英语说明文常见写作方法【实用20篇】

【特点】

通过几件事写人，作者所选择的几个事例，可以是一件事表现人物某一方面的思想品质，全文连起来，表现一个人物几个方面的精神和品质；也可以几个事例紧紧围绕一个中心，表现人物某一方面的特点。采用几事写人法写人时，首先要注意几件事的内容不能互相矛盾，人物的性格、特点在几件事中是和谐统一的。其次要注意尽量用不同的事情反映人物的性格的不同侧面，类似的事情应避免重复出现。此外，文章的开头和结尾要交代与这几件事的有关内容，或对人物作概括介绍。第四写几件事时，可以按时间顺序；可以以某一事物为线索；也可以详写一件，略写几件；还可以按事情的分类排序。

常见100种作文写作方法1、第一人称叙事法26、借物抒情法51、拟人法76、工笔细描法2、第三人称叙事法27、托物言志法52、动物自述法77、画龙点睛法3、顺叙法28、物品自述法53、议论抒情法78、人物特写法4、倒叙法29、远眺近看法54、景物衬托法79、动态速写法5、插叙法30、内外结合法55、季节特征法80、动静结合法6、补叙法31、移步换形法56、随时变化法81、展开想象法7、分叙法32、说明介绍法57、日内变化法82、比较描写法8、详叙法33、环境衬托法58、定点换景法83、人物漫画法9、略叙法34、彩笔描绘法59、定景换点法84、自我介绍法10、直接抒情法35、远近结合法60、移步换景法85、结合时代法11、间接抒情法36、时序变换法61、围绕中心法86、步步深入法12、先叙后议法37、生长变化法62、分类描写法87、连续动作法13、先议后叙法38、展开联想法63、听看想法88、交替叙述法14、夹叙夹议法39、突出重点法64、描写议论法89、概括描写法15、以物为线索40、对照比较法65、动静结合法90、天女散花法16、以人为线索41、赞美颂扬法66、通篇拟人法91、动作分解法17、以思想变化为线索42、静态素描法67、比较异同法92、独白法18、以中心事件为线索43、总分结合法68、景物幻化法93、对话法19、写生法44、特征举例法69、借景抒情法94、直接描写法20、转动法45、特征说明法70、方位介绍法95、回忆想象法21、剥笋法46、重点突出法71、参观介绍法96、梦境幻觉法22、拟人法47、成长变化法72、画面组合法97、一事写人法23、化动法48、实验证明法73、分类介绍法98、几事写人法24、说明法49、群体描写法74、触景生情法99、对比写人法25、运用五觉法50、现场目击法75、粗笔勾勒法100、细节表现法

准备一些适合自己的SAT写作例子可以帮助大家在SAT写作考试中节省很多时间并取得好的效果。那么SAT写作例子该如何准备呢?下面小编就为大家整理了关于SAT写作例子准备的相关信息，供大家参考。

很多SAT考生在开始准备SAT写作例子的时候都有些漫无边际，四处撒网的感觉，其实，如何才能找到一个自己用的顺手，又有广泛的用处的SAT写作例子也不是短时间内就可以的。大家在准备SAT写作例子的时候，可以从下面的步骤开始：

开始从多本SAT参考书中搜集作文题目，并对这些题目进行分类，然后针对不同类别的题目准备不同的例子。

每一类题目都能准备2-3个例子，再举一反三之后，便能很有效的应用到几乎所有题目了。而且这样做的好处是，大家可以对SAT写作题目可以应对哪种类型的SAT写作例子做到心中有数，再找例子就方便了。

其次，选择SAT写作例子的时候尽量选择一些国际性的，而且是美国人所知道的。这是从SAT考试的特点入手的，因为SAT写作评分的毕竟是美国人，所以在平时学习生活中，多积累一些关于美国或者西方国家的人文、历史、社会等知识，多用一些关于西方的SAT写作例子是十分重要的而且有技巧的。

再次，不建议大家用个人的例子去论述整篇文章，因为个人的例子往往缺乏说服力，很PERSONAL，考官也不一定会认可你所论述的。所以大家在准备SAT写作例子的时候，可以准备关于自己的例子，但是不能应用在全篇。

一、建筑物说明文写作常识

1、内容要素

在初中新旧版语文课本中，《人民英雄永垂不朽》、《雄伟的人民大会堂》、《故宫博物院》、《中国石拱桥》、《苏州园林》、《第比利斯的地下印刷所》、《巍巍中山陵》、《晋祠》、《桥之美》、《说屏》等，都是建筑物说明文。

记叙文、议论文和小说都有各自的要素，建筑物说明文也不例外。那么，建筑物说明文一般以什么为说明内容的基本要素呢?

从课本的范文来看，一般地说，它往往说明建筑物的所处位置、地理环境;设计者和设计经过，修建年代和修建过程;整体布局，建筑特征、规模风格;外观轮廓，内部结构、装修和陈设;建筑物的性质、地位、用途;与建筑物有关的历史背景和传说故事;建筑物的历史价值和艺术价值等。上述这些便是建筑物说明文内容的基本要素。

我们在写建筑物说明文的时候，要根据这些基本要素去广泛收集材料，才会有的放矢，目标明确，范围清晰，做到全面而不盲目。

2、材料的收集途径和筛选办法

收集材料的途径很多。

我们在亲身游览建筑物的过程中，要多看多记多摄。

多看，只用定点、移步换景和散点观察的方法，多多察看建筑物四周的环境，外观轮廓，内部建构和装修陈设，重点建筑驻足流连，次要建筑走马观花，努力把所见记在脑海之中。

多记，之尽量用本子记下建筑物上重要的解说、对联、碑刻之类的文字。

多摄，指条件允许的话，就用照相机把建筑物周围环境、外观轮廓、内部结构、装修陈设当中关键的东西拍摄下来，这比单靠脑袋记忆和本子记录来得持久牢固和直观形象。成文是时，还可以选取拍摄到的一些相片作辅助说明。

另外，参观游览之前，尽可能阅读与所写建筑物有关的书面材料，如诗歌、游记等;参观游览时，购买旅游指南、导游手册、明信片，听导游的解说等，这些书面材料里面常有宝贵的写作素材。

写作素材准备充足了，下一步就要精心筛选素材。我们决不能把收集到的素材一股脑儿塞到文章里，而应根据说明的企图，决定哪些内容要素要详细说明，哪些内容要素要简略说明，哪些内容要素不作说明。凡与说明核心无关的内容就得忍痛割爱。留下的材料，该轻描淡写的就几笔带过，应该浓墨重彩的便绝不吝笔。做到重点突出，详略得当，避免记流水账，面面俱到，主次不分。

范文选材就非常讲究。中国石拱桥数不胜数，茅以升仅以赵州桥和卢沟桥为代表具体说明我国石拱桥历史悠久、结构牢固、形式优美多样的共同特征，歌颂我国古代劳动者的高度智慧。故宫大小宫殿七十多间，《故宫博物院》一文只重点介绍了太和殿和养心殿的位置、外观、装修、陈设、用途及有关历史，揭露了满清统治者的专制、奢侈和腐败。

2、写作技巧

写建筑物要善于抓住特征，这样下笔才能高屋建瓴。如何抓住特征?要靠整体概括和纵横比较。

整体概括，意思是说，无论对单个的建筑物、庞大的建筑群、抑或对星罗棋布的某类建筑物，都要从整体上概括出带有本质性或普遍性的特点。对人民大会堂，就是从外观轮廓和内部结构两方面概括出其“雄伟巍峨”、“浑然一体”的特征的;对故宫，则是从紫禁城宫殿房屋的数量、位置、布局的共性出发，整体把握到这个庞大建筑群的规模宏大、地位显要、布局对称、华贵雍容的特征的;对苏州园林，不碍从拙政园、沧浪亭、留园、怡园、狮子林、网狮园这些星布散置于苏州的园林建筑在亭台轩榭的布局、假山池沼的配合、花草树木的映衬，远景近景的层次，门窗檐墙的雕刷等方面的共性，综合出苏州园林“图画美”的特征的。

纵横比较，指的是就相同或相异的地域、时代、民族、宗教等，拿所要介绍的建筑跟同一样式的或不同样式的建筑做比较，找出它们在建筑形式的承继沿革或根本差别，从而发现建筑物的本质特征。提到苏州园林，叶圣陶先生便拿它与故宫——我国传统建筑比较，得出苏州园林亭台轩榭不对称的布局特征。

假如要说明广州石室教堂，只要把哥特式建筑与拜占庭式建筑相比较，就会知道石室的特征在于尖顶。倘若介绍广州文化公园，不妨用天河公园、东方乐园、航天奇观、长隆动物世界与之比较，则不难抓住其特征——没有茂盛的树林，也没有宽阔的湖泊，更没有大型的现代化游乐设施以及各种动物，只有展馆、戏台、棋苑、说书坛、健身房之类，是纯粹的“文化”公园。

写建筑物说明文要注意文章的结构布局和说明顺序。

结构布局，首推总分式。一如《故宫博物院》，先总体说明整个建筑群的位置、历史、地位、用途、规模、风格、特征和平面布局，然后逐一分说“前朝”和“内廷”的各部分建筑物的位置、外观轮廓、内部装修和陈设、地位和作用等;一如《苏州园林》、《中国石拱桥》，先总括某类建筑的共同特征，再分说这共同特征的各项具体变现或典型代表;一如《故宫博物院》，先中说“三大殿”，再分说太和殿、中和殿及保和殿。这样的结构布局，眉目清晰，层次分明，有概括又有具体。

按游踪介绍建筑物的环境和布局，外观和结构的说明文，如《人民英雄永垂不朽》，多采用空间顺序。采用空间顺序要与定点观察、移步换景、俯视鸟瞰、散点观察的方法步骤相以致。

专门概况建筑物的共同特征的说明文，多运用逻辑顺序，像《中国石拱桥》的由一般到个别，《苏州园林》的有概况到具体，先主后次。

说明建筑物的设计、建造、修葺过程，往往用程序顺序，像《第比利斯的地下印刷所》。说明建筑事业发展历史，则采用时间顺序，像《中国石拱桥》末段。

建筑物说明文可以采用一种说明顺序，也可以交错使用两三种说明顺序。《第比利斯的地下印刷所》一文就用空间顺序介绍印刷所地上地下建筑的结构，用程序顺序介绍印刷所的建造过程，用时间顺序介绍印刷所的毁坏和修复过程。

写建筑物说明文要注意语言运用的准确。

第一，按游踪介绍建筑物，要注意游踪线路的交代，要注意表示游历者所处位置和移动方向的方位名词、处所介词、去向动词的使用，还要注意表示观察角度和建筑物位置的方位名词的使用。

第二，要注意标识建筑年代、面积、体积、资金等数字的准确性，合理使用确数和约数。

第三，要掌握所写建筑物的一些术语和专有名词，准确理解这些词语的内涵和外延，恰当运用到文中去。如，亭台、轩榭、楼阁、庵观、寺庙各有所指，切莫张冠李戴，导致知识性错误。

第四，要合理运用修辞方法和表达方式。

运用修辞方法和记叙、描写、一轮的表达方式是为了辅助说明，增加说明的形象性、生动性、思想性，使之具有一定的文学色彩，以区别于专业的纯粹的建筑物说明文。

写建筑物的环境、外观、陈设、雕饰等多可用修辞方法和描写方式。例如：

(1)《晋祠》一文就大篇幅描写晋祠的山、树、水，以刻画其环境之幽美。《故宫博物院》结尾几段就描写了御花园的环境气氛，以及从景山公园回头俯瞰到的故宫景象。

(2)《雄伟的人民大会堂》一文里“一条黄绿相间的琉璃屋檐，把巍峨的大会堂的轮廓从蓝的天空中勾画出来，那壮丽的柱廓，淡雅的色调，以及四周层次繁多的建筑立面，组成了一幅庄严绚丽的画图”就写了人民大会堂的外观轮廓。

(3)《人民英雄永垂不朽》一文就详细描写了十块汉白玉浮雕上的历史画面。

写与建筑物有关的人事和传说等，多用叙述、议论。例如：

(1)《中国石拱桥》一文概述了“七七卢沟桥”事件，以体现其历史价值、文物价值。

(2)《故宫博物院》一文插说了“普天之下莫非王土，率土之滨莫非王臣”的话以及慈禧挪用军费的事，揭露封建帝皇的专制、腐败和奢靡。

(3)《说屏》一文开篇就叙述童年往事，交代自己对屏风心生向往之情的来龙去脉。

(4)《故宫博物院》一文在说明太和殿的用途之后，马上描写了大典的盛大场面。

不过，用修辞方法和表达方式切勿过度，以免喧宾夺主，致使把建筑物说明文写成了散文、游记。毕竟，他们有别于诠释、比较、数据、举例、引用、图表、比方等正宗的说明方法。另外，运用比喻、拟人等修辞方法和描写方式，虽可发挥想象，但不能言过其实，肆意吹嘘，欺骗读者。

中学生写建筑物说明文要像范文一样具有思想价值，如歌颂劳动人民的聪明才智，揭露反动统治者的奢侈腐败，反映新制度下建筑事业的突飞猛进等，这一点与专业的建筑物说明文不同，那是纯技术性的。

最后，谈一谈建筑物说明文命题的方式。主要有三种：首先是直称式，如《第比利斯的地下印刷所》、《故宫博物院》、《苏州园林》、《晋祠》等，直呼建筑物的名称，不加任何修饰语;其次是特征加名称式。如《雄伟的人民大会堂》、《巍巍中山陵》等，在其名称前加上表示该建筑物特征的修饰性词语;最后是写意式。如《人民英雄永垂不朽》等，以蕴含作者对所写建筑物设计的人事物的感情的语句为题。

二、读写训练的方法

初中语文课本中建筑物说明文虽多，但尚未有专文介绍其写作常识。为了使学生形成和具备建筑物说明文的理性认识，提高学生读写建筑物说明文的效率，笔者尝试结合课本的范文，概说其写作常识。

怎样引导学生读写呢?

阅读时，应交学生在学习范文时逐步分析归纳出来，把从各篇范文所得到的点滴理论汇集梳理成一个系统，化零为整。

写作时，应重申这些写作尝试，给学生具体指导，通过由专项到综合的仿写，慢慢学会写自己家居的环境、布局、风格、结构、陈设，自己学校的规模、布局、设施，附近建筑的结构、建造，周边名胜的环境、传说、外观等。然后，老师把自己的下海之作和学生的佳作诵读、贴堂，使学生一开始写建筑物说明文，就从搜集说明材料、确定说明内容、把握建筑特征，安排文章结构和说明顺序，到斟酌语言运用和文章题目，都合乎规范，少走弯路。学生只要掌握写作的基本要领，以后就可以灵活变通，自主创新了。

新闻写作方法浅论

应该说，新闻业务论文写作是新闻工作者从事业务理论研究的一门必修课。近年来，随着我国职称制度的恢复和发展，写作并在公开出版的刊物上发表业务论文，又成为对新闻从业人员业务考评的一个必需的“要件”。

一、新闻写作的前期准备工作

1、了解你的受众

写作与编辑要把网络读者的需求与习惯放在心上。网络使用性研究表明读者往往只是浏览网站而不是专心地阅读。他们也往往比印刷品的读者或电视观众更活跃，搜寻信息而不是被动地接收你提供的东西。

考虑一下你的目标受众。因为你的读者正在网上获取他们的新闻，极有可能的是他们比电视观众或报纸读者对与网络有关的故事感兴趣，因此重视这样的故事是有意义的。另一方面，你的网站具有抵达全球的潜力，所以要考虑到你想把它做得可以让地方、国家或者全世界的受众都看得懂，写作和编辑要把这一点放在心上。

2、先思考——而且要思考得与众不同

在你开始报道和写一个故事的时候，考虑一下讲述故事最好的方法是什么，是否通过使用音频、录像、可点击的插图、文本、链接等方式——或一些组合。与音频、录像和互动设备的厂商进行合作。定一个计划并让它指导你新闻采集与生产的全过程，而并非只是报道一个故事，然后添加各种各样的元素。寻找可用到网上的故事—

—这些故事你能够讲得与其他媒介不同或者更好。

3、做好你的新闻收集工作

正如印刷品记者与电视记者采访的方式不同（因为他们在寻找不同的事物），所以网络新闻记者必须专为自身需要做好采访与信息收集工作。

印刷品记者倾向于寻找信息。电视记者倾向于寻找镜头上的情感、尖利的声音和与文字相伴的画面。网络新闻记者必须不断地以不同的要素和不同的要素如何完成与相互补充的方式进行思考：寻找与文字相配的影像、与音频、录像相配的文字、引进互动性的资料等。

记住照片在拍得或取得窄时看起来更好，流体录像在背景素朴、最小聚焦的情况下更容易观看。如果有人说那将会成为有力度的剪辑时，就尽可能把采访录制下来。寻找会成为有趣谈话嘉宾的名人。并且一直关注运用互动工具进行更有效传递的信息。

4、写得活泼而且紧凑

为网络写作应该是一个处于广播与印刷品之间的交叉口——比印刷品更紧凑和有力，但比广播写作文字性更强而且更细致。积极地写作，而不要被动地写作。努力用生动的散文，依赖有力度的动词和鲜明的名词。在你的文章中注入区别性的声音以助于把它和网上的多数内容进行区分。运用幽默。试着以活泼轻快的风格或态度来写作。网上对话风格发挥的作用尤其好。网络受众更易于接受非常规的写作风格。

同时，不要忘记传统的写作规则应用于网络这一点。不幸的是，

大多数网络新闻网站的写作水平参差不齐。故事遭受被动词、乱加从句的冗长句、混合的比喻和陈词滥调的困扰。这是由快节奏新闻采集、短期配备人员与无经验的记者造成的。这也是一个大错误。读者注意到粗心的文章，他们是并不会谅解的。他们将中止阅读故事并且不会回来看更多的内容。与地方报纸读者不同，网络读者有可选择的事物。

二、掌握新闻写作的基本技巧

1、如何发现新闻。没有的写是我们及一些通讯员，甚至记者常遇到的头疼问题。所以善于用新闻的眼光去发现新闻，是写出通讯报道的关键。

（1）“变废为宝”选角度。联保贷款推行多年了，再写就无新意了，成为新闻写作的废物。但如何变

（2）“吹糠见米“。举齐鲁晚报例子。

（3）“大海捞针”挖新闻

2、消息的写作技巧。在这里，主要介绍一下消息的写作，这是目前适用最广泛的一种新闻写作方式。对我们农村信用社的新闻报道来说，也是最常用的文体。因为通讯较消息篇幅长、覆盖面大，象我们这样的单位，一般很难被新闻单位采用。

（1）消息的构成：标题、导语、主题。（通常还可分为背景、结尾，这里所说的，已经包含在主题内）。

标题：也就是新闻的题目，象人的脸面一样重要。标题制作贵在醒目、得体、生动形象，能够吸引读者，起到画龙点睛的作用。一

篇报道，读者拿起来之后要先看标题，然后再决定看还是不看。新闻标题的结构方式、写法很多。但有一点是共同的，在标题撰写上必须下功夫。新闻界有“三分之一时间写标题、三分之一时间写导语、三分之一时间写主题”这一说法。

导语：导语往往是新闻事件的高度概括，使读者看过导语后，不用看下文，就能了解消息的主要内容，这种结构形式的特点避免了消息写作中把最重要、最新鲜的事实淹没在大量一般性事件各，突出了“新”字。陈述性导语。按事实发生的时间顺序来写，又叫“编年史式”，这种形式使消息情节步步推进，事件的高潮在后面出现，有引人入胜的效果。描写型导语。就是对消息中某一有意义的特殊场面作简洁而有特点的描写。评论型导语。就是在叙述事实的同时，立即对事情作出评价，提示其事物的现实意义。如写我们支持贫困学子上大学时，可以这样写：浮来农信社在做好当前支农工作的同时，筹措资金设立“专项贷款”重点扶持“金榜题名”的贫困农家学生顺利入学。（这是事实，然后再加以评论）此举，让浮来山镇考取大中专院校的考生及其家长们吃了“定心丸”。设问式导语。设问式导语就是在消息开头即提出一个尖锐的问题，然后加经解答，引起人们的关注和思想。如我们在推得联保贷款，解决了农民贷款难的问题。导语可以这样写：贷款像存款一样方便？对莒县农民来说，原来似乎不可能，如今已梦想成真。引语型导语。就是将消息中主要人物有新意、有特色、个性化的语言放在导语中，给人以强烈印象。如“凡是农民的正当需求，我们必须满足供应。”农

信社主任马德勤说的这句话，代表了农信社对全县百万农民的庄严承诺。

务实宣传，就是要紧紧围绕中心、准确站位全局，勇于担当、奋力先行，务实宣传，就是要注重以人为本、着眼民生民心，将实事办好、好事办实，务实宣传，就是要紧跟时代步伐、顺应发展要，与时俱进、创新创造；务实宣传，就是要切实转变作风、坚持关键在做，真抓实干、求实求效。务实宣传，体现了尊重事实、尊重科学、尊重规律的精神，理应成为当前和今后一个时期新闻宣传的总基调。

下面是小编为你带来的关于写人的写作方法，希望对你有帮助。

写人，是小学作文训练的基本功之一。在记叙文中，人和事是不可分的，关键是看题目如何要求。要求写事的题目，文中的人要为事服务;要求写人的题目，文中的事必须为人服务。写人为主的记叙文，就是要通过一件或几件事，来表现人物一种或多种品质。写人的继续文，叙事不要求完整;记事的记叙文，虚实要求完整，而且要贯穿文章始终。

(一)通过一件事来写人

通过一件事来写人，通常是表现人物的一种品质或性格的一个方面。为了刻画人物，对所写人物必须进行必要的外貌、语言、动作、心理等方面的描写。但是，从以事写人这个角度来说，最好是选择一件最能反映此人某一特点的事，并把这件事写好。 在写事情的时候，要选择典型的事例。所谓典型，就是能集中反映中心思想的事，能够表现人物的好思想、好品质、美好情感的事。对小学生来说，选择典型事例，要着眼于小事，选择那些最能反映深刻意义的小事。这样的事表面上看，都是普普通通的凡人小事，但是其中却蕴涵着深刻的意义，这就是我们常说的“小中见大”。

(二)通过几件事写人

可以分成两种情况：以是用几件事表现某个人的一种品质;二是用几件事表现某个人的多种品质。 要注意：用几件事写人，这些事可以是完整的，作者必须把事情发生的时间、地点、人物、事件(起因、经过、结果)，一一交代清楚，也可以是不完整的，只着重于某几点进行叙述。更多的是在一篇文章中，有的事详写;有的事略写;有的事要求写得比较完整，有的事要求写得比较简单。 通过几件事写人，同样要对人物进行必要的外貌、行动、语言、心理的描写。

(三)学会刻画人物

写人的文章要会在叙事的过程中，对最能表现人物思想感情、性格特点的外貌、语言、动作、心理活动等方面进行描写，也就是学会刻画人物。

1. 也叫肖像描写，是通过对人物的容貌、神情、衣着、姿态、语调、外貌特征的描写。来揭示人物性格的一种方法。人物的的外貌和人物内心世界密切的联系，具体说：通过外貌描写，使人物的形象更丰满，能给读者留下深刻印象;通过外貌描写，揭示人物的身份;通过外貌描写，展示人物在特定场合的内心世界;通过外貌描写，表现人物性格、精神面貌和思想品质。

总之，外貌描写要和表现人物特点、突出文章的中心思想紧密配合。外貌描写要传神，切忌脸谱化，反对那种部分主次，从头写到脚、千人一貌的写法。

2. 语言描写有对话和独白两种。

对话是两个人或几个人的谈话;独白是人物的自言自语。语言是人物内心世界的直接表露，对表现人物的思想性格起重要作用。有个性特点的语言可以起到“闻其言，见其人”的作用。语言描写要注意以下两点：一是文章中人物的语言要精心筛选，把那些足以能表现人物的个性特点、最能表现中心思想的语言，写进文章中;二是好的语言描写，一定是符合当时的情景，符合人物的性格、身份、性别、年龄和文化修养等方面的特点。 对话描写有四种形式：说的话写在后面，说话人后面用引号;说的话在前，说话人写在后，用引号、句号;前后各引一句或几句，中间交代谁说的，用逗号;只写人物语言，不写说话人。这四种形式要根据实际需要灵活事业，避免行文死板。

3. 动作描写

是通过人物的行动、动作，来表现人物的思想性格的一种方法。一个人的行为、动作，往往是他的思想感情、性格特征的最真实的外化。看一个人，不仅要听他怎么说，更要卡他如何做，正所谓“听其言，观其行”，因此，动作描写是直接刻画人物形象，展示人物精神面貌，把人物写“活”的重要手段。那么，怎样描写人物的动作呢?

首先，要选择关键性的动作来写。一个人做事的时候，会有许多动作。但他们不可能、也没有必要把这些动作一个不少地都写出来。这就要求选择那些关键性的、最有意义的动作来写。

其次，要写准确。同一个动作可以用很多动词来表示，但只有那些有特色，最能反映人物气质的动词，才能把人写“活”。有一位作家说过，最难的不是写动作，而是写出有特点的动作，从动作中写出人来。

4.心理描写

心理的人物内心的活动，是无声的语言。人物内心世界，指人物内心的喜、哀、乐、忧伤、犹豫、嫉妒、向往等复杂的感情。在写人的文章中，恰当地描写人物心理，可以更有效地刻画人物，突出中心思想。心理描写的要求是：要真实，要有根据;人物的心理变化要自然，合情合理;心理描写要为文章的中心思想服务;在描写人物的心理活动时，要客观、谨慎，不能以己之心，度人之意。

小学生作文时，大多采用第一人称(“我”活“我们”)，采用这种人称作文，就不能用“他想” 的形式来写人物的心理活动，因为“我”不可能钻到别人的脑子里去看。此时，可以换一种方式——在描写人物的语言、神态、动作上下功夫，这样可能更合情理，使人感到真实可信。

心理描写除了用“我想”之外，还可以采用以下几种方法。

(1)提出问题，引入所想的内容。

(2)使用假设，流露心理活动。

(3)字里行间，流露着“想”。

(4)直接抒发心中所想。

实用写作遵循着一切文章共同的写作规律，但在采集——运思——行文——修改的基本写作过程中，也面临着与文学写作不同的内容，如动机问题、调查采集材料问题、验证并梳理材料问题、研究并处理材料问题等等。面对这些命题该如何解决，这便是本文要讨论的具体内容。

一、需要与动机的转换

写作动机是写作行为发生的原因和动力，写作动机分内部动机与外部动机。一般来说内部动机支持的写作是一种自主的写作，外部动机引发的写作则属于受命的写作，实用写作多数情况应视为受命写作。实用写作的外部动机虽仍为“需要”所激发，但这种写作“需要”是外力施加的，并非写作行为中写作主体自发的缺乏状态。

实用写作的外部动机主要表现为受“他人意志”支配和为“功利目的”驱使这两种形态。受他人意志支配包括接受领导布置任务、师长规定要求、朋友委托求助等等。凡出于他人意愿的写作动机下发生的写作行为都是受命写作，广义的公文就是最典型的领导或领导机关意志的产物。而奉命进行某个课题研究，最后撰写科研报告，这种写作“需要”也是外力施加的，但是由于受命者和授命者的固有关系，写作者原先的非写作的“需要”都转变成了写作动机。为功利目的驱使的写作动机也是客观存在的，这是文章被作为特殊商品或特殊评价依据（如评价学术水平的依据）后带来的客观现象。

虽然实用写作就是为了实际生活的需要，为了解决实际工作中的问题，实用写作目的的功利化实际上就是实用写作的“实用化”，但是，发起并支持主体写作行为的心理因素并不是外部动机，而是写作主体的内部动机。于是实用写作面临着一个主体动机转换的问题，即不管出于什么原因，如领导布置的、工作需要的、同事委托的等等，这些外在的原因都要转换成写作主体内在的一种需要，也就是主体内心有一个“别人要我写”到“我自己要写”的转变过程。只有真正完成了这种动机的转换，属于写作内部动机的特有心理品质才有可能在实用写作的行为过程中出现，如写作冲动、写作欲望、写作激情、写作心境乃至持久维持写作行为的写作热情等等。由此可见写作动机的转换，是实用写作心理的内在规律，是维持写作行为并为其不断增力，确保实用写作质量的需要。

二、材料的采集与验证

由于标准和角度不同，因而对写作材料的基本类型有着多种认识。从材料的来源看，有直接材料与间接材料之分；从材料的性质看，有正面材料与反面材料之别；从材料的存在空间看，有历史材料与现实材料之异；从材料的存在形态看，有个别材料与综合材料之辨。然而从实用写作对材料特征把握的需要看，事实材料、理论材料和情报资料这３类是最常见的。

“事实材料”即客观存在的具体事实，在实用写作中人名、地点、事件、数字等都是常用的事实材料。“理论材料”就是观念性材料，是人们在长期的社会实践中已经验证的观点，如科学的原理、定义、定律，生活中流传的警句、格言、俗语等等。在实用写作中最为常用的理论材料，一是相关的法律、法规、政策和规范性文件的精神；二是相关的时政动态、思想见解和学术观点。“情报资料”是有关工作人员根据事实、数据而编制的信息资料，它包括报表、统计资料、简报、文摘、索引等，这些也是实用写作不可或缺的写作材料。

获取材料的办法多种多样，实用写作采集材料的主要手段是调查，不同的调查方式与方法又是实用写作区别于文学写作聚材、选材的基本途径。调查的方式主要有：典型调查、专题调查、系列调查、追踪调查、随机调查、普遍调查、抽样调查等；调查的方法主要有：问卷调查法、访谈调查法、座谈调查法、实验调查法、实地调查法、文献调查法等。

既然材料有直接与间接、正面与反面、历史与现实、个别与综合之别，那么材料就有一个真与伪、虚与实之分。生活中的材料或者素材，是需要经过核实、鉴别等验证才能写入文章的，只有鉴别验证确认的材料，才能成为文章中证明和支撑观点的材料。

核实、鉴别材料时须验证的主要内容是：一是辨真伪，指文章使用的材料不但要准确无误，而且要贴切恰当，经得起推敲核查；二是查缺漏，指文章该使用的材料应完整，决不能遗漏，要利用一切机会弥补并完善；三是求典型，指文章应使用有代表性的材料，能体现一类事物的本质特征，力求个性与共性、特殊性与普遍性相统一，要发掘和利用材料在文章中该起到的作用，实现材料对体现写作意图的意义。

三、思维的类化与序化

实用文章写作中多数文本以条款格式为主，标序及分条分款的文章外在表现形式，其实质是文章内在逻辑关系及作者思维逻辑层次的外化。在一篇文章中，文章内在逻辑关系及作者的思维是通过材料组合排列体现的，正是从这个意义上说，材料的类化与序化是思维类化与序化的必然。

“类化”是写作主体对材料归类、归项的思维过程，它贯穿于整个写作过程。人类思维的“类化”功能使作者能够从容地面对纷繁复杂的写作材料，经过条分缕析的梳理之后，材料才分门别类出现在文章的各个部位，并按照预期的写作意图，表达观点、阐述意见、传递信息，以实现写作目的。所以“类化”是写作材料逻辑化的过程，也是作者思维条理化的过程，更是为文章化作好了充分的准备。

思维类化直接作用于材料类化，材料类化表现在文章里就形成了章节——层次——段落等成网络状结构的各种形式。材料类化的结果，不管单元多小，其位置处于材料网络系统的末端，但它都是相对独立的逻辑单位，担负着相应的表意责任。

归类和归项是类化的两种重要形式。归类是根据事物的属性，把具象的事物从一个大类分解为若干个小类，或是将若干个小类归纳为一个大类的梳理和认识事物的方法。归项则是把抽象的事物从一个整体分解成几个不同方面，或是从几个不同方面归纳出一个整体的梳理和认识事物的方法。

归类、归项的材料类化过程必须遵循通常的逻辑规则，这就是分解或归纳都必须按照同一标准进行，不能使用双重标准。同时还要做到：各类、各项在分解之后应是自成单元的逻辑单位，相互间性质必须互不包容，内容也不能重叠交*；各类、各项在归纳后小类或分项应具有大类或整体的属性，它们与大类或整体间应具有明确的种属、种差的从属关系。

在实用文章写作中，写作主体对材料归类、归项的类化过程往往不是一次完成的，它可能是反复的、双向的、循环的，因为思维总是要在反复比较、试误中才能逐步清晰起来，直到最后定型的。思维类化的过程是复杂的，并且是在大脑的“黑箱”里进行，但其最终结果要外化为文章的表现形式，成为“可视”的精神产品。于是就牵涉到了文章的表述，即如何将思维类化的成果通过思维的序化，有条理地写出来，成为具体的文章，层次分明地展现在读者面前，这就是以下要讨论的话题。

思维的类化为实用文章写作中将写作内容作分类、分项表述提供了前提，因为惟有思路、材料梳理清晰了，大小间的关系及主次间的位置明确了，文章才能顺利布局，才能条理分明，文章各个方面的展开才能有张有弛。因此思维的序化必须建立在思维的类化基础之上，有合理的归类分类，才有恰当的编序排序。

将写作内容作分类、分项表述是实用文章写作中极为常用的方式，法规文书中“章下有条，条下有款，款下有项，项下有目”的列序及“章断条连”、“条连款不连”、“条贯到底”等等术语，正是这种表述方式的集中反映。在实用文章写作中，主要采用或基本采用条款式列序写法的文体除法规文书、契约文书以外，多数的计划类文种，如规划、方案、要点、安排、意见、设想等都采用了此法。像其他的事务文书或行政公文、经济文书、诉讼文书等，虽不一定全用条款列序形式，但根据内容的分类、分项，以大小标题统领全篇的方式，也比比皆是。

从思维的序化到材料的序化，再到文章列条列款的序化，这应该是“序化”的标准形态。在这种形态下，才有了约定俗成的对于结构层次序数的“规定”：第一级为“一、”，第二级为“（一）”，第三级为“１?郾”，第四级为“（１）”。当然在同一“级”里也常见更为简明的标序方法，如：“第一、第二、第三……”，“首先、其次、再次……”等等。

序号排列的内在机制是思维的序化功能，然而序化不仅仅是一个标序的问题，分章列条、序数排列只是文章条理化外在形式的一种。实用文章写作中，大小标题的设置，主次概念的使用，各种材料的分布，实质都包含着一个思维序化的问题。所以要使文章层次清晰、条理分明，必须让作者的思维缜密完整、合乎逻辑。要做到这一点，就要在调查研究、正确认识事物上下功夫。因为写作主体正确的思维序化是文章内在因素作用和事物内在联系的必然，所谓的文气相通、文脉相联，也正是思维序化合乎认识规律而带来的文通句顺的结果。

四、规律的抽象与概括

尽管需要陈述事实、交待背景，但实用文章写作最终指向的总是结论、意见、措施、办法、规定、要求等抽象性、根据性的思想成果。因此实用文章中有相当的文种是以归纳要点、抽象本质、概括规律为最高追求的。其中较典型的文种就有总结，总结的内容是回顾、检查以往的实践工作；总结的目的是通过对实践活动的分析、评价来找出规律性认识，以指导今后的实践。虽说总结要对已完成工作做全面系统的回顾，但并非具体详尽地回顾了过去的工作情况就是一篇好的总结。总结三分式结构内容就说明了仅仅回顾基本情况和介绍主要成绩与做法是远远不够的，总结还要对基本经验或教训作出概括，要总结出带规律性的理性认识，最后的结尾中还要写上存在的问题或今后努力的方向等。

对调研报告也有同样的写作要求。调研报告是对客观事物和现实问题进行深入调查研究后写成的、反映所获信息、情况和结论，揭示事物本质和规律的书面报告。各种类型调研报告的规范或主体内容几乎都被要求回答“结论、建议、本质、规律”等。如“反映基本情况的调研报告”中的“对策”；“提供典型经验的调研报告”中的“推广经验的建议”；“揭露问题的调研报告”中的“处理的意见和建议”；“研究问题与预测趋势的调研报告”中的“建议或设想”等等。

总结与调研报告是这般的情形，对法规文书、行政公文、诉讼文书、经济文书等也同样有这样的要求。可以说实用写作所生成的这些文书或文件，不仅仅是秩序与管理的需要，更是经验与教训的集成，是现阶段个人、单位、机关、团体、国家机器对社会、对现实的一种规律性认识。

从以上文体倾向可知，实用文章写作的表达方式看重的是分析与综合。在具体的写作中，分析就是把材料和写作对象分解为各个部分、方面、过程，并分别加以梳理和研究，使其成为

提示文章主旨，表达作者观点的思维方法。

分析的方法多种多样，从纵向的角度看，就是探究事物的历史渊源和发展过程，将对象分成若干现象，逐阶段进行考察的分析方法。如渊源分析法（原因——现状）；预测分析法（过去——现在——将来）；进程分析法（低级——中级——高级）；动态分析法（肯定——否定——否定之否定）等。从横向角度看，则是通过事物的内外联系，分析对象各个方面及它在整体中的比重，来把握事物特点的方法。如比较分析法对现象与本质、部分与整体、正面与反面、内容与形式、个别与一般、主流与支流等所作的辩证分析。

在实际的写作过程中，定性分析与定量分析则是最常用的分析方法。定性分析是一种揭示事物规定性的分析法，在奖惩类决定等行政公文和事务文书、诉讼文书中，经常涉及给事物定性，甚至文章本身就有专门的“定性”段落。定量分析是根据数据统计，把握量变与质变关系的分析方法。当下在追求“惟一性”的“科学化、标准化、数据化”的社会思维时尚下，定量分析的科学因素也越来越多地为实用文章写作所应用。

有分析必有综合，综合是在分析的基础上，把写作对象的各个部分和方面及各种因果关系结合起来，作为一个整体来进行考察的思维方法。就综合的类型或方式来说，感性认识从感觉到知觉的过程就有知觉的综合。写作中归类、归项的思维过程及对主题、概念的归纳，则属于形式逻辑的简单综合；辩证逻辑层面的综合，则表现为对事物、对写作对象的本质抽象和规律概括，而这几乎是所有实用文章写作的根本目标。

英文写作是一种综合能力训练，临阵磨枪是不能取得好成绩的，也是不可取的，应该重视平时的英语作文训练。下面是小编帮大家整理的英语写作教学方法，希望大家喜欢。

高考英语作文占25分，有着不可忽视的比重，它足可以说明写作教学在高中英语教学中占有相当重要的位置。然而高考现状却不乐观，部分学生由于平时缺乏足够的训练，所以对英语写作要么感到无从下手，充满畏难情绪，胡乱写些英语单词或不着边际的句子充当字数，权作心理慰藉；要么用词不当，构句无章，错误频出，行文不流畅，表达不地道，无写作质量可言。如何提高学生的写作水平和促进写作教学呢？笔者认为应注意下列几个问题：

一、注重写作教学的基本训练阶段

语言教学最高层次是应用。英语属于结构语言，它有自己的基本句型、固定搭配、固定短语等，这些都是不可变的，要想在写作中用上它们，用好它们，必须加强这方面的基本训练。首先，加强五种基本句型结构教学。几乎所有的英语句型都是五种句型的扩大、延伸或变化，因此训练学生“写”就要抓住五种基本句型的训练，让他们把这五种基本句型记牢，不断运用。五种基本句型是：

(1)S＋V；

(2)S＋V＋O；

(3)S＋V＋O＋O；

(4)S＋V＋P；

(5)S＋V＋O＋C。

五种基本句型虽然能表达一定的意思，但无法比较自由地表达思想，因此还必须对学生进一步进行扩句训练，在课堂上充分发挥学生的想像力，进行扩句练习。其次，加强句型教学，要对一些句子进行分析，增强他们利用各种句子进行一意多种表达的训练。再次，充分利用新教材中“巩固语言的练习，”对学生进行基本语感的训练。

二、注重写作训练的多样化

听、说、读、写四种技能是相互依赖的，说的能力有赖于听的能力，进而有助于写作。听是理解和吸收口头信息的手段。听和读是输入，只有达到足够的输入量，才能保证学生具有较好的说和写的输出能力。因此，在日常的教学中要注重写作训练的多样化。

首先，在Dialogue的教学中，除了听录音、对话、表演和编写相似的对话外，还要求学生把对话改写成一段短文，这样就要求学生在变成短文的过程中，注意时态、语态、人称和前后的逻辑关系，从而为写作打下基础。

其次，在Reading教学中，回答问题时要求学生必须用自己的语言，且人称、时态要做相应的变化，这样既能搞懂本意，又能用同义句表达，提高了表达能力。还要让学生用课文中的词组进行复述，学生复述课文不是件容易的事，既要把握课文中的重点，逻辑关系，又要用自己的语言把主要内容表达出来。这样既锻炼了他们组织篇章结构、句子与句子之间逻辑关系的能力，又提高了语言的精炼度，使自己的写作能力有了很快地提高。

再次，在“Listening”教学中，除了让学生听懂做完听力练习之外，还让他们把练习作为guide进行复述听力材料，有时还让他们写在作文本上。

三、注重写作训练的规范化

高中起始阶段的写作训练，培养学生的写作模式是非常重要的。我按教师用书上说明的写作步骤，即：①构思(讨论题目)；②写提纲(理顺思想的逻辑关系)；③起草(打草稿)；④校订(检查错误，重新安排内容)；⑤修改(定稿)。对学生进行写作模式的训练。这样看起来比较麻烦，但避免了反复，养成了好的写作习惯。再就是书写和文体格式要规范。严格要求学生正确、端正、熟练地书写字母、单词和句子，注意大小写和标点符号，养成良好的书写习惯。。同时对各种文体特点、格式要讲清楚，使学生熟悉规范的书面表达形式，用正确的标准评析和规范自己的书面表达。

四、注重教师的指导作用

教师批改是写作教学的有机组成部分，批改过程中，教师的指导作用就在于肯定学生的成绩，指出错误，给学生以恰当的评价。但在批改过程中，如果抓住学生的错误不放，有错必纠，改到最后，就变成了教师自己的作品；如果对错误视而不见，写得再多也收效甚微。我根据教学实践，对于新教材中的“有指导的写”的写作训练，规定学生限时写完，同桌、前后桌互相批改，重新行文，再上交。这样批改起来就非常轻松，而且典型错误，很容易找出，有利于讲评。对于新教材中的“自由写作”训练，我指导学生弄清主题，抓住要点，组词造句，安排好顺序，过渡到段落形成短文，多用熟悉的单词和句型，多用五种基本句型表达。然后让学生共同研究，互相评论写好的草稿，以便最后写出修改的稿子来，这就有助于减轻教师修改作业的负担，也有利于学生写作水平的提高。

总之，英文写作是一个学生综合能力的书面体现，是一个长期复杂的训练过程。因此，培养学生的写作能力不能一蹴而就，而要在平时从学生的实际水平出发，有目的、有计划、有要求、有检查、有反馈地进行，由易到难，循序渐进。只有这样，到高考时才能做到厚积薄发、思如泉涌、下笔如有神。

游记，是中学生感到最难写的一类作文，因为随着游程的行进，耳闻目睹的情景不胜枚举，很难将材料组织得当，往往写成流水账。如何将自己的游程清清楚楚、有详有略的记叙？如何避免将游记写成景点介绍？这些都是我们今天要谈的问题。

国庆长假你是否游历了祖国的名山大川？是否踏访了华夏的文明古迹？是否流连于桂林的山水中？是否沉醉在丽江的灯影里……旅游，丰富了我们的生活，增长了我们的见识。当我们结束愉快的旅程后，烦恼接踵而来。父母和老师往往不会让我们“白”游一场，写篇作文当作“总结”与“汇报”常常成了旅游的“附件”。

最让大家头疼的是旅游涉及的时间长，景点多，如何才能写得不像流水账，又有自己的特点呢？

首先是“舍”。只有学会舍弃，才能有重点的描写。景点太多，一一赘述很难做到详细、具体。只有突出最有特色的地方才能写出特点，写清游历的情况。例如，你到云南旅游，一路走来，昆明的石林、大理的洱海、丽江的古城，还有玉龙雪山，处处皆景。你必须忍痛割爱，选择其中的一个作为写作的重点，其他最多用一两句话带过。只有这样你才能把游历的情况说清楚。

其次是“短”。这个“短”，不是指的篇幅短，而是指文章涉及的时间跨度要短。不要从出发开始写，一直写到全天的游程结束。这样无端生出的枝节会很多，烦扰了自己的思路。就从你到达这个景点写起，写到景点游览结束。时间的集中会有助于你更好地组织材料，突出景点的特色。

再次是“真”。这一点是同学们最容易忽略，也是最能体现写作水平的。很多人以为写游记就是把景点的情况告诉别人。其实不然。游记，就是游历的记录，更强调了自己独特的游览感受。游览同一个地方，大人和孩子的感受会不同，男生和女生游览的感觉也有差异。怎样将自己的独特感受表达出来呢？那就是将自己游览过程中的“发现”写出来。这些发现可以是“摸一摸”“闻一闻”“听一听”“找一找”，甚至是“猜一猜”，也就是把你游览时的所见、所做、所闻、所思写下来。游记最忌讳的就是通篇景物描写，有了自己的活动出现在游览的过程中那才是属于你自己的游览经历。

最后是“趣”。旅游之所以能吸引人，首先就是有趣味。那么，你的游记也要把你在游历过程中感受到的趣味表达出来。这种“趣味”的内涵很广：可以是放肆的玩耍，可以是悠闲的漫步，可以是滑稽的场面，亦可以是别样的风俗……只要是觉得有意思的就不妨多写两笔，把自己的快乐和大家分享！

掌握了以上“四字”要诀，估计再提笔写游记你就有了一些头绪了吧？

最后还有一个很重要的事情要交代：任何游记，对于景点的环境描写是必不可少的部分，这里可要写得细致生动哦。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

一、句式多变，词汇丰富。

鉴于这部分的写作要求和难度，不论是写书信还是编故事，由于100词的字数要求，考生必须要学会用具体的，多样化的语句来描写某样东西或某件事情。有的学生从头至尾都用"Thereis"的句式，而且重复多遍，看来单调乏味，很难得高分。我们不妨用主动和被动句式、各种不同的从句、动词不定式、强调句、虚拟语气等等，当然我们要写的句式必须是自己熟悉的，有把握的。

词汇量的大小影响写作成绩。试想你形容餐馆good，食品good，氛围good，那也太无聊了，我们平时就积累一些词汇，比如餐馆cleanandtidy，食品niceandtasty，氛围friendlyandpleasant等等，而不至于到考试时言之无物。

二、问题都答，加上连词。

如果第二单元你要给笔友写一份回信，信中有这么一个问题Haveyougotafavoriterestaurant?Tellmeaboutthefoodandwhatyoulikeabouttherestaurant。这个问题看似非常简单，但如果你就回答一句Ihavegotmyfavoriterestaurant.可以，但如果你不学会怎么扩展这个话题，那一封信中根本就写不了上百个单词。因此，学会拓展话题这一点在这部分中尤为重要，如你可以写餐馆的名字、位置、特色等等。

如果你选择编故事也很好。我们PET考生大多是青少年，正是想象力非常丰富的时候，很适合去编故事。但在书写的过程中，一定要注意尽量用自己有把握的语言来表达和描述。此外，既然是故事，就应该把事情发生的时间、地点、人物、过程以及结果都完整地表述出来。因此，我们在平时就把日常生活中所发生的有意义的小事儿用英文记录下来，日积月累你会发现，你的书写素材会越来越多，这种考试对你来说，将会是"apieceofcake"。

另外注意适当使用一些关联词，如and,but,so,if，使行文更加流畅。

三、平时勤练，克服畏惧。

因为该部分要求比较高，建议考生平时可以多做这样的书写练习。在学而思PET，我们会练习四五篇大作文，希望同学们平时就认真对待，描写到位，在老师的指导下，逐步明白自己的弱项在哪里，进而逐渐消除无话可写的心理恐惧，并提高写作水平。

基本格式

格式：辞职申请通常由标题、称谓、正文、结语、署名与日期五部分构成。

It’s my great pleasure to have this opportunity to improve our mutual understanding. During the three –year college study， I tried my best to learn all kinds of knowledge， and weigh the hard work of my teachers and myself; I have mastered English listening， speaking， writing and reading skills.

(一)标题

在申请书第一行正中写上申请书的名称。一般辞职申请书由事由和文种名共同构成，即以“辞职申请书”为标题。标题要醒目，字体稍大。

最后要强调的是，不是所有的人都会去选择这种规范的请辞的方式，但是，在结束一段工作经历的时候，尝试着写一份精彩的辞职报告递交上去。也许，自己会从中得到很多意料之外的收获。

(二)称呼

一 叙述对方对自己或本单位的帮助，一定要把人物、时间、地点、原因、结果以及事情经过叙述清楚，便于组织了解和群众学习。

要求在标题下一行顶格处写出接受辞职申请的单位组织或领导人的名称或姓名称呼，并在称呼后加冒号。

(三)正文

正文是申请书的主要部分，正文内容一般包括三部分。 首先要提出申请辞职的内容，开门见山让人一看便知。 其次申述提出申请的具体理由。该项内容要求将自己有关辞职的一一列举出来，但要注意内容的单一性和完整性，条分缕析使人一看便知。

最后要提出自己提出辞职申请的决心和个人的具体要求，希望领导解决的问题等。

(四)结尾

结尾要求写上表示敬意的话。如“此致——敬礼”等。

(五)落款

辞职申请的落款要求写上辞职人的姓名及提出辞职申请的具体日期。

写作要求

1.态度恳切、措辞委婉。

2.不要批评对方。

有时候就觉得自己是个高级打杂工，真的太杂了，杂到我现在已经搞不清楚我自己能干什么，想干什么，我现在对自己的职业定位和前程也是一片迷茫。所以，我现在想休息一下，为自己的将来好好打算一下，重新规划自己的职业和人生。

3.含蓄性。

4.简洁性。

写作方法

第一段：写出辞职的心理(当然不一定是真的)，你可以写一些客套的句子。例如：经过多方面的考虑，我打算辞掉目前所从事的职位……，或者：因家中变故，我打算申请辞去我现在的工作。因此整个第一段可以这么写：

尊敬的人力资源经理：

您好!

表现个人特色。求职的信件要具个人特色、亲切且能体现出专业水平。切不可过于随意，也不能拘泥于格式——商业信函应该是一种既正式、又非正式的文体。句子结构和长度应富于变化，使阅信人总保持兴趣。内容、语气、用词的选择和对希望的表达要积极，应该充分显示出你是一个乐观、有责任心、有创造力和通情达理的人。

经过深思熟虑地思考，我决定辞去我目前在公司所担任的职位，我知道这对于您来说，是非常难以作决定的事情。

第二段：说明您自己考虑的辞职的时间(尽管您提出辞职经公司同意后，公司的人力资源部将按照固定的离职日程办理离职手续，但这样说并不是画蛇添足，大多数情况下，你都能够争取到提早离开的时间)。

例如：

我考虑在此辞呈递交之后的2—4周内离开公司，这样您将有时间去寻找适合人选，来填补因我离职而造成的空缺，同时我也能够协助您对新人进行入职培训，使他尽快熟悉工作。另外，如果您觉得我在某个时间段内离职比较适合，不妨给我个建议或尽早告知我。

第三段：说明您在这个公司里的经验积累，尽可能地去赞扬公司对您的栽培(不论您有多么大的委屈和气愤，都不应该在辞职信里表露)。

例如： 我非常重视我在“……公司”内的这段经历，也很荣幸自己成为过“……公司”的一员，我确信我在“……公司”里的这段经历和经验，将为我今后的职业发展带来非常大的利益。

最后，请务必使用亲笔签名，而且签名要尽量刚劲，并写好日期。

其他能力和爱好，即Interests&Skills，这一项里面的Skills有很多含义，比如说你的语言能力，第二外语语言能力，计算机能力，计算机语言能力等等。

学会积累写作素材

从大量学生作文中反映出的共同问题是：缺少新鲜的素材。没有素材就无法写出质量上乘的文章，也无法更深刻的表现文章的主题。可谓“巧妇难为无米之炊”，因此，作为刚步入初三的学生，必须学会“找米下锅”，积累一些写作的素材。那么，如何在目前的情况积累素材呢？主要方法有三条：

一，做一个有心人，在平时的学习生活、家庭生活和社会生活中注意观察和思考。应该来说在自己的生活圈内每天发生着各种各样的事，会接触形形色色的人，作为观察者应该对这些事、这些人进行近距离的接触，了解事情的前因后果，了解这些人的思想状况；对这些事和人作出自我的判断和评价。这样在你心中新鲜的事、生动活泼的人就多起来了。

二，利用现在学生中普遍写随笔的有效方法，随时将观察到的人和事记录下来。在随笔中反映出你的所见、所闻、所想和所感，从而使这些素材形成文字保留下来。同时，在写随笔时可以集中一个阶段写同一个主题（或话题），形成一个系列。如“亲情系列”、“秋天的故事”、“往事如烟”……这样可以在同一主题下积累不同的素材，如果在考试中碰到某一类主题的文章就可以从自己的素材库中，提取认为最新鲜、最能表达该主题的材料来，加以构思写成文章，这样在考试中不会出现面对作文题目觉得惘然，陷入无从下笔的窘境。素材的积累可以做到有备无患。

三、可以从大量的阅读中积累有用的素材。上述讲到的在现代文阅读中需要大量的阅读，这可以一举两得，学生可以从中积累一些自己生活体验相同的间接的素材，为自己所用。因此，在现阶段中，我们一面进行广泛的阅读，一面对有用的材料作一定的摘记，这样可以充实自己的素材库。到写作时可以信手拈来，游刃有余，不会为没有写作的素材所困。

一份简历的重点就在于工作经验。对于职场老手来说，工作经验是表达能力和自我程度的重点，也是整份履历表成功的主要关键条件，透过这些工作内容和服务过的公司资料，以及职务名称或是负责的项目，企业主可以藉此评估求职者的能力、过往薪资结构、经验、和曾经负责的项目内容。

但凸显工作经验和能耐的方式，对于刚从学校毕业的新鲜人就显得作用不大了。年轻的毕业生在工作经验上普遍都是钟点或是工读的资历较多，负责的工作项目多半也因为其年轻和能力有限，属于帮忙、服务、劳力…等性质为多数，因此，该项工读经验做到什么程度或成果，就是你在填写工作经验时的重点了。比方说，你在某某电器行打工三个月，成功卖出一百台电风扇等业绩型写法，都比你单纯写上“XX电器行工读三个月”要有看头的多。

多半职场老手由于了解企业主阅读履历的习惯和方式，所以会自行设计履历表的排序方式，而以经验导向型的求职者，还会将工作经验做仔细的分析和整理之后，直接排放在履历表前两项的顺位，利用直接导入主题的方式彰显特殊与优秀的资历，也是一种创新的履历呈现方式。

学校生活中的“团队经验”，对于职场老手比较不太重要，但对于新鲜人或是工作经验不足的人来说，就是一种辅助的工具了。

比方说，在团队中曾经担任过团长有时就代表着领导能力，独立或经由团队合作安排跨校联谊、建教合作等活动，可能代表着协调力、谈判力、团队重视程度、或是开发市场的能力，利用团队经验的填写方式，可以有效帮助主管猜测你的个人特质与个性，也是另类彰显能力与评估发展性的指针。

不过，在这里要注意的是，并不是每项团队经历对求职者都有帮助，也不是每一次的校内活动都有正面的意义，我会建议毕业生们在处理这个部分的时候要稍微做一番整理和选择，无关这份工作可以帮到忙的项目或资历，干脆把他放到自传的部分去说明，免得引发负面的想象。

叙事作文也是常考的作文类型，因此，下面是小编为大家整理的叙事作文写作方法，希望能帮到您！

叙述是文章的表达方式之一。叙述在表达上首先要做到要把写的人和事件交代明白，使文章线索清晰。叙述在记叙类文章中起着极为重要的作用。叙述一件事会有很多种手法，但是最常用的大体只有两种：顺叙和倒叙。

按照顺叙的写法一般是把人物的经历或事件发生、发展顺序进行一个排序来叙述。读者在读这样的顺叙的文章时便会轻而易举的把握住事情发展的来龙去脉。H版教材六年级第二学期课文《弹琴的姑娘》，说的是一个姑娘勤奋练琴的故事。文章叙述“我”不管是在一天中早上也好晚上也罢，都会在胡同里经常听到“叮咚！叮咚！叮叮咚咚！”的琴声，这样的声音一年四季皆是如此，从未断过。春去秋来、冬白夏绿，小姑娘的琴声从未断过。这篇文章利用时间这个线把所有的事都串了起来，从而说明弹琴姑娘练琴时的执着与坚持，同时融入“我”对琴声的感受和对姑娘的美好感情。由于作者成功地运用了顺叙的写法，故事情节显得清晰自然。

在运用顺叙的方式时，要注意用好表示时间或表示事件发生先后顺序的词语。另外，要避免平铺直叙，面面俱到。为此，要注意材料的取舍与详略。

倒叙不是按时间先后的顺序，而是将后发生的情况先写，然后再回转来交代事情发生、发展的经过。这种写法不仅能使文章曲折有致，波澜起伏，引人入胜，而且便于突出重点，吸引读者，增强艺术效果。

回忆性的文章，一般采用倒叙的记叙顺序，也就是从时间上来说，先写现在，再写过去。

倒叙法并不是把所有的内容都倒过来写，只是先叙后面发生的事情，再讲它的由来罢了。这样，就要注意处理好由倒叙转向顺叙时的文字衔接问题。要有一个很好的过渡，才不会给人以过于突然或是前后割裂的感觉。一般可用“事情的起因是……”“原来是……”或者用问句“为什么会……？”把结果与事情的起因衔接起来。

总之，叙述方式的选用，要从表达内容的需要出发。尤其是倒叙方式的运用，不要故弄玄虚，为倒叙而倒叙，这样，反而会适得其反。

英语写作少不了积累句型。以下是小编带来的2017英语写作必背经典句型【集锦】，希望对你有帮助。

the + 形容词最高级 + n. + (that) + S(主语) + have ever seen / known / heard / had / read, etc

例句：Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

(海伦是我见过的最美丽的女孩。)

Nothing is + 形容词比较级 + than to + V(谓语)

例句：Nothing is more important than to receive education.

(没有比接受教育更重要的事。)

S cannot emphasize the importance of sth. too much：再怎么强调……的重要性也不为过。

例句：We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

(我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。)

There is no doubt + that + 句子：毫无疑问，……

例句：There is no doubt that the economy is recovering.

(毫无疑问，经济已经逐渐复苏。)

It pays to + V + O(宾语)：……是值得的。

例句：It pays to help others.

(帮助别人是值得的。)

An advantage of + 名词结构+ is that + 句子：……的优点是……

例句：An advantage of using solar energy is that it wont create any pollution.

(使用太阳能的优点是它不会产生任何污染。)

There is no denying that + 句子：不可否认……

例句：There is no denying that the quality of our life has gone from good to better.

(不可否认，我们的生活质量日益改善。)

On no account can we + V：我们绝对不能……

例句：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge.

(我们绝不能无视知识的价值。)

It is universally acknowledged that + 句子：全世界都知道……

例句：It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable[不可或缺的] to us.

(全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。)

The reason why + 句子 + is that + 句子：……的原因是……

例句：The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air.

(我们必须种树的原因是它们能给我们提供新鲜空气。)

be closely related to sth.：与……息息相关

例句：Taking exercise is closely related to health.

(做运动与健康息息相关。)

So + 形容词 + be + S + that + 句子：如此……以致于……

例句：So precious is time that we cant afford to waste it.

(时间是如此珍贵，它经不起我们浪费。)

It is time + S + 动词过去式：该是……的时候了。

例句：It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems.

(有关当局是时候采取适当措施解决交通问题了。)

S + enable + O + to + V：……使……能够……

例句：Listening to music enables us to feel relaxed.

(听音乐使我们获得放松。)

be + forced / obliged / compelled + to + V：不得不……

例句：Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports.

(既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃做运动。)

a. + as + S + be, S + V + O：虽然……， 但是……

例句：Rich as our country is, the quality of our life is by no means satisfactory.

(虽然我们的国家富有，但我们的生活质量仍差强人意。)

It is conceivable / obvious / apparent that + 句子：可想而知/明显/显然……

例句：It is apparent that knowledge plays an important role in our life.

(显然，知识在我们人生中扮演着重要角色。)

The + 形容词比较级 + S + V, the + 形容词比较级 + S + V：……愈……，……愈……

例句：The harder you work, the more progress you make.

(愈努力，愈进步。)

Since + S + 动词过去式，S + 现在完成式： 自从……，……一直……

例句：Since he went to senior high school, he has worked very hard.

(自从上了高中，他一直很用功。)

By + V-ing, S can V：通过……，……能够……

例句：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy.

(通过做运动，我们能够保持健康。)

be based on sth.：以.……为基础

例句：Progress in society is based on harmony.

(社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。)

That is the reason why +句子：那就是……的原因

例句：Summer is sultry[闷热的]. That is the reason why I dont like it.

(夏天很闷热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。)

There is no one but + V + O：没有人不……

例句：There is no one but longs to go to college.

(没有人不渴望上大学。)

Due to / Owing to / Thanks to + sth. / V-ing：因为/ 多亏……

例句：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream.

(因为他的鼓励，我终于实现了梦想。)

For the past + 时间, S + 现在完成式： 过去的……来，……一直……

例句：For the past two years, I have been busy preparing for the examination.

(过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。)

What a + a. + n. + S + V!= How + a. + a + n. + V!：多么……!

例句：What an important thing it is to keep our promise! / How important a thing it is to keep our promise! (遵守诺言是多么重要的事!)

get into the habit of + V-ing = make it a rule to + V：养成……的习惯

例句：We should get into the habit of keeping good hours.

(我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。)

leave much to be desired：令人不满意

例句：The condition of our traffic leaves much to be desired.

(我们的交通状况令人不太满意。)

Those who + V + O：那些……的人

例句：Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished.

(违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。)

have a great influence on sth.：对……有很大影响

例句：Smoking has a great influence on our health.

(抽烟对我们的健康有很大影响。)

spare no effort to + V：不遗余力地……

例句：We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

(我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。)

do good / harm to sth.：对……有益/有害

例句：Reading does good to our mind.

(读书对心灵有益。)

pose a great threat to sth.：对……造成很大威胁

例句：Pollution poses a great threat to our existence.

(污染对我们的生存造成很大威胁。)

bring home to + S + O：让……明白……

例句：We should bring home to people the value of working hard.

(我们应该让人们明白努力的价值。)

do ones utmost to + V = do ones best to + V：尽全力去……

例句：We should do our utmost to achieve our goal in life.

(我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标。)

在我们的英语写作过程中，如果能够很好的运用英语谚语，能给我们的作文带来亮点。下面是语文迷整理的高频谚语，一起来看看吧。

(一) Where there is a will，there is a way. 有志者事竟成。

(二) One false step will make a great difference. 失之毫厘，谬之千里。

(三) Slow and steady wins the race. 稳扎稳打无往而不胜。

(四) A fall into the pit，a gain in your wit. 吃一堑，长一智。

(五) Experience is the mother of wisdom. 实践出真知。

(六) All work and no play makes jack a dull boy. 只工作不玩耍，聪明孩子也变傻。

(七) Beauty without virtue is a rose without fragrance.无德之美犹如没有香味的玫瑰，徒有其表。

(八) More hasty，less speed. 欲速则不达。

(九) Its never too old to learn. 活到老，学到老。

(十) All that glitters is not gold. 闪光的未必都是金子。

(十一) Practice makes perfect. 熟能生巧。

(十二) God helps those who help themselves. 天助自助者。

(十三) Easier said than done. 说起来容易做起来难。

(十四) A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step.千里之行始于足下。

(十五) Look before you leap. 三思而后行。

(十六) Rome was not built in a day. 伟业非一日之功。

(十七) Great minds think alike. 英雄所见略同。

(十八) well begun，half done. 好的开始等于成功的一半。

(十九) It is hard to please all. 众口难调。

(二十) Out of sight，out of mind. 眼不见，心不念。

(二十一) Do as Romans do in Rome. 入乡随俗。

(二十二) An idle youth，a needy age. 少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲。

(二十三) As the tree，so the fruit. 种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆。

(二十四) To live is to learn，to learnistobetterlive.活着为了学习，学习为了更好的活着。

(二十五) Facts speak plainer than words. 事实胜于雄辩。

(二十六) Call back white and white back. 颠倒黑白。

(二十七) First things first. 凡事有轻重缓急。

(二十八) Ill news travels fast. 坏事传千里。

(二十九) A friend in need is a friend indeed. 患难见真情。

(三十) live not to eat，but eat to live. 活着不是为了吃饭，吃饭为了活着。

(三十一) Action speaks louder than words. 行动胜过语言。

(三十二) East or west，home is the best. 金窝银窝不如自家草窝。

(三十三) Its not the gay coat that makes the gentleman. 君子在德不在衣。

(三十四) Beauty will buy no beef. 漂亮不能当饭吃。

(三十五) Like and like make good friends. 趣味相投。

(三十六) The older， the wiser. 姜是老的辣。

谈及写作训练,学生认为就是勤练笔,其实不然。英语的听、说、读、写四种能力是密切相关、相互渗透的。听和读是领会理解别人表达的思想,说和写是用言语表达思想。写的能力要在听、说、读的基础上进行培养和提高,而写的训练又能进一步提高听、说、读的能力。因此,写作训练应该贯穿于英语教学的全过程,才能真正提高学生的写作能力。

一、多读

“读是写的前提,写是读的升华”。一般而言,听和读的量必须数十倍地多于说和写的量,才能较自如地在口头上或书面上表达自己的思想。一方面,大量阅读可以提高阅读能力,扩大词汇量,另一方面,它还可以增强英语语感,对英语写作起着潜移默化的作用。只有当阅读量达到一定程度时,才能找到写好文章的语感。我们可以选择适合学生的读物,如英文报纸(《英语周报》、《21世纪报》)、杂志(《中学生英语园地》)、科普文章、书虫等(水平较高的学生可读小说原著)。大量阅读是学生接触英语语言材料、接受信息、活跃思维、增强记忆力的一种有效途径,同时也是培养学生英语思维能力、提高理解力、增强语感、巩固和扩大词汇量的一种有效方法,非常有利于写作。实践证明,学生平时课外阅读面越广,阅读量越大,运用英语表达的能力就越强。

二、多背

英语和汉语存在很大差异,语法规则和句子结构是不同的,很多学生在写作过程中难免会受到母语的影响,出现一些Chinglish(中式英语),而且有些语法规则也把握不准,谓语动词常出现“be+do”的错误形式或缺少谓语的现象。所以,背诵模仿是行之有效的手段之一。

(一)背课文

在多年的教学实践中,我坚持让学生背诵部分课文,较长的文章选背一两段,下节课抽查背诵,或进行默写。《新概念英语2》中很多英语短文通俗有趣,我给学生挑选其中一部分让他们背诵、默写,对培养学生的语感很有效。

(二)背范文

英语写作一般包括记叙文、说明文、议论文、应用文及开放性作文写作。我经过筛选,找出每种文体各五篇文章,同时,我也注重搜集一些好的范文和习作要求学生背诵。通过熟背精彩段落,使学生逐步掌握英语基本的表达方法,有助于模仿。而且,通过这些范文,学生可熟练掌握各种体裁的写作技巧,这是学生写好作文的一条捷径。经过一段时间的训练,学生就会有内容可写、写得出来。

三、多写

除了以上对学生进行读、背训练,还要对学生进行动手训练。学生只有通过写才能知道自己的不足与缺陷,毕竟说和写是两回事。

(一)改写课文

教师可要求学生把Reading缩写成一篇一百字左右的短文,也可让学生把对话改写成记叙文(如项链),这也是进一步理解课文的手段。一般在学完一个单元,学生熟练掌握课文之后,再做这一步,让学生尽量使用本单元的短语句型,同时,也要学着套用背诵的句子。

(二)写英语周记

让学生写英语周记,这是很多老师训练学生写作的方法。有些英语写作不好的学生,往往不坚持写或应付了事。对这样的学生,教师要严格要求,督促检查。对学生的每篇周记,教师都要认真批改。周记不必拘泥于形式,学生可以自由发挥。开始可以写简单的几句话,要求学生多用学过的词组、句型,多套用和模仿。逐渐地,学生会写多些,也会越写越流利,错误也会越来越少。

(三)每周练习写一篇作文

教师挑选一至两篇习作打在投影仪上,师生共同修改,然后让学生将改写过的文章抄写在作文积累本上。这样日积月累,学生考前只要翻翻自己的“作文本”,即可胸有成竹,这个习惯一定要养成,对学生会有很大帮助。

(四)限时写作训练

近年高考试题包容量大,知识覆盖面广,这就要求学生在做题时必须注意速度和节奏,而高考书面表达从时间分配上看,最多也只能是30分钟左右的时间,学生必须在有限时间内完成作文,并且要意思连贯,无严重语法错误。为达到这一要求,每届学生从高一开始,就应定期做限时写作训练。

四、多积累

(一)积累词汇

词汇是说话写作的必需材料,掌握词汇量的多少,是衡量一个学生英语水平高低的“标尺”。《教学大纲》规定的词汇是最基本的词汇,必须熟记。我在多年的教学中,每堂课都坚持让学生默写或听写单词,要求学生根据中文意思,写出单词的拼写形式、词类和词形变化。这就使学生积累了大量的词汇,为高考书面表达打下坚实的拼写基础,避免了因单词拼写错误而丢分。

(二)积累句型

我在平时授课过程中,让学生把重点句型记录在作文积累本上,随时翻看和背诵。如写观点类文章常用的Some share the view that...,Others hold the opposite opinion that...,The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages,As far as I’m concerned,以及常用到的定语从句、倒装句、非限、非谓、同位语、强调句型等。

(三)积累文章

学生背过的篇章、写过的作文,尤其是各种体裁的范文习作,要分类整理粘贴在作文积累本上,经常拿出来朗读背诵。我教过的学生,都积累了大量的范文习作,考试时可做到有备无患。

通过长期的写作训练,我狠抓学生基本功,学生的写作水平明显提高。我所教班级在每次考试中书面表达平均分都在同类班级之上。总之,英语写作训练是综合能力训练之一,写作能力的提高需要通过循序渐进的训练才能达到。听、说、读、写几方面的训练是相辅相成的,它们互相促进、互相制约,在平时教学中教师要合理安排,有机穿插,这样才能让学生“下笔如有神”。

一些小学生总是觉得作文难写，那是他们没有掌握作文写作方法，下面是小编收集了小学生作文写作方法10种，欢迎阅读。

1、第一人称叙事法

【特点】

由于文章的内容是通过“我”传达给读者，表示文章中所写的都是叙述人的亲眼所见，亲耳所闻，或者就是叙述者本人的亲身经历，使读者得到一种亲切真实的感觉。采用第一人称，由于叙述人是当事人，所以叙述的人与事，只能是“我”活动范围内的人物和事件。活动范围以外的人物和事情就不能写进去。

2、第三人称叙事法

【特点】

用第三人称叙事，叙述人既不受空间、时间的限制，也不受生理、心理的限制，可以直接把文章中的人和事展现在读者面前，能自由灵活地反映社会生活。但第三人称叙事又往往不如第一人称叙事那么亲切自然。

3、顺叙法

【特点】

顺叙是按时间的先后顺序来叙述事情，这就跟事情发生发展的实际情况相一致，所以易于把文章写得条理清楚，脉络分明。运用顺叙，要注意剪裁得当，重点突出。否则，容易出现罗列现象，犯平铺直叙的毛病，像一本流水帐，使人读了索然无味。

4、倒叙法

【特点】倒叙并不是把整个事件都倒过来叙述，而是除了把某个部分提前外，其他仍是顺叙的方法。采用倒叙的情况一般有三种：一是为了表现文章中心思想的需要，把最能表现中心思想的部分提到前面，加以突出;二是为了使文章结构富于变化，避免平铺直叙;三是为了表现效果的需要，使文章曲折有致，造成悬念，引人入胜。倒叙时要交代清楚起点。倒叙与顺叙的转换处，要有明显的界限，还要有必要的文字过渡，做到自然衔接。特别要注意，不要无目的地颠来倒去，反反复复，使文章的眉目不清。

5、插叙法

【特点】

插叙是为了表达文章中心的需要。有时是为了帮助读者了解故事情节的追叙;有时是对出场人物的情节作注释、说明。使用插叙一定要服从表达中心思想的需要，做到不节外生枝，不喧宾夺主。在插入叙述的时候，还要注意文章的过渡、照应和衔接，不能有断裂的痕迹。

6、补叙法

【特点】

补叙主要用于对上文的叙述补充说明，一般是片断性的、简要的，不具备完整的事件，也可以把解释或说明的文字放有前面，以引起下文。补叙的作用，一般不发展情节、事件，只对原来的叙述起丰富、补充作用。

7、分叙法

【特点】

分叙的作用是把头绪纷繁、错综复杂的事情，写得眉目清楚，不条不紊。分叙可以先叙一件，再叙另一件，也可以几件事情进行交叉地叙述。采用分叙时要根据文章内容和表达中心思想的需要确立叙述的线索，还要交代清楚每一事件发生和发展的时间。

8、详叙法

【特点】

9、略叙法

【特点】

略叙的作用是在于交代事件发生发展过程中不可缺少但又不必详叙的内容。它与详叙相结合，便整个叙述有详有略，疏密相间，形成叙述的起伏。略叙一般用于文章的开头和结尾;与中心思想关系一般的部分;人所共知的部分。

10、直接抒情法

【特点】

直接抒情可以使感情表达得朴实真切，震动人心。直接抒情一般适用于抒发强烈而紧张的感情。直接抒情的特点是叙述时感情强烈，节奏时快、紧张，情感直露，容易把握。

导语：我们课本里有不少优秀游记，你知道那些文章好在哪里吗?我们是否也能那样学习着去提升我们的游记水平呢?我们一起来看看吧!

一、按游览的顺序描写景物。

写作时，要在认真观察和记忆游览的景物的基础上，按照见到景物的次序，来所写看到的景物。这样才能做到条理清楚、自然、明白，不致于杂乱。观察景物，通常有两种方法。一种就是定点观察。如站在公园某一角，对公园进行由远及近的观察。又如我们登上塔顶，从东南西北四个东南西北四个方向对塔下景物进行观察。二就是移动观察，它又叫移步换位法。就是随着脚步的移动变换位置，一处一处地进行观察。选好了观察点，就是确定好了写的顺序。如课文《参观人民大会堂》，按参观的顺序，依次写了五处的景物。先写大会堂正门的国徽和柱子，其次写中央大厅的天花板和地面，接着写大礼堂，然后写宴会厅和会议厅。这样，就有条理有重点地写下了在大会堂所看到的景物。

二、抓住游览重点，详写过程。

一次参观游览活动，看到的景物很多，我们不能记“流水帐”。要把看到的景物中印象较深的写下来，其余地可以写得简略些。我们在一边参观游览，一边要抓住景物的特点，进行仔细观察。比方说，我们要写游览看到的景物为主的记叙文，写作的重点就是把看到的景物重点写下来。对于我们看到的特别好的景物，我们要进行具体地描写，突出重点。对于重点的景物，要注意详细描写出它们的位置、大小、动态、静态、颜色等。如我们写“菊花”，颜色就有“红的如枫叶、白的如冰霜、黄的如麦穗”等等，菊花的形状就有像“小姑娘的卷发，毛茸茸的小鸡，绣球”等等。我们要把过程写详细、具体，做到主次分明，详略得当，写出来的文章才能突出重点，清楚明白，才能写出游览的意义，才有教育意义。

三、略写前后，情、理、景相结合。

我们在写游览记时，应把开头和结尾写得简略些。开头要交待清楚时间、地点和人物。如《游善卷洞》的开头“我的故乡江苏宜兴有一处著名的游览胜地——善卷洞”。结尾应用议论或抒情的方式写下自己的感受。如《天然动物园漫游记》的结尾写道“‘哈哈……’我们在欢笑声中结束了这次愉快的野游。朱库米天然动物园行的乐趣是无穷的，无怪乎世界各地前去游览的人络绎不绝”。这样，写的文章有头有尾，读起来给人一个完整的印象。我们要把感情融化于景物中，写出真意。写作时，我们要倾注自己的思想感情。

还有，我们在写景的同时，或探索人生真谛，或谈论思想问题，治学精神，使读者在领略自然风景的同时，受到启迪和教育。

导语：小编给大家介绍一种写作方法，叫对比叙述法，是不是很耳熟呢，就是我们写作中经常用到的 嘛。下面小编跟大家细说，附带优秀例文给大家参考~欢迎阅读~

对比叙述法，亦称对比叙写法，或称对比描写法。它是指将不同的事物或同一事物的两个方面进行对比叙述，以突出事物的特征，增强表达的效果，表现作者的爱憎的写作方法。

对比，可分为两种：横比，即正反或矛盾的两种事物进行对比，是通过各自不同的特点来说明问题，表现观点;纵比，即同一事物的两个不同方面或同一事物的前后变化进行对比，是通过事物的发展变化来说明问题，表现观点。

运用对比叙述法，要善于选择对比的对象，善于确定对比的焦点，力求反映出对比事物之间的矛盾、差异，以揭示事物的内在本质和鲜明特征。

如鲁迅的《一件小事》，有“我”对“人”的态度前后不同的对比;又有“我”与车夫对受伤老女人不同态度和感情的对比。两种对比，既赞扬了劳动人民富于阶级同情和勇于承担责任的高尚品德，也表现了一个知识分子勇于解剖自己，虚心向劳动人民学习的精神。

优秀例文

一朵晶莹美丽的浪花

初夏，青弋江水静静地向长江奔去。一只渡船在江上往来穿行。船尾坐着一位老艄公，饱经风霜的脸上，刻着深深的皱纹，面色黑里透红，白须飘飘。船头立着一个十四五岁的小姑娘，红扑扑的脸，头上梳着两只羊角辫。她身姿矫健，熟练地划着桨，船行如飞，轻快平稳。

在渡口的上游，有一个用毛竹和木板搭成的跳板，浮在水面上，沿河的居民们常挤在跳板上洗衣、淘米。劈劈啪啪的捶衣声和人们的欢笑声交织在一起，在江面上飘荡着。蓦地，一只货船，鸣着汽笛，飞快地向东驶去。沉重的船身激起了一阵阵波浪，冲击着河岸。跳板在水面上晃荡着，人们急忙护好自己手中的衣服。

在岸边玩耍的一个六七岁男孩突然惊叫了一声：“妈妈，衣服掉到江里啦!”一个中年妇女转身一看，只见堆满衣服的篮子倒在跳板上，掉进江里的衣服已不见踪影了。她望着深深的江水直发愣，旁边一个大妈忙说：“哎，还不想办法快捞呀!”那个妇女叹了一口气：“唉，怎么捞呢?”

“好捞，”一个待渡的小青年搭上了腔，“不过有一个小小的条件，你得给两块钱。”那个妇女摸摸衣袋，似乎没带钱，为难地望望他。小青年见她犹豫不决，便怪声怪气地说：“哼，一件衣服少说也值七八块钱，真是大账不算，算小账。”跳板上的人听了都不满地瞪了他一眼。一位大妈愤愤地说：“小青年，做点好事还要钱，真没见过!”小青年却像没听见似的，敞着衬衫，吸了一口烟，慢慢地从嘴里吐着烟圈，歪着脑袋，眯着眼睛等待着。

这时，渡船渐渐地靠岸了。那小青年做出要上船的样子，转身说：“一块五吧!愿不愿，随你便。再等一会儿，恐怕你出五块钱也捞不着蟫。”

摆渡的老爷爷早就注意到这边的喧闹了，等船靠稳时，他一面招呼乘客下船，一面朝小姑娘努努嘴。小姑娘会意地点点头。正待那个妇女要答应小青年的条件时，小姑娘一步跳到跳板上，轻蔑地瞥了那小青年一眼，对那妇女说：“大妈，别急!我来帮你捞。”说着，便纵身跃入江中，江面上激起了朵朵清亮晶莹的浪花。

跳板上和渡口边立刻寂静下来，人们都带着赞赏的神情注视着水中。只见小姑娘一会儿露出头来，一会儿又潜入水中，犹如一条蛟龙在水里翻来钻去。一分钟，二分钟，三分钟过去了，衣服还没有捞到。真是，在这深深的江水中，要捞一件衣服谈何容易啊!小姑娘深深吸了口气，顺着水流，潜水向下游摸去。十几双眼睛焦急地注视着水面上涌起的朵朵浪花。摆渡老人望望江水，却悠然地摸出烟袋，吸起烟来。站在岸边的小青年见此情景，得意洋洋，又点了一支烟，唱起洋腔：“有本事的怎么还没捞上来?刚学会个狗爬式就来逞能了，哼!”十几双眼睛又愤怒地瞪了那小青年一眼。

一个穿着满身油腻工作服的青年工人走过来，脱下工作服，准备下水。突然，小姑娘在四五丈远的水中冒上来了，她一手抹着脸上的水，一手拿着一件崭新的涤纶褂子。“好!”人们不约而同地喊了一声，脸上露出了欣喜的笑容。那位妇女忙跑上前去，把小姑娘拉上岸来，激动地连声说：“谢谢，小妹妹，谢谢你。”刚才还神气活现的小青年，像泄了气的皮球，蔫着脑袋，低着头，也不上船，灰溜溜地返身走上岸堤，向青弋江桥那边走去，消失在人们鄙视的目光中。

这时，那个小男孩跑到姑娘跟前说：“大姐姐，你要几块钱呀?”小姑娘的脸刷地红了：“谁要钱呀?”小男孩又说：“那个大哥哥不是非要钱不可吗?”小男孩的话把大家都逗乐了。跳板上、渡口边飞起了一阵笑声，笑声中，小姑娘飞身跳上渡船，渡船轻轻晃动着，在奔腾的江水中，激起了一朵朵晶莹美丽的浪花…

题目：请以“My Class Teacher”为题，写一篇不少于60个单词的作文。

My Class Teacher我的班主任

My class teacher is Mr. Wang. He is strict but kind. He has taught us Chinese for two years.我的班主任是王老师，他是一个要求严格而亲切的老师。他已经教了我们两年语文。

He always tells us to study hard but not all the time. Sometimes he plays with us. He says, "All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy." I think he is a good class teacher.他总是告诉我们要好好学习，但不是时时刻刻学习。有时他会和我们一起玩。他说：“只会用功不玩耍，聪明孩子也变傻。” 我觉得他是个很好的班主任。

点评：这篇文章取材的是身边熟悉的人，作者也有东西可写，更具有可读性。另外，写人时把主语稍作调整，读起来轻松多了。

I am a 15-year-old girl. My name is [ename]Cherry[/ename]. Now I am studying in the middle school. I want to be an actress because I think it is a funny and exciting job...

写人的常见句式如：

This is my friend, Mary.

She is... years old.

She is a teacher/ an artist/ a singer...

She/ He gets up at 6/5... / early/ late.

She/ He has sports at school.

She/ He likes...

She/ He is strong/ fat/ slim/ kind/ thin/...

She/ He looks like...

She/ He is good at English/ maths/ Chinese/ physics...