战：shy/run away from the dangers/challenge

满足要求：meet/satisfy/accommodate the demand of

补偿损失：compensate for/make up for the loss/damage

解释某现象：account for/explain the phenomenon

对……很好的了解：have a better understanding/appreciation of, have a new perspective on. provide/gain an insight into

把某因素考虑进去：take sth. Into account(consideration), give much thought to

品位人生/自由/青春：savor the life/freedom/youth

培养对……的信心：develop/foster ones interest/confidence in

经历变化/困难/艰险：undergo/experience great changes/hardships/experience

表现出自信心等：project ones confidence/feeling/image

生活充满不公正的地方：life is full of minor irritation/injustice

追求学习/职业：pursue ones academic interest/professional career

学习知识/技术：pursue/acquire knowledge/technology/skill

被看作学习的……榜样：be held up as a good example

交流经验/知识：share experience/ideas/problems/knowledge

发挥/起到重要作用：play an (important/active/great) role/part

逃学/缺课：skip school/a class/a meeting/a lecture

知识/经验丰富：rich in knowledge/experience

确立/追求目标：set/pursue a goal/higher standard

到达目标：achieve/accomplish/stain the goal/aim/objective

克服困难：overcome obstacles/difficulty

面临危险/困难：be confronted/faced with/in the face of danger/difficulty

阻碍了成功：stand in the way of success, be an obstacle/barrier to success/growth

阻碍了发展：hamper/impede/stunt the development of

持传统的看法：hold conventional wisdom

发表看法：voice/express ones opinion

持相反/合理的观点：take the opposite/fresh view

揭穿某种一贯的说法：shatter the myth of

求得帮助：enlist ones support/help

缩小差别：bridge/narrow/fill the gap/gulf (between city and country)

把成功/错误归咎于：attribute/own the success/failure to

对……重要：be indispensable/important/vital to

施加压力：put/exert a academic pressure on

重视：assign/attach much importance/significance to

强调：place/put much emphasis/stress/value on

把注意力集中在：focus/concentrate ones attention/efforts/thoughts upon

提供机会/信息：provide/offer/furnish an opportunity/information for sb.

抓住机会：grab/seize/take the opportunity

得到机会：enjoy/gain access to a opportunity/information

有可能：there is (little/much) possibility/likelihood that, chances/the odds are that

展开竞争：compete against/with sb. for the prize/position/control/the mastery of

开展运动：conduct(carryon/undertake/initiate/launch/wage) a (vigorous/nation-wide/publicity/advertising) campaign (for/against)

对我很有/没有什么意义：make much/little sense to me

带来无穷的幸福/满足：be a source of happiness satisfaction/contentment/pride/complaint

献身于：devote/dedicate/commit oneself to a cause/career

大不（没什么）两样：make much(little/no) difference

真正重要的是：what really matters/accounts is …

改变生活旅程：change/alter the course of life

建立在大量的学习/实践上：built on tremendous amount of study/practice

进行调查/执行任务：conduct/carry out an study/task/experiment

辞去工作/学习：leave/quit ones job/work/school

参加考试/竞赛等：enter (for) the examination/contest, race

参加活动/讨论：take part/participate/be engaged in sports/activities/discussion

影响思想/态度/事件的形成：shape ones thinking/attitude

进入大学/社会/家庭/劳力市场/职业：enter a school/college/society/the work force/professionals

实现自己的理想/愿望：realize/fulfill/achieve ones dream(hops/wish/desire)

减轻压力/紧张：reduce/alleviate/relieve the stress/pressure/tension

提高社会地位：enhance/improve/upgrade social status/position/standing rise to the position of leadership

提高技术/能力：sharpen (increase/improve/enhance/boost) ones skill/ability

加快/促进发展：accelerate/facilitate/advance/enhance/boost the development of

随着生活节奏的加快：with the quickening pace/rhythm/tempo of modern life/society

开阔眼界/兴趣：broaden ones interest/outlook, expand(broaden/enlarge) ones mental horizons

有助于了解/发展/宣传/解决：contribute much/little/greatly/to a better understanding of/the popularity of/the growth of/the solution of

有助于解决问题：go a long way to(towards) solving the problem

迷恋名利/分数：be obsessed/preoccupied with grades/fame/fortune

把时间花/浪费在：spend/waste time doing sth., put in hours doing sth.

利用机会/技术：make (full/better) use of/take advantage of opportunity/time, tap/harness technology potential/skills/talent

把知识/经验运用到…：apply/put the theory/knowledge/experience… to practice/daily life/good use

取得进步：make much progress/strides/gains in

充分发挥潜力/能力：develop ones ability/potential to the full, give full play to ones ability

充满激情/渴望：have a burning desire/a great passion for

一、立足基本点

初中说明文写作教学是以培养记叙能力为基础的写作教学新阶段。说明文的写作必须具备科学性、客观性的特点。这是写说明文的两个基本点和根本点，也是教学的难点。教学中切忌对学生泛泛要求，要以记叙为基础，用分解法突出抓好两个基本点。其一，文体特点要突出“说清楚。”首先着眼于说明文的科学性，强调写清事物的外部特征和内部结构，方法应不限于平实解说。初中教材中的《蜘蛛》、《晋祠》等课文，大半是生动的描述。《第比利斯地下印刷所》既说明了建筑结构，又介绍了革命史迹，通篇表现出浓重的记叙性。起始阶段应把这种说明文类型作为文体要求的起点。因为对事物的情趣与感受是学生写作的主要诱因。若只强调平实介绍，无益于用记叙基础实现“说清楚”的目标。其二，基本题材要紧扣“熟知的事物”。初中说明文集中体现出一个基本题材——建筑物。尤其是第三册集中安排了一个建筑类说明文单元。这是因建筑物与学生实际生活的关系最密切。起始训练应把建筑物作为基本题材之一，由简到繁集中命题，以求依题成格，触类旁通。

作文题材除了要注重课文依据外，更重要的是要注重学生熟知的事物。如《怎样淹渍西红柿》、《怎样写阅读笔记》等，可先让学生实践，使训练活动成为育人的一个步骤，这样，写起来既是介绍学生所熟知的事物，又可使学以致用。

二、突破认识关

写说明文必须对被说明事物有完整的认识。要做到这一点，就要认真观察，深入了解。

初中生观察事物的通病是走马观花。因而，指导观察应有针对性。可先列提纲，让学生带着问题逐步观察，随手作笔记和图示。观察时要引导学生理清主次，主要掌握概括性观察和特写性观察。有条件的最好摄制些教学录像图片，提供观察框架，通过声像并举的画面进行观察训练。这样，不仅可有效地纠正学生笼统观察的毛病，还可培养学生选点设框的观察能力。

但是，完整的认识仅凭观察是无法形成的。古人观了赵州桥，“不知其所以为”。今人游故宫难以发现皇上的宝座是在北京城南北轴线的中心点上。一些特定的原理、数据、掌故是不可能观察到的。综览教材，凡说明文，都可分出物象说明和意象说明的成分。物象说明只是从空间上说明事物的“形”，而意象说明则能从时间延续、掌故原委上说明事物的“神”。而要进行意象说明，就必须具备有关说明的知识。写说明文的最大难点也就在此。所以，教师指导的任务之一就是让学生积累知识。起始阶段，教师应多方引导，必要时要“下水”示范，尽可能向学生提供材料丰富的半成品，让学生整理选择取舍，力争写一篇成一篇，获得规范的写作体验。

三、借助仿写桥

学生对被说明事物具备了相应的知识，还会遇到行文障碍。因此在章法安排、语言运用等方面必须排除一些难点。从整体上说，有效之法是仿写。模仿是创新的基础，是技能形成的捷径和桥梁。

但是运用教材范例指导学生仿写，必须据学生的实际确定模仿点，而不是雷同。如《香山红叶》和《人民大会堂》都是以行踪为序组材的。前者是散文，行踪露得很实在，充分表现了“我”与同游者的感受，外化了散文作品的感情意蕴，主观性叙述贯穿全文。而后者是说明文，“我”和建筑师的行踪表现得很简洁，只在２、９、１２、１４段中点了点，成为一条虚线，等于带读者将大会堂游了一遍。把教材中的范例举出来，作为按行踪顺序介绍的一个仿点，可提高学生习作的成功率。教材中的仿点很丰富，要针对学生实际，循序而仿。通过借助仿写这个捷径和桥梁，让学生深切地体会说明文的章法安排、语言运用的特点，进而掌握说明文的写法和结构。

如实地写好一个人的动作,才能够把人物写活。那么，如何写好人物的动作呢？以下是小编搜索整理一篇写作方法：如何写好人物的动作，欢迎大家阅读!

翘起”的微笑，而一个爽朗的人笑得时候是“咧开嘴巴，露出牙齿”的开怀大笑。

第二点，人在不同情景、环境中，行动的特点更是不同的，更需要注意准确用词。

比方说，你在饭后散步时的“走”和上学要迟到时的“走”是一样的吗？肯定是不一样的。你在平时喝水时，可能是“拿起杯子，把杯子凑到嘴边，一仰脖，喝一口。”而当你渴极了或者是时间紧急的时候，你会怎样喝水呢？肯定是“一把抓过杯子，凑到嘴边，一仰脖，‘咕咚’灌下一大口”，你看，同样是你这个人，同样是喝水，因为情境不同，表现出来的动作不同，所选用的动词肯定也是不一样的。

提醒同学们一定要注意，在描写人物行动时，务求做到“准确”二字--抓住人物行动的特点写，抓住人物在特定情境中行动的特点写。这样才能把人物的动作写准确，把人物写活。有这样一个故事：有个哑巴去商场买剪刀，他不能说话，无法用语言告诉服务员自己要买什么。于是，他就伸出自己的右手，伸出食指和中指当作剪刀，并且上下动动，好像是在剪东西的样子。服务员一看就明白了这个人要买剪刀。同学们想一想：哑巴没说话，服务员是怎么知道的呢？其实很简单，因为这个人通过自己的动作来说话。

哑巴买剪刀如此，我们写作文也是这样。作文时我们把人物的一举一动细致描写出来，写出人物具体动作，那么所写的人物形象就会跃然纸上，活起来。

一提到动作描写，肯定要准确运用动词。比方说，表示“看”这个动作的词语就有“瞄”“瞟”“盯”“瞥”“端详”等，我们在写人物动作的时候，就不能总是“我看了一眼”可以根据当时的情况，写成“我漫不经心地瞟了他一眼”或“我死死地盯着他”。这样，通过准确运用动词，就能把人物的动作写得准确、具体、鲜明。

准确运用动词，同学们都能做到。但是有些同学就会有疑问：李老师，我用了动词了，为什么写出来还是不具体呢？比方说，我写“她举起了手”，可我们老师怎么还说我写的不具体呢？

其实，这位同学准确运用了“举”这个动词，已经能把人物的动作描述出来了，要想让描写更加具体，人物更加生动，李老师给大家介绍一些小技巧。

妙招一：动词+修饰语的方法

这种方法很简单，就是我们在描写人物的动作的时候，首先要准确运用动词，这是基础。然后在这个动词前或后加上表示“方向”“程度”“轻重”“快慢”“数量”的词语。

如：方向+动词--他高高地举起了手；我向右侧了侧身。

轻重+动词--老师轻轻地摸了摸学生的头；他的脚重重地踢在了墙上。

快慢+动词--厨师手里的菜刀飞快地舞动着；他一下子就跳了起来。

程度+动词--爸爸狠狠地打了小明一巴掌。

动词+数量--他向前跑了几步。

以上这些类的词语可以单独用，也可以结合在一起用。大家试一试，用这样的方法写出来是不是很具体呢？

妙招二：动作拆分法。

在介绍第二种方法之前，我们来做一个简单的动作--敲门，注意是“敲门”，而不是“拍门”或“推门”。这个动作看似简单，但要把它写好，其实包含着“大玄机”。

其实，再复杂、连贯的动作，都不是一下子就能完成的，在观察和描写时，如果把动作分解成若干步骤，一步一步仔细观察，并选择恰当的动词一步一步地描写，就不难把人物动作写具体了。动作拆分法，简单来说，就是把一个大动作分成几个连贯的小动作，用慢镜头的方式一一描绘出来。我们都知道，在传统的武打动作或电视的慢镜头中，往往把一种行为分解成若干个部分，或者是把一个大动作细化为几个小动作，然后分别对每一个部分、每一个小动作按一定层次具体展示或描写，使整个动作行为栩栩如生。

运用这种动作拆分的方法，“敲门”这个简单的动作可以分解为如下几个小动作：①走到门前②停下③举起（右）手④弯曲手指⑤敲门。准确地描述出这几个连续动作，组成流畅的句子，就能具体地写出人物“敲门”的经过了。

运用这种方法，“敲门”这个大动作，我们就可以写成一段话：他穿戴整齐地来到妈妈的门前，轻轻推了一下，门紧闭着，里面似乎有亮光。他迟疑地举起了右手，想了想，慢慢弯曲食指，轻轻地敲在门上，里面没有反应，又敲了三下，仍然没有动静。他鼓起勇气，又轻轻地敲了敲，还是没有人出来开门，他一下子愣在了那里。

同学们，运用这种动作拆分的方法，我们是不是一下子就能把动作写具体了呢？希望同学们在自己的作文中也能运用这种方法，让自己的文章更加具体。

今天，李老师只是告诉了大家两种方法，相信老师的这两种方法一定能帮助同学们轻松写动作，把动作写得更具体！

妙招三：准确运用词语

这里的“准确”，包括两层含义：一是体现人物特点，二是结合具体情境。这就要求在写人物动作的时候，避免使用那些“万能词”。什么是万能词呢？就是那些无所不能，多用途的词语。比方说下面的句子：

我走到门前。

我走到妈妈面前。

我走过去。

“走”就是一个万能词，还有“看”“拿”“吃”等等。这些词用起来看似没有任何问题，可以用来写人物的动作。但是要知道，这些万能词有时却是万万不能的，因为它们不够准确。

我们都知道，世界上没有完全相同的两个人，人物的性别、性格、年龄、身份不同，他们所表现出来的行动的特点也一定是不同的。所以，在描写人物动作的时候，要充分结合人物的性别、性格、年龄、身份等，要表现出人物的特点。

例如：一个家境富裕的孩子，他是把一块钱拿在手里。而一个贫穷的孩子，他会把一块钱攥在手里。

再如：一个腼腆的人，笑的时候是“抿着嘴，嘴角微微翘

下面是由语文迷网小编精心为大家整理的高考英语写作基本原则，希望对你有帮助。

一、 长 短 句原则

工作还得一张一弛呢，老让读者读长句，累死人!写一个短小精辟的句子，相反，却可以起到画龙点睛的作用。而且如果我们把短句放在段首或者段末，也可以揭示主题：

As a creature, I eat; as a man, I read. Although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy the intellectual need of mind, they are in a way quite similar.

如此可见，长短句结合，抑扬顿挫，岂不爽哉?牢记!

强烈建议：在文章第一段(开头)用一长一短，且先长后短;在文章主体部分，要先用一个短句解释主要意思，然后在阐述几个要点的时候采用先短后长的句群形式，定会让主体部分妙笔生辉!文章结尾一般用一长一短就可以了。

二、 主 题 句原则

国有其君，家有其主，文章也要有其主。否则会给人造成“群龙无首”之感!相信各位读过一些破烂文学，故意把主体隐藏在文章之内，结果造成我们稀里糊涂!不知所云!所以奉劝各位一定要写一个主题句，放在文章的开头(保险型)或者结尾，让读者一目了然，必会平安无事!

特别提示：隐藏主体句可是要冒险的!

To begin with, you must work hard at your lessons and be fully prepared before the exam(主题句). Without sufficient preparation, you can hardly expect to answer all the questions correctly.

三、 一 二 三原则

领导讲话总是第一部分、第一点、第二点、第三点、第二部分、第一点… 如此罗嗦。可毕竟还是条理清楚。考官们看文章也必然要通过这些关键性的“标签”来判定你的文章是否结构清楚，条理自然。破解方法很简单，只要把下面任何一组的词汇加入到你的几个要点前就清楚了。

1)first, second, third, last(不推荐，原因：俗)

2)firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally(不推荐，原因：俗)

3)the first, the second, the third, the last(不推荐，原因：俗)

4)in the first place, in the second place, in the third place, lastly(不推荐，原因：俗)

5)to begin with, then, furthermore, finally(强烈推荐)

6)to start with, next, in addition, finally(强烈推荐)

7)first and foremost, besides, last but not least(强烈推荐)

8)most important of all, moreover, finally

9)on the one hand, on the other hand(适用于两点的情况)

10)for one thing, for another thing(适用于两点的情况)

建议：不仅仅在写作中注意，平时说话的时候也应该条理清楚!

四、 短语优先原则

写作时，尤其是在考试时，如果使用短语，有两个好处：其一、用短语会使文章增加亮点，如果老师们看到你的文章太简单，看不到一个自己不认识的短语，必然会看你低一等。相反，如果发现亮点—精彩的短语，那么你的文章定会得高分了。其二、关键时刻思维短路，只有凑字数，怎么办?用短语是一个办法!比如：

I cannot bear it.

可以用短语表达：I cannot put up with it.

I want it.

可以用短语表达：I am looking forward to it.

这样字数明显增加，表达也更准确。

五、 多实少虚原则

原因很简单，写文章还是应该写一些实际的东西，不要空话连篇。这就要求一定要多用实词，少用虚词。我这里所说的虚词就是指那些比较大的词。比

我们说一个很好的时候，不应该之说nice这样空洞的词，应该使用一些诸如generous, humorous, interesting, smart, gentle, warm-hearted, hospital 之类的形象词。再比如：

走出房间，general的词是：Walk out of the room

但是小偷走出房间应该说：Slip out of the room

小姐走出房间应该说：Sail out of the room

小孩走出房间应该说：Dance out of the room

老人走出房间应该说：Stagger out of the room

所以多用实词，少用虚词，文章将会大放异彩!

六、 多变句式原则

1)加法(串联)

都希望写下很长的句子，像个老外似的，可就是怕写错，怎么办，最保险的写长句的方法就是这些，可以在任何句子之间加and, 但最好是前后的句子又先后关系或者并列关系。比如说：

I encore music and he is fond of playing guitar.

如果是二者并列的，我们可以用一个超级句式：

Not only the fur coat is soft, but it is also warm.

其它的短语可以用：

Besides, furthermore, likewise, moreover

2)转折(拐弯抹角)

批评某人缺点的时候，我们总习惯先拐弯抹角说说他的优点，然后转入正题，再说缺点，这种方式虽然阴险了点，可毕竟还比较容易让人接受。所以呢，我们说话的时候，只要在要点之前先来点废话，注意二者之间用个专这次就够了。

The car was quite old, yet it was in excellent condition.

The coat was thin, but it was warm.

更多的短语：

Despite that, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, notwithstanding

3)因果(so, so, so)

昨天在街上我看到了一个女孩，然后我主动搭讪，然后我们去咖啡厅，然后我们认识了，然后我们成为了朋友…可见，讲故事的时候我们总要追求先后顺序，先什么，后什么，所以然后这个词就变得很常见了。其实这个词表示的是先后或因果关系!

The snow began to fall, so we went home.

更多短语：

Then, therefore, consequently, accordingly, hence, as a result, for this reason, so that

4)失衡句(头重脚轻，或者头轻脚重)

有些人脑袋大，身体小，或者有些人脑袋小，身体大，虽然我们不希望长成这个样子，可如果真的是这样了，也就必然会吸引别人的注意力。文章中如果出现这样的句子，就更会让考官看到你的句子与众不同。其实就是主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句的变形。

举例：This is what I can do.

Whether he can go with us or not is not sure.

同样主语、宾语、表语可以改成如下的复杂成分：

When to go, why he goes away…

5)附加(多此一举)

如果有了老婆，总会遇到这样的情况，当你再讲某个人的时候，她会插一句说，我昨天见过他;或者说，就是某某某，如果把老婆的话插入到我们的话里面，那就是定语从句和同位语从句或者是插入语。

The man whom you met yesterday is a friend of mine.

I don’t enjoy that book you are reading.

Mir liu, our oral English teacher, is easy-going.

其实很简单，同位语--要解释的东西删除后不影响整个句子的构成;定语从句—借用之前的关键词并且用其重新组成一个句子插入其中，但是whom or that 关键词必须要紧跟在先行词之前。

6)排比(排山倒海句)

文学作品中最吸引人的地方莫过于此，如果非要让你的文章更加精彩的话，那么我希望你引用一个个的排比句，一个个得对偶句，一个个的不定式，一个个地词，一个个的短语，如此表达将会使文章有排山倒海之势!

Whether your tastes are modern or traditional, sophisticated or simple, there is plenty in London for you.

Nowadays, energy can be obtained through various sources such as oil, coal, natural gas, solar heat, the wind and ocean tides.

We have got to study hard, to enlarge our scope of knowledge, to realize our potentials and to pay for our life. (气势恢宏)

要想写出如此气势恢宏的句子非用排比不可!

七、 挑战极限原则

既然十挑战极限，必然是比较难的，但是并非不可攀!

原理：在学生的文章中，很少发现诸如独立主格的句子，其实也很简单，只要花上5分钟的时间看看就可以领会，它就是分词的一种特殊形式，分词要求主语一致，而独立主格则不然。比如：

The weather being fine, a large number of people went to climb the Western Hills.

Africa is the second largest continent, its size being about three times that of China.

如果您可一些出这样的句子，不得高分才怪!

想要写好英语作文平常肯定少不了积累，下面是语文迷网整理的关于中考英语作文的句子素材，希望对你有帮助。

1. According to a recent survey， four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.

依照最近的一项调查，每年有4，000，000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.

最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.

没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

4. People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.

人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。

5. An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.

越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。

6. When it comes to education， the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.

说到教育，大部分人认为其是一个终生的学习。

7. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.

许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

8. Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful effects of international tourism.

应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量，努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。

9. An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However， this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents， who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.

越来越多的专家相信移民对城市的建设起到积极作用。然而，越来越多的城市居民却怀疑这种说法，他们抱怨民工给城市带来了许多严重的问题，像犯罪和**.

10. Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus， which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.

许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少，以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车，而车上可能已满载乘客。

11. There is no denying the fact that air pollution is an extremely serious problem： the city authorities should take strong measures to deal with it.

无可否认，空气污染是一个极其严重的问题：城市当局应该采取有力措施来解决它。

12. An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward retirement.

一项调查显示妇女欢迎退休。

13. A proper part-time job does not occupy students too much time. In fact， it is unhealthy for them to spend all of time on their study. As an old saying goes： All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

一份适当的业余工作并不会占用学生太多的时间，事实上，把全部的时间都用到学习上并不健康，正如那句老话：只工作，不玩耍，聪明的孩子会变傻。

14. Any government， which is blind to this point， may pay a heavy price.

任何政府忽视这一点都将付出巨大的代价。

15.Nowadays， many students always go into raptures at the mere mention of the coming life of high school or college they will begin. Unfortunately， for most young people， it is not pleasant experience on their first day on campus.

当前，一提到即将开始的学校生活，许多学生都会兴高采烈。然而，对多数年轻人来说，校园刚开始的日子并不是什么愉快的经历。

16. In view of the seriousness of this problem， effective measures should be taken before things get worse.

考虑到问题的严重性，在事态进一步恶化之前，必须采取有效的措施。

17. The majority of students believe that part-time job will provide them with more opportunities to develop their interpersonal skills， which may put them in a favorable position in the future job markets.

大部分学生相信业余工作会使他们有更多机会发展人际交往能力，而这对他们未来找工作是非常有好处的。

18. It is indisputable that there are millions of people who still have a miserable life and have to face the dangers of starvation and exposure.

无可争辩，现在有成千上万的人仍过着挨饿受冻的痛苦生活。

19. Although this view is wildly held， this is little evidence that education can be obtained at any age and at any place.

尽管这一观点被广泛接受，很少有证据表明教育能够在任何地点、任何年龄进行。

20. No one can deny the fact that a persons education is the most important aspect of his life.

没有人能否认：教育是人生最重要的一方面。

21. People equate success in life with the ability of operating computer.

人们把会使用计算机与人生成功相提并论。

22. In the last decades， advances in medical technology have made it possible for people to live longer than in the past.

在过去的几十年，先进的医疗技术已经使得人们比过去活的时间更长成为可能。

23. In fact， we have to admit the fact that the quality of life is as important as life itself.

事实上，我们必须承认生命的质量和生命本身一样重要。

24. We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。

25. People believe that computer skills will enhance their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

人们相信拥有计算机技术可以获得更多工作或提升的机会。

26. The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that this knowledge may be less useful than most people think.

从这几年我搜集的信息来看，这些知识并没有人们想象的那么有用。

27. Now， it is generally accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduation.

现在，人们普遍认为没有一所大学能够在毕业时候教给学生所有的知识。

28. This is a matter of life and death——a matter no country can afford to ignore.

这是一个关系到生死的问题，任何国家都不能忽视。

29. For my part， I agree with the latter opinion for the following reasons：

我同意后者，有如下理由：

30. Before giving my opinion， I think it is important to look at the arguments on both sides.

在给出我的观点之前，我想看看双方的观点是重要的。

31. This view is now being questioned by more and more people.

这一观点正受到越来越多人的质疑。

32. Although many people claim that， along with the rapidly economic development， the number of people who use bicycle are decreasing and bicycle is bound to die out. The information Ive collected over the recent years leads me to believe that bicycle will continue to play extremely important roles in modern society.

尽管许多人认为随着经济的高速发展，用自行车的人数会减少，自行车可能会消亡， 然而，这几年我收集的一些信息让我相信自行车仍然会继续在现代社会发挥极其重要的作用。

33. Environmental experts point out that increasing pollution not only causes serious problems such as global warming but also could threaten to end human life on our planet.

环境学家指出：持续增加的污染不仅会导致像全球变暖这样严重的问题，而且还将威胁到人类在这个星球的生存。

34. In view of such serious situation， environmental tools of transportation like bicycle are more important than any time before.

考虑到这些严重的状况，我们比以往任何时候更需要像自行车这样的环保型交通工具。

35. Using bicycle contributes greatly to peoples physical fitness as well as easing traffic jams.

使用自行车有助于人们的身体健康，并极大地缓解了交通阻塞。

36. Despite many obvious advantages of bicycle， it is not without its problem.

尽管自行车有许多明显的优点，但是它也存在它的问题。

37. Bicycle cant be compared with other means of transportation like car and train for speed and comfort.

在速度和舒适度方面，自行车是无法和汽车、火车这样的交通工具相比的。

38. From what has been discussed above， we may safely draw the conclusion that advantages of bicycle far outweigh its disadvantages and it will still play essential roles in modern society.

通过以上讨论，我们可以得出结论：自行车的优点远大于缺点，并且在现代社会它仍将发挥重要作用。

39. There is a general discussion these days over education in many colleges and institutes. One of the questions under debate is whether education is a lifetime study.

当前在高校和研究机构对教育存在着大量争论，其中一个问题就是教育是否是个终身学习的过程。

40. This issue has caused wide public concern.

这个问题已经引起了广泛关注。

41. It must be noted that learning must be done by a person himself.

必须指出学习只能靠自己。

42. A large number of people tend to live under the illusion that they had completed their education when they finished their schooling. Obviously， they seem to fail to take into account the basic fact that a persons education is a most important aspect of his life.

许多人存在这样的误解，认为离开学校就意味着结束了他们的教育。显然，他们忽视了教育是人生重要部分这一基本事实。

43. As for me， Im in favor of the opinion that education is not complete with graduation， for the following reasons：

就我而言，我同意教育不应该随着毕业而结束的观点，有以下原因：

44. It is commonly accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduate.

人们普遍认为高校是不可能在毕业的时候教会他们的学生所有知识的。

45. Even the best possible graduate needs to continue learning before she or he becomes an educated person.

即使最优秀的毕业生，要想成为一个博学的人也要不断地学习。

46. It is commonly thought that our society had dramatically changed by modern science and technology， and human had made extraordinary progress in knowledge and technology over the recent decades.

人们普遍认为我们的现代科技使我们的社会发生了巨大的变化，近几十年人类在科技方面取得了惊人的进步。

47. Now people in growing numbers are beginning to believe that learning new skills and knowledge contributes directly to enhancing their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

现在越来越多的人开始相信学习新的技术和知识能直接帮助他们获得工作就会或提升的机会。

48. An investigation shows that many older people express a strong desire to continue studying in university or college.

一项调查显示许多老人都有到大学继续学习的愿望。

49. For the majority of people， reading or learning a new skill has become the focus of their lives and the source of their happiness and contentment after their retirement.

对大多数人来讲，退休以后，阅读或学习一项新技术已成为他们生活的中心和快乐的来源。

50. For people who want to adopt a healthy and meaningful life style， it is important to find time to learn certain new knowledge. Just as an old saying goes： it is never too late to learn.

对于那些想过上健康而有意义的生活的人们来说，找时间学习一些新知识是很重要的，正如那句老话：活到老，学到老。

在任务驱动型作文的背景下，怎样才能把一个论题阐述深透呢?许多同学无从下手，所写的文章老是停留在肤浅的层面，得分不高，在此，介绍巧设反方，探源究底的方法，以供同学学习参考。

巧设反方就是在正面论述的基础之上，提出有可能出现的反方看法或观点，尽力预设，尽力设全，以体现你思维的周密性。

探源究底就是在预设反方的前提下，探究反方观点产生的根源以及错误的本质，甚至对反方观点进行有力的批驳，让它站不住脚，从而使自己的看法有理有力。

例如：

阅读下面的材料，根据要求写一篇不少于800字的文章。(60分)

不久前，某大学在临近期末时发生了这样一事：夜幕下，风雨中，一群大学生在校农场打着手电栽种油菜。校长对媒体说：学生必须亲手碰到泥巴，才能知道什么是奋斗，什么是劳动。农场劳动是该校的必修课，是毕业通行证。这种观点和做法得到了不少网民的支持。

然而也有人持不同意见：为挣学分冒雨挑灯夜战，是否有矫枉过正之嫌?还有人认为，大学生的首要任务是学习专业知识，此举有形式主义之嫌。

对于以上事件及不同观点，你怎么看?请表明你的态度，阐述你的看法。要求综合材料内容及含意，选好角度，确定立意，完成写作任务。

示范例文：

亲历劳动，方知奋斗

某高校开设种田必修课，学生夜里打手电种油菜，新闻一出，立刻引发热议，有支持者，也有反对者，更有抨击者，但无论何种反应都体现了大众对高校教育、对人才培养的一种关注、一种思索。

亲历劳动，方知奋斗。学校的良苦用心是值得大力称赞的。农场劳动，不单是一门必修课程，是毕业的通行证，更是一种观念、一种品质的培养。党的教育方针明确指出：教育必须与生产劳动相结合未来世界的竞争是人才素质的竞争，而劳动素质又是人才素质中极其重要的一个方面。但令人叹息的是，有许多的网民，却反对高校的这种做法，质疑这种做法的真正意图，或许是因为他们觉得大学生的首要任务是学习专业知识，应该把时间更多地放在精进自己的专业水平上，不能也没有必要去做普通农民所做的农活，然而，这个理由不过只是个幌子，是个借口，何况精进专业知识，也不是不问世事，一心只读圣贤书就能达成的，再说，闭门苦读就一定能够学好专业知识吗?更深层的原因，恐怕是大众内心对农的鄙视，是自古以来就有的对读书人的崇敬与膜拜：认为田间劳作是没有文化修养或修养较低的农民干的，文化人，既然已经跳出农门，就不要也不必再碰农活了。他们主观上认为读书人与农民是截然不同的两种身份，而这种认识，又恰恰是长期以来由阶级的差距衍生出的优越感而催生的。

爱劳动，才会生活;学会劳动，才能学会生活。高校开展农场劳动必修课，不仅可行，更有深远意义。学生在学校，不仅要学会一些理论性的东西，还需进行各种各样的实践劳动，只有二者相结合，才能更好地提升学生的综合素质。农场劳动，除了能提高学生们的动手能力、实践能力，让学生更接地气，还能让学生在获得劳动的切身体验中，认识到粒粒皆辛苦，尊重劳动人民和劳动成果，更能让学生在艰苦环境的磨炼中，培养一种吃苦耐劳、艰苦奋斗的精神。事实上，人的很多优秀的品质，都可以在劳动中形成。

发扬光大该校的这一做法，或许我们可以有更好做法，加强宣传教育，提高学生积极主动参加劳动实践的意识，鼓励学生积极参加各种各样的社会实践活动，而不局限于田间劳作，更无需用必修的形式，来强制学生，为完成学分临时抱佛脚而在临近期末时连夜冒雨打手电种油菜。

民生在勤，勤则不匮，无论时代如何变化，我们始终都要热爱劳动、崇尚劳动。

所谓叙述举例，就是通过记叙文字来列举实例，是记叙方式在说明文中的巧妙运用。所举事例，因文而易，或事实，或传说，或掌故，均无不可，从而为说明造成某种铺垫，把事物的特征说得要生动、更明白、更具体。

这种技法在说明文中的运用位置，大致有三种情况：一是用于文章开头，在说明之前先叙述举例，通过具体实例为下文说明铺垫张本，提供说明材料；二是用于文章中间，即说明中夹叙事例，以实例作为上文或下文的印证，使说明有据可依，有例可证；三是用于文章结尾，即说明之后再叙述事例，通过事例为全文作结。这三种情况，中者最多，后者最少。

叙述举例可多可少，文字可繁可简，具体运用又有两种情况：一是叙述比较详尽，事例比较具体，因而文字较多，这种情况，适用于说明那些比较生疏的事物，不详述不足以使人明白；二是叙述比较简单，事例比较概括，因而文字则较少，这种情况，适用于说明那些人们熟知的事物，点到为止，无须赘述。例如，《从甲骨文到缩微图书》的第二节，就运用了比较详尽的叙述举例法：

那是清朝光绪25年，有一位叫王懿荣的官员得了病。他懂得医道，每次抓来的药，都要亲自看过，然后煎熬。有一次，他偶然在一味叫做龙骨的药上面，发现有许多好像文字的东西，他感到惊讶，于是把这家药铺里刻有这种文字的龙骨全买下来，凭着他对中国古文字的很深的造诣，考证出这些龙骨是殷商时代遗留下来的乌龟壳和牛的肩胛骨，上面刻的文字就是那时使用的文字。

这段文字，以事情发展为顺序，以发现甲骨文为线索，有头有尾，具体细致地记叙了王懿荣发现并考证出甲骨文的过程，交代了我国书籍发展的源头，既点明了该文题目的前半部分，又为下文具体说明我国书籍的演变发展经过作了很好的铺垫。作者之所以对书籍的雏形甲骨文作这样详细的叙述，主要是因为一般读者，尤其是初中学生，对它知道得甚少的缘故。

说明文中，叙述举例的内容必须与所说明的对象有某种密切关系，如上面说到的甲骨文就与文章说明的对象书有直接关系。何处叙述举例，时机位置要适当。叙述举例的文字能简则简，就全文来说，它从属于说明，不能反客为主，冲淡了说明的主题。

介绍家乡的一种产品教学目标：1、指导学生读懂例文《银杏》，了解其主要内容和写作思路，初步感知作者是抓住哪些方面来写银杏的，国标苏教版六年级上册语文教案 习作 5 介绍家乡的一种产品。让学生懂得全面了解某一事物，光靠看还不行，还要学会问、学会查找资料。2、引导学生了解家乡的一种产品，进行仔细观察，并询问有关的人，查找有关资料，对这种产品有一个较为全面的了解，培养搜集材料的能力的良好的习惯。3、借助习作要点的提示，学习例文的方法，引导学生把观察到的、询问到的与查阅到的资料按一定的顺序整理成文。教学重点、难点：1、学习例文获取作文材料的方法。2、训练学生如何把观察到的、询问到的、查阅到的资料整理成文。教学准备：组织学生实地参观，引导学生像沈平平那样自己支观察、搜集作文材料。

教学过程：

一、导入示标：

1、指导观察，激发兴趣出示挂图，让学生说说图上画了什么。2、谈话导入：刚才同学们观察了这幅画，说了自己观察到的内容，如果我们就这样写下去，不仅显得零乱，而且也不够形象、逼真。沈平平同学根据金老师的要求写了这棵银杏，写得很好，下面我们就来向她学习，看看她是怎么写的，教案《国标苏教版六年级上册语文教案 习作 5 介绍家乡的一种产品》。3、出示学习目标。

二、布置自学

1、出示自学题：自由轻读例文，思考：这篇例文先写了什么，后写了什么？用“—”画出来。2、学生自学。

三、检查自学

1、指名学生回答。2、教师适时板书。3、小结：这篇例文先写了银杏的枝干、叶、花、果的特点，再写银杏的价值，最后写出人们为什么称银杏为“活化石”。

四、精讲精练本课的精讲点：

（一）再读例文，讨论写法1、学生自读，思考：沈平平是如何一步一步地按照金老师的要求完成《银杏》这篇习作的。2、交流讨论。3、小结：（1）在仔细观察的基础上，沈平平同学介绍了银杏的干、靶、花、果的特点，还写了形状、颜色等。（2）在观察的基础上，沈平平询问自然老师，查阅有关资料，知道了银杏的价值和为什么银杏被称为“活化石”。3、读“习作要点提示”，对照例文，明确写作要求。（1）齐读例文后面的“习作要点提示”。（2）讨论本次写作的要点和重点。（3）小结：这是一篇状物类的习作训练习作内容：介绍家乡的一种产品，可以是农副产品，也可以是工业产品。习作题目：自定。习作重点：把观察到的、询问到的、查阅到的资料整理成文。

（二）读写迁移，运用写法1、确定习作内容及要点。（1）你准备介绍家乡的哪一种产品？（2）在观察的基础上介绍产品的外部特征，如形状、颜色、大小、质地等。（3）在询问和查阅资料的基础上，介绍该产品的营养价值或用途、食用方法或使用方法。（4）通过询问和查阅资料，介绍该产品在食用或使用时应注意的问题。2、组织学生交流、评议。3、教师指点：介绍产品的三个方面内容时不要平均用力，要注意有详有略，侧重写一两个方面的内容，注意说法要有根据。

五、课堂练习

1、学生起草习作，教师巡视指导。2、学生完成3、当堂反馈。

六、总结提升介绍产品的三个方面内容时不要平均用力，要注意有详有略，侧重写一两个方面的内容，注意说法要有根据。

七、下节课预习作业。

1.对比写景法。

运用对比的表现手法，能够突现“景”的细微差异。如《紫藤萝瀑布》一文，作者把十几年前的一株零丁的藤萝同眼前的紫藤萝瀑布对比着写，表现文化大革命和改革开放两个时期迥然不同的时代特征;《故乡》一文，作者把二十年前故乡的美好同现实中故乡的萧条进行对比，揭示辛亥革命以来广大农村经济日趋破败的现实。

2.拟人写景法。运用拟人的表现手法，把“景”人格化，能使“景”富有生机。如《山中访友》一文，作者带着“满怀的好心情”，带着丰富的想象，走进山林，走到山涧边，那“山中的众朋友”——古桥、树林、山泉、白云、瀑布、悬崖、峡谷、云雀、石头、落叶、小花、雷阵雨、老柏树、蚂蚁……一个个与之互诉心声，展现了一个童话般的世界。

3.比喻写景法。

运用比喻的表现手法，使所绘之景更生动形象、更具体可感。如朱自清的《春》，文中分别用“火”、“霞”、“雪”喻春花，用“牛毛”、“花针”、“细丝”喻春雨，用“刚落地的娃娃”、“小姑娘”、“健壮的青年”喻春天，一连串的比喻，写出了江南春天的风和日丽、山清水秀、草长莺飞、百花争艳，春的美景、春的气息、春的声响都一一刻入读者的脑海里。

4.动静结合法。

景物描写要动静结合。自然现象、自然环境和社会环境有的处于相对静止状态，有的处于变化状态，既要写出它的静态，例如景物的位置、形态、大小、色彩等，又要写出它的动态、景物瞬间的形态、位置、声音、色彩等方面的变化。写景要做到有动有静，动静结合，逼真传神，给读者留下深刻的印象。如鲁迅的《社戏》写春夜出航时连山之景：“淡黑起伏的连山，仿佛踊跃的铁的兽脊似的，都远远地向船尾跑去了。”一句，化静为动，以动写静，衬托出想看社戏的急切心情。

5.简笔勾勒法。

也叫“白描”，是一种文字简练单纯、不作任何修饰渲染的表现手法。这种手法能保持生活的原滋原味。如《从百草园到三味书屋》的前部分写百草园冬景时，作者采用白描手法，写出了百草园的其乐无穷。

6.细笔描绘法。

也称工笔描绘，即注重细部的描绘，表现其独有的特征。

7.综合表现法。

即综合调动各种表现手法，来描摹景物的特征。写景时可以综合运用各种修辞手法，或调动多种感官多侧面多层次地反复描绘。如鲁彦的《听潮》一文，作者调动视觉、味觉、听觉、触觉等多种感官写潮来时的情景，这种先声夺人之势，紧紧抓住了读者的阅读欲望。《从百草园到三味书屋》一文也调动视觉、听觉、味觉等感官描绘百草园美丽景色，写得有声有色有趣。有时甚至还将某一种感觉转化成另一种感觉来描写景物。如宗璞在《紫藤萝瀑布》一文中写到：“这里除了光彩，还有淡淡的芳香，香气似乎也是浅紫色的，梦幻一般轻轻笼罩着我。”作者以视觉写嗅觉，把虚幻的芳香形象地展示在读者面前。

一、常规结构方法

1.记叙文结构比较灵活，开头、结尾、过渡，都有一定的讲究。如开头的方式有：开门见山式、设置悬念式、气氛渲染式、环境描述式、结果交代式等;结尾的方式有：呼应开头式、议论抒情式、自然结束式、戛然而止式等;构思的方法有：欲扬先抑法、埋下伏笔法、正反衬托法、虚实相应法、误会巧合法、设置悬念法等。

2.议论文结构一般有引论——本论——结论。引论的方式有：揭示论点式、引用名言式、设问启示式、叙述事实式、对比争议式、描述靶子式等;本论的方式有：分论点并列式、层层递进式、正反对照式;结论的方式有：卒章明志式、问题启发式、希望号召式等。

3.说明文结构一般为“总分总”或“总分”“分总”式。说明对象不同，说明展开的方式也常常不同。如动态说明常用时间顺序，静态说明常用空间顺序，事理说明常用逻辑顺序，可以用因果式、分类式、比较式、层进式等方式说明。

二、创新结构方法

1.片段结构

文章在结构上由看似独立的几个片段又能围绕同一主题而展开。

这种片段结构的主要特点是结构自由，可以避免起承转合，平铺直叙，使写作更为便利、容易;各片段相对独立，但又可以从不同角度，不同侧面来描述人物、事件，表达主题，丰富了文章的内容;表达形式更为自由灵活。

如作文《大自然三章》就是以片段结构的形式，将自然中的“鸟的心事”“蓝天的担忧”“鱼儿的规劝”的感慨组合成文，表达了对人与自然和谐相处的期望。

2.借用文体

写话题作文时文体不限，这时借用一些特殊的文体表现主题，往往能出奇制胜。这些特殊的体裁包括某些文学体裁，如小说、寓言、戏剧、童话、杂文等;某些应用文体如讲演稿、书信、日记、采访录、调查报告、现场演播、新闻报道以及某些领域内所专用的文体，如医疗诊断书、说明书、广告、调查报告、判决书、招标书等等。

考生可以根据自己的爱好与擅长来选择文体，扬长避短，取得创新的效果。这方面的例子很多，均因结构有新意，被评为满分作文或一类作文。

例如广东省一位考生以猪八戒奋不顾身下井救小孩为被评论对象，让代表社会上种种不正确名利观的“嘉宾”一一亮相，以现场演播的形式演绎主题。作者设计的现场为“敢讲敢说”演播室，主持人为“崔人进”，主题为“猪八戒能否得2017年度感动心灵奖”，“嘉宾”为“感动评委会成员、八戒亲友团、各界代表”，还特别注明“唐僧师徒亲自出席，高老庄乡亲组成了亲友团，嫦娥作为评委出席”，开始时还“先看大屏幕”，作为现场演播的程序都出现在文章中，给人以强烈的现场感。读后，我们仿佛置身于电视转播现场，被文章独特新颖的表现形式所深深吸引。

3.故事新编

故事新编就是对人们熟悉的经典故事进行改造，在原有情节的基础上再创作、加工，即对原故事进行改写、续写，或者借用历史人物、经典故事中的人物形象来表达现实生活的内容和主题。采用这种方法的好处是，取材便利，方便构思，易于出新;可以起到借古喻今的效果，使文章显得轻松、风趣。

如《新愚公和智叟的故事》一文，作者将一个尽人皆知的故事加以改造，构思颇为新颖、巧妙。湖南考生写的《西游记后传》，作者将西游记进行了一番续写与改写，演绎了师徒四人取经的离奇故事，文章把大唐灭亡的原因归咎于唐玄宗没有读取回来的真经，故事新颖，立意深远，实在是一篇绝妙的佳作。

4.特殊的视角

观察的角度不同，会有不同的效果。所以我们可以采用一些特殊的视角来叙述故事，表达主题。特殊的视角是指普通人以外的特殊人物，或者动物、植物等人类以外的事物的视角。另外，还可以选择多主体视角，比如一个故事设几个主人公，每个人都站出来表述这个故事。采用特殊视角可以使文章达到新奇的效果，造成一种新鲜感，使描写不落俗套，令人耳目一新。

例如广东的一位考生写的《月光下的一只孤老虎》一文，作者采用特殊视角，以一只老虎的口吻自述悲剧，引起人们对野生动物生存环境的关注。贵州的一位考生写的《给地球人的一封公开信》一文，作者采用特殊的视角，以特殊主体——外星人的口吻叙事议论，表明对人类破坏环境的尖锐批评。

5.镜头式结构

有些作文材料并不新鲜，但一些聪明的同学能借助电影蒙太奇的手法，通过镜头组合、画面切换以及画外音等形式来展示作文丰富的内涵。这样的文章往往因形式的新颖、结构的巧妙而平中见奇，令人耳目一新。

比如，题为《生活中的亮点》的作文：文章运用蒙太奇的表现手法，剪切生活中四个镜头来表现“亮”。作者将生活中的四个场景，分别标示出地点(小巷中——街头——商店中——回家路上)，就像一部电影剧本，新颖的结构形式，给人以全新的感觉。镜头式结构，往往能减少过渡及铺垫文字，有利于集中笔墨叙述事件、刻画人物，从而使文章主题更集中，节奏更明快。

6.问答式结构

以“提问”和“回答”来组成文章，新鲜别致。其中的“问”实际是作者的提问，组成文章的纲目;其中的“答”，就是文章的主体，这样的结构，可以设计成互问互答，也可以设计成自问自答。

比如，题为《挫折四问》的作文，作者以四问四答的形式布控全文结构，“挫折是什么”“挫折真的存在吗”“挫折与成功的界限在哪里”“挫折给我什么启示”四个“问”形成了一个逐层深入的议论阶梯，使得文章结构井然，给人一气呵成之感。

7.一线串珠式结构

面对复杂的事情、繁多的内容，最有效的方式莫过于用一条线索把有关材料贯串起来，使之浑然一体。这个线索，可以是某个人，可以是某一事物，可以是某一事件，也可以是人物思想感情的发展变化，或者是时间的推移、地点的转换等等。

作文线索的设置，要注意两点：一是所设置的线索，要能联系文章各部分，把组织材料和表达主题统一起来;二是线索要有始有终，贯串到底。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

一段短短的自我介绍，其实是为了揭开更深入的面谈而设计的。一两分钟的自我介绍，犹如商品广告，在有限的时间内，针对客户的需要，将自己最美好的一面，毫无保留地表现出来，不但要令对方留下深刻的印像，还要即时引发起购买欲。

1、自我认识

想一矢中的，首先必须认清自我，一定要弄清以下三个问题。你现在是干什么的？你将来要干什么？你过去是干什么的？

这三个问题不是按时间顺序从过去到现在再到将来，而是从现在到将来再到过去。其奥妙在于：如果你被雇用，雇主选中的是现在的你，他希望利用的是将来的你，而这将来又基于你的历史和现状。

所以，第一个问题，你是干什么的？现在是干什么的？回答这个问题，要点是：你是你自己，不是别的什么人。除非你把自己与别人区别开来，在共同点的基础上更强调不同点，否则你绝无可能在众多的应征求职者中夺魁。对于这第一个问题，自我反省越深，自我鉴定就越成功。

随后，着手回答第二个问题：你将来要干什么？如果你申请的是一份举足轻重的工作，雇主肯定很关注你对未来的自我设计。你的回答要具体，合理，并符合你现在的身份，要有一个更别致的风格。

然后，再着手回答最后一个问题：你过去是干什么的？你的过去当然都在履历上已有反映。你在面试中再度回答这个问题时，不可忽略之处是：不要抖落一个与你的将来毫不相干的过去。如果你中途彻底改行，更要在描述你的执着、职业目标的一贯性上下些功夫。要做到这一点，又要忠实于事实和本人，最简单的方法是：找到过去与将来的联系点，收集过去的资料，再按目标主次排列。

用这样的方法，以现在为出发点，以将来为目标，以过去为证实，最重要的是加深了你的自我分析和理解。其实，在面试的时候不一定有机会或者有必要照搬你的大作，但这三个问题的内在联系点一定会体现在自我表述的整体感觉中，使你的形象栩栩如生。

2、投其所好

清楚自己的强项后，便可以开始准备自我介绍的内容：包括工作模式、优点、技能，突出成就、专业知识、学术背景等。

好处众多，但只有短短一分钟，所以一切还是与该公司有关的好。(面试自我介绍 ) 如果是一间电脑软件公司，应说些电脑软件的话题；如是一间金融财务公司，便可跟他说钱的事，总之投其所好。

但有一点必须紧记：话题所到之处，必须突出自己对该公司可以作出的贡献，如增加营业额、减低成本、发掘新市场等。

3、铺排次序

内容的次序亦极重要，是否能抓住听众的注意力，全在于事件的编排方式。所以排在头位的，应是你最想他记得的事情。而这些事情，一般都是你最得意之作。与此同时，可呈上一些有关的作品或纪录增加印像分。

英语写作少不了积累句型。以下是小编带来的2017英语写作必背经典句型【集锦】，希望对你有帮助。

the + 形容词最高级 + n. + (that) + S(主语) + have ever seen / known / heard / had / read, etc

例句：Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

(海伦是我见过的最美丽的女孩。)

Nothing is + 形容词比较级 + than to + V(谓语)

例句：Nothing is more important than to receive education.

(没有比接受教育更重要的事。)

S cannot emphasize the importance of sth. too much：再怎么强调……的重要性也不为过。

例句：We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

(我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。)

There is no doubt + that + 句子：毫无疑问，……

例句：There is no doubt that the economy is recovering.

(毫无疑问，经济已经逐渐复苏。)

It pays to + V + O(宾语)：……是值得的。

例句：It pays to help others.

(帮助别人是值得的。)

An advantage of + 名词结构+ is that + 句子：……的优点是……

例句：An advantage of using solar energy is that it wont create any pollution.

(使用太阳能的优点是它不会产生任何污染。)

There is no denying that + 句子：不可否认……

例句：There is no denying that the quality of our life has gone from good to better.

(不可否认，我们的生活质量日益改善。)

On no account can we + V：我们绝对不能……

例句：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge.

(我们绝不能无视知识的价值。)

It is universally acknowledged that + 句子：全世界都知道……

例句：It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable[不可或缺的] to us.

(全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。)

The reason why + 句子 + is that + 句子：……的原因是……

例句：The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air.

(我们必须种树的原因是它们能给我们提供新鲜空气。)

be closely related to sth.：与……息息相关

例句：Taking exercise is closely related to health.

(做运动与健康息息相关。)

So + 形容词 + be + S + that + 句子：如此……以致于……

例句：So precious is time that we cant afford to waste it.

(时间是如此珍贵，它经不起我们浪费。)

It is time + S + 动词过去式：该是……的时候了。

例句：It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems.

(有关当局是时候采取适当措施解决交通问题了。)

S + enable + O + to + V：……使……能够……

例句：Listening to music enables us to feel relaxed.

(听音乐使我们获得放松。)

be + forced / obliged / compelled + to + V：不得不……

例句：Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports.

(既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃做运动。)

a. + as + S + be, S + V + O：虽然……， 但是……

例句：Rich as our country is, the quality of our life is by no means satisfactory.

(虽然我们的国家富有，但我们的生活质量仍差强人意。)

It is conceivable / obvious / apparent that + 句子：可想而知/明显/显然……

例句：It is apparent that knowledge plays an important role in our life.

(显然，知识在我们人生中扮演着重要角色。)

The + 形容词比较级 + S + V, the + 形容词比较级 + S + V：……愈……，……愈……

例句：The harder you work, the more progress you make.

(愈努力，愈进步。)

Since + S + 动词过去式，S + 现在完成式： 自从……，……一直……

例句：Since he went to senior high school, he has worked very hard.

(自从上了高中，他一直很用功。)

By + V-ing, S can V：通过……，……能够……

例句：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy.

(通过做运动，我们能够保持健康。)

be based on sth.：以.……为基础

例句：Progress in society is based on harmony.

(社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。)

That is the reason why +句子：那就是……的原因

例句：Summer is sultry[闷热的]. That is the reason why I dont like it.

(夏天很闷热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。)

There is no one but + V + O：没有人不……

例句：There is no one but longs to go to college.

(没有人不渴望上大学。)

Due to / Owing to / Thanks to + sth. / V-ing：因为/ 多亏……

例句：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream.

(因为他的鼓励，我终于实现了梦想。)

For the past + 时间, S + 现在完成式： 过去的……来，……一直……

例句：For the past two years, I have been busy preparing for the examination.

(过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。)

What a + a. + n. + S + V!= How + a. + a + n. + V!：多么……!

例句：What an important thing it is to keep our promise! / How important a thing it is to keep our promise! (遵守诺言是多么重要的事!)

get into the habit of + V-ing = make it a rule to + V：养成……的习惯

例句：We should get into the habit of keeping good hours.

(我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。)

leave much to be desired：令人不满意

例句：The condition of our traffic leaves much to be desired.

(我们的交通状况令人不太满意。)

Those who + V + O：那些……的人

例句：Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished.

(违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。)

have a great influence on sth.：对……有很大影响

例句：Smoking has a great influence on our health.

(抽烟对我们的健康有很大影响。)

spare no effort to + V：不遗余力地……

例句：We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

(我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。)

do good / harm to sth.：对……有益/有害

例句：Reading does good to our mind.

(读书对心灵有益。)

pose a great threat to sth.：对……造成很大威胁

例句：Pollution poses a great threat to our existence.

(污染对我们的生存造成很大威胁。)

bring home to + S + O：让……明白……

例句：We should bring home to people the value of working hard.

(我们应该让人们明白努力的价值。)

do ones utmost to + V = do ones best to + V：尽全力去……

例句：We should do our utmost to achieve our goal in life.

(我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标。)

议论文主要包括三要素：论点、论据和论证方法。论点必须正确。论据是为说明论点服务的，既要可靠又要充分，事实胜于雄辩，是最好的论据。论据也可以是人们公认的真理，经过实践考验的哲理。论证的方法多种多样，常用的方法有：

1. 归纳法

从分析典型，即分析个别事物入手，找出事物的共同特点，然后得出结论。

2. 推理法

从一般原理出发，对个别事物进行说明、分析，而后得出结论。

3. 对照法

对所有事实、方面进行对照，然后加以分析，得出结论。

4. 驳论法

先列出错误的观点，然后加以逐条批驳，最后阐明自己的观点。