英语说明文常见写作方法(优秀20篇)

1、读优秀作家的作品

这是显而易见的，但却是立竿见影的方法。如果你不读更多的好作品，你就不知道如何写出更好的作品。优秀的作家都是从阅读别人的佳作开始，接着开始模仿，最后超越他们，形成自己的风格。尽可能的多读著作吧，在看内容的时候，更要留意文章的问题和写作的技巧。

2、尽可能多地写

每天都写，如果可能的话，每天写几次。你写得多了，也就写得好了。学如何写作和其他的学问道理是一样的，熟能生巧。写写你自己，写写博客，向出版社投稿。只是写，全情投入地写，练得越多，你的写作水平就提升得越快。

3、随时随地记下你的灵感

随身带一本小笔记本，当你对你构思的小说，文章，或是小说里的人物有灵感的时候，马上记下来。当你听到别人谈话的只言片语有所顿悟时，看到一段散文诗或是一句歌词让你很感动时，也可以马上把他们记下来。灵感总是转瞬即逝的，你及时记录下来，可以成为你写作的素材。我的习惯是，为我要写的文章列一个清单，不断地补充它。

4、专门的写作时间

每天找一段没有任何打扰的时间作为专门的写作时间，让这成为习惯。对我而言，清晨的时间是最佳的，午饭，傍晚，或者深夜的那段时间也可以。把写作当作每天必须完成的任务去做，每天至少写半个小时，当然有一个小时更好。请不要担心，这只会让你写得更好。

5、随便涂鸦

面对整张的白纸，整版的白屏，无从开始，肯定恐怖。你会想：我还是看看邮件或是小憩一会了吧！千万别这样。马上开始写，马上打字，你写什么没有关系，只是让我听到你敲键盘的声音吧。但只要你开始写了，什么都好办了。像我的话，我喜欢先敲上我的名字和文章的标题，这应该不难吧，然后再慢慢的展开情节，全身心地融入进去……关键是：只是随便写写，随便涂鸦，但要马上开始写。

6、集中精神

写作是一件一心一意的事情，在嘈杂的环境中或是同时干别的事情，是不可能写好的。写作需要一个安静的环境，需要一点点柔和的背景音乐。哪怕是最低要求，你需要在没有其他干扰的条件下写作，清理掉书桌上无用的东西。清除与写作无关的一切杂念，现在就是写作的时间，好像把自己放进一个盒子一样，没有任何打扰地进入写作状态。

7、先计划，再写

这好像和“随便涂鸦”有些矛盾，实际上不是这样。在坐下来正式写之前，先做个计划或是脑子里先预演一下情节，这是非常管用的办法。

每天跑步的时候想想要写的东西，或是散步的时间来个头脑风暴；然后把想到的记下来，做一个简明扼要的提纲；等真正准备好开始写了，可以很快地展开，因为思路和想法都有了。

8、创新

你需要模仿名家，并不意味你要跟他们写得一模一样，你可以试试新的写法，从这里学一点，从那里学一点，渐渐地，你就会有了自己的风格，自己的文体，自己的思路。试试一些不一样的表达，创造一些与众不同的表达方式，每一种方法你都可以尝试尝试，看它到底怎么样，不好就不用。

9、修改

你开始构思你的文字，然后试着写，把故事情节展开，最后你需要回过头再看看你都写了什么。这点很重要，很多写手一旦写好就不想修改，已经费时费力地写好了，还要再花时间修改，实在是一件吃力不讨好的活。但如果你想写得更好，你就要学会如何修改。

好的作品是经过反复的推敲和修改而成的，这会让你的作品从平庸中脱颖而出。看看你写的东东，不仅仅是那些拼写和语法错误，还有那些无意义的词，混乱的结构，和让人搞不懂的句子。修改的目标是：更清晰，更直接，更鲜活。

10、简明扼要

这是你在修改的过程中，最重要的一件事情。一句句，一段段的修改，把无关主题的统统都删掉。一个短句比一段冗长的废话更具说服力，大白话比晦涩的专业术语更受欢迎。记得：简单就是力量。

11、富于感染力的句子

在短句中使用富有感染力的动词，当然，并没有要求每一句都是这样，你需要变化。但是，多试试能够吸引人的句子。而且，你没有必要等到你要修改的时候再用，你刚开始写的时候就要考虑这个问题。

12、获取别人的反馈

闭门造车不会有任何进步，让别人读读你的文章给你回馈，他们会给你很中肯和有见地的建议。认真听，即使是一些批评，接受它，忠言逆耳，这样让你写得更好。

13、是骡子是马拉出来溜溜

就你而言，你需要让别人读到你的作品。你的作品不是你想让谁看谁就看的，所有的人都读你的文章。你要发表你的短篇小说和诗歌，给出版社供稿。如果你已经开始写博客了，恭喜你，这是一个好的开始。

14、采用对话式的文体

很多人写得很正式，但是我发现最好是写得像我们说话一样会更流畅，更通俗。这样一来，读者看起来会更舒服。刚开始这么写并不容易，你需要坚持这么做。也许，会带来另一个问题，为了读起来更口语化，你需要打破一些语法规则。如果生搬硬套语法，会让你的文章看起来很不自然。但是如果没有其他原因，不要破坏语法规则。你需要知道你在做什么，为什么这样做。

15、好开头和结尾

开头和结尾是文章的重点，特别是开头。如果你不能在故事的开始吸引读者，他们很难有耐心把整篇文章读完。所以投入更多的时间考虑怎么写好开头，读者一旦对你开头感兴趣，他们会想知道得更多...写好开头后，再有一个精彩的结尾，这会让读者更加期待你的下一篇佳作。

一、注意审题

小作文的审题(即审读材料)很重要，决定着文章的成败。因为一个小作文的材料中，往往隐含了若干个写作要求，如不细心审读，抓不到这些隐含的要求，就很容易出现错误。例如：

一个孩子乘母亲不在，将家里的小闹钟拆了，母亲见后……

要求;根据上面的材料，展开想象，如果你是母亲，如何处置这个事情。请写出一个200字左右的处置过程。

这个小作文便隐含四个要求：(1)〝母亲见后〞，时间上必须要从母亲看见闹钟被拆之后写起;(2)〝如果你是母亲〞，行文中写作者必须是小孩的 母亲，必须以小孩子母亲的身份出现，不能这样写：〝如果我是这位母亲，我会这样处置……〞;(3)〝200字左右〞，字数限定在200字左右;(4)〝处 置过程〞，内容只能写处置的过程，而不能写结果和其他。

二、注意语言的简洁

这一点体现在两方面。其一，小作文字数一般是100┄300字，受篇幅限制，语言要求简洁明了。其二，如果是写应用文，则语言也一定要简洁，因为语言简洁是应用文写作的最基本要求。

三、力求结构完整

小作文是片断性作文，而非篇章。虽如此，但不能一味忽略结构的完整性。一篇小作文如果能够做到结构完整，则效果会更好。例如：

在你的身边有许多可亲可爱的事物，请你任选其中一种，以《我眼里的___________》为题写一篇200字左右的短文。

有位学生在叙写完一只小猫的伶俐乖巧后，篇末一句〝我非常喜爱我家的小猫〞独句成段，这样，既抒发了情感，又收束了全文，使短文结构完整，比那些一味描写小猫的文章要好得多了。

要做到结构完整，可运用以下的结构方式：前后照应式、篇末点题式、总分总式(包括总分式和分总式)等。

四、注意表达方式的运用

受文体的制约，一篇文章总以某种表达方式为主，同时兼用其他表达方式为主。小作文也应注意这一点。如江西省2002年中考语文小作文题为二选 一，(1)通过某一情景或场面，描写你最喜欢的色彩。(2)就你最喜欢的色彩，发表议论。无论选哪一题，或描写、或议论，总得以一种表达方式为主。但如果 能兼用其他表达方式，如兼用议论和抒情，表达自己对某种色彩的某中看法和喜爱之情，则能使短文大为增色。

Read this material, I want to thank the teacher in the article, he used a seemingly clever way to actually savage and absurd the students on the unforgettable lesson, but also gave me a strong shock.

"Only accept people tell you something" learning state, not only the students, between me and my classmates around the passive, also It is quite common for, learning method is blind, the result is inefficient and low efficiency, not to mention the creation of.

The practice of curriculum reform, we have gradually realized that students should become the main body of learning; learning knowledge should become the subject of learning; learning knowledge should be abundant, widespread, and not just "people tell you things"; learning methods in addition to "accept", also should including self-study, exploration and discovery...... After reading this material, we should be more active and active in the change of learning state.

Obviously, we should not only "learn", but also "learn to learn".

【论文摘要】在高考英语试题中，写作是有效提高学生整体成绩的重要手段，写作是目的也是为了测试学生直接运用英语表达的能力而设置的，因此通常都会放在试卷的最后面作为压轴题出现。在高考英语写作要求中，明确提出要让考生运用所学知识进行书写，能组词成句、组句成文，语句符合英语语法和习惯。在写出的书面材料中，要求达到：切中题意，文理通顺，语言准确，得当。那么，怎样才能在高考英语写作中出类拔萃呢？这正是本文要探讨的内容。

一、有的放矢，了解高考英语写作要点

要对高考英语写作的题型及内容有所了解，才能把握好高考英语写作的考点，在此基础上才能找到行之有效的对策及方法。纵观近几年各省高考英语试题中，写作测试的命题思路，有一种从指导性写作逐步向半开放式写作过渡的趋势。半开放式写作，具体地说，就是给考生们提供一定的材料(包括图、文或图文结合)然后要求学生根据材料来进行书面表达，这样的考题形式，既限制了考生随心所欲的思维，又给予考生适当的发挥空间。这种命题方式能较好地考查考生的语言组织能力、书面表达能力以及思维能力。而在文体方面，记叙文、议论文、应用文及书信为最常见的写作题材。因此，我们可以做一个形象的比喻，写文章就像工厂里制造一台机器那样，首先要确定机器由几部分组成，然后对这几部分分别细化，形成初步的设计图；再根据要求对初步的设计图进行完善、补充、修改，随之形成最终的设计图；然后我们再按照图纸的设计，使用我们所掌握的零件去制造出机器；同样的道理，学生写作时可参照以下模式：

1．理解话题：学生在动笔前必须对指定的话题进行反复细读，认真思考，理解其真正的含义，了解出题者的意图，这是进行写作的第一步；

2．明确文体，确定人称时态：这一阶段的判断中，主要强调近十年高考最常见的两种文体：(1)说明文：必须按照事物的原貌加以说明、介绍、解释，常采用一般现在时，被动语态也常使用；(2)记叙文：通常采用第一人称，描述本人的经历或耳闻目睹之事；或用第三人称讲述他人的事情，如果是过去的事情，要用过去时。

3．初拟提纲，再理解话题：明确文体的基础上，草拟写作提纲；提纲是文章的骨架，可以是一句活，也可以是一个词组，由于考试时间所限，提纲内容不必面面俱到，但必须体现文章的整体结构和思路；目前绝大部分高中学生在英语写作时，还习惯于使用母语进行构思，然后将构思好的中文内容翻译成英文，这种情况是正常的；关键在于翻译过程中的语言表达必须符合英语语言的表达习惯

4．开始写作：提纲完成后，应根据提纲充实内容，如果说提纲是骨架的话，那么这时你必须将骨架填充血肉；具体的说就是要扩展要点，连词成句，适当地变换句型，组句谋篇成文；注意应简明扼要，层次分明、用词准确、语法概念清楚，使文章更具说服力，然后在写作完成后，还要对文章进行快速的检查，减少单词的拼写错误和句子表达的错误。

二、高考英语写作指导的具体策略

根据以上对历年高考英语写作试题的分析，我们可以从以下三个方面去指导学生进行写作：

1．细读材料，认真审题

仔细阅读书面表达题所给材料的全部内容，准确理解题目要求。需要认真审查的内容有：(1)文章的开头和结尾是否已给出；(2)用第几人称写作，书面表达要求中会明确指出使用第一人称还是第三人称；(3)提供的情景是图画、图表，还是提纲，如果是连环画，要注意故事情节的连贯性，确定合理的情节发展；(4)是否提供参考词汇，如果提供有参考词汇，写作中最好要用到；(5)采用什么文体，如果是议论文，要有论点、论据和结论三部分。如果是应用文，要注意其格式。如果是记叙文，要抓住六个要素：时间、地点、人物、事件、事情起因、事情的发展与结果。

2．恰当选择词语和句式

认真审题后，就可以列提纲了，将重点单词、短语、句型写在提纲里，关于选词切忌使用生僻词语，要求做到用词准确、得体、达意。选择句式时，尽量使用多种句式，如强调句、倒装句、各种名词性从句、定语从句、状语从句和固定句型等，长句和短句视情况交错使用，这样可以提高文章的档次，使文章生辉。

选词大多是在一组同义词或近义词之间进行。例如，我们要表达“好”这个意思，一般来说，大家会马上想起“good”，因为口语中我们经常说agoodfriend、goodluck、agoodpicture等。但是，在不同的短语中，可以选择不同的英语单词使表达更加准确、生动、形象。

3．多背常识性语句，扩大知识面

语言是有规律的，不同体裁的书面表达都有其常识性语句。如果同学们平时有大量的语句积累，在写作时就能把积累的东西调动起来。这些常识性语句既可增加文章的连贯性、逻辑性和可读性，同时还能提供地道的表达方式。写人物介绍时，应着重写人物的姓名、性别、年龄、职业、身高、健康状况、业余爱好、工作态度、与人相处和社会评价等语句。例如：lipingisagoodteacher，whoisthirtyyearsold．heis175centimetrestallandheishealthy．等。

【参考文献】

[1]韩金龙，秦秀白.体裁分析与体裁教学法.[j].外语界2000(1)

[2]韩金龙.英语写作教学:过程体裁教学法.[j].外语界.2001(4)

[3]何星.“过程写作法”较之“结果写作法”在高中英语写作教学中的

有效性研究.[d]华东师大专业硕士学位论文.2007

毕业时，一份认真的，实事求是的毕业自我鉴定是对自己学业最好的总结。都是哪些鉴定内容呢？以下为您提供几点大学毕业生自我鉴定样板，仅供参考。

一、毕业生的自我鉴定的主要内容：

（一）思想道德素质方面：

1、对党的领导和党的路线、方针、政策等方面的理解和认识，参加学校组织的各项思想政治教育活动及政治表现；

2、遵守国家、学校的各种法规和制度的表现；

3、参加集体活动，团结同学，主动为大家服务方面的情况；

4、参加社会实践及学校组织的各种有益活动的情况；

5、参加政治理论、形势政策等思想道德修养类课程的学习情况。

（二）专业素质方面：

1、学习态度和学习自觉性方面的表现；

2、学习成绩和专业知识的掌握程度；

3、科学研究活动成果及创新能力方面的表现。

（三）身心素质方面：

1、参加校、院、系和班级组织的各项体育活动情况；

2、体育课成绩及体育特长、体育达标情况；

3、身体健康状况；

4、心理健康水平状况。

（四）专业能力方面：

1、根据社会的需要，对自己的能力做一个较全面的基本估计；

2、自己的专长和特点。

（五）存在的主要缺点和今后的努力方向。

二、具体要求：

1、毕业生写好自我鉴定首先应认真听取老师和同学的意见。老师对学生的学业和品德比较了解，同学之间朝夕相处，也比较熟悉，注意听取他们的意见，有助于写好自我鉴定；其次，自我鉴定必须写实，要本着实事求是的原则，成绩找够，缺点找准，恰如其份地做出总结鉴定，以利于用人单位较全面、客观了解毕业生，从而有针对性地培养和帮助毕业生更好地开展工作。

2、在毕业生登记表发放前各院系要召开动员大会，对毕业生自我鉴定、班主任（导师）鉴定意见的撰写切实加强指导，做到严肃认真、准确、诚实。填写时字迹要清楚，表述要确切，用水笔或毛笔填写。毕业生自我鉴定字数不得少于800字。

3、没有按照要求填写的毕业生登记表不能进档，个人档案将不给寄送。

引导语：写作手法包括表达方式、写作方法、修辞手法等。 表达方式,是指写文章时所采用的反映社会生活、表达思想感情、介绍事物事理的方式手段。下面是小编为你带来的高中话题作文写作方法技巧，希望对你有所帮助。

近些年话题作文一直是高考的作文主流，可以说是称霸“考坛”，因此，是平时作文训练的重点。笔者认为，话题作文大大增强了对学生语言表达能力、分析概括能力以及个性思维能力的要求。只有敏锐的洞察力、较高的概括与表达能力以及真正属于自己的思想与体悟，才能较好地具体操作一个话题，因此，对处于对人生理解还在起步阶段的中学生来说，如何写好话题作文是一个很有研究价值的课题，在此笔者简单提供以下几点写作方法与技巧以供参考。

一、体味生活，感悟人生

我们都知道思想离不开生活，一切皆从生活中来，一切也皆将回归生活，话题作文中的话题也更是如此，它们有的是对世界本质的反思，有的是要表达人们的一种愿望或想象，在课改教材中，这一部分内容也倍受重视，更有对人生经历、生命内涵的体悟。

话题作文是要求学生对身边的一切都有敏锐的感悟力的一种作文形式，虽然它看似没有任何硬性要求，但学生的分数这些年来却呈下降趋势，这说明话题文比人们想象中的要难得多，中学生还处在人生旅程的起始阶段，必须培养自己在这个人生阶段的独特视角与感悟力。每个人只要细心观察，都可以轻易地从中领会出自己的真谛。因此，想写出一篇出彩的话题文，就必须善于观察生活、分析生活、总结生活。

二、认真阅读教材，同时尽量增加课外阅读量，从而积累词汇与语言，善于调遣各种知识储备

积累词汇的方法有许多种，当然最主要同时也是最重要的途径莫过于阅读书籍。书籍是人类的精神食粮，是千百年来人类圣哲思想的经典总汇，因此，要尽量增加自己的课外阅读量，多读些经典名著，陶冶自己的情操，认识这个世界。

有的学生课业繁重，对于课外阅读恐怕是有心无力，这也不要紧，每个学生身边都有一份非常好的阅读资料，那就是人手必备的语文教材。教材可以说是无数教育学家按照学生心理年龄与认知水平而打造出的完全符合其自身智力与能力发展的呕心之作，因此，只要能够有效地利用好自己的教材，调动多年学校学到的知识，那么成为一个有思想且能够出口成章的儒林学士则不成问题。

三、要有质疑与批判精神，只要思想积极，就要忠于自己的情感与体悟，勇敢、尽情地表达自己对世界、社会、历史、人生以及未来等的见解

这一点可以说是话题作文的本质所在，它没有固定的要求，却有最佳的选择角度，那就是理智、积极、个性、真实，而这所有的种种却又都取决于真实，如果你敢于把自己真实的想法付于笔纸，那么“文情并茂”中的“情”就可以轻易地表达了，而一篇优秀的文章也会“接近”完成。

但要注意的是个性并不等于不同，批判也并不是叛逆，两者不可混淆，不能一味地用“异于常人”作为个性的最佳代言，也切忌用叛逆来代替批判精神，这样很容易步入阅读与写作的误区。对理解文意毫无帮助，也最终会导致思维的一种批判模式，一旦这种模式在其心中根深蒂固，那么不仅会影响其阅读写作，其一生也终将活在吹毛求疵的误区中。

四、发挥自己形象思维的特长，经常练笔，挖掘自身的述说能力，从而写出真正符合自己特点的话题作文

在现实的作文写作中经常有这样一种怪现象，有很多学生在进行写作时，心中明明已满载乾坤，等到真正落笔时却词不达意，文章显得苍白无力，这种表达能力的缺乏必须经过“艰苦”的练笔来克服。我们现在的学生一般在小学阶段就开始接触作文，而所写的作文一般都是具有强烈叙事色彩的记叙文，因此，对于一个学生来说形象思维能力在小学阶段就得到了一定的锻炼，相对于议论思辨等能力来说具有更多的优势，因此，学生只要有意识地练习写作或诵读片段式记叙文（或称作叙事散文）、微型小说、故事、童话、寓言以及抒情散文等，就能够比较轻松地增强自己的表达能力，从而达到“我手写我口”的境界。

五、掌握最基本的一种话题作文结构，即“三段式”结构

在初中阶段学生在尽量提升作文布局的同时，必须掌握话题文，也同样适用于议论文与记叙文的一种基本结构形式，那就是

“总—分—总”结构，也可以说是“凤头、猪肚、豹尾”结构。初中语文教材上的课文范文，70%以上都是这种三段式结构，熟练地掌握这种文章结构，不但可以作为写文章的基本保证，而且当学生随着年龄的增长，认知能力进一步发展，对文章的理解达到更高一层的境界时，自然就会举一反三，以此为基础写出更多优异结构的美文了。

总的来说，提高话题作文的写作能力，只有教师平时多关注社会动态，感悟生活，再综合多方面的方法和技巧，方能写出精彩，写出创新！

导语：英语写作中有不少短语和表达大家会经常用到，下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的相关英语写作50条常用短语句子，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

1. 经济的快速发展 the rapiddevelopment of economy

2.人民生活水平的显著提高/稳步增长theremarkableimprovement/ steady growth ofpeople’s livingstandard

3.先进的科学技术advanced science and technology

4.面临新的机遇和挑战 be faced with new opportunities and challenges

5.人们普遍认为 It is commonly believed/ recognized that…

6.社会发展的必然结果 the inevitable result of social development

7.引起了广泛的公众关注 arouse wide public concern/ draw publicattention

8.不可否认 Itis undeniable that…/ There is no denying that…

9.热烈的讨论/争论 a heated discussion/ debate

10.有争议性的问题 a controversialissue

11.完全不同的观点 a totally different argument

12.一些人 …而另外一些人 … Some people… while others…

13. 就我而言/ 就个人而言 As far as I am concerned, / Personally,

14.就…达到绝对的一致 reach an absolute consensus on…

15.有充分的理由支持 be supported by sound reasons

16.双方的论点 argument on both sides

17.发挥着日益重要的作用 play an increasingly important role in…

18.对…必不可少 be indispensableto …

19.正如谚语所说 As the proverb goes:

20.…也不例外 …be no exception

21.对…产生有利/不利的影响 exert positive/ negative effects on…

22.利远远大于弊 the advantages far outweigh the disadvantages。

23.导致，引起 lead to/ give rise to/ contribute to/ result in

24.复杂的社会现象 a complicated social phenomenon

25.责任感 / 成就感 sense of responsibility/ sense of achievement

26. 竞争与合作精神 sense of competition and cooperation

27. 开阔眼界 widen one’s horizon/ broaden one’s vision

28.学习知识和技能 acquire knowledge and skills

29.经济/心理负担 financial burden / psychologicalburden

30.考虑到诸多因素 take many factors into account/ consideration

31. 从另一个角度 from another perspective

32.做出共同努力 make joint efforts

33. 对…有益 be beneficial / conducive to…

34.为社会做贡献 make contributions to the society

35.打下坚实的基础 lay a solid foundation for…

36.综合素质 comprehensivequality

37.无可非议 blameless / beyond reproach

38.加大了…的可能性 increase the chances of

39.致力于/ 投身于 be committed / devoted to…

40. 应当承认 Admittedly

41.不可推卸的义务 unshakable duty

42. 满足需求 satisfy/ meet the needs of…

43.可靠的信息源 a reliablesource of information

44.宝贵的自然资源 valuable natural resources

45.因特网 the Internet (一定要由冠词，字母I

46.方便快捷 convenient andefficient

47.在人类生活的方方面面 in all aspects of human life

48.环保(的) environmental protection /environmentallyfriendly

49.社会进步的体现 a symbol of society progress

50.科技的飞速更新 the ever-accelerated updating of scienceandtechnology

要写好一个人物，无外乎是写人物的语言、行动、外貌(肖像)、心理等等。下文是小编整理的人物写作技巧与方法，欢迎阅读参考!

人物描写，根据描写的对象，可以分为外貌描写(肖像、衣着、神态)、语言描写、动作描写、心理描写和细节描写。写人，可以直接写头发、画眼睛，使其栩栩如生，这叫直接描写;还可以通过间接的方法写人，如通过第三者的转述介绍某人，通过描写第三者来反衬某人，以写景状物来烘托某人等等。根据描写人物的详略，轻重、着墨的浓淡，我们还可以将人物描写归纳为白描、漫画式勾勒、浓墨重彩细描等等。

一、白描

文字简练单纯，不加渲染烘托。它没有浓烈色彩的描写，不借助比喻、比拟等修辞手法，也不用或少用形容词，依然描写出事物的形象。如：

“其时进来的是一个黑瘦的先生，八字须，戴着眼镜，挟着一叠大大小小的书。”(鲁迅《藤野先生》)

寥寥数语，就活化出一位生活俭朴、治学严谨的学者形象。

二、漫画式勾勒

即以夸张的手法、揶揄的口吻，将人物勾画成奇形怪状、荒诞陆离的形象，以表达嘲笑、憎恶、同情等思想感情。如：

“他倘若低头看，断然是看不到自己的脚尖的，中间隆起的那个部位，会把视线挡住。稀稀拉拉的花白头发，整齐地朝后梳拢着，蘸了水，没有一根错乱的。白皙皙的脸上，看不见一条皱纹，像刚出锅的馒头。由于胖，鼻子、眼睛就显得特别小;由于小，就显得格外精采有神。”(王润滋《卖蟹》)

通过描写，塑造出“过滤嘴”的形象：老而胖，整洁考究，富态优裕，高人一等。在描写中渗透着作者的嘲笑。

三、浓墨重彩细描

即以生动、形象、传神的语言，多方位、多层次、多角度，细致全面地去刻画人物形象。如：

“……坐在南首的是一个瘦瘦的，五十上下的中国人;穿一件牙黄的长衫，嘴里咬着一支烟嘴，跟着那火光的一亮一亮，腾起一阵一阵烟雾。”

“他的面孔黄里带白，瘦得叫人担心，好像大病新愈的人，但是精神很好，没有一点颓唐的样子，头发约莫一寸长，显然好久没剪了，却一根一根精神抖擞地直竖着。胡须很打眼，好像浓墨写的隶体‘一’字。”

“黄里带白的脸，瘦得让人担心，头上直竖着寸把长的头发;牙黄羽纱的长衫;隶体‘一’字似的胡须;左手里捏着的一支黄色烟嘴，安烟的一头已经熏黑了。”(阿累《一面》)

这三处，作者通过全面而细致的描写，刻画出处于艰苦条件下的鲁迅的精神面貌，一位“越老越顽强”的伟大战士的形象，即赫然屹立在我们的面前。

人物描写的方法是很多的，每种方法各有千秋，同学们可以根据写作的需要，灵活地加以运用。

[人物写作技巧与方法

近段时间，针对同学们在写作方面存在的问题，我调整了自己的教学方法和评价方法，极大的激励了孩子们的写作积极性。

第一，引导学生从生活中的琐碎小事选材。生活本身就是由琐碎小事构成的，像一家人坐在一起吃饭，上学时受到老师批评，路上看见一件奇怪的事情，和同学发生一点儿矛盾……这些都是琐事，其实 ，像盖房，结婚，考上大学等等发生在我们身上的大事、正事本来就是有限的。我们在引导学生写作时，应该着重引导他们注意从生活琐碎里边选材，把这样的小事写活，写细，达到以小见大突出主题的目的，文章自然就生动有趣了。我们在写作“自己身边的亲情故事”时，我注重引导孩子们从身边发现和挖掘素材，写出了不少令人满意的作文。 陈志豪同学写的《藏在鸡蛋里的爱》，叙述了和爸爸一起吃饭时把碗里的荷包蛋“撬”到爸爸碗里，又被爸爸“撬”回来的小事，体现了父子之间的深深的爱，语言简洁生动，读起来却真实感人。

第二，引导学生抓住镜头描写，动静结合， 让人物活起来。

平时写作时，很多学生的文章总是平平淡淡，缺少感染力，究其原因，大多是因为在写人叙事中构思不成熟，行文中人物的内心活动或事件的关键之处没有来得及展示就匆匆结束了。为了让文章有味道，我们有必要培养学生掌握好写作的节奏，设法捕捉住闪亮的瞬间，让作文在应该慢的节点上慢下来，精心打造细节，使其产生感染人的效果。

作为一种描写方式——动静结合，就是把人物静态时的外貌特点和行动时的动作特点，有机地结合起来写，从而逼真地反映人物的性格特点 ，让人物真切、立体地“活”在读者面前。描写人物静态，应从人物的身材、体型、衣着、容貌、姿势或某个局部的特写等方面，选择最能反映人物个性特点的地方来描写。中小学生作文描写人物静态的最多见的弊病是“千人一面”，不管男女老幼，写眼睛就是“大大的炯炯有神”，写眉毛就是“弯弯的像个月牙”，写面部就是“一笑两个小酒窝”。因此“抓个性”是静态描写的最重要的一环。 描写人物动态，要在平时观察的基础上，找出最能反映人物性格特点的动作来描写。写出人物动作时的个性化，写出人物动态时的神情、姿态和气质。我们作文时，容易偏重于人物的对话而忽略人物的动态描写。其实，动态也是最能反映人物性格特点的。所以动态描写一般要关注人物的举手投足、神情变化等。采用动静结合法描写人物，要做到静态特点和动态特点的自然统一、水乳交融，从而把人物写生动、写真实，从而使文章产生感人的力量。作文中写人物的机会很多，掌握了动静结合法，你笔下的人物很容易“活”起来。

第三，培养学生酝酿感情，让自己处于感动中，写出来的文章才能感动人。最动情的东西，都是自己所亲身经历的，有真实体验，有真切感受，能够写得见人见物见精神的东西。要做到灌注真情，以情驭文，就要于提笔前酝酿感情，一遍遍再现人物与生活情节，让自己处于激情洋溢之中，处于对人物的感动之中（有时，这种感动会使自己不觉间热泪盈眶）。此时，心中自会生发出写的冲动。自己在感动中动笔，那份感情就会随着文字而流淌在字里行间。同时，正是因为自己处于感动之中，写起来也就会格外得心应手，容易一气呵成。这种感情的酝酿，即使应试作文也不能例外。我们班同学写作《老师，我想对您说》时，我流着眼泪告诉他们：和你们朝夕相处整整两年的我，因为不能胜任现在的工作，下个星期不再教你们语文课了，今天是与你们相处的最后一天……全班同学都很难过，结果是每个人都写出了两年来最真挚感人的文章。

文章不是无情物。一篇让人喜爱的好文章，往往渗透着作者真挚浓厚的感情。很多人写作，主要是心灵受某种情感的冲击，这种情感自然就会流动于笔端。 我们常说：拥有真情，才能拥有感动，只有渗透着泪与笑的文章才会获得真正的生命，才具有震撼读者心灵的力量。

第四，提高批改时的档次 ，用表扬激励参与的积极性。无论是大人还是孩子，都喜欢正面的评价和表扬。尽管我们都知道：“忠言逆耳利于行”的古训 ，可总还是抑制不住喜欢赞美之词。虽然在批改作文时需要我们找出学生存在的问题 ，但是，老师应该尽量戴上放大镜去寻找文章中的优点，大到文章的构思，小到遣词造句，只要有长处，老师就要毫不吝啬的指出来。孩子们最愿意看到的不是你的挑三拣四，而是你对他的赞赏。所以我在批改作文时总是有意提高打分的档次，极大地鼓励了孩子们的写作热情。

现在，我们班的学生不再谈作文变色了，他们最喜欢的事是拿到自己的作文本，看我的圈点批注，总是欢喜之情，溢于言表。“兴趣是最好的老师”，大家都乐意做的事情，怎么会没有进步呢？

提高小朋友的写作技巧，这好象是一个老大难问题，一直以来都困扰着众多的同学、老师和家长。大家都觉得，要提高写作的能力是一件很不容易的事。

国外的小朋友一样有这方面的困扰，不少小朋友也苦于不会写作。针对这个问题，教育专家詹妮弗-李提出了一些建议供大家参考。

给小朋友准备一个恬静、亲切的环境，作为写作的专用区域。当然这里面要具备一些必要的设备：书桌、字典、笔、一些纸，假如可能的话还可以准备一台电脑。这些准备不只是必要的，同时还可以由此告诉你的小朋友，你认为写作是一件有意义的、特别的活动。

小朋友需要机会去尝试写各种各样类型的文章，而不是只盯着一种文体来练习。

你可以让小朋友给他的好朋友写一封友好的信，给玩具公司写一封信提出自身的一点要求，或写一封邀请亲戚来吃饭的信。这样小朋友可以看到自身写作真的取得了效果，就会对写作发生好感。

另外一个鼓励小朋友写作的好方法，就是让他写日记。这种方法可以协助小朋友形成写作的个人风格。但你和小朋友要约定好，别的家庭成员是否可以读他的日记。假如你答应小朋友不看他的日记，那么就一定要维护他的隐私。

还有一个可以协助提高小朋友写作技巧的方法——电脑软件。现在有很多出色的软件，里面提供故事的开头、想象画以和段落结构的建议等内容，这些都可以激发小朋友自身写作的愿望和灵感。

许多小朋友都经历过写作的瓶颈状态——即脑子里一片空白，不知道写什么好的情况。比方小朋友被要求写一个有发明性的故事，但他不能想出有什么有趣的东西可写。这时家长就可以协助小朋友了。可以给小朋友一本笔记本，记下平时突然发生的奇特想法，家人开的玩笑，或者是描述一幅以前的具有纪念价值的相片。也可以让小朋友从杂志中获得有用的点子。

一旦小朋友决定了一个文章的主题，就应该让小朋友先写一下草稿或是打一下腹稿。这样可以保证所有要写的重要细节都包括到文章里去了，并且可以调整文章的结构，你还可以就草稿跟小朋友一起谈论，寻找最好的写法。在学校里，老师也用各种方法，协助小朋友在开始写文章之前，先组织好要写的内容。

家长还可以和小朋友一起朗读不同文体的好作品，比方诗歌、小说、新闻故事甚至是一封有趣的信，只要是小朋友会感兴趣的东西都可以。无论是大人还是小朋友，在阅读了大量的好的作品之后，都会在写作上学到很多东西。

通过阅读，家长可以问小朋友：“你喜欢什么样的作品？不喜欢什么样的作品？”“文章的作者能抓住读者的注意力吗？”“你觉得这个题目有意思吗？”这样可以提高小朋友的兴趣。鼓励小朋友认识到写作是一个不时发展的过程，写作水平也不是一成不变的，而是可以通过努力不时提高的。告诉小朋友可以从对已有作品的改写、缩写、扩写中，开始自身的写作。

小朋友需要在完成自身文章之后的一、两天，甚至更长时间以后，再回头看看。这样做可以让小朋友用一种全新的眼光来看待自身的作品，发现其中的错误和被遗漏的细节。

一个作家在写作时要考虑，自身写的内容是否切题？所有的细节都包括进去了吗？描写太多会不会显得罗嗦？小朋友虽然不是专业作家，但这些问题也需要想一想。

让小朋友把自身完成的文章大声地读一遍，假如他自身不能发现其中的明显错误，那么就需要有人为他再读一遍，好让他自身意识到错在哪里。还要注意小朋友在文章中有没有错别字。

爸爸妈妈还要为坚持小朋友的写作积极性做一些努力。比方在小朋友犯错误的时候给他一些口头上的批评，但注意重点在为小朋友指出错误，而不是教训他。还可以把小朋友的好作品贴在墙上，让每一个来家里的人都能看见，这对小朋友是一种奖励。这样小朋友很快就可以体会到写作的重要和乐趣了。那么他的写作水平就自然会提高。

导语：我们在写作的时候说明文有什么样的写作技巧呢？以下是小编为大家分享的小学说明文的写作技巧，欢迎借鉴！

说明文，即用来解释或说明事物、理论、方法、过程或某种抽象概念的文章。说明文的基本目的就是说清楚。也就是说，要让人看了文章后对文章中解释或说明的对象有清晰明确的认识。这就决定了说明文的基本特征是客观和科学。

说明文首要的一点是明确说明的 对象，然后用准确的语言，结合多种说明手法对之进行介绍和描述。常用的说明手法有下定义、分类别、作比较、引资料、举例子、列数字、画图表等。下定义，即给要说明的对象下一个明确的定义。如博物馆的定义就是征集、保藏、陈列和研究代表自然和人类的实物,并为公众提供知识、教育和欣赏的文化教育机构。分类别是将要说明的对象按照某种标准划分类别，以帮助读者对事物的理解。如电视机，可以分为彩色电视机和黑白电视机。作比较，即将这种事物与那种事物比较异同，从而更清楚地说明事物的特点。如将城市和乡村作比较，将大学和幼儿园作比较等。作比较的时候一定要注意比较的事物之间应当具有可比性，不能生拉硬扯，也不能不尊重客观事实，胡乱比较。为了说明某种事物的特点，有时候需要介绍它的背景、原理、历史等，这时就要用到引资料这种手法。比如我们要对长城进行说明，适当地引用一些历史文献，就更有助于今天的人们了解长城的历史，从而加深对长城中所蕴含的民族精神的认识。在复杂说明文中，列图表具有不可替代的优势。大量的数据、冗长的叙述、复杂的相互关系等，都可以通过图表得到直观的表达。

按说明的对象不同，说明文可分为事物说明文和事理说明文。前者着重在于说明的成因、构造、形状、用途等，后者则重在说明事理。这两类说明文常用的写作手法也有一定的区别。比如事物说明文重在说明事物的物理特征，常用的是下定义、分类别等说明手法，事理说明文重在说明事物的逻辑特征，地要用到引资料、作比较等说明手法。但时候，在同一篇文章中，几种说明手法都要用到，相辅相成，互为补充。

如何使说明文物理并重、形神兼备的呢?首要的一点是观察。说明文写作的前提是对要说明的事物非常熟悉。要做到这一点，就要养成认真观察、深入了解的习惯：

观察要有针对性。要带着问题观察，而不是走马观花、浮光掠影。最好能在观察前列出观察提纲，观察时要记笔记、画图标。要善于提出问题。

观察时要分清主次。这就要求我们注意观察的顺序。观察有概括性观察和特写性观察之分。前一种方法有助于抓住事物的概貌，后者则利于把握观察对象的细节和特征。由概括到特写、由全局到局部，是观察的一般原理。

观察重在事物的形。要想传神，写出事物的内涵、原理等，则需要有很好的查阅资料、作调查的能力。比如我们要写一篇文章来说明洛阳牡丹。在写好它的形状、颜色、品种之外，如果能够考察一下洛阳牡丹的来历、其中的牡丹名品在培育中的科学原理，这篇文章就会有说服力，使读者更深刻地认识到洛阳牡丹的文化特色。这就要求我们具备相当的知识积累、广阔的知识面和优秀的调查能力。作为小，应当从小注重积累知识和调查能力的训练。比如通过剪报、记笔记、上图书馆和阅览室等途径来有意识地训练自己。

写作说明文还要注意说明的顺序。有合理的顺序，文章才能条理清晰，让人看得明白。说明顺序一般有三种，即空间顺序、时间顺序、逻辑顺序。间顺序一般有从上到下、从左到右、从前到后、从远到近等。时间顺序一般有从古到今、从过去到现在等。 逻辑顺序有从现象到本质、从原因到结果、从主要到次要、从整体到部分、从概括到具体等。什么是合理的顺序呢?这要根据人们认识事物的过程以及说明对象本身的特征、规律而定。说明事物的形状、构造等，往往以空间为顺序;说明事物的成因、方法，往往以时间为顺序;说明事物的事理，往往以逻辑关系为顺序。

当然，大多数说明文会综合使用多种说明顺序。因此，在写作时，我们要合理地安排好说明顺序，理清说明文的结构层次。常用的结构层次有并列式、层进式和总分式三种。比如我们以“水”为题目进行写作，可以先写水的外形特征，再写水的分类，然后写水的用途，这是并列式的写作层次。我们也可以先写水的外形，再写水的成因，最后写水给人类带来的利与害，这是层进式的结构层次。先概括水的用途和特征，再一一细述，就是总分式。

说明文的特点

说明文是一种对事物作客观说明的一种文体，目的在于给予读者知识。中学生对说明文的写作最感头痛，往往举步维艰。其实，说明文的写作并非像同学们所害怕的那样，只要理顺了头绪，把阅读说明文和写作说明文结合起来，以阅读课文为写作借鉴的范例，多观察、多分析、多练习，就能逐步学会选用恰当的说明方法，正确而有条理地说明事物的特征

第一，要写好一篇说明文，首先得分清说明文和记叙文的区别。说明文的写作是授人以知，让人明白，记叙文写作目的是以情感人、让人动情。说明文只是说明事物的特征，阐明原理，介绍知识，说明是手段。说明文与议论文的区别，主要在于说明文的目的主要是说明，议论文的目的则主要是说理；说明文要求把实体事物或抽象事理本身的情况说清楚，议论文则要求提出个人对议论对象的看法或主张

第二，要完成一篇说明文，须将说明文的特点烂熟于心。说明文的特点主要有说明性、知识性、科学性、实用性。只有很好地掌握了说明文的这些特点，才能将说明文写好

第三，须将说明文的类型分清楚，如果从内容上而言，说明文可分为事物说明文和事理说明文，如果从表达方式上分，可以分为平实说明文和科学小品文事物说明文：以具体事物为说明对象，将事物是怎样的作为说明重点，对事物的状态、性质、功能、构造、发展变化等特征，进行科学说明。事理说明文：以事物的发生，发展变化以及相互联系的成因等为说明对象的说明文，说清怎么样和为什么，使人不仅知其然，还要知其所以然平实性说明文：是指用平实、简洁、明白的语言对事物的外形，内部结构，功用及种属关系加以较客观的说明，用词造句一般不带感情色彩和主观倾向，很少使用描写，更少使用修辞手法。

写作方法是一门应用科学，也是一种技巧。娴熟的写作技巧，能使文章流金溢彩，引人如胜，对突出与提高文章的价值很有作用。当然，它虽非一日之功能，但多读、多看、多写，也会熟能生巧、驾驭自如。古人说：读书破万卷、下笔如有神。

要想写出好的新闻作品，必须把握以下四点：画龙点睛的标题，轻重得当的布局，行云流水的思路，洗练生动的文笔。

l、千锤百炼标题

新闻标题之于文章，相当于眼睛之于人的脸庞。美不美，看脸嘴，神不神，看眼睛。俗话说，眼睛是心灵的窗户。消息的标题，直接决定了编辑和读者的第一印象，印象的喜恶又决定了取舍的意愿。夸张一点说，在稿源充足的情况下，标题决定稿件的生死。通常说的“看书看个皮，看报看个题”，就是对此的精妙注解。标题成为了筛选信息的最好尺度，同时，还是一个记者最高文字水平的体现。

对尚未入门的初学者来说，好的标题，就是一块敲门砖。取了一个好的标题，可以说就成功了一半。

标题是什么?标题就是主题的凝炼，是主题的精练显现，是主题的文字浓缩。提练不出消息的主题，凝炼不出主题的标题，结果就只会是文不对题，就是牛头对马胯，南辕北辙，风马牛不相及，下笔千言，离题万里。

标题，原则上应有三方面的要求：第一，鲜明。如《县委书记的榜样——焦裕禄》，见题就知文章内容要反映什么。第二，新颖。如《鲜花开在牛屎上》，人们都知“鲜花插在牛屎上”的含义，但此变一个字，就达到反其意而用之的效果。第三，扣题。如《抢救里根总统记》直接揭示文章内容。这三方面的要求，其目的就是给人一个“一见钟情”的感觉，见到便有多看几眼或看个究竟的欲望。有的文章内容很好，但标题不好，就容易在编辑那里被见题生厌或引不起注意，弃之一旁。如果我们的通讯员发表的稿件，只要达到60%以上数目的标题不被改动，那拟制标题就算及格了，或者说不错了。

实题与虚题。标题有实题与虚题之分。实题是指标题是文章内容的实在浓缩，内容就是标题的展开。如《焦裕禄》、《总统》。虚题是指标题是内容的意境升华或比喻，内容不是标题的展开。如《鲜花》写的不是真实的鲜花开放在牛屎上，而是将人将成绩比喻成鲜花，牛屎暗示工作和生活环境。实题与虚题并无优劣之分，关键是看文章内容，需用什么样的形式表示更好一些。二者各有千秋。

正题与副题。文章都有其标题，但通讯在很多时候既有正题，又有副题。正题，通常揭示文章主题。副题，是正题的补充，常划定某个范围或作某种揭示。如《总统》就只有正题，因为这里的正题已说得相当明白，勿需副题来画蛇添足。如《鲜花》发表在《经济信息时报》上，编辑就按惯例加了个副题“—一记朱家场工商所的年轻人们”。这就限定了范围并予以揭示，这篇通讯写的是朱家场工商所的年轻人，既不是写花，也不是写哪一个人。一般来说。现在中篇人物通讯，多有副题，短通讯即小故事，通常不用副题。

2、别出心裁布局

写作的金科玉律三点式：凤头、熊肚(猪肚)、豹尾。 最精采的呈现在开头，最打眼的妆点在开头，最关键的浓缩在开头，最震撼的推出在开头。使人一见动心，欲罢不能。

最厚重的在中间，最充实的在中间，最丰满的在中间，最信服的在中间。容天纳地，精采纷呈;事实胜于雄辩。

最隽永的回味在收笔，最揪心的牵挂在收笔，最警醒的拷问在收笔，最振奋的激情在收笔。掩卷击节，拍案称绝。

通常而言，这三点式是所有作文的通则，但消息因其特殊体裁而略有不同，就动态消息来说，常常是重要的放在前边，越靠后就越是可有可无，甚至不要，也不影响读者对消息的知悉度。如果有人留心便不难发现，大型会议的报道，最后常常罗列非顶级的长串领导名录。当然，长消息与经验消息综合消息，就要认真布局，尤其“肚子”，要厚实与丰满，逻辑关系一定要相互关联与照应，不能顾此失彼，互不相干。布局上力戒平铺直叙，起伏迭宕方见奇。

开篇。对文章成败有较大关系，有的文章有专门的章节或段落。如引子或序言之类，有的则没有。不管有无，但开头都必需精彩、引人。清人李渔说过：“开卷之初，当以奇句夺目，使之一见而惊，不敢弃去。”开头写得好，就能“逼”着读下去。如枯燥干巴、乏味，则难以吊读者的胃口，引起他们的兴趣。《鲜花》是这样开头的：“鲜花插在牛屎上，历来是一个贬意语，然而‘鲜花绽开牛屎上’，却是一方父老的口碑。”为何反其意而成为口碑呢?欲知详情如何，那就请看下文分解，达到以俗变新，诱人下看的目的。

主体。这是文章的全部内容所在，背景、因果、经过、人和事、环境等，全在这里，这是文章全部价值的彰显之所，同样又是作者的匠心所在。可以说，文章的成功与否，系于主体。《鲜花》的四大部分“潇洒人生”、“服务上帝“、“拳拳爱心”和“造福一方”，都在主体部分。这四部分分别表现他们人生观、价值观和荣辱观;表现他们的职业忠诚和服务市场经济的行为;表现他们对人民的一片赤诚和厚爱之心;表现他们汗水换来的山区经济的发展。通过四个方面刻画，使读者相信，这的的确确是一束鲜花，是值得人们口碑的。

结尾。是文章的结束部分，也是呼应开篇、呵成一体的重笔之处。结尾，往往以议论或抒情作为结束语，以达到昭示、震撼、警醒、呼唤、反省、回味之目的。形式有恬淡或浓郁、轻盈或凝重、隽永或豪迈、飘逸或苍劲等等不一而足。结尾，有的文章有尾声等章节，但篇幅不长的通常无此必要。《鲜花》以“奋进吧，年轻人!愿牛屎上的鲜花绽开得更加绚丽夺目”作为结束语，抒发了作者强烈的感情和厚望，与开篇呼应，浑然一体。

3、酣畅淋漓思路

清晰畅达，行云流水，迭宕起伏，圆润柔滑。力避脱节、冲突、重复、离心。

消息的思路，相当于人的血脉、经络。血脉与经络淤滞不畅，人必将元气耗失，萎靡不振，沉疴在身，病体奄奄。一副病入膏肓的样子，何来美感，何以打人。思路决定成败。再好的新闻，思路搭铁短路，懵懂迷糊，不能辨其价值，或不能表现价值，价值也就无从谈起。独家新闻好写，不是独家新闻，就得拓开思路，另取角度，另寻视点，见人之所不见，写人之所不写，即古人说的，人人心中均有，个个笔下皆无。

如魏巍的《谁是最可爱的人》。这标题凝炼得穿越时空成为永恒，

成为志愿军甚至是此后解放军的代名词。国内大量的战地记者写了数不清的战斗故事与战斗英雄，而魏巍另取角度，另寻视角，从三个普通的士兵身上提炼出了代表整个志愿军对祖国对朝鲜人民忠与爱和对侵略者恨与狠的本质精神。(牺牲战士嘴里的耳朵;炮兵要求改步兵;雪拌炒面的回答：怎么不苦，我们革命军队又不是怪物。)真实真情与独特的视角，成为永恒经典。

思路最显心力的是主体架构。主体结构的形式，通常有顺序式、倒序式、并列式、花朵式等几种。

4、栩栩如生文笔

妙笔生花，花团锦簇;妙笔生辉，辉映锦绣。妙笔的底线是真实，迭破真实的底线，妙笔就是杀人的刀，一是杀他人，二是杀自己。

消息的要害是鲜活灵动，是带着朝露的嫩绿，富有勃勃的生机。多用动词，少用形容词;多用平实口语，少堆砌华丽辞藻;多用短句，少写冗长繁语。用洗练生动的语言写出人物与事件的鲜活，切忌枯燥死寂。

娴熟的文笔，是驾驭文章的前提与条件。没有好文笔，写不出好文章，同样也不能写出生动形象的消息。通讯，不仅要娴熟的文笔，还需斐然的文采;文采，让文章容光焕发，使作品熠熠生辉。写作中，尽量避免学生腔与无病呻吟，学生作文的痕迹不可避免地在初学者的文章中显露。不要追求太时髦与太滥的书面语和千篇一律的陈词滥调，如法制类消息，只要是犯罪嫌疑人一落网，90%的都写“等待他的，将是法律的严惩”，耳朵生茧，听而翻胃。

动词是让句子富有生命力的关键，能使句子获得最大限度的流动感和跳跃感。美联社1974年修订的《编辑手册》中对记者的新闻写作提出了10个要求，其中第6条明确规定：“要牢记，一个句子中至少有一个实体动词，而这个动词应当是句子中最重要的词。”

(三)通讯写作的基本技巧

通讯写作最见功力的，是人物通讯。只有赋予人物思想与情感，让人物鲜活起来灵动起来，作品中的人物才能被读者认可与接受，才能感染与打动读者，才能完成作品的使命。

就我采写的人物通讯《鲜花开在牛屎上》，谈谈通讯写作的基本技巧。这篇通讯曾获全国工商好作品三等奖，也被贵大教授作为授课的范文讲评。

1、在矛盾冲突中展开故事情节，增强感染力

任何事物都是矛盾的统一体，社会在矛盾作用下前进。写通讯，就要将人物与事件在整个社会生活环境的相互关系和作用表现出来。背景是什么，矛盾焦点在哪里，情节发展如何，都必须考虑，依据如此诸多因素，造成一种强烈的矛盾对比的环境氛围，掀起情节发展的波峰浪谷，张驰有度，轻重有节，提起一个又一个悬念。常言讲的“文章似山不喜平”就是这个道理。为突出矛盾、突出情节的起伏，就必须戒除平铺直叙，面面俱到，应对素材有所取舍，当繁则繁，当简则简，有的要浓墨重彩，有的只一笔带过，以轻衬重，以次托主。《鲜花》首先介绍了环境的跟苦，而这些文化素质都较高的年轻人们是一种什么心态呢?面对起伏不定的市场效益，他们又是怎样作为的呢?一个个悬念都在迭宕起伏的情节中，在矛盾的变化中消失了。这样，文章的感染力也就得到增强。

2、利用典型事例烘托，增强说服力

典型事例，最具说服力。离开典型事例，就显苍白，也就没有通讯。典型是在特定的背景下，特定的环境中产生出来的特定典型人物与典型事例。较之普通不同的独有“个别”，是一篇作品产生的成因。只有写好了典型，文章才有说服力。《鲜花》在特定环境中，写了四件典型事例，并辅之以若干小事。“一滴水可以反映太阳的光辉”，通过典型事例，就由衷说服了读者。

3、让人物充分活动，增强生命力

人物，是通讯的核心，没有人也同样不存在通讯，尤其是人物通讯。为此，必须调动一切因素，刻画好人物，肖像刻画、语言刻画、心理刻画、行为刻画，立体综合表现，着力把握好对主要人物的刻画，让其用音容笑貌、喜怒哀乐、行为举止表现出一个血肉丰满的活人来。《鲜花》在心理刻画方面。其中有这样一段：“四头牛价值13000元，牛贩要求必须由工商担保，而且要在五天内给钱。长沙人有身份证和介绍信，身份真实，诈是不会的，只是等他们回去再寄钱来，至少也要半月。江所长面对—边恳求的眼光，一边慷慨的配合„„”他到底会怎么样?这个中风险如何?这诈与不诈怎样界定?这五天期限又如何实现?究竟应采用何种妙策?只有让人物充分地立体活动了，文章和主人公的生命力才能得以表现。

4、使用描写、议论和抒情等手法，增强表现力

在通讯中，描写是大量的人物描写、景物描写、场景描写，这不赘述。议论和抒情，也显得非常重要，在关键时候加以运用，往往起到升华主题与主人公思想境界的作用。有人曾这样说：“议论之于文章，犹如翅膀之于鸟。鸟无翅膀不能凌空，文无议论，境界难以升华”。可见，议论在通讯中的重要，但切切不能多用甚至滥用议论。议论与抒情，可以是文中人物，也可以是作者。先讲文中人物议论。如《鲜花》“农科院一位同志握着两人的手感慨地说：小同志啊，我活了这么大，是你们让我真正当了一回上帝!”这抒情式的议论，就将“服务上帝的思想境界升华了。再讲作者议论。如《鲜花》“潇洒吗，凭你说”。短短六个字，就将年轻人乐于艰苦创造辉煌的潇洒人生，予以了充分肯定和热情赞美。

5、关于标点符号

标点符号，在文章中占有非常重要的位置，有时起到了类似人身关节的作用。用得好，会使文章增色;反之会使文章辞不达意，甚至相反。标点符号，在文学作品中显得非常重要，在通讯中也很重要，它不仅起标点段句的作用，还能起到调节文章节奏、变换句式、阅读韵律、强调感情的作用。也许有的人现在还不能理解，或许觉得荒唐，一旦你写多了，个中奥妙自会明白。如《鲜花》“场内两棵三人合抱的古樟树，神树。病牛进场，好了;萎牛进场，雄了。树不死，场就不散”。用了这些标点。文句变短了，口语化了。节奏感强、明快。但若变成：“场内两棵三人合抱的古樟树，仿佛神树一般，病牛进场变好了，萎牛进场变雄了。只要树不死，场就不会散”。这样，字多了，句子也变长了，也不口语化了，明快的节奏感也随之逝去。

(四)重心与中心

对初学者而言，一定要知道消息的重心与中心两个最基本也最重要的概念。重心，是作者的功夫着力点;中心，是作者的思想展示点。

1、重心是标题与导语

新闻界有一个共识：编辑最见功力的是标题制作;记者最见功力的写好导语。

投稿时，新闻标题与导语的好坏，在很大程度上直接决定了编辑的取舍。报纸新闻的好坏，也同样直接决定了读者的取舍。美国哥伦比亚大学新闻系教授曼彻尔说：我写新闻，有一半甚至更多的时间用

于琢磨导语。

2、中心是主题与事实

主题从事实中凝炼升华，事实支撑与丰富着主题。主题是新闻事实所体现出的中心思想与基本观点，是作者通过客观事实所要表现的主观意图，是写作过程须臾不可偏离的中心。正如唐代杜牧所说：“凡文以意为主。”亦即要表达的思想意识和由此呈现的事实本象。

(五)新闻写作的十大规则

1、真实，是新闻的生命。

2、时效是消息的气色;越新鲜，气色越出采。

3、标题至少出现一个动词，最好无形容词。

4、独家新闻标题用基本事实，多家新闻突出角度。

5、用最好、最简短的语言写成导语。

6、消息中杜绝主观议论。

7、将专业术语变为大众语言，如不能，则尽可能放弃。

8、先起标题后写文，增强文章逻辑性。

9、多用动宾词组，少用偏正词组。多用祈使句，少用叙述性语句。

10、消息以细节数量取胜，不追求细节的扩展。

游记作文写不好，中小学生很容易犯这个毛病，下面整理了一些游记的经典写作方法，希望对大家的写作有所帮助!

第一种写法：重点在于抒发、阐明某次游玩的心得体会。

例如王安石的《游褒禅山记》，重点不在于描摹自然景色，而在于寄寓哲理。实际上这个哲理他早就成竹于胸了，只是借今天游山之机说出而已，读者千万不要被那句于是余有叹焉迷住眼睛，以为他是临时才有感而发的。幸亏他所说的尽吾志也而不能至者，可以无悔矣的哲理还算实在话，他勉强算成功了。我要特别指出的是，他的成功还有赖于下面两个条件：他当官颇有政绩，这个哲理是他亲身体验过的，还不至于是单纯地板起面孔训人;他后来当了宰相，实行变革，虽不很成功，倒也算是名垂青史，人们大都是因尊敬他的人而加倍地尊敬他的文了。发展才是硬道理，这句话有多少人说过?出自邓爷爷之口就是名言，出自你之口也许就只是笑话了。不是话不对，是说的人不同。

我们再来看个例子。德咏同志的《断桥断想》(见楼仲焕、徐昭武主编的《19791988散文拔萃》，南京出版社1989年7月第1版)，干脆几乎不写风景了，一下笔就写断想，由白素贞及蛇，及文艺，及人，最后说：今天还有没有那种不管好蛇毒蛇，是蛇必除的法海和尚?又有没有那种不分善恶、见蛇就晕的许仙之辈呢?这，我就不得而知了。由于已有心理准备，他的议论倒并不觉得突然，也似乎比较容易接受。

还有一种方法也似乎比较容易让人接受。苏轼的《石钟山记》，写景之余还顺便考察山的命名由来，最后提出事不目见耳闻而臆断其有无，可乎，还是让人佩服其勇气和见解的，虽然他的见解其实是不确的(关于这点可参看俞樾的《春在堂随笔》)。

第二种写法：直接写某一次游历的所见所闻所感。

这是最简单的写法，也是最常见的写法。例如柳宗元的《至小丘西小石潭记》，是山水游记的典范作品之一，即写某次偶然发现并游历一个小石潭的事。先写发现经过，再写潭水清冽这是最直观的第一印象，自然首先提及;次写潭的构造这是第二印象，这样写完全符合观察顺序和生活逻辑;次写潭中游鱼鱼总是不容易发现的，要仔细看;更因仔细看，才发现它们的动态和静态都是那么可爱，所以多写几笔，其实鱼的可爱并非此时才知道，只是在这荒野之地见到，倍感惊喜而已;次写潭上景物，抒发抑郁忧伤之情触景生情，人之常情，而这个情自然是在那个特定的时空中的人生境遇的折射了;最后写同游者，这是古人的惯例(王安石《游褒禅山记》也是如此)，也是对人的尊重，现在一般不这样做了。

通观全文，作者完全是使用一种普通的写法。如果我们仔细想想，也能想到这些，但我们为什么不能写出这样的好文章?除了柳文的文字简洁美妙、感情率真动人外，我想最重要的原因恐怕是我们受到文以载道的思想的影响太深，以为一写文章就是要教训别人，好象不如此就不足道了，就不深刻了。余秋雨的大部分游记散文正是如此，难怪会招来批评。我敢说，柳宗元的文章肯定比余秋雨的更有生命力。其实，写文章就是说话，有话直说比较好，关子卖得太多了，像杨朔的散文，反而不好。有的人说起话来精彩极了，一写起文章反而干巴巴的。事实上，如果把他的话录下来，稍加整理和润色，就是一篇很好的文章。

但如果有人据此以为写文章就完全等于说话，那自然也是错的。因为说话一般是随意的，无序的，东拉西扯的，还可以随时做补充的。写文章决不能这样。请看袁宏道的游记名篇《满井游记》，先写局促一室之内，欲出不得的苦恼，再写至满井后若脱笼之鹄的快乐，然后重点写眼前所见。先写水冰皮始解，波色乍明水能返光，最先引起注意;次写山为晴雪所洗，娟然如拭目标大，也惹人注目;次写柳条将舒未舒，柔梢披风目标虽小，但在动，同时它在近处;次写麦田浅鬣寸许更近处，故能看得如此清晰;次写游人先景物后人物，颇具匠心;次写风无形的东西，最不易捉摸，到此时方引起注意;最后抒发感想始知郊田之外，未始无春，而城居者未之知也。试问谁讲话能如此层次分明、言简意赅而又让人有身临其境之感?

当然，这种分类叙述的方法，也不是他的发明。早在《山海经、南山经》中就有一篇《鹊山》，已经非常熟练地使用这种方法了。事实上，《山海经》中的其他文章也常常是这样的。

现在，我可以给大家口授一个写作提纲了：《洞寨山游记》未去时向往，将去时兴奋，到达后欢呼，然后天气，树木(桂花，茶花，迎春花，茉莉花)，草丛，建筑(涌泉亭，1号、2号、3号亭)，游人，然后你们的所作所为，然后略抒心情及感想(今天不用上课多好啊，又得浮生半日闲啊，始知郊田之外，未始无春，而城居者未之知也啊，等等)。然后你去看看《泉州晚报》，上面发表的文章也许还不如你的呢!

第二种写法：综合写某几次游历的所见所闻所感。

这是较难的一种写法，也较少见。非二流以上作家一般不敢轻易使用。例如袁宏道的《虎丘》，综合写了六次游历虎丘的经历及感受，给人的印象颇有立体感。尤其是第三段写中秋夜斗歌的精彩场面，决非一次就能凑巧碰上的，例如他最后一次去时就领略不到了歌者闻令来，皆避匿去了。但是这种情况又确实存在，晚明张岱在《虎丘中秋夜》中也有类似的描写。这种写法的难处在于你必须对该景点的大部分情况，包括自然景观和人文景观，都比较了解，并且最好有自己的独特见解。这当然不是一般人所能做到的。我们游完武夷山回来，还能记住几个山名?更别提什么独特见解了。同理，游过虎丘的人也不计其数，又有几个记得什么千人石、剑池、千顷云、文昌阁、平远堂呢?可是，要写游记就要用心去了解，去搜集，去体验。海明威不是有个冰山理论吗?写进文章的材料也许只是作者所知道的八分之一呢。以袁张二文论，都算做到了。描写风景及人文景观还算生动，且前者有山川兴废，信有时哉和虎丘之月，不知尚识余言否耶之叹，后者也有使非苏州，焉讨识者之叹，也还算新人耳目我们去游玩时就不一定有这种灵感。但是，相比之下，袁文显然比张文写得好，也比较有价值。一是前者比较具体、完整，二是内容几乎雷同，自然是后者无新意;三是后者在语言上袭用了前者至少一句话：雁落平沙，霞铺江上。

常见的修辞方法有:比喻、比拟、借代、夸张、对偶、排比、设问、反问。

首先能在语言中辨识各修辞方法,继而理解其适用效果;同时要会用这些修辞方法,提高运用语言的能力。修辞方法又称修辞格。据专家研究,汉语修辞格可达70种之多,常见的有10多种。

(1)比喻。

它是用某一具体的、浅显、熟悉的事物或情境来说明另一种抽象的、深奥、生疏的事物或情境的一种修辞方法。比喻分明喻、暗喻、借喻三种形式。明喻的形式可简缩为:甲(本体)如(喻词:像、似、若、犹、好像、仿佛)乙(喻体)。暗喻的形式可简缩为:甲是(喻词:成、变成、成为、当作、化作)乙。明喻在形式上是相似关系,暗喻则是相合关系。借喻:只出现喻体,本体与比喻词都不出现。如:燕雀安知鸿鹄之志!

(2)借代。

不直接说出要说的人或事物,而是借用与这一人或事物有密切关系的名称来替代,如以部分代全体;用具体代抽象;用特征代本体;用专名代通称等。如:

①不拿群众一针一线。(一针一线代群众的一切财产)

②不要大锅饭。("大锅饭"代抽象的"平均主义")

③花白胡子坐在墙角里吸旱烟。(花白胡子是以特征代本体)

④千万个雷锋活跃在祖国大地上。("雷锋"以具体的形象代抽象的共产主义思想)

(3)比拟。

把人当物写或把物当人来写的一种修辞方法,前者称之为拟物,后者称之为拟人。如:

①做人既不可翘尾巴,也不可夹着尾巴。(拟物)

②蜡炬成灰泪始干。(拟人)

(4)夸张。

对事物的形象、特征、作用、程度等作扩大或缩小描绘的一种修辞方法。如:?

①白发三千丈,缘愁似个长。("三千丈"为扩大夸张)

②芝麻粒儿大的事,不必放在心上。("芝麻粒儿"是缩小夸张)

③太阳刚一出来,地上已经像下了火。(把前一事物"出来"与后一事物"下火"夸张到几乎是同时出现,有人称此种夸张方式为超前夸张)

(5)对比。

是把两种事物或同一事物的两个方面并举加以比较的方法。如:

①先天下之忧而忧,后天下之乐而乐。

②朱门酒肉臭,路有冻死骨。

(6)对偶。

用结构相同或相近,字数相等的一对短语或句子对称排列起来表达相对或相近的意思。如:

①满招损,谦受益。

②横眉冷对千夫指,俯首甘为孺子牛。

③欲穷千里目,更上一层楼。(流水对)

④望长城内外,惟余莽莽,大河上下,顿失滔滔。(扇面对)

(7)排比。

把内容相关、结构相同或相似、语气一致的几个(一般要三个或三个以上)短语或句子连用的方法。如:

但这回却很有几点出于我的意外。一是当局者竟会这样地凶残,一是流言家竟至如此之下劣,一是中国的女性临难竟能如是之从容。

(8)反复。

根据表达需要,使同一个词语或句子一再出现的方法。反复可以是连续的,也可间隔出现。如:

①冒着敌人的炮火,前进!前进!前进!

②敌人从哪里进攻,我们就要它在哪里灭亡,敌人从哪里进攻,我们就要它在哪里灭亡。

(9)反语。

即通常所说的"说反话"--实际要表达的意思和字面意思是相反的。如:"友邦人士"从此可以不必"惊诧莫名",只请放心来瓜分就是了。

(10)顶真

用前文的末尾作下文的开头，首尾相连两次以上，使邻近接的语句或片断或章节传下接，首尾蝉联，这种修辞手法，叫做顶真，又叫顶针或联珠。

运用顶真修辞手法，不但能使句子结构整齐，语气贯通，而且能突出事物之间环环相扣的有机联系。

例如：

①楚山秦山皆〈白云〉，

〈白云〉处处〈长随君〉。

〈长随君〉，〈君〉入楚山里，

云亦随君渡〈湘水〉。

〈湘水〉上，女罗衣，

白云堪卧君早归。

(李白《白云歌》)

②他比先前并没有什么大改变，单是老了些，但也还未留胡子，一见面是〈寒暄〉，〈寒暄〉之后〈说我"胖了"〉，〈说我"胖了"〉之后即大骂其新党。(鲁迅《祝福》)

引 用：引用一些名人名句，主要为了突出主题，增加文章的说服力。同时也能展示作者的读书功底与阅历，给读者留下深刻的印象

引 用

写文章时，有意引用现成语 (成语、诗句、格言、典故等) 以表达自己的思想感情，说明自己对新问题、新道理的见解，这种修辞法叫引用。

引用的作用是使论据确凿充分，增犟说服力，富启发性，而且语言精炼，含蓄典雅。

明 引

例子(1)：

孔子曰：「三人行，必有我师。」是故弟子不必如师，师不必贤於弟子。

暗 引

例子(2)：

失败乃成功之母，你千万不要气馁。

例子(3)：

薄粥稀稀碗底沉，鼻风吹动浪千层，有时一粒浮汤面，野渡无人舟自横。 ( 沈石田《薄粥诗》)

【导读】：散文诗兼有诗与散文特点的一种现代抒情文学体裁。它融合了诗的表现性和散文描写性的某些特点。从本质上看，它属于诗，有诗的情绪和幻想，给读者美和想象，但内容上保留了有诗意的散文性细节。

现在看见很多人喜欢和读散文诗，但是有的人对散文诗的基本认识还不是很清楚，所以造成了有些不知所措的感觉。现就仅仅个人来谈谈散文诗的写作和欣赏的方法。

散文诗兼有诗与散文特点的一种现代抒情文学体裁。它融合了诗的表现性和散文描写性的某些特点。从本质上看，它属于诗，有诗的情绪和幻想，给读者美和想象，但内容上保留了有诗意的散文性细节；从形式上看，它有散文的外观，不像诗歌那样分行和押韵，但不乏内在的音乐美和节奏感。散文诗一般表现作者基于社会和人生背景的小感触，注意描写客观生活触发下思想情感的波动和片断。这些特点，决定了它题材上的丰富性，也决定了它的形式短小灵活。

散文诗是一种近代文体，是适应近、现代社会人们敏感多思、复杂缜密等心理特征而发展起来的。虽然中国1000多年前就有类似散文诗的作品，欧洲在16、17世纪不少作家就写过很有诗意的散文，但作为一种独立的文学样式流行起来是在19世纪中叶以后。第一个正式用小散文诗这个名词，和有意采用这种体裁的是法国诗人波特莱尔。他认为散文诗足以适应灵魂的抒情性的动汤，梦幻的波动和意识的惊跳。在中国新文学中，散文诗是一个引进的文学品种。1915年2卷7期的中华小说界刊登的用文言翻译的屠格涅夫的四章散文诗(当时列入小说栏，译者刘半农)，是外国散文诗在中国的最早译介。1918年4卷5期的新青年杂志，发表了刘半农翻译的印度作品我行雪中的译文，文末所附的说明指出它是一篇结构精密的散文诗。散文诗这一名称从此开始在中国报刊上出现。对於这一文体的性质和特点，文学旬刊在1922年曾有过理论探讨，西谛(郑振铎)、滕固、王平陵等人都发表了意见。

关于散文诗的定义

一、散文诗，必须有两个特点：

其一，散文诗是诗和文的渗透、交叉产生的新文体。

散文诗是散文与诗嫁接出来的品种，这是没有疑问的。散文诗具有诗与散文的两栖特征，散文诗既吸收诗表现主观心灵和情绪的功能，也吸收了散文自由、随便抒怀状物的功能，并使两者浑然一体，形成了自己的独特性。可以说不熟悉诗与散文这两种文体，就很难创作散文诗。但是散文诗究竟是一种新的文体，还是如有人说的：散文诗是散文的诗和诗的散文？关键要看散文诗是否具有独特的艺术特征，或者说散文诗区别与诗和抒情散文的艺术特征是什么。

其二，散文诗有其独特的审视人生方式，即运用比较自由的形式抒写心灵或情绪及其波动。从总体上看来，散文诗是抒写心灵或主观情绪的文体。

波德莱尔是散文诗的最初创造者之一。他说过：当我们人类野心滋长的时候，谁没有梦想到那散文诗的神秘，－－声律和谐，而没有节奏，那立意的精辟辞章的跌宕，足以应付那心灵的情绪、思想的起伏和知觉的变幻。。他还说：散文诗这种形式，足以适应灵魂的抒情性的动荡、梦幻的波动和意识的惊跳。动荡、波动、惊跳，这说出了散文诗的主要艺术特征。

要说明上述两点，必须进一步区别散文诗与诗、与散文（尤其是抒情散文）的不同之处。

二、散文诗与诗、与散文（尤其是抒情散文）的区别。比如结构、语体、节奏等方面的不同。

（1）散文诗与抒情诗的区别。抒情诗由于要讲究句式的整齐或大体整齐和音乐韵律，因此，即便是自由体的抒情诗，在表现心灵或情绪时也不能不受到较多限制。正是为了突破限制，更舒卷自如地写出心灵的真实状态，于是才有散文诗这一文体的诞生。

散文诗与诗歌的不同之处在于散文诗经常运用描述和议论的表现手段。

与诗相比，散文诗没有诗的韵脚、节奏、音节、行数、排列，即没有诗歌的外形式的羁绊。散文诗的形式至少有如下几种：散文的形式，散文与诗交错排列的形式，即整段散的文字与单句(诗句)的交错。这是抒情诗不可能有的自由自在的形式。

（2）散文诗和抒情散文同是抒情文体，但散文诗独特的艺术特征是它的动荡、波动、惊跳。

承认散文诗是抒写心灵或情绪及其波动的文体，这与抒情散文的界限也就不难区分了。抒情散文总是离不开纪实，更不用说那些以记叙真人真事为主的叙事散文了。而散文诗几乎没有原原本本地记录真实人物和真实事件的。即使我们称为纪实的散文诗，究其实也是抒写的内心对现实生活的印象，不过这印象很少变形很少对现实生活作想象式的反映罢了。

在结构上，有人说，诗是以线抒写生活，散文是以面反映生活，散文诗是以点折射生活。散文大都有时空长度，都有线索；散文诗无需线索，篇幅较短，常常是作者情感燃烧的那一点辐射开来，而内在情绪则形成环环相扣的情感冲击波，冲动读者的心弦，进入诗的境界。

在语体上，散文诗的语言是抒情性的想象的语言，散文的语言是叙事性的现实的语言。散文诗的语言具有散文语言无法比拟的弹性美、丰富性和不确定性，情感含量和美感含量都比较大。散文为文，语言要求简洁洒脱，更多一些娓娓而谈，写清作者情之所系的来龙去脉，抒情也更细腻，句与句之间、段与段之间衔接较紧密。散文诗为诗，语言要求浓缩、跳跃，一般是跳跃式地联结意象，句与句之间，尤其是段与段之间，往往是似断实连的关系，这就留下较多的可供读者想象的空白美。

因此，散文诗既不是散文的诗，也不是诗的散文，它是具有完整性、特殊性、独立性的文体形式。

关于散文诗的结构

散文诗结构的基本方式大体有纪实性（直抒式）、想象式、哲理式和象征式四大类。

1、纪实性（直抒式），即意在象表，比较外露。比如写景抒情、叙事抒情等。或者说是心灵感受外部世界基本上是原原本本的，是什么就在心灵投影什么，很少变化。直抒胸臆的散文诗通常用此种方式。

议论文主要包括三要素：论点、论据和论证方法。论点必须正确。论据是为说明论点服务的，既要可靠又要充分，事实胜于雄辩，是最好的论据。论据也可以是人们公认的真理，经过实践考验的哲理。论证的方法多种多样，常用的方法有：

1. 归纳法

从分析典型，即分析个别事物入手，找出事物的共同特点，然后得出结论。

2. 推理法

从一般原理出发，对个别事物进行说明、分析，而后得出结论。

3. 对照法

对所有事实、方面进行对照，然后加以分析，得出结论。

4. 驳论法

先列出错误的观点，然后加以逐条批驳，最后阐明自己的观点。

开头部分:

How nice to hear from you again. Let me tell you something about the activity. I’m glad to have received your letter of Apr. 9th. I’m pleased to hear that you’re coming to China for a visit. I’m writing to thank you for your help during my stay in America.

结尾部分：

With best wishes. I’m looking forward to your reply. I’d appreciate it if you could reply earlier.

学生写作的源泉来源于生活。要想让学生喜欢写作文，首先要引导学生学会寻找写作文的源头。小编收集了提高小学生写作水平的有效方法，欢迎阅读。

一、引导学生从生活中捕捉写作的素材

学生写作的源泉来源于生活。要想让学生喜欢写作文，首先要引导学生学会寻找写作文的源头。生活是实实在在的，又是丰富多彩的，学生留心观察生活，能把平凡生活反映出来，这对学生写作来说具有重要意义。叶圣陶老先生说过：“作文这件事离不开生活，生活充实到什么程度，才会写成什么文字。”因此，只有让学生平时多留心观察生活，多参加实践活动，才能积累学生对事物的认识和感受。为了让学生能够从日常生活中获得丰富的写作素材，我注意培养学生留心观察周围事物的习惯。经常安排一些联系学生生活实际的活动。如利用周末或妈妈的生日、母亲节、妇女节等时间，帮助妈妈做一些力所能及的家务活，亲身体验一下父母平时的辛苦，并把劳动的过程、父母的反应、自己劳动后的心情和感受写下来;观察自己喜欢的小动物，把它的样子特点、生活习性和自己之间发生的有趣事情，以及对它的喜爱之情表达出来。如果学生平时能够养成多看、多听、多思、多问的好习惯，日积月累，就丰富了自己的作文材料。

二、鼓励学生大量阅读，丰富语言的积累

常言道：“读书破万卷，下笔如有神，”多读多练是写好作文的“诀窍”。阅读是作文的基础，要提高学生的写作能力，就要指导学生做好读书笔记，要做好课内课文的读书笔记，但这远远不够，还要指导学生大量阅读课外读物，并做好读书笔记。我除了通过教学课文进行语言积累外，还鼓励学生大量阅读有益的，对身体发育成长有利的课外读物，并向学生推荐一些好的报刊读物，如《小龙人报》《小学生拼音报》《十万个为什么》《童话故事》《爱的教育》等。书读多了，就能把书中的营养吸收到自己的写作之中。平时阅读教学中指导学生体会、认识课文中语言表达的规律性知识，要求学生不能只是泛泛而读，要深入进去用心读，还训练学生逐步养成不动笔墨不读书的好习惯，引导学生把课文中的好词佳句、优美片段分类摘抄在采集本上，进行读、背、记在心中，加强体会，以便在习作中运用。

三、有效仿写练习，促进学生写作能力

对于初学写作的小学生来说，虽然是写自己身边发生的事，也知道是将自己看到的、听到的、做过的、所想的写下来，可是一动起笔就不知道该怎么写，写出来的作文总是不具体。这需要为他们提供一些范文，学习范文的写作思路、特点、方法，根据范文的语句以及表达方式进行具体的模仿，习作起来就有了兴趣，写出的作文也就比较具体。

首先，仿写文中的一段话或句群的表达方式。如教《有趣的作业》一课，有这样一段话“展示作业的时间到了。嗬!同学们的课桌上可热闹啦!有小小的野花，有嫩嫩的桑叶，还有青青的小草。”在说话写话时就指导他们用上“……有……有……还有……”这样的句式，学生写到“我家冰箱里存放的东西可丰富啦!有又嫩又绿的黄瓜;有鲜红的西红柿;还有白嫩的豆腐”。学生学会了仿写段，也就为写篇打下了基础。

其次，指导仿写课文的写作方法，进行篇的训练。语文教材中安排的课文都是佳作，无论是语言文字，还是篇章结构都是学生学习的典范。从语文教学实践看，学生从读学写，由仿照写到创写效果明显。学生读一篇好文章既可以学到作者的观察方法、思维方法、还可以学到表达方法，经过由仿照写到创写，走一条写好作文的捷径。如学习了《假如》这篇课文，让学生模仿这一课的写法写了想象作文《假如我有一支马良的神笔》，学生写出的作文用词恰当，表达清晰，写出了自己内心的愿望，充满了一片纯洁的爱心。这样就可以把课内学到的知识巧妙地运用到了作文教学当中，达到了学以致用的目的。

四、学生良好的写作习惯，离不开有效的写作步骤指导

有效的写作步骤，我认为离不开想、说、写、读、改。

想：写作之前先想清楚要写什么内容，作文要求是什么。这时，教师对学生写作选材做及时地指导，引导他们打开记忆，选取记忆中印象最深刻的部分。这样既可以紧扣作文要求，又可以表达出自己的真情实感。

说：想好后，同桌先练习说一说，在互相说的过程中，指出对方用词不当之处，交代不清楚、不具体的地方等等，都可以进行再思考调整。这样做，既避免了写作时前言不搭后语的现象，又锻炼了学生的口头表达能力。

写：觉得自己思路清楚，说得通顺连贯，比较满意了，就可以进行写作了。

读：写完后，还要读一读，找出错别字及用得不当的词句等，养成边读边想的好习惯。

改：在认真读的基础上，修改自己找出有毛病的地方，学会修改自己作文的能力。然而许多小学生有这样的问题：若要他把自己写的东西进行修改，那他就找不出毛病来，但如果让他去修改同学的作文，去挑别人作文中的毛病，他倒真能找出许多不当的地方，有的甚至连老师也想不到。根据小学生的这种心理特点，我因势利导地让他们通过作文的“互改”去发现问题，提高自己的作文能力。

只要培养学生留心观察生活和阅读积累的习惯，再加上教师的善于启发、巧于点拨、及时激励，我相信学生的写作能力一定会提高。

Unit Fourteen

The Lord and the Hermit

Once upon a time there was a rapacious lord. He was relentless to his tenants and quelled them by placing quotas to their living condition. Soon he collected quantitatively great revenue and lived in a radiate palace. He was also renowned for his queer clothes.

One day the lord’s disease relapsed, so he rallied his subordinates for help. One of them said: “I’ve heard of a recluse who knows regimen well residing nearby. Why not visit his residence for help?” Another retorted: “Be prudent, maybe it is only a rumor.” But the rash lord was filled with rapture and ratified the visiting plan.??

On the next Sunday, the lord purged himself, held a quaint rite and started for the hermit’s home. They passed rugged rustic passages full of paddles and the lord almost recoiled. Finally they arrived. The lord felt disappointed at the recluse’s reception, but he wouldn’t relinquish the chance and talked to the hermit with reverence.

The hermit ruminated and reverted to the main topic in a pungent voice: “I’ve heard lots of your ravenous deeds. You retract the land you’ve distributed to the farmers and order them to redeem their land. You must redress your guilt and rehabilitate their freedom. Reimburse their respective debts and build refuge for them. You can retain the residue of your property.”??

The lord was reluctant to renounce his wealth and be rent from his palace. He rebuked: “Your advice is too reckless. I’m resolute not to accept it.”

“Why so repulsive? You cannot repudiate my words.” The hermit reiterated his suggestion and its resonance echoed. “Remit their taxes with rebates, or a riot is imminent.”

The lord again refuted. At last he went back in remorse.

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

童话，讲述的是虚拟的故事，并不是真实的。以下是小编给大家整理的小学生童话作文写作方法的内容，欢迎大家查看。

一、我们在写之前要弄清什么是童话?

童话：是通过丰富的想象、幻想和夸张，来塑造形象、反映生活、对儿童进行思想、道德教育的一种文学样式。童话，讲述的是虚拟的故事，并不是真实的。其中的"人物"，也是假想形象，并非真有其人。但它所表现的人、事、关系、道理，却是现实生活的反映。

二、童话都有哪些特点呢?

第一、写童话需要幻想和夸张

幻想和夸张，是童话的两只"翅膀"。 幻想，是我们对未来生活的想象。童话离不开幻想，幻想离不开夸张。夸张，是对所要表现的对象或某种特征，故意夸大或缩小的一种修辞手法。没有夸张，幻想的内容就会失去光彩;没有夸张童话中的形象就会暗淡无光;没有夸张，童话的讽刺性就会失去锋芒;没有夸张，童话的语言就会缺乏感染力。如《皇帝的新装》中，那个爱慕虚荣、愚蠢的赤裸裸的皇帝，在现实生活中可能是不存在的，但我们却相信这个故事，因为现实中就有大量爱慕虚荣、愚蠢的人存在，同时也就应运而产生了那种骗子，他们利用一些人的爱慕虚荣、愚蠢，导演着一幕幕荒延的闹剧。这种幻想，源于生活又高于生活，具有相当高的艺术价值。

第二、写童话需要有拟人化的形象

童话里的形象，大多是拟人化的。童话中，无论是动物、植物，其他东西，都可以像人一样会思考、会说话、会做事、会生活。列宁说过:"儿童的本性是爱听童话的。你给儿童讲故事时，如果其中的鸡儿、狗儿都不会说人话，儿童便没有兴趣。"

第三、写童话需要有奇妙、曲折丶动人丶完整的故事情节。

由于童话创作的主要手法是想象、幻想、夸张和拟人，因此，童话的情节都非常奇妙，洋溢着浓烈的浪漫主义色彩。如《神笔马良》的故事，说的是穷孩子马良，凭顽强刻苦的精神，得到了一支神笔。他拿着这支神笔帮助贫苦大众，智斗财主、皇帝，让人读后无不称快。

三、 童话的写作和要求。

优秀的童话都不是凭空产生的，都是作者细心观察现实生活中的人、事、物后，通过"幻想处理"，创作出来的。写童话不仅需要细心观察，还要经过一个"幻想处理"，也就是"生活幻想化"的过程。只有经过这个过程，生活才能成为童话。在创作童话时，还要注意五点要求：

第一、童话中的幻想是生活的反映，因此要植根于现实。

第二、童话中的夸张一定要突出事物的本质。脱离事物本质的夸张，只能让人感到荒诞、不可信，也就失去了童话的教育意义。

第三、童话中的拟人，一定要抓住事物的特征，符合动植物的特征。

第四、在一篇童话中，表现手法要多样，这样会使你的童话故事显得生动感人。

第五、语言简洁活泼，符合儿童的语言特点。

四、怎样创编童话故事?

1、利用"假设"进行想象

假设某一具体情况，让学生根据这种情况，结合自己的生活经验进行想象、联想。想象可以超越时空、超越自我，甚至想象出世界上不存在的事物。例如，阿凡提来到我们当中，会飞的猴子，鳄鱼拿着一支玫瑰花来敲我的门……这些都是合理的想象。这样坚持下来，久而久之，就会想、敢想，就能大胆创新。

2、利用"绘画"展示故事内容，发展想象能力

在"创编童话"过程中，不要以"写故事"的形式把故事内容展示出来，而是打开绘画纸，展开想象，自由作画，把想到的东西画出来。"画好故事"以后，再给画面配上文字，就成为一篇简单的童话故事了。

3、利用"表演"展现故事情节

例如《小红帽》，可以五人一组，分别扮演"小红帽"、"妈妈"、"外婆"、"猎人"、"狼"，将故事表演出来，表演时可以加以创造，不要完全按照原文表演。表演后，几个人凑在一起，研究一下怎样给故事欢歌结尾。

4、利用"续编"延续故事内容

如《狼和小羊》一文的结尾是："狼不想再争辩了，龇着牙，向小羊扑去……"可以大胆想象并续编故事：小羊最终的结局如何呢?如，小羊想了一个好办法战胜了狼，从此过着幸福的生活。这些与众不同的办法，就是你的想象力;把这些想象写下来，就是一篇很好的童话故事了。

童话里的形象，大多是拟人化的。童话中，无论是动物、植物，其他东西，都可以像人一样会思考、会说话、会做事、会生活。列宁说过:"儿童的本性是爱听童话的。你给儿童讲故事时，如果其中的鸡儿、狗儿都不会说人话，儿童便没有兴趣。"