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英语说明文常见写作方法(精选20篇)

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雅思写作的五大方法

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一直以来,雅思写作考试的大作文主体段的拓展往往是很多考生在写作中突显的最为薄弱的一个环节,其中论证过程单薄、不充分、没有力量,导致论点站不住脚是主要的原因,从而使得整篇文章留下失败的一笔。议论文,说到底,最关键的一点就是让读者对你在文章中所体现的立场认同。要做到这一点,靠的就是论点和论证。论点要合理、明确,且不要重复,要有层次;论证要做到充分,要有强大的力量把论点支撑起来,让读者心服口服,认同你的想法。作为海外考试来说,考生要做的就是让考官明确地知道你的想法,并且认同你,最终让他给你一个合理且满意的写作分数。

如何成功地完成主体段落的拓展呢?要勾画出一个充实且具有说服力的论证过程,我们当然要使用到一些论证手段,结合这些论证方法的使用,协助我们较好地完成相对来说最困难的论证过程。

一、 举例论证法

要更为直观地反映问题,举例无疑是最好的选择,也是最具有说服力的。常见的引出实例的方式:如for example, for instance, as is reported, It is reported that…, 可作为插入语的结构使用在句中。实例也可以分为几种情况,如下:

1. 应用名人实例,这是大家都知道的事情,容易引起共鸣。如在教育类话题中有一个考点涉及到中学生要不要学历史,在论证古人的经验和智慧给我们很多借鉴意义时,就可以引用一些名人的例子。

Charles Darwin, for example, taught us that only the fittest can survive, which is more than ever true in today’s competitive society.

2. 应用某些调查研究结果,常结合具体数据,更能增强真实性说服力。社会类话题老人问题上,要求分析人口老龄化所带来的影响,其中谈到积极意义时,会提到老人对家庭及社会的贡献。我们可以在两个地方找到列数据的点,一是老人的年龄,二是在有意义的事情上所花的时间,可以得出论证过程如下:

As is reported, the average time that the retired within the age group above 65 spend on the family and the community is at its length of about 5 hours per day.

3. 应用生活中具有普遍性的现象或有代表性的亲身经历。在文化这类较为抽象的话题中,有典型地要求分析文化差异会带来的不同国家人之间的冲突,可以引用这样的现象:

A western woman travelling to the Middle East may find it annoying to have to wear headscarf during a journey.

要做到恰当合适地使用实例进行论证,要求考生在平时的准备过程中,就要着重对各大话题常见的考点进行典型实例的收集,最好是比较万能的一些例子,这样就能充分利用举例子的优势,在考试中赢得高分。

二、 解释说明(拓展影响)法

中心论点表达一般比较空泛、笼统,作为论证,首先就要对空泛的意思加以具体地解释,说明原因,解释过程,阐述影响,这是一种惯用的思维,这里打不开,后面说得再多也可能都是白搭。常结合定语从句,分词的语法应用。我们来看一个例子:

By travelling abroad, we have the opportunity to experience different customs, cultures and lifestyles, helping us better understand the whole world.

这个句子是对论点出国旅游有助于我们开拓眼界的论证,采取的就是解释的方式,目的就是协助论点表达得更透彻。

三、 因果推理法

这种方法是基于一个事实的陈述,推出它可能会产生的结果,然后一环扣着一环往下推,直至目标内容出现,也就是论点的内容呈现了。常结合因果关系的状语从句结构展开论证,要注意推理逻辑连接词的应用,如as, since, because, therefore, hence, thus, as a consequence, consequently, ……

论证高中生毕业后先去工作再上大学的这种作为会带来的不利影响之一——这种方式容易使高中生误入歧途,论证过程如下:Since high school students are mentally immature, they are less likely to resist the temptation in the real world. As a result, they are more prone to some social evils, such as theft, drug abuse, and so on. So, they may easily go astray and even commit crime.

四、 对照对比论证法

拿相同或相反的事物做比较,相同关系叫对照(comparison),相反关系叫对比(contrast)。此类论证考生需要重点掌握一些对比对照关系的连词:in contrast, by contrast, on the contrary, while, whereas, likewise, similarly, by the same token。

先看个例子,如:论证广告给消费者提供及时信息,帮助他们做决定中论述到:By contrast, without advertising, a consumer is at the risk of purchasing a product that fails to meet all of his or her needs, because of lack of knowledge of better alternatives in the market.这就是从反面着手,阐述如果没有广告,消费者会受到的影响,用反方的劣势达到衬托正方优势的效果。若想使论点具有说服力,可以尝试寻找对应的参照物相比较,在所选参照物明显的不足面前,本来事物的优点会立刻容易被人信服。

再来分析下对照的例子:They cite that in the sports world, records are always created when a sportsman is facing tough competitions. They believe that, by the same token, in a classroom where clever minds meet, students can achieve their best due to peer pressure. 拿体育比赛中的情况作对照,突出分班教学的必要性。

五、 让步论证法

欲擒故纵的高超写法,对考生来说比较陌生,先退一步承认与自己观点相反的事实,再转折给出自己的观点,否定前者。让步这种方法的优点是能较为全面地看待一个问题,而且反驳更能有的放矢。比如举一个大家特别熟悉的例子,一个男生向女生表白时被拒绝,女生会很委婉地表示,先肯定男生有很多优点,但最终会表示自己并不喜欢他,他不是她喜欢的类型。这种方式一方面不会伤害到男孩的自尊,同时也鲜明地表达了自己的想法。在这种论证中,常见句型如下:although / though / in spite of the fact that…; as is granted / admittedly…; opponents would argue that…

用以下例子加以说明:

1. As is granted, saving money offers people a sense of security in case of emergency. However, people tend to believe that wise investment can get more profits.

2. Opponents would argue that some of the violence shown on TV is the true portrayal of what is happening around us and people have the right to know it. Although this is undoubtedly true, it also means that people who see them a lot may gradually develop a sense of insecurity and mistrust as they are forced to believe they are living in a dangerous world.

很明显,我们在写作的论证过程中,对以上五种方法可以灵活地加以结合使用,不断地积累相关实例,不断地练习这些思维,在论证中做到游刃有余,充分的论证无疑是考生的加分点。希望以上的方法能为各位考生提供一些帮助。

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篇1:小学生童话作文写作方法

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童话,讲述的是虚拟的故事,并不是真实的。以下是小编给大家整理的小学生童话作文写作方法的内容,欢迎大家查看。

一、我们在写之前要弄清什么是童话?

童话:是通过丰富的想象、幻想和夸张,来塑造形象、反映生活、对儿童进行思想、道德教育的一种文学样式。童话,讲述的是虚拟的故事,并不是真实的。其中的"人物",也是假想形象,并非真有其人。但它所表现的人、事、关系、道理,却是现实生活的反映。

二、童话都有哪些特点呢?

第一、写童话需要幻想和夸张

幻想和夸张,是童话的两只"翅膀"。 幻想,是我们对未来生活的想象。童话离不开幻想,幻想离不开夸张。夸张,是对所要表现的对象或某种特征,故意夸大或缩小的一种修辞手法。没有夸张,幻想的内容就会失去光彩;没有夸张童话中的形象就会暗淡无光;没有夸张,童话的讽刺性就会失去锋芒;没有夸张,童话的语言就会缺乏感染力。如《皇帝的新装》中,那个爱慕虚荣、愚蠢的赤裸裸的皇帝,在现实生活中可能是不存在的,但我们却相信这个故事,因为现实中就有大量爱慕虚荣、愚蠢的人存在,同时也就应运而产生了那种骗子,他们利用一些人的爱慕虚荣、愚蠢,导演着一幕幕荒延的闹剧。这种幻想,源于生活又高于生活,具有相当高的艺术价值。

第二、写童话需要有拟人化的形象

童话里的形象,大多是拟人化的。童话中,无论是动物、植物,其他东西,都可以像人一样会思考、会说话、会做事、会生活。列宁说过:"儿童的本性是爱听童话的。你给儿童讲故事时,如果其中的鸡儿、狗儿都不会说人话,儿童便没有兴趣。"

第三、写童话需要有奇妙、曲折丶动人丶完整的故事情节。

由于童话创作的主要手法是想象、幻想、夸张和拟人,因此,童话的情节都非常奇妙,洋溢着浓烈的浪漫主义色彩。如《神笔马良》的故事,说的是穷孩子马良,凭顽强刻苦的精神,得到了一支神笔。他拿着这支神笔帮助贫苦大众,智斗财主、皇帝,让人读后无不称快。

三、 童话的写作和要求。

优秀的童话都不是凭空产生的,都是作者细心观察现实生活中的人、事、物后,通过"幻想处理",创作出来的。写童话不仅需要细心观察,还要经过一个"幻想处理",也就是"生活幻想化"的过程。只有经过这个过程,生活才能成为童话。在创作童话时,还要注意五点要求:

第一、童话中的幻想是生活的反映,因此要植根于现实。

第二、童话中的夸张一定要突出事物的本质。脱离事物本质的夸张,只能让人感到荒诞、不可信,也就失去了童话的教育意义。

第三、童话中的拟人,一定要抓住事物的特征,符合动植物的特征。

第四、在一篇童话中,表现手法要多样,这样会使你的童话故事显得生动感人。

第五、语言简洁活泼,符合儿童的语言特点。

四、怎样创编童话故事?

1、利用"假设"进行想象

假设某一具体情况,让学生根据这种情况,结合自己的生活经验进行想象、联想。想象可以超越时空、超越自我,甚至想象出世界上不存在的事物。例如,阿凡提来到我们当中,会飞的猴子,鳄鱼拿着一支玫瑰花来敲我的门……这些都是合理的想象。这样坚持下来,久而久之,就会想、敢想,就能大胆创新。

2、利用"绘画"展示故事内容,发展想象能力

在"创编童话"过程中,不要以"写故事"的形式把故事内容展示出来,而是打开绘画纸,展开想象,自由作画,把想到的东西画出来。"画好故事"以后,再给画面配上文字,就成为一篇简单的童话故事了。

3、利用"表演"展现故事情节

例如《小红帽》,可以五人一组,分别扮演"小红帽"、"妈妈"、"外婆"、"猎人"、"狼",将故事表演出来,表演时可以加以创造,不要完全按照原文表演。表演后,几个人凑在一起,研究一下怎样给故事欢歌结尾。

4、利用"续编"延续故事内容

如《狼和小羊》一文的结尾是:"狼不想再争辩了,龇着牙,向小羊扑去……"可以大胆想象并续编故事:小羊最终的结局如何呢?如,小羊想了一个好办法战胜了狼,从此过着幸福的生活。这些与众不同的办法,就是你的想象力;把这些想象写下来,就是一篇很好的童话故事了。

童话里的形象,大多是拟人化的。童话中,无论是动物、植物,其他东西,都可以像人一样会思考、会说话、会做事、会生活。列宁说过:"儿童的本性是爱听童话的。你给儿童讲故事时,如果其中的鸡儿、狗儿都不会说人话,儿童便没有兴趣。"

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篇2:浅析信息写作方法

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导语:如何提高信息的产出率、命中率,这是每位组工干部所关注的。现小编为大家整理了相关的信息资料,希望大家喜欢~

一、信息的概念、特点和作用

信息就是反映工作的文稿,是有价值的、客观情况的反映。层次高的信息是对原始信息的归纳、综合,是各级领导科学决策的重要依据。

信息的特点,主要表现在三个方面。一是具有宏观性。信息主要是为领导决策提供服务的,[莲山课件]它所产生的效应直接或间接体现在决策方面。要求撰写信息人员围绕工作主题、单位工作中心工作抓大问题,抓有碍全局的实际问题,抓政策性问题,抓重要的监管动态以及重大的社情民意,而不是摄取小镜头,捕捉小花絮。二是具有真实性。与新闻报道不同,新闻报道要注重政治影响,而信息则要求实事求是。不管是喜是忧,都必须如实报告。一就是一,二就是二,决不允许在数字上来大概加估计。三是具有权威性。信息必须经过本级领导审查后方可报出,应该是具有严肃性的“官方消息”,决不是不加约束混淆视听的小道消息。

信息具有四个方面的作用,简单讲就是,宣传、协调、交流和引导。

二、信息的采编技巧

1、要学会取材。有的同志反映,身边眼前都是平平常常的业务工作,哪有那么多具有价值的信息呢?信息从哪里来呢?通过积累和实践摸索,有14条采集信息的途径可以利用,用言简意赅的98个字加以概括,那就是:文件堆里挖;翻阅材料筛;讲话稿中捡;领导口中理;联系上下摸;会议之中捕;参与活动追;重大事件抢;深入基层拾;关注新闻抓;掌握规律掏;情况反馈传;跟踪问效知;利用网络选。信息就在我们的实际工作中,只要我们勤奋加刻苦,敏锐而深入,还会拓展出更多的渠道来,也一定会发现信息取之不尽,用之不竭。

2、要注重时效。信息就像山里的药材,适时是宝,过时是草。要勤写快报,准确性中求快,新中求活,实中求深,是提高信息产出率的高招实招。同样一件事,你抢先一步,可能被录用,如果滞缓半拍,很可能被打入冷宫。

3、要体现特色。条条块块承担的职能不同,信息的产生势必各有侧重。只有注重挖掘工作中的亮点,聚焦工作中的难点,采集领导关注的热点,信息工作才能源头活水滚滚来。

4、要实事求是。编撰信息必须树立实事求是的文风,不做“假大空”的文章。不乱提诸如“战略、战役、战术、方略”等过高的口号。语言要求准确、朴实、精练、明快、提神,避免客套话和空话。

5、要对号入座。要根据信息层次不同,需求不同,量体裁衣,看菜吃饭,适合于哪一级信息刊物用的就报给哪一级,内外有别。各有侧重,不搞一刀切,一锅煮。

三、信息的写法

1、细琢鲜明标题。标题是信息内容的统帅、纲领。“题常意要新,意常题要新”,这是对标题较高的要求。如何写好标题:—是题文一致。标题必须与内容一致,不能用一些不适当的副词、形容词,以免华而不实、故弄玄虚。同时,标题的观点在信息中要有充分的依据,语言精准,让人想看下去。内容准确,少不了时间,地点、人物、事件、效果等。

2、是选择句式的艺术。陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句是汉语的四种基本句式。陈述句是将所要叙述的事情直接陈列表述出来。信息标题大量使用的是陈述句,并且多用主谓型结构。

3、是信息标题用好补语。补语用得好,可以增加标题的信息容量,阅读者即使不看文章,也能对内容有大致了解。例如:《x县新建场所建设建成率达到100%》。

4、是交待好背景。信息标题中恰当地使用背景材料,可以引起读者注意,加重信息的份量。常见的背景有三类:—类为人物背景,包括领导和群众。—般来说,以领导为背景,是为了对领导关注的事情有个交待。以群众为背景,则是为了引起领导的重视,研究解决群众关心、社会反映强烈的问题。二类为时间背景,包括过去、现在和将来,以加深读者印象。例如《××组织部“五项举措”确保“元旦”“春节”困难党员基本生活》。三类为时事背景,包括政治形势、经济形势以及突发事件等。背景材料的选用主要是为了突出信息的重要性。

5、是使用好数据。用数字议话,是信息一个显著的特点。一般来说,绝对数字越大越难以理解,越小越容易明白;孤零零的数字不好理解,有比较的数字就好理解;零散的数字难理解,概括归类的数字易理解。

因此,信息在采用数据上,可以采取如下方法

其一是比较法。即用纵比、横比、类比,让数字在对比关系中反映出所要表达的意思。

其二是换算法。将原始数据进行艺术处理,将绝对数变成相对数,将数字换算成增长数,使之更加明白。

其三是综合串联法。就是将一组相关的数字串联合起来使用,更具说明力。

从规范来讲,标题当中除使用顿号外,不可以用逗号等其他标点符号。

a.确定信息主题。信息主题就是信息所表达出来的基本观点或中心思想。我们写任何一条信息,总有一个目的,就是通过反映什么问题,说明什么观点,提出什么建议,达到什么目的。

确定主题的基本要求:

一是正确。正确反映出事物的内在规律和内在性质。

二是鲜明。基本思想清楚明确,毫不含糊。

三是深刻。要把情况写明、写透。是集中。说明一个问题要突出重点,引用的材料要集中到一个中心思想上来。确定主题的关键就是提炼主题。主题的提炼要从全部材料的筛选出发,从事物本质出发,从领导科学决策的需要出发,从实践需要出发。日常工作中应着重把握那些有新意、有特色、有借鉴、有启发、有探讨性、有共性的事项和问题。

b.精心安排结构。结构是文章的表现形式和框架。主题是灵魂,结构是骨架,是为表现主题服务的。信息的结构比较文学作品、机关公文、新闻报道来说,要短小、简单。

信息在写法上要避免素材的堆积,—般采取直言表达,总分结构。具体要求有三点:

一是简朴。能省的则省,通篇给人以明晰、舒畅、一目了然的感觉。有的写信息总喜欢在开头罗列一大堆背景材料,而把最有信息价值的事实夹在文章的中间,这是布局之大忌,谋篇之失策。信息的一个鲜明特点在于开门见山,单刀直入,必须把新近发生的事实写在头上,背景材料最好不用或少用。如果一篇信息有若干个观点构成,在谋篇布局时,也应把最新颖最有说服力的观点排在前面。

二是严谨。不因其短而变粗,虽短但要“五脏俱全”。

三是自然。长短详略,顺其自然。撰写信息应站在第三者的角度来反映本单位开展的工作,杜绝在文章中出观“我们、我局、我区、我单位”等用语;忌用“为了”,“指导思想”等词语,事件的过程要简写,有的甚至不要过程;全篇都是“了”字的晦涩拗口文章要摒弃。

四、几种常见的信息写作要领

(一)经验性信息(常见,最多)

1.已经取得显著成效的经验。要领:一是简单交待背景和目的;二是具体介绍主要做法;三是介绍成效。

2.暂无显著成效的做法。要领:一是选择有创新意义,能给人一定启示的做法来写;二是简单交待背景和目的;三是具体介绍做法。[莲山课件]

(二)问题性信息

l.对上级正着手重点整治的问题。这种信息采用率较高。要领:把相关问题来龙去脉交待清楚,找出问题的根源和实质,并点明造成问题的责任对象。

2.对上级正在酝酿有一定参考价值的问题性信息。要领:—是指出问题;二是分析问题产生的原因;三是只对发展的趋势作出预测;四是提出具体建议。

3.重大事件信息。要领:一是把事件基本情况介绍清楚;二是按照法律、法规作出定性;三是本部门采取措施。对难以定性和处理的重大案件,还可以提出请求上级予以帮助的具体内容。

(三)建议性信息

建议性信息是为领导提供决策服务最直接的一类信息,很受领导欢迎。它一般包括提出问题、分析问题、解决问题三个部分。提出的问题不宜太大,应当是比较具体的问题;分析问题要力求条理清楚,理由充足,切中要害,为提出建议作好铺垫;解决问题要提出具有可操作性的建议,力戒原则笼统。

(四)跟踪反馈性信息

1.贯彻落实上级重要会议精神的信息。要领:一是开头交待清楚是贯彻落实什么会议精神。二是针对会议要求解决的主要问题,把本部门的安排部署逐—交待清楚就可以了。

2.反映上级重大政策举措出台后的信息。要领:—是及时收集情况,做到快速反应;二是在开头简要交待对什么举措的反映和所反映情况的来源;三是把正面或负面的反映以及涉及的政策条款和产生这种反映的主要原因交待清楚;四是尽可能提出具体建议。

(五)领导言论性信息

指各级领导对组织工作及管理的肯定性讲话和指导性言论。由于领导人的特殊身份,其言论对组织工作的开展具有重要的影响。

综上所述,撰写信息人员只要坚持强化质量意识、责任意识、服务意识和超前意识,撰写时注意集中精力唱好地方戏、打好优势仗,少些“大路货”、多些“土特产”,努力争取做到人无我有、人有我快、人快我新、人新我深,就能写出写好高质量的信息。

最后要谈的就是,信息只能一文一事,不要一文几事。

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篇3:英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

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下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言,考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章,然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分,特别建议你熟读,背诵,因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白,表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累,潜移默化。从某种意义上说,提高英语写作能力无捷径可走,你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关,没有任何人能代替你过。

因此,建议你下点苦功夫,把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况,并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心:你可以这个星期背,下个星期忘。这没有关系,相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后,你会惊讶的发现:I can think in English now!

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

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篇4:学习英语的方法初中英语作文

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The way of learning English

Nowadays, English has become the international standard language. As China is stepping to the internationalization, learning English is more and more important. But many people find it hard to learn English well. According to my own learning experience, I think determination, read English materials and patience are the most significant.

如今,英语已经成为国际标准语言。由于中国正在迈向国际化,学习英语变得越来越重要。但是许多人发现很难学好英语。根据我自己的学习经验,我觉得决心,阅读英语材料和耐心是最重要的。

First of all, doing everything needs determination. Determination is a prerequisite to do something. When facing difficulty, the people who have determination will insist, on contrary, thepeople who don’t have determinatin are easily give up. Thus, if people wants to do something well, the first thing they need to do is to make up their mind. Secondly,reading English materials is a great help for learning English. It can help people raise sense for English language,have interest and confidence in Engilsh. That will help people a lot in the process of learning. Last, patience is necessary in English learning. Most people will feel difficult to learn English at the beginning. The people without patience will often upset towards learning English. As a result, it will increase the difficulties of learning English and vice versa.

首先,做所有的事情都需要决心。决心是做一件事的一个先决条件。面对困难时,有决心的人会坚持下去,相反,那些没有决心的人则很容易放弃。因此,如果有人想完成一件事情,他们要做的第一件事是下定决心。其次,阅读英语材料对学习英语有很大的帮助。它可以帮助人们提高英语语感,对英语有兴趣和信心。这将在学习的过程中对人们的帮助很大。最后,耐心在英语学习中是必须的。刚开始学习英语的时候大多数人都会觉得很难。没有耐心的人对学习英语会经常感到心烦。结果就是增加了学习英语的困难,反之亦然。

In general, determination, reading English materials and patience are the effective ways to learn English. If people recognize those, they will learn it well sooner or later.

总之,决心,阅读英语材料和耐心是学习英语的有效途径。如果人们意识到这些,他们迟早都会学好它的。

[学习英语的方法初中英语作文

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篇5:大学生法学论文基础知识、选题及写作方法

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下面就是小编为大家带来的大学生法学论文基础知识选题写作方法,希望对你们有帮助。

法学论文的写作,虽然没有固定的模式,但有一定的规律可循。欲写出高水平的法学学术论文(亦称“法学学术理论文章”),必须既具有较高的思想理论水平和坚实的法学专业基础知识功底,又掌握并且能较熟练地运用写作技巧。现就与此有关的问题,阐述如下。

一 法学论文概述

学术论文,也称学术理论文章。它是指在自然科学或社会科学领域内用来进行科学研究和描述科学研究成果的论文。法学学术论文,是指在法学领域中对某个学术理论问题进行专门的系统的科学研究,并且表述某些研究成果的论文。“学术”,是指有专门的、系统的学问和方术。“理论”,是指科学的论点、论据及论证的体系。法学学术论文,就其功能而言,它既是探讨法律科学问题,进行法律科学研究的一种手段;又是阐述法律科学研究成果、进行法学学术交流的一种工具。法学学术论文,一般包括:论点、论据、论证三个要素。

法学学术论文,就其性质而言,属于论文中高级别的具有创造性的论文。它要求作者对法学学术理论界的某个问题有新的发现,提出新的学说,新的构想;或对以往的法学理论、法学观点有较多的新发展或深入开拓;或对法学中的旧学说提出不同的独立见解;或论证法学旧学说错误、疏漏之处;或提出新的法学预见、构想,启迪后人研究,等。凡法学学术论文,其要求均应如此。本文所言之法学学术论文的写作,仅指篇幅一万字左右的立论方式的法学论文(硕士论文、博士论文 等法学毕业论文除外)的写作,至于驳论方式的法学论文的写作暂不涉及。

(一)法学学术论文,一般说来应当具有如下几个特点:

1.学术性,即指论文对法学学术理论问题具有科学的论证性;

2.理论性,即指论文运用充分占有的材料,经过严密论证将法学中某个或某几个问题“升华”到理论高度,从而找出带规律性的东西的思辩性。

3.创造性,即指论文论述的法学问题“发前人所未发”,探求法学中前人没有发现的规律或匡正通说的独创性。

4.专业性,即指法学论文对法学学科中的某个或某几个专门问题进行研究,并取得一定成果,具有供法学专家、教授、学者研讨和交流的专业性。

(二)法学学术论文的主要要求是:

1.所研究和论述的法学问题,观点正确,对社会主义革命和法制建设有促进作用;

2.能推动法学领域学术理论的研究向前发展;

3.具有学术论文的诸特点;

4.全文观点与材料统一,层次分明,条理清楚;

5.论证中逻辑严密,推理正确;

6.所用的法学语言准确、概括、精炼;

7.文风庄重,就事论理,据理立说,以理创新。

(三)从总结前人的经验观之,要写出质量高的法学学术论文,论文的作者应当具备相当高的素质。择其要者是:

1.具有相当高的马列主义理论水平,并能用马列主义立场、观点和方法去研究实践中(如公安司法实践)中出现的新情况、新问题或匡正旧说。在研究中能以辩证唯物主义作指导,用发展的、辩证的、全面的观点看问题,不犯或少犯形而上学的、机械的、片面的等错误。

2.具有深厚的法学专业功底,即在法律专业领域内发现新问题,经过调查研究和证明,能独立地做出超越前人的新结论。

3.具有经过严格科学训练的科研能力和智力,即观察问题思维敏捷,概括事理水平较高,论证问题逻辑严密,创造新见能力很强。

4.具有不畏艰难,坚持真理的精神,即不惧怕研究中碰到的任何困难,即使遇到困难,也能想方设法地去克服,为取得研究某个问题的成功而奋斗不止;在法学科研和写作中,不唯上、不唯书、不唯旧说,不畏权威,只唯实,只唯新;对于符合客观事实的真理敢于坚持,对于符合事物发展规律的结论敢于作出。

由此可见,欲写出高质量的法学论文,必须加强上述素质的培养和训练。

(四)要写出好的法学学术论文,作者应当具备某些条件。它们主要是:

1.充分了解法学学术界在自己的论文题目所含内容方面已有的成就。法学学术界已研究和争论的问题很多,对自己来说,应清楚地了解到自己研究的论文在法学学术界是否有人研究过?如果有人研究过,还应了解已取得哪些成果?如果对此有争论,应了解各种观点的论点及论据是哪些?如此等等,不一而足。只有在了解上述情况的条件下才能确定自己选择研究什么新问题(即选题),才能不再研究前人已经研究过的问题,不再作重复的劳动甚至是无效的劳动。

2.充分掌握与自己论文有关的主要资料。掌握必要的资料是写好法学学术论文的基础。所谓必要的资料,是指写作论文所必不可少的资料。欲掌握这些资料,首先应收集与论文有关的所有资料,经过筛选,择取主要资料,在写作论文时对它们妥贴地加以利用。这是一项艰苦、细致的备料工作,必须做好。否则,写出的论文就缺少坚实的根基,质量自然不高。

3.有充足的写作时间。写作法学学术论文,从选题、收集资料、编写提纲到行文写作、修改定稿等,需要很多、很长的时间。关于法学学术论文的写作时间,且不说写博士、硕士论文需要一至两年,即使是写一篇一万字左右的法学学术论文,也必须花费几个月乃至一年的时间。既想写出高水平的法学学术论文,又想在十天半月之内一举成功,即使是写出来了,质量也不会高,其结果,必然是欲速则不达。这是因为,写法学学术论文是一项长期的、艰苦的科研活动,在很短的时间内是无法取得高质量的科研成果的。

4.有充沛的写作精力。写作法学学术论文,既是一项艰苦的脑力劳动,又是一种创造性的思维活动。一旦写作提纲定型,从行文开始,就必须集中一段时间,夜以继日地将论文一气呵成。如果自己没有充沛的精力,是难以完成此任的。由此可见,充沛的精力也是写出高质量法学论文的一个重要条件。

二 法学论文选题

法学论文选题,有广狭二义之分。广义上的选题,是指法学科学研究中选定的课题。所谓课题,是指需要研究或讨论的法学学科领域中比重较大的项目。狭义上的选题,是指选定法学学术论文的题目。所谓题目,是指法学论文的标题(或称“名字”)。本文所言之选题,特指后者而不是前者。

(一)法学论文选题的作用

选题在论文中占有十分重要的地位。这是因为,论文题目选得准、选得恰当,写作就能顺利进行。所谓论文题目选得好是“论文写作成功的一半”之说,就是这个道理。选题的作用主要有:

1.能确定研究方向。法学研究发展很快,门类繁多;法学中待研究的题目也不少。选定了某个题目,就确定了法学研究的方向和主攻目标。方向定得准,目标愈集中,写出来的法学学术论文成功的可能性就愈大。

2.能促进构思活动。法学学术论文写作是一种精神劳动。法学学术论文的写作是为获得法学研究成果而进行劳动的体现,也是客观事物在作者头脑中经过反复思考后反映出来的产物。它需要自己围绕学术论文的题目进行深思熟虑的和绞尽脑汁的构思和论证。选定一个好的法学论文题目,就能促进上述构思活动的深入顺利开展。

3.能指明写作思路。学术论文的题目选定之后能促使自己构思怎样开头,怎样发展,怎样深入,怎样完篇;考虑应当将哪些材料置于论文的前半部分,哪些材料置于论文的中间或后半部分;考虑怎样论证和运用哪些论据论证更有说服力,等。

(二)法学论文选题应当遵循一定的原则

其原则诸多,择其要者主要是:

1.有研究价值。它是指法学论文题目有学术价值,即有助于法律专业和法学学科的发展。

2.有重要的现实意义。它是指对依法治国,建设社会主义法治国家有指导或促进作用。法学论文题目,应当有助于立法司法和教育公民守法,对加强社会主义法制建设有推动作用。

3.有创新性。它是指该题是前人没有研究过,根据这个题目写出来的法学学术论文,能填补本专业的空白。

4.有深入研究的必要性。它是指自己选定的法学学术论文的题目虽然有人已经写过,但内容不深刻或不全面,或有疏漏甚至是谬误之处,自己选定的题目,角度比他们更新,写出来的内容有较多的创见和发展。

5.有强烈的创作欲。由于写作法学学术论文需要付出艰辛的脑力劳动,要克服重重困难,而要做到这些,就需要自己有主动的强烈创作欲望。实践表明,只有自己想写且非写出来不可的题目,经过一番努力研究之后创作出来的论文,才可能是高质量的论文。

6.符合自己擅长的法学专业。这是指选定的法学学术论文题目,是自己擅长的法学专业内的题目。法学学术论文,是法学专业性、学术性很强的文章。只有选定自己擅长的法学专业的题目,由于法学专业基础知识厚,造诣深,写作起来就会得心应手,左右逢源,论证严密,质量甚高。

7.吸收相关学科的知识,使法学专业知识与经济学、社会学、伦理学、逻辑学、生命科学、信息科学等知识相融合。只有这样,才能不断写出创新突出,紧跟时代发展潮流的学术论文。

8.本人力所能及。它是指根据自己的法学专业知识和理论水平能写出来的能力,因为具有能写出此题的能力,就会在较短或有限的时间内又快、又好地将法学学术论文写出来。如果某个选题很有学术价值,但因自己能力有限或不及,即使竭尽全力去写,其结果也写不出高质量的法学学术论文,这样就会事倍功半。

9.题目大小适中。它是指选定的法学学术论文的题目与所写出的内容要恰当。题目太大,由于篇幅或时间有限,就会草率成篇、面面俱到、蜻蜓点水,研究不会深刻;反之,题目过小,内容难以展开,说理不会透辟,因此,论文的质量也不会高。有鉴于此,必须注意所选择的题目大小应当适中。在是否选择大题目或者小题目的问题上,对于写出字数在一万至二万的学术论文而言,笔者主张小题大作。力争做到:“题目小,内容新,挖掘深,论述精。”

(三)法学论文选题应当注意的几个问题

1.选题应避免盲目性。所谓选题的盲目性,是指作者不考虑自己的主观条件和外界的客观条件,灵机一动就定下选题。其结果,要不是写不下去,就是无法展开,造成写作半途而废。

2.选题应避免随意性。所谓选题的随意性,是指作者不下苦功,轻易定题。这样做,因为没有经过深思熟虑,所选定的题目或者包括的内容太多或太少,或者写作难度太强或太易。题目包含的内容太多,写出来的论文会面面俱到没有重点;题目包含的内容太少,就深写不下去,写不出更多的深刻内容;题目太难,可能因为力不胜任写不下去;题目太易,即使写出了论文,其质量必定不合格,所述观点不会有创见。所有这些,都有碍于写出高质量的法学论文。

3.选题应当避免偶然性。所谓偶然性,是指本人阅读了他人的文章或听了别人的发言后偶有所获,但认识不深,在缺乏准备的情况下就草率地选定题目,这样做,往往因考虑欠周,资料不多,因而也不可能写出高质量的法学论文。

三 法学论文写作的准备

欲写出高质量的法学论文,应当作好多方面的准备,其中,主要是如下三个方面:

(一)制定研究计划

研究计划,是指研究的方法、步聚和时间安排等方面的筹划。制定研究计划,包括预先自我规定从哪个方面入手进行研究,先研究什么,后研究什么;从哪些方面着手收集资料;再怎样合理地安排时间,等。只有这样,研究起来就会重点明确,方法和步骤井然有序,防止研究时顾此失彼和做重复劳动等情况发生。

(二)广泛收集材料

广泛收集法学论文资料,是指广泛收集与法学学术论文题目有关的材料。充分占有丰富的材料是写出高质量论文的雄厚基础。这是因为:

1.充分占有资料,能了解到与论文有关的问题学术理论界研究到何种程度;哪些问题没有研究过;哪些问题虽已有人研究过但不深刻;哪些问题虽有旧说但需要匡正,等。这样,就能明确自己研究的重点和主攻方向。

2.充分占有了资料后,能拓宽研究问题的视野并提高认识问题的整体高度,为使自己站在前人已研究过的问题的更高层次,为写出更高水平的法学学术论文打下基础。

法学论文资料的来源,从大的方面观之,有直接地从社会调查、访问、实验中获取,也有间接地从书籍、报刊、文件、法规、电影电视、广播和其他文献中得到。收集法学论文资料的途径主要有:从校内外图书馆、资料室已有的资料中去查找;通过做实地调查、社会实践或实习等渠道获得;通过自己的平时观察和做实验获取。

收集法学论文资料的传统方法主要有:

1.自制资料卡片,上面写明资料的题目及简单内容,资料的出处、页码、年、月等;2.自己抄录;3.全部或部分复印;4.剪下自己订阅的报刊上的有关材料,等。在当今信息时代,收集资料的方法可购买有关资料的光盘,可从电脑上查阅或者下载,等等。所收集的材料内容包括:典型事例或案例、有关引文、法律条款、领袖的语录、国家领导人的讲话、历史资料、数字、至理名言或格言、对立观点的论点和论据等。

收集法学论文资料应当注意:1.要全面地收集与自己的论文有关的材料;2.对资料进行整理、分类;3.再选择出写论文所必需的典型资料,以备待用。只有这样,才不会使自己被浩瀚的资料所困扰,甚至被它们搞得头脑发懵,良莠不辨,主次不明。

(三)编制法学论文提纲

编制法学论文提纲,是指在收集到了大量材料的基础上,根据论证论文主题的需要编写和制作该论文结构的框架和体系。实际上,它相当于由序码和词语所组成的一种逻辑图表。制作论文提纲十分必要。这是因为:1.它能促使自己从宏观上对全文进行谋篇布局。由于编制提纲需要对材料进行选择;接着按论证主题的需要,对必用材料的使用按先后顺序进行安排和调整;对不必要的材料忍痛割爱,等,因此,这就促使自己对全篇作合理的布局。2.它能使论文的框架视觉化。好的论文提纲能使论文的中心论点、下属论点及论据安排得先后井然有序,层次分明,因而能使自己一看就一目了然,清清楚楚。3.能帮助自己在写作时,按已定的论文框架沿着先后顺序行文和避免重复。由于写作法学学术论文需要比较长的一段时间才能完成,有了一份详细的和纲目分明的论文提纲,能使自己按图索骥,流畅成文。

如果没有论文提纲,虽有腹稿,写作起来,由于写作时间较长,在论文写到中间或后半部时可能忘记前半部分已写的内容而又重复写上;或因时间长将应该写上的内容因遗忘而漏写,这样,就必定出现重复或漏写的情况,影响论文的质量。

编制法学论文提纲应当做好两方面的准备:1.确定基本论点,就是确定全文的表达中心。在此之后,再确定下位论点,即阐发基本论点的若干个小的论点。下位论点最好写出论点句子,使其固定下来。确定下位论点时,应根据论证基本论点(上位论点)的需要选用与上位论点逻辑关系最密切、说服力最强的论据。2.选定材料。选定材料,就是选定将要写入论文中的材料。此项工作应从收集到的大量材料中选出最能证明观点(上位论点、下位论点)的材料,并将它们作为立论的依据。这些材料,应当少而精。选择和整理材料应当分清主次。在选定材料的过程中,可采取如下几种办法:把选好的材料按问题分开;将证明每个问题的材料划分为一组;每一组的材料按使用的先后次序排列好。经过对材料作上述整理,又使其与论点连在一起,就便于下一步编制提纲。

编制提纲。要编制一份好的一万字左右的法学学术论文提纲,应当注意三个问题:

1.有合理的项目

一般在法学论文题目之下,编制出两个或三个层次的小项目。例如,写明:第一,题目(中心论点);第二,三至四个分论点(下位论点);第三,一至四个论据。第二和第三项的写法,既可用标题写法,即用简要语言,以标题的形式把该部分内容概括出来;又可用句子的写法,即用一个比较能表达完整意思的句式把该部分的内容概括出来。两者各有所长,各人可视自己的需要择一。

2.采用有效地编制论文提纲的方法

其方法主要是:

(1)拟定标题,即自己给论文起名字。它要求标题能传内容之神,名副其实,使读者看了一眼便知:论文所概括的全文主要内容。

(2)考虑构篇大小和顺序安排,既考虑全篇从哪几个方面,或按什么顺序展开、阐述基本论点(全文的逻辑结构框架);又逐个安排每个下位论点,再依次考虑每个段的安排,把准备使用的材料按构思的顺序标上序码并排列好,以备行文时使用。

(3)全面、反复地检查提纲,作必要的增、减或调整。

3.编写内容详简适当的论文提纲

提纲分简单提纲和详细提纲两种。简单提纲的内容只包括论文题目、下位论点,详细提纲除此之外还包括论证下位论点的各种证据。一般说来,宜编制详细提纲。因为编制这种提纲,一则能帮助自己全面地进行谋篇布局,二则能帮助自己在写作过程中有条不紊地进行。

四 法学论文的起草

法学论文起草,就是在已掌握的材料基础上,按照论文提纲的框架,写成一篇法学学术论文初稿。起草,就是狭义上的写作,亦即论证论题。起草在整个写作过程中占有十分重要的地位。主要表现在:1.起草,能把自己欲论证的问题,写成一篇法学学术论文草稿,并使其初步固定下来。2.起草如同“一朝分娩”,能使科研工作草创初成。这比在收集资料、编制提纲那个“十月怀胎”阶段的工作又前进了关键性的一步。

(一)起草必须对论题进行充分、有力地论证

所谓论证,就是对论文的中心论点进行说理的证明。古人云:“君子学以聚之,问以辨之。”做学问和写论文就是要“聚”、要“辨”。“聚”,就是收集资料;“辨”,就是分析、研究、起草的过程,就是提出论点、论据和运用论据进行论证的过程。提出的论点,应当符合正确、严密、鲜明、集中和深刻的要求。提出的论据,应当符合真实、典型、恰当、新鲜的要求。进行论证应当符合讲透道理和使“据”与“证”有机结合起来的要求。

(二)在进行论证过程中,可采用事实论证、事理论证、比较论证和因果论证等形式

1.事实论证。所谓事实论证,就是运用客观事实资料作为论据而展开的论证。它是常用的、简便而又准确的论证方法之一。事实论证过程中,可采用夹叙夹议、纵横并举、点面结合、连续排比、优劣对比、有总有分等方法进行。事实论证的一般要求是:既可以用重大的客观事实、历史上的重大事件、典型案例等,也可以用平凡的客观事实(如一般事例、案例、数据等);应尽可能选择运用人们知晓的客观事实;事实材料应力求新颖,富有说服力。

2.事理论证。所谓事理论证,是指运用经典著作中的基本原理、生活中的道理、哲理或名言等作为论据展开的论证。事理论证可用一般的事理论证(讲清道理)和引证(引证经典著作中的论述、格言、成语、警句等)两种方法。采用事理论证应当注意做到:思想敏捷,说理透辟;引证的内容准确、典型、恰当和自然,能点石成金。

3.比较论证。所谓比较论证,是将甲事物与乙事物进行比较的一种论证方法。比较论证常用的有类比论证、对比论证和差比论证三种类型。(1)类比论证,是指把本质上有相同或相似点的同类事物进行比较,通过已知的甲事物的某种属性推导出乙事物亦具有这种属性的论证方法。采用类比论证的要求是:用以类比的事物必须同属一类事物;同类事物相比,必须有本质意义上的相同点或相似点。(2)对比论证,是通过对两种对立的事物的对照分析来进行说理的方法。它是人们经常采用的说理的方法之一。对比论证可采用横比和纵比两种。“横比”,就是横向比较,即将相互对立的这种事物与另一种事物或一事物的这一方面与另一方面进行对照比较,以达到分辨是非、褒贬好坏、扬善抑恶的目的。“纵比”,即纵向比较,是通过对某一事物在不同历史发展阶段的情形的对比分析,以揭示事物现实与历史的矛盾的论证方法。横比和纵比可以单独使用,也可以结合使用。对比的着眼点,可以是一个,也可以是多个。在论证社会主义的法律或某种法律的优越性时,可以采用对比论证中的纵比方法。(3)差比论证,是通过具有差异的两种或两种以上事物进行比较分析,以论证论题的方法。采用差比论证时应当注意:既看到它们的相同点,又看到它们之间的不同点;在差异比较分析中,着重点放在不同点上;为充分揭示出差异点,应当善于从不同方面去发现差异点。在比较中国法律与外国法律、民法与刑法的差异时,可采用这种论证方法。

4.因果论证。所谓因果论证,是指运用对客观事物本身或客观事物之间因果关系,分析、研究所得到的材料,对论文所确立的论点进行的论证。因果论证可采取并列、层递、转换、推论等方法。(1)并列法,是指运用两个以上各自独立的同类性质的因果分析来证明论点的方法。(2)层递法,是指通过逐层、连续地阐明事物的多方面的因果关系来证明论点的方法。采用此法,通过逐层地阐明因果关系,使人们认识由表及里、由浅入深地看到事物的本质。(3)转换法,是指通过阐明事物之间互为因果的关系来证明论点的方法。采用这种论证方法,必须首先弄清从一个角度看,此一事物是因,彼一事物是果;从另一个角度看,彼一事物是因,此一事物是果的这种因也是果,果又是因的复杂关系。(4)推论法,是指凭据因果关系用已知推论出未知来证明论点的方法。采用这种方法应当注意:已知事实与未知事实已有因果关系;推论必须符合形式逻辑和辩证逻辑的要求。

除了运用上述方法以外,还可以采用逻辑上的演绎法和归纳法。所谓演绎,就是从一般到特殊;所谓归纳,就是从特殊到一般。它们亦是写作法学学术论文中运用证据证明论点的常用方法。

(三)法学论文写作应注意正确地使用法言法语

法学论文的法言法语,要求具有准确性、抽象性、逻辑性和论辩性。准确性应体现出用词贴切和造句恰当;抽象性应体现在概括、简洁和精要、深刻;逻辑性应体现出合乎逻辑合乎事理,严密有序;论辩性应体现在从正面论述和从反面辩驳两个方面。法学学术论文的法言法语,应用法律专业用语。例如,法的本质、国体、政体、犯罪、犯罪构成、罪责自负、证据确凿、定罪量刑、罪刑相应、畸轻畸重、法人、有独立请求的第三人、自然人、行为能力、责任能力、连带责任、事实婚姻、法定年龄、责任能力,等等。

(四)法学论文起草过程可以采用的两种写作方法

1.一气呵成法。所谓一气呵成法,就是根据已有的材料,按照提纲的先后次序,一鼓作气地、从头至尾把全文写出来。这时,不管在写作过程中发现什么问题,诸如观点不深刻,材料不充实,结构不严谨,以至某些文字不通顺等,一般不作修改,将它们留在全篇初稿完成之后再考虑。采用此法,能使自己思路不中断,集中一切精力和时间将论文的轮廓描绘出来,保证写作的进程。如果在写作过程中为修改或增加观点,考虑如何遣词和造词等停顿下来,就会中断思路,分散精力,妨碍一气呵成。正因为如此,此法是一种最普遍的起草方法,为大多数人所采用。

2.分块合成法。所谓分块合成法,是指作者按照先易后难的顺序先写提纲中自己已考虑得比较成熟的部分,然后写完其余部分,再排列组合成一篇完整论文的方法。采用此法,自己不受提纲中部分与部分之间先后次序的限制,对某一部分认识成熟就写那一部分,然后,再“养精蓄锐”,集中精力“击破”其他相对难度较大、初时考虑还未成熟的部分。上述两种起草方法各有优劣,至于自己采用哪一种,应根据本人的情况决定。

(五)法学论文写作时需正确运用引文和加注

一般而言,法学论文中都会或多或少地有引文和加注。对这两个问题,必须知晓。

1.关于引文问题。所谓引文,是指在法学论文写作过程中,由于论证上的需要,引用经典著作或文献中的内容、法律条款或其他内容的原文。引文的作用主要在于增强自己对论题的论证力。引文时应当注意两点:引文在论文中应尽量少而精,切不可求多;引用经典著作、文献资料,不可断章取义,各取所需,而应当按原著的本意引用。引文有两种:第一种是直引,即直接引用经典著作、文献或法律条款中的字、句、段、条、款等,作为论证之根据。直引时应当注意:原则上,直引的内容须与原文相符,不能有任何差异;没有正式公布的文献资料、法律条款、内部文件等内容,一般不得引用。第二种是意引,即对经典文献、法律条款等原文经过作者加工、改写或概括之后引用其主要意思。意引时应当注意:意引写出的内容相对原文应当浓缩;意引的意思必须符合原文的意思,不得篡改或歪曲。法学论文引文的方式,常用段中引文而很少用提行引文。段中引文,是指将引文加写在论文之中。如果是直引,应在引文的首尾字之上加引号;如果是意引,可只在引文前加冒号,也有的不加冒号而加逗号。无论直引或意引,均需注明引文的出处。

在引文问题上,当前有一种很不好的倾向,即有的作者,既不考虑被引之文是不是精典之述,也不管是否与引文能质证相符,而大段大段地引用外国不知名的律师、法官等人的话语,以充自己论文的字数,简直是良莠不分,兼收并蓄。这不仅削弱了论文的论证性,而且使人感到有拼凑文章和外文资料汇编之感。其效果是十分不好的。对此,应当以此为戒。

2.关于加注问题。所谓加注,就是注明出处。其作用在于使编辑和读者知道引文出自何处。加注有四种方法:段中注,即夹注,将引文用括号标明;脚注,即在有引文的页脚注明出处;章、节注,即注在一章一节之后;尾注,即把注附在全文末尾。

五 法学论文的修改定稿

(一)法学论文的修改

修改就是改正论文草稿中的缺点或错误。修改是一项艰苦的劳动,古人云:“改章难于造篇”,其理就在于此。正因为如此,法学论文的作者应当把修改当作一项再创造。要有责任心和耐心,决不可有凑合和厌烦情绪。只有有了这种认识,才会有对论文草稿进行反复修改的决心和恒心,才能把论文修改好。

修改有重要意义:1.能更加深刻地反映自己对客观事物的认识,经过修改,能促使自己一次或多次地讨论文中的某个或某几个问题,进行思索,使认识进一步深化。2.能更准确地表达自己对事物的认识。因为,在修改过程中,自己对草稿中的某些字、句、段进行推敲和修改,使论文表达的意思更准确,亦即更准确地表达了自己对客观事物的认识。

修改包括两个内容:1.从内容方面应当考虑修改的是:写作的目的是否表达清楚;基本论点是否明确;下位论点与中心论点是否“合拍”;论据是否充分、有力。2.从形式方面应当考虑:题目是否简明、贴切;论证是否深刻;详略是否得当;结构是否严谨;文字表达是否准确;文面是否合格。

修改的具体方法是:增、减、删、换、移。为了提高修改质量,还应当采用如下方法进行再修改:搁置一段时间再修改;深入调查研究之后再修改;查阅有关资料后再修改;听取同行意见后再修改。

(二)法学论文的定稿

就是把已修改过的稿件,眷清定型。眷清应用稿纸,一般以用20×20,每页400个格的稿纸为宜。眷写时,应用蓝色或蓝黑墨水眷写。眷文务必做到字迹工整。眷清时应当随手标上页码,以免串页。眷清之后,再将全文检查两至三遍,对不当之处还可以更正,直到自己认为没有任何错、漏和自己感到满意为止。目前,已广泛用电脑打印。印成后,也应当反复校对。成文后,最好留有软盘。只有使论文达到这个程度,一篇高质量的法学学术论文才算最后完稿。(摘自 《山西大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》2001年6月,原文:“法学术论文写作之我见” 作者 周国均 《中国法学》杂志总编辑)

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篇6:关于中考作文写作技巧及方法

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文章摘要:经过我的一个个发明人类的社会将会更加美好?要是煮熟了放在碗里,像泄了气的皮球一样软软的。中考作文写作技巧方法天兵天将不是很威风吗。谁叫他敬酒不吃吃罚酒呀;By——熙瑞。”“大姨允许你玩一会儿。月眼睁睁的看着雨倒下了,就倒在自己身前;你不会让老师失望的,对吧。

1.严谨的布局:

正所谓万事开头难,不过只要开了个好头,这篇作文就会很好写了。

凤头:是文章的首段,是阅卷老师首先入眼的地方,一定要做好整篇文章的中心把握,要做到下文与首段上下连贯,紧密结合,要通过开头使下文有可写之处,开头要达到让阅卷老师耳目一新的效果。例如,巧用排比,比喻,拟人等修辞手法,并且通过这些修辞手法,而统领全文主旨。

猪肚:在一篇上好的文章中,分段都会恰到好处,而当文章中只有一大段或两三段时,这篇文章即使文采再出众,也不会有太高的分数,因为阅卷老师在中考判卷时,每三分钟就要判出一份作文,工作量相当大,如果不善于分段,阅卷老师可能失去耐心,从而看不完,就会草草的给出分数。所以,在我看来,一篇文章至少要分6-8个段,但不是一行或几行一段,而是要看起来像豆腐块,一块块整齐的排列在一起,使文章紧中有松,松弛有度。要看上去整篇文章是一个整体,而不是零散的。

豹尾:在文章的最后处,应当让主题更突出鲜明,升华主题思想,使豹尾抽起来!或让人感到峰回路转,柳暗花明或更进一步的特殊效果。在文章末尾,应当再次点题,紧扣中心思想,让贯穿始终的中心思想继续延伸,引人深思。特别是要在结尾处,与开头形成呼应,对比,递进等等,来引发阅读老师的共鸣!

2.细腻的文笔:不管是记叙,议论还是散文;不管是写人写事还是写景。都要用细腻的文笔呈现出来,使文章中点更突出,让阅卷老师在看试卷的过程中,有深思,放慢阅读速度和重复阅读的情况出现,让阅卷老师身临其境,从而使文章更具灵性。

3.贯穿始终的思想感情:在一篇布局格式上很得当,错落有致的文章上,还必须要有一条贯穿始终的思想路线,这条线就像鱼的脊椎一样重要,这条线一定要清晰,明确,千万不可含混不清。

把握好这几点,一篇好的中考作文已经大致成型,不过要想在中考中脱颖而出,这仅仅是开始。

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篇7:求职信邮件主题写作方法

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导语:如何写求职邮件主题?为了帮助大家解决这个问题,下面小编为大家整理了求职信邮件主题写作方法,希望能为大家提供帮助!

一、题目

有十几个人Email的标题是“应聘”,或者类似的字样。这样的简历让我不道该转给谁。我们同时招聘好几个职位,每个职位由不同的人负责。公司的内部流程是所有的求职信都发给Recruit@company ,然后根据申请的不同部门发给相应的负责人。在求职者比较少的情况下,我会耐心打开邮件,从他的简历里揣测他可能要申请的部门。求职者比较多的时候,直接就把这样的邮件删掉了。

类似的题目还包括“求职”、“应征”、“有意向”、“交大一研究生”、“兼职”、“某某求职信”、“某某”、“实习生”、“求兼职”、“我的简历”、“这是我的简历”。最崩溃的一个是“谢谢您对我的信任”这样的邮件。

所有的这些题目都是在指定了标题格式为“**+申请+**(职位)”的情况下发生的,写到这里,突然想起来,上面那个还不是最让人崩溃的。还有一个更崩溃的,他的邮件标题是“**+申请+**(职位)”。我绝对不相信这是因为智商低。更大的可能是,他完全不重视这个机会,以至于标题都写得乱七八糟。

二、不知所谓的求职信

少数人的邮件只有一个附件,正文什么都没有写。但是还有大量的人,在邮件正文里写了点东西----我真希望他们没写!比如:有个学生只写了一句话“希望您看下我的简历,谢谢”。类似的一个是“附件中是我的简历,请查收”,还有一个问“请问,我是研究生可以吗?”这种一句话的求职信,起不到任何正面的作用。

接近半数的人都在求职信中试图阐述他们多么渴望获得这份工作。或者求职者本人非同寻常的个人特质。有一个求职者在正文中写到“忠诚是我的承诺!热情是我的态度!勤奋是我的法宝!我没有驾驭风的力量,但是我可以改变帆的方向!”这种话让我想起狂热的法西斯或者传销人士。实际上我想知道求职者怎么看待我们的公司和产品,他/她现在的状态,以及他/她打算为我们做点什么。有好几个申请写了几段简短的文字,就直接获得了面试机会----他们的求职信写得太好了,简历就根本都没必要出场。

三、可怕的照片

简历看多了,什么照片都有,不经意间就会被雷一下。有个男生穿着篮球衫;还有一个给了侧脸,并且把领子竖了起来;有几个女生在照片上的表情不是很纯洁,还有浓妆,非常像“低俗网站”上的小广告。

这里奉劝同学们,简历中不要放生活照。如果一定要放照片,就拍一张西装革履的职业照放上去。但是也有人的职业照令人不敢恭维,要么PS得不像真人,要么画面阴暗得让人不放心。

四、邮件正文的混乱格式

曾经有一封邮件摆在我的面前,让我痛心疾首,每一次打开它,OutLook就会自动关闭。我当时以为Office坏掉了,心想这下糟了,还有那么多工作要处理。后来在IT的帮助下,才弄明白原来都是格式惹的祸。一个求职者在邮件正文里使用了大量的格式,这些格式跟我的邮件系统不相兼容。

以上是一个比较极端的例子。更多的邮件正文(也就是求职信的所在)格式乱七八糟,每读一遍,眼睛就会遭一遍罪。还有人把自己的简历填在一张表中,但是这张表格被艺术字、照片和链接糟蹋成十分别扭的样子。人家说“字如其人”,其实简历也如其人。

五、带广告的简历

不少求职者的简历是由形形色色的招聘网站代为发出的,或者使用了网上现成的模板。这些求职者可能想不到他们的简历中、简历的右侧、简历的下侧都会出现广告。尤其是招聘网站代为发出的那种简历,除了广告之外,那些大大的Logo、花里胡哨的图片,很容易把人搞得眼花缭乱。

求职者自己写一份简历,自己来发送简历,这是最基本的。连简历都要预先存在网上,让代码来自动的批量发送,又有什么诚意可言呢?也许他自己都不知道投了我们公司。

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篇8:写作方法:标题

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一个吸引人的作文题目,是读者读一篇作文的开始,以下是小编搜索整理一篇写作方法标题,欢迎大家阅读!

一、体态美观:

即在拟题时注重题目的形态美,像一个漂亮的大姑娘亭亭玉立在大庭广众之下,给人以“前不见古人”的全新感觉。

①题目中运用间隔号或连接号:例如《母亲?黑土地?小石磨》、《自卑?自负?自强》、《神鞭--母爱》、《对手--榜样》等。

②题目中运用外文字体:例如《从“Made in China”说开去》、《卡拉永远OK》等。

③题目中运用对偶句:例如《立志言为本,修身行乃先》等。

④借用新闻标题:例如,有的题目像新闻题一样,正题之前有引题,之后有副题。

⑤题目中运用数学公式:例如《“1 1>;2”》、《“7-1=0”》、《“1>;6”》等以等式或不等式的方式化抽象为浅近,收到了纯语言文字难以达到的特殊表达效果。

⑥运用留白:即留出艺术空白让读者去思考、填补。例如,《用你的温柔马屁和背影……--写给阿Q同志的信》,其中的空白,以虚映实,藏而不露,但读者又可以根据文意在会意的一笑之中把握主旨。

二、形象活泼:

如果说体态美观只体现了题目的“身材”,那么,形象活泼就体现出了题目的气质与性格。就像一个人一样,性格好,气质高雅,往往是惹人喜爱的。

形象活泼的题目容易引起人的兴趣,令人好奇地阅读全文。

①运用修辞格。例如运用比喻手法的《诚信,交往的桥梁》、《机遇是一条鱼》、《朋友就是生产力》等;

运用反问的《诚信过时了吗》、《“卖狗肉”何必“挂羊头”》等;

运用拟人的《留些诚信给自己取暖》、《粉笔的自述》、《星期天的面孔)等;

运用双关的《生命“诚”可贵》等;

运用夸张的《花瓶能装下春天》等;

运用对比的《“小人物”与“大道理”》等;

运用词语回环而意义相反的《防盗门不防盗》(以“门”为话题)。

②套用、加工或改造成语、诗句、歇后语、文章标题、影视片名和歌曲等。例如运用成语加谐音的以“棋”为话题的《乐在“棋” 中》等;

改造成语的《“雾”里逃生》、《“战痘”青春》、《“官”念前提》,讽刺某单位几任领导xx腐化行为的《前“腐”后继》等;

改造歇后语的以“清白”为话题的《小葱拌豆腐-一清二白》等;

化用诗句的以“诚信”为话题的《若为人生故,诚信不可抛》等;

化用歌词的以诚信为话题的《我诚信,我美丽》、《贪宫“着”字歌》等;

仿拟名言名句的以“诚信”为话题的《诚以养德,信以修身》(诸葛亮有名句“静以养德,体以修身”)等;

仿拟文章标题的《“吾”邦惊诧论》等。

③颇具讽刺意味的《拿错讲稿》、《“豆腐匠”与“包工头”》等。

三、文采浓郁:

“言之无文,行而不远。”文学色彩浓的文章常被视为精品而受人青睐,文采浓郁的题目更是耐人寻味,魅力无穷。

①借助古今中外的诗词、名句、歌词、优美散句等或引用,或套用,或改造等。例如以“月”为话题的借用苏轼《水调歌头》中的词句拟题为《儿女共婵娟》、以“楼”为话题时借用李煜《虞美人》中的词句拟题为《小

楼昨夜又春风》,还有像《小荷才露尖尖角》、《一江春水向东流》等;化用诗句的《色彩广告色彩风》等。

②运用各种修辞格。例如用对偶的《小牛顶翻快船,奇才遮住太阳》、《贴近生活甚称道,提高质量须努力》等。

可见,这类题目不仅具有一定的文学色彩,而且还给人留下回味的空间。

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篇9:四级考试写作选词方法与技巧

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四级作文考查的是写作的基本功,其准确用词包括三重含义:一是书写正确,即拼写和大小写等无误;二是词义正确,即所用的词确定能表达自己的意图;三是用法正确,包括词的语法搭配关系和意义搭配关系等。

选词的标准是:所选的词应该准确达意,通俗易懂,并符合英语的表达习惯。选词的重要性我们不再赘述,这里我们着重介绍由于用词不当而造成的错误现象。错误现象的成因很多,而形近词的误用是出错的重要原因之一。比如:有个美国学生在作文中这样写道:My goal in life is to be a success, and when I retire I want to devote my money to philandering。这个学生把最后一个词弄错了,他原来想说的词是philanthropy,结果意思相差十万八千里。

下面我们从句子和段落两方面,通过具体实例来说明选词在短文写作中的重要性,以及因为选词不当而造成的错误现象。

【例1】 Good study habits attributed to his performance on tests。

【分析】该句中的attributed to意为把归于;认为是的原因,用在这是不符合句意的。我们知道contribute to意为助于;促成,所以这里是因词义混淆而产生的句子的逻辑错误。

【更正】Good study habits contribute to his performance on tests。

[四级考试写作选词方法技巧

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篇10:2024考研英语作文写作方法汇总

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1、individuals, characters, folks代替people ,persons。

2、positive, favorable, rosy(美好的),promising (有希望的),perfect, pleasurable ,excellent, outstanding代替good。

3、dreadful, unfavorable, poor, adverse(有害的)代替bad, 如果bad做表语,可以有be less impressive代替。

举例: An army of college students indulge themselves in playing games, enjoying romance with girls/boys or killing time passively in their dorms. When it approaches to graduation, as a result, they find their academic records are less impressive.

4、(an army of; an ocean of; a sea of; a multitude of; many, if not most)代替many。

注:用many, if not most一定要小心,many后一定要有词。

举例:Many individuals, if not most, harbor the idea that….同理用most, if not all ,代替most。

5、a slice of, quite a few ,several代替some。

6、harbor the idea that, take the attitude that, hold the view that, it is widely shared that, it is universally acknowledged that)替think。

因为是书面语,所以要加that。

7、affair ,business ,matter代替thing 。

8、shared代common。

9、reap huge fruits代替get much benefit。

10、for my part, from my own perspective代替in my opinion。

11、Increasing(ly),growing代替more and more(注意没有growingly这种形式。所以当修饰名词时用increasing/growing.修饰形容词,副词用increasingly)

举例:Sth has gained growing popularity. Sth is increasingly popular with the advancement of sth.

12、little if anything,或little or nothing代替hardly

13、beneficial rewarding代替helpful be beneficial of

14、shopper, client, consumer, purchaser,代替customer

15、exceedingly, extremely代替very

16、hardly unnecessary, hardly inevitable ...代替necessary, inevitable。

17、sth appeals to sb, sth exerts a tremendous fascination on sb代替sb take interest in

18、capture ones attention代替attract ones attention

19、facet, dimension, sphere代aspect

20、be indicative of ,be suggestive of ,be fearful of代indicate, suggest ,fear

21、give rise to, lead to, result in, trigger代替cause

22、There are several reasons behind sth代替..reasons for sth

23、desire代替want。

24、pour attention into代替pay attention to。

25、bear in mind that代替remember。

26、enjoy, possess代替have。(注意process是过程的意思。)

27、interaction代替communication。

28、frown on sth代替be against ,disagree with sth。

29、to name only a few as an example代替for example。

30、next to/virtually impossible,代替nearly impossible。

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篇11:小学生写作方法有哪些?

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下面是小编为你带来的小学写作方法,希望对你有帮助。

一、怎样写事

写事要求清楚、具体。一件事情的发生,总离不开时间、地点、人物和事情的起因、经过、结果。这就是人们常说的“记叙文六要素”。把这六个方面写清楚了,才能让读者明白究竟是一件什么事。同时,还要寓理于事,即通过一件事或几件事来说明一个道理。在六要素当中,起因、经过、结果是事情的主要环节。其中,“经过”部分又是事情的核心,是全文成败的关键所在。在小学生的作文里,“经过”部分写得不具体是带有普遍性的问题。小学生的继续文不感人,平淡乏味,这是其中一个重要原因。记事的记叙文可分两种:写事和写活动。

(一)怎样写事

一是把“经过”部分分成几个阶段,然后按照先后顺序一层一层地写得清楚。写的时候多文几个“后来怎样”,文章就具体了。

二是注意材料的详略,有所侧重。对一些重要的过程、场面要细致描绘,使读者有如身临其境。

三是对事件中的人物,特别是主要人物,当时是“怎么说的”、“怎么做的”,又是“怎么想的”,一定要写具体。

(二)怎样写活动 活动都是有目的、有形式、有过程的。搞什么活动?为什么搞活动?则眼搞活动?活动的结果怎样?都要写清楚。写活动也要求写清楚“六要素”,要把活动的时间、地点、人物和活动开始、经过、结果写出来。 在整个活动当中,不是写一个人,二是写一群人;不是用一两件事来写人物,而是通过写一个活动场面,来表现人物的精神面貌。写活动的记叙文,最大的特点就是必须有活动的基本内容、主要过程和重要场面。把印象最深刻的内容作为重点,把自己看到的、听到的、亲身经历的主要部分记叙下来,采用点面结合的方法,既要写好群体活动,又要把个体代表写进去;既要写整个场面,又要突出典型人物。

写活动的文章一般包括两大部分:一是活动的经过,二是自己的感受。如果写“参观”活动,就要用“观一处,感一处”的方法。写整个活动的过程,要用顺叙法,即按活动的先后顺序,把活动时间、地点、人物及活动的经过和结果依次写出来。

二、怎样写人

写人,是小学作文训练的基本功之一。在记叙文中,人和事是不可分的,关键是看题目如何要求。要求写事的题目,文中的人要为事服务;要求写人的题目,文中的事必须为人服务。写人为主的记叙文,就是要通过一件或几件事,来表现人物一种或多种品质。写人的继续文,叙事不要求完整;记事的记叙文,虚实要求完整,而且要贯穿文章始终。

(一)通过一件事来写人

通过一件事来写人,通常是表现人物的一种品质或性格的一个方面。为了刻画人物,对所写人物必须进行必要的外貌、语言、动作、心理等方面的描写。但是,从以事写人这个角度来说,最好是选择一件最能反映此人某一特点的事,并把这件事写好。 在写事情的时候,要选择典型的事例。所谓典型,就是能集中反映中心思想的事,能够表现人物的好思想、好品质、美好情感的事。对小学生来说,选择典型事例,要着眼于小事,选择那些最能反映深刻意义的小事。这样的事表面上看,都是普普通通的凡人小事,但是其中却蕴涵着深刻的意义,这就是我们常说的“小中见大”。

(二)通过几件事写人

可以分成两种情况:以是用几件事表现某个人的一种品质;二是用几件事表现某个人的多种品质。 要注意:用几件事写人,这些事可以是完整的,作者必须把事情发生的时间、地点、人物、事件(起因、经过、结果),一一交代清楚,也可以是不完整的,只着重于某几点进行叙述。更多的是在一篇文章中,有的事详写;有的事略写;有的事要求写得比较完整,有的事要求写得比较简单。 通过几件事写人,同样要对人物进行必要的外貌、行动、语言、心理的描写。

(三)学会刻画人物

写人的文章要会在叙事的过程中,对最能表现人物思想感情、性格特点的外貌、语言、动作、心理活动等方面进行描写,也就是学会刻画人物。

1. 也叫肖像描写,是通过对人物的容貌、神情、衣着、姿态、语调、外貌特征的描写。来揭示人物性格的一种方法。人物的的外貌和人物内心世界密切的联系,具体说:通过外貌描写,使人物的形象更丰满,能给读者留下深刻印象;通过外貌描写,揭示人物的身份;通过外貌描写,展示人物在特定场合的内心世界;通过外貌描写,表现人物性格、精神面貌和思想品质。

总之,外貌描写要和表现人物特点、突出文章的中心思想紧密配合。外貌描写要传神,切忌脸谱化,反对那种部分主次,从头写到脚、千人一貌的写法。

2. 语言描写有对话和独白两种。

对话是两个人或几个人的谈话;独白是人物的自言自语。语言是人物内心世界的直接表露,对表现人物的思想性格起重要作用。有个性特点的语言可以起到“闻其言,见其人”的作用。语言描写要注意以下两点:一是文章中人物的语言要精心筛选,把那些足以能表现人物的个性特点、最能表现中心思想的语言,写进文章中;二是好的语言描写,一定是符合当时的情景,符合人物的性格、身份、性别、年龄和文化修养等方面的特点。 对话描写有四种形式:说的话写在后面,说话人后面用引号;说的话在前,说话人写在后,用引号、句号;前后各引一句或几句,中间交代谁说的,用逗号;只写人物语言,不写说话人。这四种形式要根据实际需要灵活事业,避免行文死板。

3. 动作描写

是通过人物的行动、动作,来表现人物的思想性格的一种方法。一个人的行为、动作,往往是他的思想感情、性格特征的最真实的外化。看一个人,不仅要听他怎么说,更要卡他如何做,正所谓“听其言,观其行”,因此,动作描写是直接刻画人物形象,展示人物精神面貌,把人物写“活”的重要手段。那么,怎样描写人物的动作呢?

首先,要选择关键性的动作来写。一个人做事的时候,会有许多动作。但他们不可能、也没有必要把这些动作一个不少地都写出来。这就要求选择那些关键性的、最有意义的动作来写。

其次,要写准确。同一个动作可以用很多动词来表示,但只有那些有特色,最能反映人物气质的动词,才能把人写“活”。有一位作家说过,最难的不是写动作,而是写出有特点的动作,从动作中写出人来。

4.心理描写

心理的人物内心的活动,是无声的语言。人物内心世界,指人物内心的喜、哀、乐、忧伤、犹豫、嫉妒、向往等复杂的感情。在写人的文章中,恰当地描写人物心理,可以更有效地刻画人物,突出中心思想。心理描写的要求是:要真实,要有根据;人物的心理变化要自然,合情合理;心理描写要为文章的中心思想服务;在描写人物的心理活动时,要客观、谨慎,不能以己之心,度人之意。

小学生作文时,大多采用第一人称(“我”活“我们”),采用这种人称作文,就不能用“他想” 的形式来写人物的心理活动,因为“我”不可能钻到别人的脑子里去看。此时,可以换一种方式——在描写人物的语言、神态、动作上下功夫,这样可能更合情理,使人感到真实可信。

心理描写除了用“我想”之外,还可以采用以下几种方法。

(1)提出问题,引入所想的内容。

(2)使用假设,流露心理活动。

(3)字里行间,流露着“想”。

(4)直接抒发心中所想。

三、怎样写景

描写景物,表现独特的自然景观和地域风貌,赞美祖国的壮丽山河和大自然的奇妙,是记叙文的又一个重要类型。写景的记叙文有什么特点呢?

首先,景物有狭义和广义之分。狭义的景物指提供人观赏的风景、建筑等;广义的景物指自然景观和人文景观,即自然环境和身会环境。换句话说,记叙文中的景物描写是指对自然风光、建筑物、动物、植物等事物的描写,所描写的景物在文章里占重要位置,这是写景记叙文与写人记事的记叙文的主要区别写人记事的记叙文中,有对自然环境和人物活动的背景介绍、环境描写,但它们在文章中不是主要内容,是为交代事件发生的时间、地点、环境,为渲染气氛服务的。同理,写景记叙文里也有写人叙事的内容,但都是为写景服务的。

其次,写景记叙文的中心思想是通过对景物的描写和人物感情抒发表达出来的。作者可以在文章中直接抒发感情,即所谓直抒胸臆,也可以通过写景表达出来,即所谓寓请于景;还可以在景物描写中蕴涵自己的主观感受,即所谓情景交融。要注意景物描写必须为人物的思想感情服务,与人物的思想感情相一致,不能孤立地、无目的地写景。

怎样写好写景的记叙文?

(一)要写出有特色的景物

一般来说,景物是各有特色的。同样都是公园,但每个公园都有各自的独特之处。例如,北海公园的白塔、九龙壁、颐和园的香阁、十七孔桥;天坛公园的祈年殿、回音壁;紫竹院公园的竹子;香山公园的红叶等。同样是山,我国的四大名山各领风骚,独具特色。同样是水,长江、黄河源远流长,孕育了中华文明数千载。或烟波浩渺、横无涯际;或奔腾咆哮、气势磅礴。这些景色都以其特有的鲜明的特点闻名于世,只有把它们的独特之处描绘出来,才能给人一种身临其境之感,使人得到美的陶冶和享受。

(二)要学会观察

写景作文和看图作文有相似之处,都是以观察作为写作的前提。观察景物与观察图画不同,观察景物要确定观察点,也就是观察景物的立足点。观察点不同,所看到的景物也就不同。宋代文学家苏轼有《题西林壁》:“横看成岭侧成峰,远近高低各不同。不识庐山真面目,只缘身在此山中。”由于观赏庐山的角度不同,所看到的景象,所获得的感受也就迥然不同了.

(三)要借助想象和联想

(四)写景要抒情

写景,不仅是客观事物的再现,更是作者主观感情的外观。景是外在的,情是内在的,正所谓“情随物迁,辞以情发”。景是情产生的基础,情是景的产物。因此,要求小学生不要单纯写景,而是要借助景物,抒发一定的思想感情。当然,这种感情必须发自内心,而不是无病呻吟。

四、怎样状物

状物作文,是小学生作文训练中的一个重要项目。所谓状物,就是具体、形象地描写物体的特征、形态、色彩、质地等。这个物还应该包括动物、植物等类。由于不同的物有不同的特点,所以状物的方法也不一样。

(一)怎样写物品

1.抓住特征

从大小、形状、颜色、质地(制造材料)等方面,对所写的物品仔细观察。因为不同的物品有不同的特点,即使是同一种物品,也会有某些席位的区别,也有它自己的独特之处。蛛蛛物品的特点写,就是抓住了这一物品是区别于另一物品的地方写。

2.按照一定的顺序写

(1)按总一分一总的顺序写。

(2)按物品各部分的空间顺序写。

(3)有的物品,须按先外后内的顺序写,即先写外表,后写内里的顺序。

3.状物需要想象和联想

展开想象和联想,不仅使所状之物更加具体生动,还可以开拓作品的意境,增强文章的感染力。

(二)怎样写动物

大多数小学生都喜爱小动物,看了以后总想把它们写出来来。到底用什么方法,才能写好描写小动物的作文呢?

1.写外形

首先,观察小动物(包括昆虫)的外形,一般是写小动物的静态。在观察时,包括颜色、长相、个头都要如实写出来。其次,要抓住特点,不能面面俱到什么都写。三是按顺序:先整体一再局部一最后整体。概括写整体,具体写局部,用总分关系的句群。最后,为使描写更形象、具体,要展开丰富的想象,恰当地运用比喻。特别要注意提醒小学生“像——”、“犹如——”、“仿佛——”等喻词的使用。

2.写习性

写小动物,还要细心观察它们的动作、静态和生活习性,这些是小动物的动态方面。例如写它们吃食物、嬉戏的样子,相互追逐争斗的情形,如何筑巢、休息的情况,等等。

小动物也 感情、情绪,这要靠小学生从它们的叫声和动作中,用拟人的方法去体会和想象,这样就能写出小动物的性格,显示出它们的活泼和可爱,实际上也就写出了小学生自己的感情。

(三)怎样写植物

提起植物,小学生的脑海力会出现许多花草树木的样子,但是要将平时熟悉的植物写成作文,很多同学却感到很难,有的觉得无话可写,有的三言两语就写完了。怎样才能写好植物呢?首先,写前要细心观察所写的植物,并做观察记录。观察时,先看整体的形状(外形)特征;再看颜色、枝叶的细部特征及生长环境,并把所看到的详细情况记录下来。其次,安排好写作顺序。

1.可以从整体到局部

先写植物的整体特征,再写它的局部特征。例如以主干、枝、叶、花、果等为序,并突出写其中的一两部分。另外写的时候,要求学生从各个角度去详细地描绘、刻画。例如描写树叶,就写它们的形状、颜色和给人的感觉等;描写花,就写它们的大小、香味、色彩、花期等,使人有如身临其境。

2.按照植物的生长过程进行观察

很多植物的生长、发育、开花、结果直至衰亡,每个时期的形态各不相同的,所以,可以按照植物的生长过程进行观察。

3.写观察日记

可以用写观察日记的方法。来描述某种植物在一段时间里的生长、发育情况。

4.以四时变化为序

很多植物在不同的季节里割据特色,所以,还可以其四时的变换顺序。

5.托物抒怀,借物咏志

写植物,不能仅仅停留在对外形和色彩的描写上,还应该在文章中表达作者的思想感情。例如,感悟人生的哲理、高尚的道德情操、对美好理想的追求等等。用这种方法,要借助例文进行必要的指导,培养学生丰富的联想能力,在描摹植物形态的同时,赋予它们一定的象征意义。

五、怎样写游记

在节假日,小学生在父母和老的在节假日,小学生在父母和老师的带领下,到公园和游览区欣赏景物、陶冶性情。如果将游览时看到的景物,所听到的声音,所产生的联想,所获得的感受,按照一定的顺序,有重点、有感情地记录下来,就是一篇游记。写游记有如下一些要求。

(一)写游记必须写清游踪

要记住从什么地方到了什么地方,每个地方的名称,以及每个地方的方位。这样读者才能搞清楚你先到什么地方。后到什么地方,才能确定你所要描述的景物的具体位置以及它的特征,唤起读者对你所游览之处的神往之情。同时,也使文章福有条理,层次清晰。

(二)要留心观察

观察是写好游记的基础。游览时,不能走马观花,要仔细观察。所谓仔细观察,就是要看景物的形状、颜色、质地是怎样的,静态下什么样,动态下又是什么样,等等。只有这样,在写作时可选的材料才多,才便于把景物写具体、写出特点来。另外,在观察的时候,还要按一定的顺序,或由近及远,又远到近;或从上到下,从下到上;或从里到外,从外到里;或从中间到两边,从两边到中间;或从整体到局部,从局部到整体。按照这样顺序去观察,彩绘全面,描写时彩绘有条理。

(三)要做记录

学生游览的时候,看的东西多,去的地方也比较广,一时很难记住,就是当时记住了,过后也难免遗忘,不利于组织作文。为了避免这种情况,游览时要求学生带上笔和本,边观察、边记录,随看随记,就不会忘记了,写作文的时候还便于选择。另外,公园和修蓝区的有些景物带有介绍。例如,辞经管是何时建造的,经历了哪些发展阶段,占地面积是多少,包含着怎样动人的故事和美丽的传说等等。这些资料很有可能成为学生作文时的宝贵材料,应该要学生记录下来。 在游览之后,要求学生及时地把自己观察到的和记录的材料整理归类,看看哪些是属于作文需要的材料,哪些需要详写,哪些需要略写,做到心中有书,为下一步作文做好准备工作。可以要求学生按照下面的表格整理材料。

状物作文,是小学生作文训练中的一个重要项目。所谓状物,就是具体、形象地描写物体的特征、形态、色彩、质地等。这个物还应该包括动物、植物等类。由于不同的物有不同的特点,所以状物的方法也不一样。

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篇12:班主任工作计划具体的写作方法

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班主任工作计划是每一名班主任教师在每一个学期开始之前都要完成的工作,班主任工作计划也是教学大纲中要求班主任必须要做好的功课。不过班主任工作计划分为不同形式,并不是要求写的意义,班主任教师也可以根据自己的实际情况写出不同格式的工作计划。不过在我总结了很多的情况后,班主任工作计划,一般分学期具体工作计划和工作计划两种。

1、具体工作计划的写法

制订具体工作计划不必像制订学期工作计划那样详尽。其基本结构有如下几个层次:

第一层次:标题

第二层次:内容,即计划的正文

具体计划的正文,不必像制订学期工作计划正文那样详尽,一般地包括以下几个部分:

(1)教育活动内容。可用一句话表述。

(2)教育目的

(3)时间安排

(4)活动准备和要求。涉及较多人参加准备时,应列出负责人姓名。

第三层次:计划制订人姓名与制订日期

具体工作计划要简明扼要,可以提纲挈领地写。具体工作计划,既可用文字表达,也可以列表表述。列表形式内容:活动内容、教育目的、时间安排、活动准备与要求、完成情况、备注。

2、学期工作计划的写法:

学期工作计划没有严格,固定的格式,一般地可分为以下几个层次:

第一层次:标题 即计划的名称

标题要写在第一行正中,标题中要把班级的名称、计划的主要内容、计划的时限准确地概括进去。如:《xx年xx班200x-200x学年度x学期班级工作计划》。

第二层次:内容 即计划的正文。

计划的正文,一般包括以下几个部分:

(1)前言

简述计划制订的依据,交代上级教育行政部门及学校本学期教育计划要求,概括、准确地提出制订本班工作计划的指导思想。前言的文字要简明、扼要。

(2)本班的基本情况与分析

本班的基本情况包括:本班学生德、智、体、美等方面的基本情况;本班学生的特点及倾向性问题;学生家长情况及社会影响情况等。

本班情况分析主要包括:抓住全班带有倾向性的问题正反两方面,对反面的主要倾向问题存在的主要原因的分析。做好分析工作的关键在于:深入地调查研究,运用辩证的思维方法,善于透过现象抓本质,分清主观因素与客观因素。情况分析要求准确、简明。

(3)本学期工作目标

目标的提出,以准确的基本情况分析为依据,针对本班目前带有共性的、倾向性问题及发展要求提出目标。

工作目标要突出重点。一学期要抓的工作很多,不能件件平均使用力量,要抓主要矛盾,抓主要问题,以求举纲带目。

(4)主要措施

措施,即实现目标的具体活动安排。措施要具体;要符合学生的年龄特征和心理特点,要生动活泼、形式多样,为学生所喜闻乐见;要注重教育效果,不搞形式主义,不做表面文章。措施定了就要执行,不能执行的就不要写进计划。

(5)时间安排

为保证计划的切实落实,对具体的活动要安排具体时间,标明周次及起止月日,时间安排要注意与学校教育活动协调,相互配合、相互衔接。时间安排要注意科学性,一周内不能活动太多,要考虑学生的负担。时间要有预见性,如要在五月开运动会,班级前两周安排相应的活动为校运动会做准备。时间安排既可用文字表达,也可以列表表述。表内容包括:周次、起止日期、教育活动内容、具体准备工作、完成情况、备注。

第三层次:计划制订人姓名与制订日期。依次分行写在正文下方。

制订计划要留有余地。因为事物是不断变化的,工作计划也不是一成不变的。但调整、变更工作计划要经学校领导批准。

工作计划完成后,应一式两份抄清,一份交学校领导做检查、督促、指导工作用,一份留自己实施。

班主任工作计划对班主任教师来说,写出来只是一种形式,一种可以让人看的形式主义。班主任要做好的事情,就是按照工作计划中所写,认真努力的工作,帮助学生尽快的走出阴霾,让整个班级充满了学习上进的最好气氛,让所有学生都能够在知识的海洋吸取更多的知识,这是最起码的,相信这样可以做的更好!

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篇13:科普说明文的说明方法

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说明文是以说明为主要表达方式来解说事物、阐明事理而给人知识的文章体裁。它通过揭示概念来说明事物特征、本质及其规律性。说明文实用性很强,它包括广告、说明书、提要、提示、规则、章程、解说词、科学小品等。

通常情况下,说明文大致包括三种具体样式:

一、带有一定文艺性的,指科学小品

如《南州六月荔枝丹》

二、科普性为主的

如《向沙漠进军》《宇宙里有些什么》

三、实用性的,如说明书、解说词等

说明文一般介绍事物的形状、构造、类别、关系、功能,解释事物的原理、含义、特点、演变等。《尚书禹贡》是我国最早的说明文

说明文的应用广泛,一般分为平实说明文和文艺说明文两大类

文艺性说明文是通过文艺的形式介绍科学知识的说明文

说明文的特点是“说”,而且具有一定的知识性。这种知识,或者来自有关科学研究资料,或者是亲身实践、调查、考察的所得,都具有严格的科学性。为了要把事物说明白,就必须把握事物的特征,进而揭示出事物的本质属性,即不仅要说明“是什么”,还要说明“为什么”是这样。应用性说明文一般只要求说明事物的特征,阐述性说明文则必须揭示出问题的本源和实质。

说明文的说明一定要有条理,说明的顺序,是按照事物本身的条理和人的认识规律来安排的。比如介绍景物,建筑,多是根据地理环境、方位布局来安排;介绍事物源出、演变,多是按照时间的先后顺序来安排;阐述事理又多按照事物的逻辑顺序来安排。总之,是按照一定的顺序,由表及里,由实到虚,由分到合,由远及近,由浅到深,逐步阐述。有时为了使别人更准确地认识事物,在某种情况下,只要不违背事物的特点、规律,也可以在顺序上作某些调整。

说明是解说事物,剖释整理的一种表达方法。对象不同,说明的重点和层次便不同。说明实体事物时,一般要注意空间的位置;说明抽象事理时,重在阐释概念、特点、来源、结构、种类、异同、比较、联系和功能等。

说明方法有很多种,如诠释法、分类比较法等。

说明文的特点:

1、 说明的中心鲜明突出。

就一篇说明文而言,一般说来,总的说明中心只能有一个,各段文章也有一个说明中心,它们是为总的说明中心服务的。优秀的说明文的说明中心都是非常鲜明突出的。例如《鲸》一文,着重说明鲸的大小和种类以及它们的生活习性,使读者获得有益的知识。实际上,这篇科学小品的说明内容就是文章的说明中心。

2、 具有科学性。

说明文有很高的科学性。它要求在说明事物时,力求正确,不夸大,不缩小,按照事物的本来面目进行反映,要实事求是,不粗枝大叶,凭想当然,瞎说一通。说明文的科学性主要体现在以下两点:

(1) 抓住事物的特征进行说明。事物都带有特殊性。而这种特殊的矛盾,就构成一事物区别于他事物的特殊的本领。说明文抓住事物的特殊性进行说明,才能使读者从文章里充分地、正确地了解所说明的事物;事物的特征不清楚,说得模模糊糊,就容易和其他事物相混淆。只有抓住事物的特征去说明,才能给人留下清晰的印象。

(2) 说明的内容要正确。即对一些尚未定论、有待研究的事物,不要轻易下绝对肯定或绝对否定的结论。要知道,读者阅读说明文是为了增长知识,如果把那种缺乏科学性的"知识"传给了读者,就会带来不良的影响。如有两家报纸,分别发表文章,谈酸菜对人体的作用,说法却完全相反。一篇文章认为,酸菜具有良好的营养价值,同时,还是良好的饿药物,可以治疗慢性并,因此主张人们多吃酸菜。另一篇文章则认为,酸菜内喊有大量的白地霉菌和亚硝酸盐,这是一种致癌物质,会直接引起肝癌、胃癌和食道癌等疾病,危害人体健康。因此,希望人们不吃酸菜。究竟是多吃酸菜好事实不吃酸菜好呢?这叫人无所适从。实际上,据有关专家分析,这两篇说明文都有一定的道理,但都有片面性,缺乏科学性。而这两篇文章的作者都忽视了这个问题,断定酸菜只有"好处"或只有"害处"是不对的。

3、 富有条理性。说明文都具有条理性。在说明事物时,要求头绪清楚,井井有条。条理性是事物本身固有的。各种事物尽管错综复杂,但只要经过仔细观察、分析就能找到一定的条理性。

(1) 空间顺序

任何事物都有空间性。说明文抓住这个特点构成自己的条理,或者从上到下,或者从外到内,或者从左到右,或者从南到北,或者从远到近,或者从中间到四周,或者从整体到部分。在介绍某有建筑物的结构,说明某种产品的构造,介绍某一地方情况时都可以用这种方法安排材料,是读者对事物的各个部分和整体都有较明晰的认识。

(2) 时间顺序

即按照时间先后顺序来安排。事物都有发生、发展、消亡的过程。有些说明文根据事物的时间性,把事物的各部分组成先后关系,这也是一种条理性。介绍生物知识的说明文一般都是先发生的先写,后发生的后写。介绍生产技术和工作方法的说明文,一般按照生产和工作的程序,逐一说明。

(3) 逻辑顺序

有些说明文主要是剖析事理的,在说明时就按照事理的逻辑关系进行安排,或者从主到次,或者从浅到深,或者从原因到结果,构成严密的条理性。有些说明文还可以按事物的性质分几个方面来安排,这几个方面的材料就形成了一种并列关系。

4、 语言确切、简洁、通俗生动。

说明文对语言的要求很高。优秀的说明文总是用浅显的语言表现深刻的内容,即把事物的本质特征由表及里,由浅入深地写出来,使读者比较容易地领会问题的实质。语言确切,就是语言恰如其分地反映客观事物的本来面目,使人看了明白。语言确切,要做到用词准确,造句恰当和成篇严密。语言简洁,就是要用较少的话把较丰富的内容表达出来,干净利落,让人容易把握文章的要点,理解文章的内容。语言通俗,就是运用群众中明白通畅的语言,把抽象的概念说得具体,把深奥的道理说得浅显,把专门的知识说得有趣味,让大家都看得懂,都喜欢看。要做到语言通俗可以适当运用叙述和描写,也可以适当运用比喻

说明文是以“说明”为主要表达方式,用来介绍或解释事物的状态、性质、构造、功用、制作方法、发展过程以及内在事理的一种实用文体,目的在于给人以知识。

1、说明文文体:

说明文体是以说明为主要表达方式的文章,是对事物作客观说明的一种文体。说明事物的性质、状态、功能等,给人以知识,知识性和科学性是说明文的主要特点。

2、说明文的分类:

从说明内容上可以分为事物说明文和事理说明文,事物说明文旨在介绍某一事物的形体特征,如《中国石拱桥》;事理说明文旨在解释事物本身的道理或内部规律地,如《统筹方法》等。从语言表达方式上可分为平实说明文和文艺性说明文。

3、说明事物要抓住事物特征。

特征是一事物区别于其他事物的标志。《故宫博物院》和《雄伟的人民大会堂》都是介绍建筑的,但是两事物的特征不同。故宫是古代君王的活动中心,它的设计就处处反映出封建帝王“唯我独尊”的特点,而人民大会堂是我国劳动人民共商国家大事的地方,雄伟是人民大会堂的特点。阅读说明文要注意抓好说明对象的特征。

4、说明顺序:

要安排好写作顺序,说明顺序一般用以下几种:

①时间顺序:时间先后

②空间顺序:从外到内、由上到下、由左到右、由四周到中央

③逻辑顺序:

说明文在介绍事物的特征、种类、成因和功能时,常按逻辑顺序进行说明。逻辑顺序包括从现象到本质;从原因到结果;从整体到部分;从概括到具体;从特点到用途等。例如:《向沙漠进军》一文,讲了沙漠向人类进攻的方法,人类向沙漠进军的方法,从现象到本质说明,运用了逻辑顺序。《苏州园林》运用了整体到部分的说明顺序。

5、说明方法

常用的说明方法有:下定义,分类别,举例子,作比较,列数字,打比方,画图表,作诠释等。采用什么说明方法是由说明目的和说明内容决定的。

[举例子]:将复杂的、抽象的事物或概念,用具体、形象、易于理解的典型事例来说明。例如说明死海的“死”,列举海水中没有鱼虾、水草,甚至连海边也寸草不生的事例作证;说明死海的“不死”,列举即使不会游泳的人,也总是浮在水面上,不用担心会被淹死的事例,让人信服。

[列数字]:些事物从数量上便于说明特征,可以运用一些数字来说明。例如《太阳》中:其实,太阳离我们有一亿五千万公里远。到太阳上去,如步行,日夜不停地走,差不多要走三千五百年;就是坐飞机,也要飞二十几年。

[作比较]:把被说明的事物与其他事物进行比较,显示事物的特征。通过比较,可以认识事物的特殊点、或被说明的事物与其他事物的共同点。例如《太阳》中:“我们看太阳,觉得它并不大,实际上它大得很,130万个地球才能抵得上一个太阳。”拿地球跟太阳作比较,突出地说明了太阳的体积之大这一特点。

[分类别]:把被说明的对象按一定的标准划分成不同的类别,然后进行分门别类的说明。

[打比方]:把此事物比作彼事物从而把此事物的特征解说得确切具体、浅显易懂。例如《太阳》中:“太阳会发光,会发热,是个大火球。”这打比方,把太阳的形状及会发光发热的特点生动地反映出来了。

[作假设]:例如《太阳》中:“如果没有太阳,地球上将到处是黑暗,到处是寒冷,没有风霜雨露,没有草木野兽,自然也不会有人。”这就强调了太阳与人类的关系非常密切。

[引用]:引用有关名言、资料、典故、诗词、民彦、俗语、传说等充当说明的内容或依据来说明、介绍事物。例如《太阳》中:有这么一个传说:古时候,天上有十个太阳,晒得地面寸草不生,人们热得受不了,就找一个箭法很好的人射掉了九个,只留下一个,地面上才不那么热了。

说明方法中下定义与作诠释,作比较与分类别这两类要准确辨析。

下定义与作诠释。下定义即用简明的语言对事物的本质属性作概括性的说明,以便确定被说明事物的范围和界限。而作诠释是注释说明,一般对事物作通俗的介绍,对事理的性质和特点进行解说。在语言要求上,下定义的语句要求是个明确的判断,语言形式一般为“某某是什么?”或“某某叫什么”语言要求准确、概括、简洁,不允许出现比喻、拟人等修辞方法而作诠释就没有这些限制,只要做到说明准确、严密即可。

作比较与分类别。作比较的说明方法、一般有主有从,主事物是被说明对象,从事物不是要说明的对象,而只是为说明主事物服务的,为了说明人们所不熟悉的主事物,而选一个人们熟悉的从事物跟它相比以让人们更清楚地了解主事物的某种特点,这就是作比较,而分类别的说明方法,是一个大的概念中,包含着若干的小的概念,这若干小的概念同属一个大范畴而又相互并列,没有主从关系,更没有比较的特点。

6、说明文的语言特点:

说明文的语言要求准确和简明。有的说明文要讲究语言的平实,有的讲究语言的生动。但不论是平实还是生动,都要求准确、简明,要注意说明文的科学性。语言的准确和简明体现在以下几个方面:

①要如实的反映客观事物,对知识表达要科学和严密,表示时间、空间、范围、程度、特征、性质、程序等都要准确无误。

②要注意运用好表示修饰限制等作用的词语。如“基本上”“大约”“比较”“一般”“极个别”“大多数”等词语。

③语言要简明、浅显、易懂、要言简意赅、明白晓畅,不要拖沓、含糊。

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篇14:2024年英语写作经典句型

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导语:好的句子正确运用能给作文带来意想不到的效果,下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的英语作文,欢迎阅读与借鉴,谢谢!

1. According to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.依照最近的一项调查,每年有4,000,000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

4. People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。

5. An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。

6. When it comes to education, the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.说到教育,大部分人认为其是一个终生的学习。

7. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

8. Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful effects of international tourism.应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量,努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。

9. An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However, this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents, who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.越来越多的专家相信移民对城市的建设起到积极作用然而,越来越多的城市居民却怀疑这种说法,他们抱怨民工给城市带来了许多严重的问题,像犯罪和卖淫。

10. Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus, which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少,以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车,而车上可能已满载乘客。

11. There is no denying the fact that air pollution is an extremely serious problem: the city authorities should take strong measures to deal with it.无可否认,空气污染是一个极其严重的问题:城市当局应该采取有力措施来解决它

12. An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward retirement.一项调查显示妇女欢迎退休。

13. A proper part-time job does not occupy students too much time. In fact, it is unhealthy for them to spend all of time on their study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.一份适当的业余工作并不会占用学生太多的时间,事实上,把全部的时间都用到学习上并不健康,正如那句老话:只工作,不玩耍,聪明的孩子会变傻。

14. Any government, which is blind to this point, may pay a heavy price.任何政府忽视这一点都将付出巨大的代价。

15.Nowadays, many students always go into raptures at the mere mention of the coming life of high school or college they will begin. Unfortunately, for most young people, it is not pleasant experience on their first day on campus.当前,一提到即将开始的学校生活,许多学生都会兴高采烈。然而,对多数年轻人来说,校园刚开始的日子并不是什么愉快的经历。

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篇15:大学英语四级作文模板:现象说明文

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大学英语四级考试,即CET-4,College English Test Band 4的缩写,是由国家教育部高等教育司主持的全国性教学考试。下面是由小编为你精心编辑的大学英语四级作文模板:现象说明文,欢迎阅读!

英语四级现象说明文写作要点:

1、第一段,描述存在的现象,引起话题。

2、第二段,承上启下,解释这一现象的原因(原因一、二、三)

3、第三段,给出自己的观点(观点一、二、三),总结结论。

英语四级作文模板

Recently _______,what amazes us most is______________,it is ture that__________.

There are many reasons explaining__________________________.The main reason is____________________.

what is more_________________________.thirdly__________________________.As a result_______________.

Considering all there,________________________.For one thing_____________________,for another____________.In Conclusion____________________.一种事物或现象(负面意义倾向)

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篇16:词汇写作的学习方法

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词汇写作学习方法是怎样的呢?下面是小编整理的词汇写作的学习方法。

词汇写作的学习方法

第一步:学习关联词

1. 何谓关联词

关联词是指一些能够指明句与句之间逻辑关系的词。有些关联词可以连接从句与主句,有些关联词可以连接独立的两个句子。

2. 学习关联词的方法

对于关联词的学习,朗阁海外考试研究中心建议考生按照其表示的逻辑关系来分类学习,具体逻辑关系如下:

①表示举例

a case in point, after all, as an proof, as an illustration, as an example, for example, for instance, in particular, just as, namely, specifically, to illustrate, to demonstrate

②表示增补

additionally, along with, also, as well as, besides, equally, even, furthermore, in addition, just as, moreover, not only…but also…, what‘s more

③表示强调

above all, as a matter of fact, indeed, in fact, most important, obviously, to be sure, truly, undoubtedly, without doubt

④表示比较

by comparison, equally, equally important, in comparison, in the same way, in the same manner, likewise, similarly

⑤表示让步

admittedly, after all, all the same, although, even so, in spite of, nevertheless

⑥表示结果

accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, in this way, so, therefore, thus.

⑦表示转折

although, but, despite, except for, though, however, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, on the other hand, otherwise, rather than, though, yet.

⑧表示结论

as has been noted(mentioned, stated), at last, finally, in a word, all in all, in brief, in conclusion, in short, in sum, in summary, to conclude, to sum up , to summarize.

3. 学习关联词的作用

①增强表达的地道性

英文是显性的语言,它完全不同于隐性的中文。因为英文中的逻辑几乎都是跃然纸上的,显露在外的。然而,中文几乎不要求逻辑,是隐晦的。所以,朗阁海外考试研究中心建议考生在英文写作词汇的学习中,首先要积累的就是英文中能够直接说明句与句之间逻辑的关联词,同时摒弃中文表达不强调逻辑的习惯。

②增强论证的流畅度

议论文中最难写的部分往往是支持句。很多考生把作文架子搭起来之后,就一筹莫展了。而熟练使用关联词是很好的解决问题的方法。因为支持句实际上,就是通过一些论证方法将其表达出来,而常见的论证方法有举例论证、因果论证、对比论证等。那就不难发现,熟练使用关联词可以帮助考生更好的扩展支持句,做到文章有理有据而且流畅清晰。

第二步:学习题干核心词

1. 何谓题干核心词

雅思议论文题目虽多,但是可以按话题分为八大类:教育,科技,环境与动物,媒体与广告,政府,工作与生活,语言与文化,法律与犯罪。在每个话题的题目中,会有一些出现频率比较高的名词即为:题干核心词。

2. 学习题干核心词的方法

对于题干核心词的学习,建议考生从写作机经入手,可以选择朗阁出版的《最新雅思高分范文》,这本书按照话题将历年考题进行了分类整理。

第一步:找出写作机经的实意词

第二步:积累实意词的近义词

下面以教育话题为例,具体讲解一下学习题干核心词的方法。

「学习方式」

Students at schools and universities learn far more from lessons with teachers than from other sources (such as the Internet and television)。 To what extent do you agree or disagree?

「高等教育」

Some people think university education should prepare students for employment. Other people think university has other functions. Discuss both views and what do you think the function of university education.

「课程的安排」

Some people believe that teenagers should concentrate on all school subjects, while others claim that students should focus on the subject that they are best at or that they find interesting. Discuss both views and give your opinion.

以上黑体字部分为实意词。找到实意词之后,考生可以借助词典或其他工具积累近义词或同义词。

题干的核心词

1. 学生种类:

Teenager: Adolescent, Juvenile (formal or law),

University students: Undergraduate, postgraduate

2. 教育层次:

Basic education: Grade school, elementary school, (6-12), junior school, senior/high school

Post-school education, tertiary education, advanced education, higher education

3. 课程:

Curriculum, course, subject, programme

4. 网络学习:

Online learning, tele-education, virtual class, distance learning, e-learning

3. 学习题干核心词的作用

①增强审题的准确性

写作评分标准的第一项为task response,要求考生的作文要扣题去写。但是,有一部分考生由于词汇量不够题目都看不明白,那么作文必然走题。通过复习写作机经积累题干核心词可以大大降低走题的可能性,保证审题的准确性,因为写作题目题干的一些核心词往往不会改变。

②快速扩展开头段

万事开头难这句俗话在写作中也有体现—考生会在写作的开始不知道如何下笔。开头段的目的实际上最重要的就是引出主题,而题干就是在引题,但是考试有规定题干不能照抄。那么,题干核心词的近义词就有大用处了,它们可以帮助考生快速改写题干,完成开头段引出主题的任务。

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篇17:轻松写作的方法

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作文并不是枯燥无味的代名词,也不是令人头疼的同义词。它是快乐的,是让人乐此不疲的!其实写作可以很轻松,只要掌握方法,就会像你玩游戏那样玩得很好! 以下是小编搜集的轻松写作的方法,欢迎阅读。

方法一:主次分明,详略得当!

我们写作时经常一味的想把它完成,并想得到高分。但我们常常忽略了它的主和次,总是大段大段的围绕中心写。我们应该把重要的最能体现文章主题的地方详写,而不重要的部分就简单的介绍一下。

方法二:有感而发。

在写作时,常常会遇到一些以现实生活为主题的题目,然而大多数人只是把自己想到的补充上去。我们应该善于去生活中发现,捕捉最能打动人的事件。在文章中,多一些细节描写——语言,动作,神态等等等等。

方法三:想别人没想到的。

有很多时候,写作人的主要内容和其他人的相似,这很常见。因为他们都只是单方面的去想。我们应该想别人想不到的,内容要新颖——首先题目要亮眼!我们要做到多方面思维“横看成岭侧成峰,远近高低各不同。”

写作有很多很多方法——这些只是其中的几种,我们要熟练的掌握方法,取得更好的成绩!

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篇18:怎样提高我们的写作方法

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随时随地记下你的灵感:随身带一本小笔记本(纳博科夫身上装满了小卡片),当你对你构思的小说,文章,或是小说里的人物有什么灵感的时候,马上记下来。当你听别人谈话时的只言片语而所有顿悟时,或看到一段散文诗或是一句歌词让你很感动时,都可以马上当他们记下来。灵感总是转瞬即逝,你及时的记录下来,便可以成为你写作的素材。我的习惯是,为我的博客要写的文章列一个清单,不断的补充它。

阅读优秀的作品:这是显而易见的,但立竿见影的方法。如果你不读更多的好作品,你就不知道如何写出更好的作品。优秀的作家都是从阅读别人的佳作开始,接着开始模仿,最后超越他们,形成自己的风格。尽可能的多读名著,在看内容的时候,更要留意文章的问题和写作的技巧。

尽可能多的写:每天都写,如果可能话,每天写几次。你写得多了,也就写得好了。学习如何写作和其他的学问道理是一样的,熟能生巧。写写你自己,写写博客,向出版社投稿。只是写,全情投入的写,练得越多,你的写作水平就提升得越快。

随便涂鸦:面对整张的白纸,整版的白屏,无从开始,肯定恐怖。你会想:我还是看看邮件或是小憩一会了吧!先生,千万别这样。马上开始写,马上打字,你写什么没有关系,只是让我听到你敲键盘的声音吧。只要你开始写了,什么都好办了。像我的话,我喜欢先敲上我的名字和文章的标题,这应该不难吧,然后再慢慢的展开情节,全身心地融入进去…关键是:开始可以随便写写,随便涂鸦,但是尽快开始写正文。

专门的写作时间:每天找一个没有任何打扰的时间段作为专门的写作时间,让这成为习惯。对我而言,清晨的时间是最佳的,午饭,傍晚,或者深夜的那段时间也可以。无论你是做什么工作的,把写作当作每天必须完成的任务去做。每天至少写半个小时,当然有一个小时更好。若你同我一样,是一个全职的作家,那么你需要写更多的小时,请你不要担心,这只会让你写得更好。

采用对话式的文体: 很多人的写作都很正式,但是我发现像我们说话一样写作会使文章更流畅(没有叹生词)。这样一来,读者看起来会更舒服。刚开始这么写并不容易,你需要坚持这么做。也许,会带来另一个问题,为了读起来更口语化,你需要打破一些语法规则(就像我的前一句那样)。因为如果生搬硬套语法,会让你的文章看起来很不自然。若没有其他原因,就不要破坏语法规则。你需要知道你在做什么和为什么这样做。

集中精神:写作是一件一心一意的事情,在嘈杂的环境或是同时干着别的事情,是不可能写好的。写作需要一个安静的环境,需要一点点柔和的背景音乐。即使是最低要求,你也需要在全屏(没有其他软件得干扰)的条件下,使用WriteRoom, DarkRoom,Writer这些写作软件,不受打扰的写作。关掉邮箱,关点MSN和Gtalk,关掉电话和手机,关掉电视,清理掉书桌上无用的东西。清除与写作无关的一切杂念,现在就是写作的时间,好像把自己放进一个盒子里,在没有任何打扰下进入写作状态。

先计划,再写: 这好像和“随便涂鸦”有些矛盾,实际上不是这样。在坐下来正式写之前,先做个计划或是脑子里先预演一下,这是非常管用的办法。每天跑步的时候想想要写的东西,或是散步的时间来个头脑风暴;然后把想到的记下来,做一个扼要的提纲;等真正准备好开始写了,可以很快的展开,因为思路和想法都有了。这里,有一个构思小说的三部曲,可以参考这个:Snowflake Method.

修改: 你开始构思你的文字,然后试着写,让故事情节展开,最后你需要回过头再看看你都写了什么。这点很重要,很多写手一旦写好就不想修改,已经费时费力地写好了,还要再花时间修改,实在是一件吃力不讨好的活。但如果你想写得更好,你就要学会如何修改。好的作品是经过反复的推敲和修改而成的,这会让你的作品从平庸中脱颖而出。看看你写的东东,不仅仅是那些拼写和语法错误,还有那些无意义的词,混乱的结构,和让人搞不懂的句子。修改的目标是:更清晰,更直接,更鲜活。

创新: 你需要模仿名家,这并不意味你要跟他们写得一模一样。你可以试试新的写法,从这里学一点,从那里学一点。渐渐地,你就会有了自己的风格,自己的文体,自己的思路。试试一些不一样的表达,或创造一些与众不同的表达方式,每一方法你都可以尝试,看看它到底怎么样,不好就不用呗。

简明扼要: 这是你在修改的过程中,最重要的一件事情。一句句,一段段的修改,把无关主题的统统都删掉。一个短句比一段冗长的废话更具说服力,大白话比晦涩的专业术语更受欢迎。记得:简单就是力量。

富于感染力的句子:在短句中使用富有感染力的动词,当然,并没有要求每一句都是这样,你需要变化。但是,多试试能够吸引人的句子。而且,你没有必要等到你要修改的时候再用,你刚开始写的时候就要考虑这个问题。

获取别人的反馈: 闭门造车不会有任何进步,让别人读读你的文章给你回馈,最好有经验的作家和编辑。他们见多识广,会给你很中肯和有见地的建议。认真的听,即使是一些批评,也接受它,忠言逆耳,这样只会让你写得更好。

是骡子还是马,拉出来溜溜:就你而言,你需要让别人读到你的作品。你的作品不是你想谁看谁就看的,让所有的人都读到你的文章。你就要出版自己的书,发表自己的短篇小说和诗歌,给出版社供稿。如果你已经开始写博客了,恭喜你,这是一个好的开始。若现在还没有人浏览过,你就需要把它放到流量更大的博客服务网站上去,让读者给你留言,给你提出建议。所有的人都会看你写东西,也许刚开始时会是件伤脑筋的事情,但这是每一位作家成长的必由之路,马上发表你的文字吧。

好开头和结尾: 开头和结尾是文章的重点。特别是开头。如果你不能在故事的开始就吸引读者,那他们就很难有耐心把整篇文章读完。所以投入更多的时间去考虑怎么写好开头,读者一旦对你开头感兴趣,他们会想知道得更多…写好开头后,再弄一个精彩的结尾,这会让读者更加期待你的下一篇佳作。

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篇19:申论大作文写作方法

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做任何事情都是有规律可循的,申论考试也是这样,那么申论作文有什么写作方法呢?本文是小编为大家收集整理的申论大作文写作方法,欢迎参考借鉴。

一、如何明确主题

这里要重点说明一下,每个申论材料只有一个主题,如果你不是这个主题,那么就偏题,直接低分。不理解出题人的意图就是读不懂领导的心思,不按照出题人的心意来就是对抗上级,打低分都算轻的了。

这里的主题我理解的有两种,一种是材料围绕的中心对象,比如13年的联考,“让……大放异彩”,研读材料,通篇围绕“中华文化”来展开,但是文化出现了问题,那么如何让中国文化大放异彩呢,由此去发现问题,分析原因,提出对策。另一种是文中出现问题但是给出了一个对策,这个对策就是主题,但是这个对策是有问题的,需要去解决,写作思路与第一种一样的(但是主题需要进一步推敲)。比如14年的国考,围绕科技展开,科技出现了问题,需要解决,怎么办,让其具有“人性化”,但是科技并不具备人性化或者在具备人性化的过程中出现了问题,需要分析原因,提出对策,从而让科技具有人性化。再如15国考,题干中“自在有为的人活急不得,要慢下来”(自己回忆的,大致是这个意思),这句话提出了一个对策“要慢下来”,为什么要慢下来,因为我问太“快”了,出现了问题,噼里啪啦,按照上面的思路顺理成章。16年国考的“好政策”亦是如此,在我看来如是!

再举几个谬误百出的省考,比如某年作文“什么时候,在土地上耕耘成了食之无味弃之可惜的营生”,为什么这么说,因为在土地上耕作出现了问题,怎么办?文中也提出了对策“土地流转”,但是土地流转出现问题,分析原因,提出对策解决他!(我看了某君写的文章,开头那是文采飞扬,是我的调调,但是真的偏题了)再如“家底”这篇文章,首先需要考生弄清楚“家底”是什么,其次怎么才能摸清“家底”,材料提出对策“人口普查”,但是人口普查出现问题,分析原因,提出对策解决它!

当然,如果有能力的考生能直接提炼出主题,自然用不着上面的方法,如果能力稍微弱一点的考生,还是多捉摸一下材料吧,但是一定要结合题干,题干隐藏这太多的信息,要细心去挖掘,多问几个问什么!

二、如何找问题

1、有些材料会直接提出问题,或者A使B产生了不好的影响,那么A必定存在问题!

2、举国内外一些好的例子,从侧面反映出问题。所以看材料不要只停留在表面,要看得深一些。比如某年考题举了美剧韩剧的成功,之所以举这个例子,不就是因为国产剧很sui吗?这就是问题!

3、从给出的对策中反推出问题。比如:通过努力学习(对策)来提高申论,从反面反映出申论水平还不够高。

4、材料中要求解决的事情。比如:要大力保护中国传统文化,这就说明传统文化保护力度不足!这也是问题!

即便有个别材料不是如上所述,那么它也一定是为主题服务的!

三、如何分析原因(根本原因,直接原因,主要原因)

这里也要重点说明一下,在要求里面通常有一个“自选角度”“联系实际”等,自选角度其实说的是分析角度、提出问题的角度,而不是立意角度,主题是唯一的,如果大作文没有一个统一的主题,立意自选角度,那么这个考试能考出花来,该有的问题也得不到解决,同时也增加了阅卷难度(这些都是次要的,主要是出题人本来就给了有且只有一个主题)。之所以联系生活实际,是因为每个人的经历不同,阅历不同,感受不同,看待问题的角度也不同,其思想境界也不同,所以分析角度因人而异,解决问题的手段也殊途同归,自己选择!这一点,大家一定要理解透彻!由于分析能力和分析深度不同,我个人觉得这里也是一个拉分的关键点!

在材料中出题人基本不会直接给出问题产生的原因,需要考生去动脑子分析,要不然如何考察考生的能力。分析不是抄材料,如果只是一味的抄材料觉得就行了,那为何每年的申论都那么低?所以申论不是想当然的那么low,要有自己的见解(要求中也有“见解深刻”),材料中的终究不是自己的,抄材料又如何能体现出的考生真实水平呢!

如果有搞不懂这三个原因关系的盆友自行补脑!!!分析能力稍弱的同学可以看一些好一点有思想性的评论文章,我看的东西很少很low,所以分析能力较弱,这里就不能为大家提供素材了,怕大神笑话我。如果申论搞定了,面试就是小儿科!

四、提出对策

找到了问题的原因,对策自然就水到渠成了。诚然,在有些材料中也会涉及到一些不错的对策,可以借鉴!

我觉得原因和对策也未必一定要对称,如果你觉得你能分析出更多的原因,那你就多写点分析,反之亦然。因为一个对策可能解决几个问题,一个问题也可能需要多个对策来解决。当然,如果你有能力,能够一一对应是最好不过的!可以参照政府工作报告,自己多摸索!申论写作没有什么模板,随心所欲而不逾矩!

根据以上的讲解不难得出大作文的写作思路,如下:

1、主题背景—谈与主题有关且无争议性的内容,就是大家都懂都认可的内容点名主题。

2、找出问题:简单罗列出材料中存在的问题,或者联系生活实际中的问题。

3、分析问题出现的原因并论证。

4、提出解决问题的对策、方法并论证,让阅卷人信服你的对策是可行的,而不是全部都是铺天盖地的对策。

5、展望未来,呼应主题。

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篇20:高分语文作文的写作方法

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一、考场作文和文学创作的区别

有些同学平时看了很多书,文学功底并不差,可一直在语文的作文上失足。其实这是没有想明白:考场作文并不是即兴的文学创作。文学创作可以自由地发挥,尽情表达自己的情感。然而考场作文有条条框框。带着脚铐跳舞,输出在框架里,有一个束缚,不能轻易跳出框架外。同时每年都会有题材和内容都极具新颖的高考文章出来,但是这样的文章是很危险的,对于想求稳的同学是不可借鉴的。

二、文章体裁鲜明

首先就是要确定文章的体裁。很多同学喜欢在考场上写散文,散文是一把难以控制的利器,如果文字能力比较强,文采好,散文确实是可以出奇迹,但是如果文采单薄,观点偏激,分数就会比较低,影响整体的得分。如果文采一般,稳妥一点的选择就是写议论文。

论点、论据要清晰,论述过程逻辑合理。只有文体鲜明,老师才能根据评分标准打分,不至于产生太大的偏差。论点尽量开门见山,在文章开头就提出自己的观点。这一点也是老师们反复强调的,写议论文入题一定要要快,不要兜圈子。

三、文章结构安排

高考阅卷老师,每天要看大概280篇作文,所以老师不会从头至尾地把文章读一遍。我们一定要安排好文章的结构。阅卷老师一般会重视开头,所以我们应该尽快在开头摆明自己的观点,给老师简单明了的信息。

议论文的格式很固定,第一段提出观点、第二段分析观点,第三段联系实际,最后总结。这样千篇一律,老师很容易疲倦,如果我们能采用新的文体,能给老师耳目一新的感觉。比如小标题发,在每段上加上一个小标题,然后几个小标题,连起来能合成一句话。这样很容易给老师留下良好的印象,容易得高分。当然这一些要建立在“稳”的基础上。

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