自考英语写作基础【精选20篇】

1. What is language for? Some people seem to think its for practicing grammar rules and learning lists of words--- the longer the words the better. Thats wrong. Language is for the exchange of ideas, for communication。

语言到底是用来干什么的呢?一些人认为它是用来操练语法规则和学习一大堆单词--而且单词越长越好。这个想法是错误的。语言是用来交换思想，进行交流沟通的!

2. The way to learn a language is to practice speaking it as often as possible。

学习一门语言的方法就是要尽量多地练习说。

3. A great man once said it is necessary to drill as much as possible, and the more you apply it in real situations, the more natural it will become。

一位伟人曾说，反复操练是非常必要的，你越多的将所学到的东西运用到实际生活中，他们就变的越自然。

4. Learning any language takes a lot of effort. But dont give up。

学习任何语言都是需要花费很多努力，但不要放弃。

5. Relax! Be patient and enjoy yourself. Learning foreign languages should be fun。

放松点!要有耐性，并让自己快乐!学习外语应该是乐趣无穷的。

6. Rome wasnt built in a day. Work harder and practice more. Your hard- work will be rewarded by god one day. God is equal to everyone!

冰冻三尺，非一日之寒。更加努力的学习，更加勤奋的操练，你所付出的一切将会得到上帝的报答，上帝是公平的。

7. Use a dictionary and grammar guide constantly. Keep a small English dictionary with you at all time. When you see a new word, look it up. Think about the word-- use it, in your mind, in a sentence。

经常使用字典和语法指南。随身携带一本小英文字典，当你看到一个新字时就去查阅它，想想这个字---然后去用它，在你的心中，在一个句子里。

8. Try to think in English whenever possible. When you see something think of the English word of it; then think about the word in a sentence。

一有机会就努力去用英文来思考。看到某事时，想想它的英文单词;然后把它用到一个句子中去。

9. Practice tenses as much as possible. When you learn a new verb, learn its various forms。

尽可能多的操练时态。学习一个动词的时候，要学习它的各种形态。

10. I would also like to learn more about the culture behind the language. When you understand the cultural background, you can better use the language。

我想学习和了解更多关于语言背后的文化知识，当你理解了文化背景，你就能更好地运用语言。

1)结构2)内容要点 3)语言(词组搭配、句型、句式变化、过渡词)看结构和内容要点定分数档，看语言给成绩。这是中考英语阅卷的潜规则。 三段四步法——中考英语满分杀手锏 知己知彼，方能百战不殆，既然中考阅卷流程和内部标准已经明朗化，相对的策略也就顺利成章的形成了。现在和大家分享，笔者教学和阅卷过程中总结创立的写作满分秘诀。

1 “三段”(三个段落)——针对的阅卷老师先看文章结构和内容要点，让阅卷老师不得不给你定位一类文。 中高考情景是作文，无论是那种文体，都可以用三段法来表示。这个方法的起源是来自美国的“高考”SAT考试，(SAT是美国或它国学生想要申请美国大学必须参加的考试，故被叫过美国的高考)。 我们管这样的文章叫做HamburgerWriting(汉堡写作)

顾名思义，就是无论是记叙文、还是议论文、或者08年中考以及09一模西城的夹叙夹议文章，都可以通用。简单解释如下：

书信是日常生活中广泛应用的一种文体。它是一种特殊的实用文体。长期以来，它形成了自己独有的固定的书写格式：一般包括称呼、正文、结尾、署名、日期五部分。所以，如果你想要写好书信，那么，必须要掌握以下有关书信写作的基础知识。

称呼：第一行顶格写收信人的名字和称呼(或只写称呼)，有时还要加上“敬爱的、亲爱的”等词，表示对收信人的亲热和尊敬;接着加个冒号，表示下面的话是对他说的。

正文：另起一行空两格开始写正文，也就是书信的内容。正文部分通常先写问候的话。问候是一种礼节，问候语很多，有节日的问候，如“新年好”“春节快乐”等;有季节性的问候，如“夏安”“冬安”等。也有开头问候身体健康，工作和学习情况的，如“近来身体可好”“近来的学习好吗?”等等。问候语可以独立成为一个段落。

正文是书信的主体部分，是写信的目的之所在，写信人要说的话，要办的事都写在这里。正文的内容在问候语下一行空两格写起，转行时要顶格写起。如果要说的话，要办的事多，应该分段写，每段写一件事，写完一件事，再写另外一件事。每段开头都要空两格写起。

结尾：正文写完后，要写上表示祝愿、尊敬或勉励的话，也叫致敬语。致敬语要根据对象不同而不同。如果写给长辈，可以写“敬祝健康”等;如果写给平辈，可以写“祝学习进步!”等。而“此致敬礼”是比较通用的，适合一般人的结束语。结尾的“此致”“祝”等可以紧接正文写，也可以独占一行，空两格写。“敬礼”“健康”等祝愿之情，要另起一行顶格写。

署名：写在正文结尾后的右下方。可以根据信纸剩下的多少，决定署名与致敬语的距离。署名时根据与收信人关系的亲疏，可带姓，可不带姓。习惯上，还按与收信人的关系，在名字前面加上“孙”、“弟”“老朋友”等称谓写在名字的左上角，字体小一点。

日期：一般写在署名的下边。日期最好是把年月日都写出来，便于收信人了解写信时间。

要点：实际上中考英语写作就等于两个字，翻译!因为中考英语写作一般会给出几个要点，要求必须在文章中有所体现。文章写的再好，只要缺少要点就会扣分。所以要点，也就是文章的第二段内容，要做到全，围绕中心。

结构：中考最流行的结构就是三段式，深受各地区中考英语写作阅卷老师的喜爱。为什么尼?因为这种结构十分清晰。“观点——要点——总结”让人一目了然。三段式的第一段：简单明了，开门见山，不超过2句话，如，我们想表达小强很强壮，第一段直接说XQis extremely strong。观点明确，这一句足矣。

第二段：分2-3点说为什么他强壮。1. 每天吃10顿饭，He has ten mealseveryday!详举吃的是什么。2. 每天运动2小时，He does exercise 2 hours a day!详举做了什么运动。

第三段：经过第二段的论证，可以得出结论。但请注意，不能完全照抄第一段，要有升华。也可以提出希望和建议等。如，Howstrong and robust XQ is!I hope to be him one day!

逻辑：这里的逻辑实际指的就是逻辑词。最常用的就是表示递进的，转折的，总结的逻辑词等。递进：除了first，second，third，finally等还可以使用高级点的，如first of all(首先)，in addition，whatsmore，moreover(都是另外的意思)，in a word，all inall(表示总结的)。转折：but，yet，however等。真正有经验的阅卷老师会很注意这些逻辑连接词，因为这些词体现了这个文章的思路。

语法：其他几点都不是硬性的要求，不那样做不能说是错，只能说是不好，但是语法却是硬性的。如，单词的使用，时态等。

亮点：当我们将前八个字都做得很完美的时候也只能得到一个二等文的上。要想得到一等文，最后两个字，亮点至关重要。大家设想如果我们是阅卷老师。有两篇写人美丽的作文摆在我们面前，都是结构清晰的三段式，要点都很全，都用了一些逻辑词，都没有语法错误，但是A篇只用了beautiful，good-looking，B篇却用到了attractive，charming，catching等，我坚信正常人都会给B篇高分的。这些高级一点的词汇，词组，句型便是我们得到一等文的最有力的绝招。所以，以后写英语作文要养成一般词汇限量用的好习惯。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

Each years Arbor Day across the country will be massive tree-planting activities, because of afforestation greening and beautifying the home, not only can also at the same time expanding forest resources, prevent water loss and soil erosion, protecting farmland, regulating climate, and promote economic development, and so on, is a grand project of contemporary, benefiting future. But the meaning of the Arbor Day is not everyone want to plant a tree in the Arbor Day this day, but through the Arbor Day again come, make us more attention of greening, the problems of environmental protection.

As we all know: the earth is in arid and desert area covered are increased year by year, but we seem to feel these are far from us, but in our side have such a group of people: they are quietly for planting green the earth, they are called "hero", some are called "contemporary yu gong", some even are foreign friends... They plant trees in their practical action to tell us, was the event of all mankind, is benefiting future generations of the ten thousand.

Hundreds of millions of years ago, the earth belongs to the animals with lush plants, everywhere full of vitality, full of green, however, IQ is far more human than the other animals, plants like enchanted decreased dramatically. That is because the human in order to build houses, caused by the cutting down trees. Have a plenty of because business needs, large teams of cut down the trees to set aside space, used to build the building. Because many people without authorization, cut down trees and trees, so nature was damaged.

The disadvantages of cutting down trees a lot. We all know trees can be recycled carbon dioxide, if a large number of cut down trees, trees will sharply reduce the number of, we cant get exhaled carbon dioxide cycle. Lush trees can stop the sandstorm, two years before Beijing encountered sandstorms, the entire city was shrouded by sand that is because of the lack of protection in the trees.

Trees are the earths lungs, I hope everyone can protect the forest, protection of trees, green make urban life add a minute! Protect trees is to protect the earth is to protect our humanity!

But for all of us, the meaning of the Arbor Day is not just as simple plant a tree. Arbor Day to express meaning not only for us is to plant more trees, but to cultivate citizens to take good care of our natural, low carbon a philosophy of life.

Arbor Day if there are no conditions to plant trees, we can do from daily life and the same effect to plant trees. Such as a piece of paper with a pair of disposable chopsticks, less waste less and less an air-conditioner and so on. The concept of low carbon, saving itself is beneficial to the progress of the society, the protection of the trees. Only our demand for trees, trees cut down will be less, then the love will be more and more trees. Arbor Day, what are you waiting for, from now on, since you have come together to love nature, low carbon a day!

每年的植树节全国各地都会大规模开展植树活动，因为植树造林不仅可以绿化和美化家园，同时还可以起到扩大山林资源、防止水土流失、保护农田、调节气候、促进经济发展等作用，是一项利于当代、造福子孙的宏伟工程。但是植树节的意义不是在于每个人都要在植树节这天去种一棵树，而是通过植树节的又一次来临，使我们大家更加的关注绿化、环保的问题。

众所周知：地球正在沙化，沙漠的覆盖面积正在逐年的增加——可我们似乎觉得这些离我们还很远，但是在我们的身边有这样的一群人：他们在默默无闻地为这片大地播种着绿色，他们有的被称为“英雄"、有的被称为“当代愚公”，有的甚至是外国友人……他们用他们的实际行动告诉我们，植树是全人类的大事，是造福子孙万代的伟业。

几亿年前，地球归动物所拥有的时候植物繁茂，到处生机勃勃，充满了绿色，但是，智商远远高出其他动物的人类出现后，植物像被施了魔法一样的急剧减少。那是因为，人类为了建造房屋，砍伐树木所造成的。有的是因为商业需要，大批大批的砍伐树林留出空地，用来建造大楼。正因为许多人擅自砍伐树林和树木，所以大自然被破坏。

砍伐树木的坏处很多。大家都知道树木可以循环二氧化碳，如果大量砍伐树木，树木的数量就会急剧减少，我们呼出的二氧化碳无法得到循环。茂密的树木可以阻挡沙尘暴，前两年北京遭遇沙尘暴，整个城市被沙子所笼罩这也是因为缺少树木的保护所造成的。

树是地球的肺，我希望每个人都能保护树林、保护树木，让都市的生活添一分绿色!保护树木就是保护地球就是保护我们人类!

但是对于我们大家来说，植树节的意义并不仅仅是种一棵树那么简单。植树节向我们表达的意义不仅是要多种植树木，而是要培养我们广大市民爱护自然、低碳生活的一种理念。

植树节如果没有条件去种树，我们从日常生活中也可以做到和种树一样的效果。比如少用一双一次性筷子、少浪费一张纸、少开一次空调等等。这些节约低碳的理念，本身就有益于社会的进步，树木的保护。只有我们对树木的需求少了，树木的砍伐才会少，那么爱护树木的人就会越来越多。植树节，大家还在等什么，从现在开始，从你开始，都来一起爱护自然吧，低碳的过一天!

新闻，是指报纸、电台、电视台经常使用的记录社会、传播信息、反映时代的一种文体。下面是小编收集整理的新闻稿写作基础知识，希望对您有所帮助！

一、新闻稿

消息，也叫新闻。新闻这一概念有狭义和广义之分。狭义的单指消息；广义的指消息、通讯、报告文学、特写、评论等等。消息是用概括的叙述方式，比较简明扼要的文字，迅速及时地报道国内外新近发生的、有价值的、群众最关心的事实。

一、消息特点：

内容真实，事实准确。真实是消息的生命，是力量的所在。事实是它的本源，也是它令人信服的基础。真实，就是事实真实，所写的人物、时间、地点、事情发生发展的经过不能虚构。准确，就是每个事实，包括细节在内都准确无误。如果一条消息失真或有差误，不仅会减低其新闻价值，失信于民，而且还会损害党和人民的事业。

内容新鲜，有价值。新闻贵在新，而且有认识意义、启迪和指导意义。消息只有新，才能引起读者的注意，先睹为快。新，不仅要把新人物、新事件、新经验报道给读者。而且要选择有意义、有价值，给人以启迪，有指导性的事物。那种一味追求猎奇的“狗咬人不是新闻，人咬狗才是新闻”的观点，是我们所不取的。

要迅速及时，有时效性。迅速是消息的价值，消息报道速度迟缓便会降低消息的价值，“新闻”变成了“旧闻”。时效，就是速度要快，内容要新。对新人、新事、新情况、新问题，要敏锐地发现，尽快地了解，迅速及时地反映。

简明扼要，篇幅短小。简短是消息区别于其他文体的主要标志。所谓简短，就是“三言两语，记清事实，寥寥数笔，显出精神，概括而不流于抽象，简短而不陷于疏漏”，用笔要简洁利落，内容集中精炼。

二、消息的种类（一般把消息概括为四类）：

1.动态消息

动态消息是迅速而准确地报道新近发生的国际、国内重大事件、重要的活动和各项建设中最新出现的新情况、新动态、新成就、新问题的一种文体。它是报纸上使用最多的一类。

重大新闻的简讯都属于动态消息。重大新闻，指事件重大，一意义深远，报道时在报纸上占显著位置的消息。如《我国多种应用卫星齐头发》（光明日报） 1993年5月13日）。简讯内容第一，篇幅简短。如“国际要闻简报”、“学术动态”、“市场漫步”等。

2.典型消息

典型消息也叫经验消息，它是对一些具体部门、单位、行业的典型经验、成功做法集中报道的一种文体。这种消息是在介绍经验、做法之后，总结经验，揭示规律，以达到以点带面，推动工作的目的。如《一切依靠群众自己的创造——首钢十年改革的一条基本经验》（《人民**》）1988年12月26日）。

3.综合消息

综合消息是把发生在不同地点、不同单位、各具特色、性质相同的事实综合在一起，并体现一个主题的报道。它的特点是在综合、概括事实的基础上，进行分析，提出见解，揭示规律。如《滥砍树木南亚三国水灾仍频，亡羊补牢印北方帮助员植树》（《光明日报》1993年7月25日）。

4.述评消息

又称“记者述评”、“新闻述评”。是一种兼有消息与评论作用的新闻。它是在陈述事实的基础上，穿插评论或抒发感慨，从而分析说明所报道事实的本质和意义。它的特点是边叙边评，要求以国家的方针政策为依据，针对事实进行评说，要观点正确，评论得当。如《分清主流与支流，莫把“开头”当“过头”》（《辽宁日报》 1979年5月）。

三、消息的写法：

1.标题

消息的标题，分眉题（又称引题、肩题）、正题（又称主题、母题）和副题（又称辅题、子题）。出现在报刊上有如下几种情况：

（1）多行标题。多行标题，一般有三行，即中间一行是正题，是标题的核心，用来揭示主题或提示重要事实；正题上面一行是眉题，用来引出正题，说明事实，交代背景，烘托气氛，揭示含义；正题的下面一行是副标题，用来补充说明情况或说明正题或依据。如：

经贸部负责人发表谈话（眉题）

希望海峡两岸实现直接贸易（正题）

愿与台经贸主管部门接触协商解决双方贸易中问题（副题）

双行标题。

其一，出现正题和眉题。如：

真正幸福要靠自己劳动去创造（眉题）

杜芸芸将十万元遗产献国家（正题）

其二，出现正题和副题。如：

成都电讯局花钱“买”批评（正题）

在报上登“公告”欢迎群众对通讯服务工作进行监督（副题）

（2）单行标题。单行标题只有正题。如：

***接受《朝日新闻》社长采访

消息的标题，力求言简意明，平易亲切，准确新颖，富有吸引力。采用哪种标题，要酌情而定。

2.导语

消息的导语，就是消息的第一段或第一句话。它是由消息中最新鲜、最主要的事实或精辟的议论组成，以吸引读者。平常所说的消息的结构是“倒金字塔”式，原因就在于此。

导语常采用以下几种写法：

叙述式。简明扼要地写出主要事实、经验，或对全篇事实材料进行综合概括，揭示主要内容。如：“全国第一家由个体户与港商合资经营的企业——大连光彩实业（合资）有限公司，经国务院批准，1985年4月13日正式开业。”（《经济日报》1985年4月18日发的消息导语）

提问式。把消息中要解决的问题或要介绍的经验、做法以设问的形式提出，然后再用事实作答。如“亲爱的读者，你知道灯心绒可以做夏天穿的裙子吗？上海绒布厂新生产的许多灯芯绒中，就有这样新奇的品种”。（新华社1980年7月16日新闻稿）

描写式。对富有特色的事实或有意义的一个侧面，用简练的笔墨进行形象描绘，给读者以鲜明的印象。如“一盆盆翠绿欲滴的麦冬、松柏、万年青和盛开的鲜花装点在人民大会堂的大厅里，全国妇联今天下午在这里举行联欢会。中外妇女1500多人欢聚一堂。相互握手问好，亲切交谈，共同庆祝‘三八’妇女劳动节”。（新华社北京1988年3月8日电）

评论式。是对所报道的事实先作出评论性结论，然后再用具体事实来阐明。如“今天，新中国颁布的第一部专利法正式生效了。从此，脑力劳动成果被无偿占用的历史在我国宣告结束”。（新华社北京1985年4月1日电）

引用式。引用消息中人物深刻而富有意义的语言作为导语。如“女青年杜芸芸到上海司法机关，要求将继承的十余万元遗产捐献给国家，她说：‘我还年轻，应该靠自己的劳动来生活，我愿意将这笔钱来支援国家的四化建设’”。（《文汇报》1981年9月29日）

3.主体

主体是消息的主要部分。它承接导语，阐述导语所揭示的主题，或回答导语中提出的问题，对消息事实作具体的叙述与展开。写主体要注意如下几点：

主干突出。消息的主体是主干，典型材料要用在主干上。要去头绪，减枝蔓，与主题无关的要舍弃，次要材料要简略。

内容充实。回答导语中提出的问题，其内容必须具体、充实，这样才有说服力。导语提出什么问题，主体就要回答什么问题，这样才能紧扣中心，突出重点。

结构严谨，层次分明。要恰当地划分段落，有条不紊地展开叙述，安排层次有以下几种顺序：一是时间顺序，按事情的发生、发展、结束的先后顺序安排层次；二是逻辑顺序，就是根据事物的内在联系来安排层次；三是时间顺序和逻辑顺序相结合，这样写严密而有条理，活泼而不紊乱。

4.背景

背景是指事件发生的历史环境和原因，它说明事件发生的具体条件、性质和意义，是为充实内容，烘托和突出主题服务的背景既可在主体部分出现，也可在导语或结尾部分出现，位置不固定。

背景材料一般有三类：一是对比材料，即对事物进行前后、正反的比较对照，以突出事件的重要性；二是说明性材料，即介绍政治背景、地理位置、历史演变、生产面貌、物质条件等；三是诠释性材料，即人物生平的说明，专业术语的介绍，历史典故的解释等，以帮助读者理解消息的内容。

5.结语

结语是消息的最后一段或一句话。阐明消息所述事实的意义，使读者对消息的理解、感受加深，从中得到更多的启示。

消息的结尾方式有小结式、评论式、希望式等。有的消息，事实写完，文章就止住了，结尾就在事实之中。

二、通讯稿

1．通讯的概念

通讯，是运用叙述、描写、抒情、议论等多种手法，具体、生动、形象地反映新闻事件或典型人物的一种新闻报道形式。它是记叙文的一种，是报纸、广播电台、通讯社常用的文体。

2．通讯的特点

一般来说，通讯有四大特点：

（1）严格的真实性。

（2）报道的客观性。

（3）较强的时间性。

（4）描写的形象性。

3．通讯的种类

（1）按内容分，通讯一般分为人物通讯、事件通讯、概貌通讯、工作通讯。

（2）按形式分，通讯分为一般记事通讯、访问记（专访、人物专访）、小故事、集纳、巡礼、纪实、见闻、特写、速写、侧记、散记、采访札记。

4．通讯的写作

第一，主题要明确。有了明确的主题，取舍材料才有标准，起笔、过渡、高潮、结尾才有依据。

第二，材料要精当。按照主题思想的要求，去掂量材料、选取材料；把最能反映事物本质的、具有典型意义的和最有吸引力的材料写进去。

第三，写人离不开事，写事为了写人。写人物通讯固然要写人，就是写事件通讯、概貌通讯、工作通讯，也不能忘记写人。当然，写人离不开写事。离开事例、细节、情节去写人，势必写得空空洞洞。

第四，角度要新颖。写作方法要灵活多样，除叙述外，可以描写、议论，也可以穿插人物对话、自叙和作者的体会、感受，既可以用第三人称的报道形式，也可以写成第一人称的访问记、印象记或书信体、日记体等。通讯所报道的新闻事实，可以从各个不同的角度去观察，去反映，诸如正面、反面、侧面、鸟瞰、平视、仰望、远眺、近看、俯首、细察……角度不同，印象各异。若能精心选取最佳角度去写，往往能使稿件陡然增添新意，写得别具一格，引人入胜。

5．常见通讯简介与实例

（1）人物通讯

所谓人物通讯，就是以报道各条战线上的先进人物为主的通讯。它着重揭示先进人物的精神境界，通过写人物的先进事迹，反映出人物的先进思想，使之成为社会的共同财富。同时，也报道转变中的人物和某些有争议的人物。“金无足赤，人无完人”，在写作时切不可把先进人物写成从来没有过的大智大勇，十全十美，写人叙事力求言真意切，恰如其分。

（2）事件通讯

所谓事件通讯，就是报道典型的、有普遍教育作用的新闻事件。写事当然离不开事件有关的人，但它不像人物通讯那样着力刻划人，而是以事件为中心，在事件的总画面中，为了写好事来写人。它既可以反映现实生活中发生的重大的、振奋人心的典型事件和突出事件；也可以从某一新闻事件截取一个或若干个片断，进行细致详尽的描述，揭示事件的深刻含义；还可以是若干事件的综述。

（3）工作通讯

所谓工作通讯，就是反映贯彻执行党的路线、方针、政策中的成绩，总结实际工作中的经验和教训，或者探讨有争议的亟待解决的问题的报道。它是报纸上经常运用指导工作的重要报道形式。它的主要特点有四条：一是把介绍工作经验和分析问题作为主旨；二是凭借事实，深入分析；三是生动活泼，讲究文采；四是不拘一格，形式多样。随笔、散记、侧记、札记、记事均可。

〈实例〉

“卧龙”何以腾飞

——化工部第二胶片厂 成功之路探秘

本报记者 夏桂廉 通讯员 恭永梅“伏牛”出山，“卧龙”腾飞。70年代建在河南省伏牛山深处的化工部第二胶片厂，今天神奇般屹立在南阳市的卧龙岗下，成为我国印刷感光器材生产的基地、河南省利税百强企业。在社会主义市场经济的大潮中，他们越战越强的秘诀是什么？

企业要有一种精神

记者在这个厂采访时，干部职工介绍了他们如何适应市场需求调整产品结构：如何狠抓产品质量促销售；如何狠抓科技进步……但更令人振奋的是，职工们高昂的精神面貌和他们经常提到的企业精神：艰苦奋斗，团结进取。

70年代初期，二胶厂的建设者们开进了伏牛山。他们住的是简易房，吃的是红薯面窝头，在人迹罕至的深山，万名建设者忍着冬天的奇冷，冒着夏天的酷热，硬是在4年中建起了一座座现代化厂房。二胶厂的许多职工经历了那段日月，创业的艰难磨炼了他们，艰苦奋斗、努力进取的企业精神也像刀刻石雕般印在了这一代建设者的心中。

进入80年代，电影胶片市场趋于饱和。二胶厂的领导们审时度势，决定转产工业用印刷胶片。新的生产线怎样建起来，是完全靠国家贷款引进国外设备，还是主要靠自己的力量进行技术改造？二胶厂选择了后一条路。几年来，他们对关键设备拉幅机先后进行了4次大的改造，使其能生产0．175毫米厚的涤纶薄膜，填补了国内空白。对涂面机进行了多项改造，实现了微机控制、双机计量等，使生产的车速由18米／分提高到28米／分，控制精度由百分之一提高到千分之零点五。

对国外的先进设备二胶厂并不排斥，适于厂情的或技术改造中的关键设备也要买。他们分别从美英日引进了三条生产线和关键设备，这样技术改造的结果，产品质量上去了，生产成本降低了，同时还锻炼出一批技术过硬能打硬仗的队伍。

1991年，该厂被列为《三线企事业单位“八五”调整规划方案》之中，开始了由山沟到南阳的搬迁工作，除山区暂设分厂外，主要生产机构全部搬出。在搬迁中，该厂只用了6000万元，还比原计划的40天提前了5天。拉幅机搬迁后一次试车成功，工人们精细地拆装，忘我地工作，为国家节省了大量资金，被国务院三线办评为搬迁的典型。转入市场经济后，许多工厂的供销人员成了先富起来的人。然而二胶厂的供销公司仍然有一支不计名利、朴实能干的队伍。公司经理是个血气方刚的中年汉子，在二胶厂已工作20多年。他很为他的同事自豪。他说：“我们这80多人长年奔波在祖国各地，只要一说有任务，买张车票就走，出门在外吃住全不讲究，小旅店、小饭馆即可。当然，看到有的单位供销人员拿高奖金，花钱大手大脚，我们也有想法，但我们这支队伍艰苦奋斗的企业精神一直没有丢。”

在二胶厂，一线工人勤恳耐劳，他们很为自己的工厂自豪。迁入南阳后电源不足，对生产有影响，今年春节，工厂决定避开用电高峰照常上班，大家没有怨言，高高兴兴完成了任务。企业精神从何而来二胶厂的成功，与职工们的精神面貌有重要关系，他们的企业精神从何而来？二胶厂的多数职工都有一段在艰苦环境下创业的历史，他们对工厂有很深的感情，这是很重要的一条。但从干部职工的谈话中，他们十分信赖自己的企业领导，对他们充满信心，也是一条重要原因。

以“全国优秀化工企业领导人”李相权为带头人的领导班子，在工厂中深孚众望。李相权专业知识功底扎实，从企业基层干起，有丰富的实践经验，与二胶厂一起成长，又决定了他有较强的社会责任感和艰苦奋斗干大事业的气魄。

在二胶厂参观，厂房是新的，高水平的设备让行家们眼热，但厂领导的办公室则很普通，他们只是借用了厂科研楼的两层。为工人和科研人员创造最好的工作和生活条件，自己则决不讲排场。春节，工人们加班，李相权和其他领导大年初一的早晨也来到车间，和大家一起工作。

在从计划经济向市场经济的转化中，企业领导人正确的决策是十分重要的。李相权对行业状况、发展趋势、竞争对手的情况都了解甚深，因而有很强的市场驾驭能力。二胶厂的产品转向、技术改造、狠抓质量、开拓市场都渗透着他和领导班子的心血。一个能带领职工沿着正确的航向在市场经济的大潮中拼搏的厂长，自然会得到群众的信赖。当职工看到企业美好前景，个人生活不断得到改善时谁还会不努力工作呢？

（4）概貌通讯

概貌通讯又称风貌通讯。它是以反映社会生活、风土人情、自然风光和日新月异的建设成就为主的报道。尤其是改革、开放、搞活所带来的变化，又为这类通讯增加了新的内容。概貌通讯与事件通讯不同，它不是围绕一个人物或一个中心事件来写，也不要求写一件事发生、发展的完整过程，而是围绕主题集中各方面的风貌和特色。在表达方式上，往往运用点上具体事例来叙述和描写一个地区、一条战线、一个单位、一个点、一个方面的风貌变化，展现时代的步伐和人的思想境界的变化。一般采取“巡礼”、“纪行”、“散记”、“侧记”等形式，向读者介绍。

〈实例〉

“太旧精神”耀三晋

杜五安

山西，曾被唐代文学家柳宗元称作“表里山河”，它内凹外凸，四周被群山环抱，自古多以栈隘与域外相通。

“八五”期间，国家重点建设项目、全封闭、全立交的太旧高速公路的兴趣，不但揭开了山西公路建设乃至山西经济建设史上的崭新一页，同时，工程建设者们在实践中，也为世人创造了一笔宝贵的精神财富“太旧精神”。

新春佳节前夕，中共山西省委、山西省人民政府做出决定，在全省干部、群众当中，开展学习“太旧精神”活动。“自力更生、艰苦奋斗、不屈不挠、无私奉献”。中共山西省委总结的“太旧精神”，体现出改革开放的90年代山西人民开拓进取的精神风貌，反映了物质文明和精神文明建设的辉煌业绩。

知难而上太旧高速公路西起太原，东止晋冀交界处的旧关，全程144公里。路虽不算长，但沿线地貌变化大，地质情况复杂，80％的路段都蜿蜒在太行山的崇山峻岭之中，为施工增加了极大的难度。工期短，要求高，投资少，速度快，质量上必须创全国一流水平。

面对这样的条件，这样的要求，络绎不绝的外国投资者们虽屡经辗转、考察、概算，但最终都一个个地退缩了。他们啃不下这硬骨头，也不敢冒这天大的风险！怎么办？靠我们自己干！

山西省委、省政府下了这决心，全省人民下了这决心！省委、省政府明确提出“修建太旧高速公路，不仅是一项重要的经济任务，更是一项重大的政治任务！”

工程1993年5月动工。高速公路建设初期，遇到建设资金严重短缺的困难。面对这种情况，是坚定信心、迎难而上，还是优柔寡断、知难而退？在这重大抉择关头，胡富国同志带领省“五大班子”的领导赴太旧路现场办公，调查研究，统一了思想，坚定了自力更生、咬紧牙关、勒紧裤带、知难而进的决心。全省人民心系“太旧”，以不同的方式大力支持太旧路的建设，踊跃捐资捐物，在很短的时间里捐资达2．3亿元，缓解了资金困难。公路沿线群众识大体，顾大局，像革命战争年代支前一样支援太旧高速公路建设，他们拆新房、迁祖坟、砍果园、献良田，作出了巨大的牺牲和贡献。

顾全大局征地拆迁，常常是施工前的一大难题。但太旧路工程却是一个例外。在不到3个月的时间里，隶属于3地（市）10个乡（镇）的18个村庄的成千上万个拆迁户，便拆迁完毕。他们就像战争年代支援前线那样全力以赴地支援太旧高速公路建设。只要筑路需要，他们拆新房不犹豫，迁祖坟不忌讳，献良田不心痛，砍果树不留恋。他们说：“太旧高速公路是咱省的经济大命脉，小道理服从大道理，小复兴服从大复兴，舍小家为大家嘛！”太旧路工程共征地1．39万亩，拆迁房屋1058户，总面积10．8万平方米，砍掉果树12万株，迁坟4240座。拆迁户们谁也不现难色，谁也没有怨言，谁也不计得失，表现出了识大体、顾大局的崇高精神！无私奉献

太旧路工地，就像一座大熔炉，任何人，只要一投入这太旧路工地，其灵魂就会得到铸冶，其精神就会得到升华，其世界观、人生观和价值观就会得到深刻而巨大的变化与飞跃。讲政治、讲志气、讲拚搏、讲奉献，已经成为太旧人民心中的火炬和追求的目标。工地上，时时都有捷报频传，时时都有动人的事迹出现。施工项目负责人庞成，为了抢时间浇筑桥桩，竟冒着大雪在工地上坚守了三天两夜。高级工程师高德生除完成监理任务外，还分外为一项设计修改图纸，节约工程费用100余万元。

为了给太旧高速公路作奉献，长期病体的司机开起了砼灌车，新婚燕尔的夫妇把家安在工地的窝棚里，患病的操作手一边输液一边坚持施工，已经退休的老工程师重新走上了施工第一线。即使在病榻上即将告别人世之际，他还要给工程指挥部写信表述自己的心迹：建设好太旧高速公路是我的最大心愿，但是不能自始至终地参加太旧高速公路建设又是我一生中最大的遗憾！

在太旧路建设中，副总指挥刘俊谦被省委树为全省领导干部的楷模，8位党员受到省委组织部的表彰，8支突击队被评为“三项建设”优秀青年突击队，100名优秀干部、工人被火速吸收加入中国共产党，许多奋战在第一线的干部被提拔。

“太旧精神”正在三晋大地发扬光大。

（5）小故事（小通讯）

反映现实生活中的一个片断，通常表现一人一事，线索单一而有故事情节，短小精悍，生动活泼。不能写得人物繁多，场面太大，枝节横生，否则就失去“小”的特点。

〈实例〉

温馨留蓝天 爱心在人间

——陈太菊家人向西南航空公司致谢

陈 波

3月22日下午，因丢失一年血汗钱受到西航乘务员帮助的打工妹陈太菊的两位姐姐陈太凤和陈太翠，从广汉市专程赶到成都双流机场，亲手将书有“温馨留蓝天，爱心在人间”的一面锦旗赠送给西航总经理王如岑，以表达全家人的诚挚谢意。

去年12月30日，在广东中山一童装厂打工一年的陈太菊从珠海机场乘机到成都，过安检时忙乱中不填将12900元血汗钱丢失了。当她痛不欲生之际，西航乘务员带头为其捐款，从而感动了全机123位旅客纷纷为其解囊相助。当晚23点过，同机旅客古和强、张其君夫妇在回家整理行李时意外发现了陈太菊的钱盒，于是连夜驱车冒着浓雾赶到双流机场，将钱盒交给西航乘务部值班领导。元月一日，西航派人到广汉寻找到陈太菊后及时归还了钱盒。陈太菊得到失款后，感动不已，当场将在飞机上所得的6000元捐款委托给西航的同志，请转捐给“希望工程”。四川省青少年发展基金会接到这笔捐款后，打破常规，速将该款划拨给朱德同志的故乡仪陇县，从而使15名失学儿童得助重返校园。

“这一串串动人的真实故事，就像是导演编的，简直令人不敢相信，然而它却实实在在发生在我们自家人的身上”。陈太凤噙着泪水，满怀感慨地握着王如岑的手说：“你们培养了这么好的乘务员，我们全家人永远都会感激”。

作为全国人大代表，3天前才从北京开完人大会议归来的王如岑托着锦旗说：“推进社会主义精神文明建设，是我们共同的大事，刚召开的全国人大会议把它放在了很重要的位置。陈太菊把款转捐给‘希望工程’的举动，做得很好，它对我们继续抓好安全服务工作，也是一种激励。”

据悉，陈太菊已于3月13日重返广东求职打工去了

三、新闻报道格式种类

新闻稿的格式有很多，而且都是在新闻事业的发展过程中不断摸索出来的，不同时期格式也不一样。

一般情况可以分为以下四类：倒金字塔式、正金字塔式、折衷式、平铺直叙式等写作型式。

倒金字塔式：此种写作方式是目前媒体常用的写作方式，亦即将新闻中最重要的消息写在第一段，或是以「新闻提要」的方式呈现在新闻的最前端，此种方式有助于媒体编辑下标题，亦有助于阅听人快速清楚新闻重点。源于美国新闻界迎合了受众的接受心理，于是得到了普遍的模仿，现在中国的很多都市报所使用的都是这种格式。

新闻报道基本格式（除了标题）是：先在导语中写一个新闻事件中最有新闻价值的部分（新闻价值通俗来讲就是新闻中那些最突出，最新奇，最能吸引受众的部分），比如一场球赛刚刚结束，观众/读者/听众们最想知道的是结果，或者是某个球员的发挥情况，就先从这里写起。

其次，在报道主体中按照事件各个要素的重要程度，依次递减写下来，最后面的是最不重要的。同时注意，一个段落只写一个事件要素，不能一段到底。

因为这种格式不是符合事件发展的基本时间顺序，所以在写作时要尽量从受众的角度出发来构思，按受众对事件重要程度的认识来安排事件要素。因而需要长期的实践经验和宏观的对于受众的认识。

正金字塔式：此种写作方式刚好与「倒金字塔式」相反，是以时间发生顺序作为行文结构的写作方式，依序分别是引言、过程、结果，采渐入高潮的方式，将新闻重点摆在文末，一般多用于特写。

折衷式：又叫新华体。此种写作方式为倒金字塔式、正金字塔式的折衷，亦即，新闻中最重要的讯息仍然在导言中呈现，接著，则依新闻的时间性或逻辑性叙述。我们国家的新闻报道一般是遵循时间顺序，但是这种“讲故事”的写法已经不适合受众的阅读习惯（一般人没有时间听你讲长篇大论），所以“新华体”在吸收中外新闻报道之长的情况下诞生了。

新闻报道基本格式（除了标题）是：先把事件中最重要的部分在导语中简明地体现出来。

其次，在第二段进一步具体阐述导语中的这个重要部分，形成支持，不至于使受众在接受时形成心理落差。因而，第二段实际上是一个过渡性段落。

再次，按照事件发展的时间顺序把“故事”讲下来。

平铺直叙式：顾名思义，此种写作方式就是注重行文的起、承、转、合，力求文字的流畅精準。对教师组织而言，由于时常必须发表对特定教育政策、事件的看法，此种写作方式反而适合组织在发表声明时使用。

最近很流行一种叫做“华尔街日报体”（DEE）的格式，这个格式的主要特点就是在文首特写新闻事件中的一个“镜头”，一般是以一个人的言行为主，从而引出整个的新闻报道，比如央行关于房贷要加息的消息，新闻报道就可以从一个普通市民的住房贷款行为写起，比较能贴近实际，贴近群众，贴近生活。

标题对于新闻报道很重要，甚至都出现了一个标题就是一条报道的情况。因而，标题要提炼新闻事件的“精华”，把最吸引人的地方体现出来，同时要简洁。如果需要可以在主标题前加上引题，在其后加上副题。如果要写作比较长篇的调查性报道、深度报道，就要注意在文中按照事件叙述明晰的需要，适当加一些小的标题，以概括一个部分的内容，便于受众阅读（针对印刷媒体而言）。

除上述之外，要注意一些细节，比如文首要加电头，像“本报讯”；文中要尽量使用直接引语，尽量少地进行记者的观点表达；行文要流畅，不要艰涩等等。

四、专题新闻

所谓专题新闻，它既不是对一个固定人物的描述，也不是对一个独立事件的阐述，而是围绕一个主题，综合一个较大范围（一个地区、一条战线、一个单位），在一个时期内发生的事情，点面结合，反映全局。这种形式适用宣传各条战线的形势，某项工作的成就或者反映群众运动的声势、规模、特点、趋向。它纵览全局，有事实有分析，具有鲜明主题和指导性。

专题新闻在电视上占有很重要的位置。它在写作上并没有什么固定的模式，主要是由报道的内容和宣传形势的需要来决定。那么，怎样才能写好专题新闻呢？

一、要善于分析材料。由于综合性新闻不受某一具体事物发展的局限，可以在一个比较广阔的天地里，广泛地选用材料，游刃空间较大，所以，对大量的材料，作者一定要善于分析。如何进行分析？一是把杂乱纷繁的素材系统化。综合消息涉及的范围广、方面多，材料也就非常丰富。面对这大量的材料，作者一定要善于分析。恩格斯说过：“没有分析就没有综合。”我们写综合消息，要把材料分类排队，然后加以分析，弄清楚这材料哪些是主要的，哪些是次要的；哪些是说明本质的，哪些是只说明现象的；哪些是新鲜的，哪些是陈旧的。要分析出这些材料之间有些什么联系，能够说明一些什么问题，然后进行归纳、综合，提炼出大观点、小观点，使繁多的素材系统化。二是把报道的事实与全局联系起来。在分析材料的时候，把这些材料与贯彻党的路线、方针、政策联系起来，既站在全局的高度来报道局部，又从报道局部反映全局。这里讲的局部，对综合消息所报道的范围来说，又是一个“全局”。比如说，我们综合一个我县的农田水利建设情况，对这个县来说，是报道它的全局，但对全地区、全省来说，它又是一个局部。报道时不能只看到本县的实际情况，还要考虑到这些实际情况在更大范围内的地位与作用，这样才能知道选择什么，突出什么，使报道具有针对性。也就避免了就农田水利建设谈农田水利建设，而要联系整个形势、任务等来报道。三是把好的和一般的各类事实进行归纳比较。在分析综合材料时，要突出综合性。专题新闻既不是对一人一事的报道，也不是面对庞杂的材料有闻必录，统统写进消息中，而是把不同时间、不同地点、不同事件，归纳综合成一个有机体。当然，这种综合，必须是围绕分析一个问题或解决一个问题，对众多的单位或众多的事实进行系统的分析研究，把好的和一般的各类事实进行归纳比较，实事求是地选材用材，使人们对事物的发展有一个正确的理解，使之具有启发、提高受众认知作用。

二、要善于精选典型事例。专题新闻对事实的选择，应力求有个性，有代表性,有视角冲击力。只有这样，才能有说服力，有可看性,有指导性。

一是在选择事实的时候，既要着重客观实际，又要对实际工作的艰苦性、复杂性有一个全面的了解；既要抓住新问题，又要防止片面性；既要顾及事实的典型意义，又要考虑社会的客观效果。做到这些，就要认真做好采访工作，选择最有说服力的典型事例。

二是通过采访提炼出新颖的主题。专题新闻对事实的选择不同于事件性新闻，专题新闻时间跨度较长，空间跨度也较大，加上报道范围广、容易给人以陈旧之感。这就要在提炼新颖的主题上下功夫，巧妙地衔接时间与空间的跨度，力求以新的事实和数字为由头，使背景介绍、事实的综合能有一个最近距离的新闻依据，起到以新带旧的作用，使人有亲近感和新鲜感。当然不是把旧材料贴上新标签，换上新提法，对准新口径。这就是说既要选好典型材料，又要选好主题，才能用线索把珍珠串起来。

三是写作专题新闻时，一定要考虑到如何把它写,拍得耐看,耐听一点，吸引人一点。由于专题新闻材料繁多，跨度较大，加之要竭力为表述比较抽象的观点服务，所以，很容易写得枯燥乏味。要对所写的事物有个透彻的了解，有独特的见解和认识，这是写好专题新闻的基础。还要尽力把文字写得生动活泼一点，以求把抽象的观点在生动形象的文字表述下，增强其可看性,使受众过目不忘。

三、要善于概括材料。综合消息反映的内容比较丰富，范围比较广阔，因此材料就特别多，只有抓住事物的本质和特点，才能对事物作全面、高度的概括。概括事实要注意两点：

一是要准确。即准确地反映事物的全貌、特点、意义，不能轻率、浮夸，以点代面。语言要贴切，分寸要得当。还要中肯，不含含糊糊。

二是要形象。有的事实一经作者概括，就变得干干巴巴，没有什么感染力。要给人以具体、实在的感觉，有时可以以小见大，由近及远地反映全局，其时还可以用见闻式、感受式的写法来介绍全局的情况。

三是要全面。专题新闻最容易自觉不自觉地出现思想方法上片面性、绝对化，从而影响新闻的真实性。这是由于我们对材料的理解角度和认识水平不同，对同一事物可能得出不同的结论。也许我们主观上并不想说假话、说绝话，甚至选取的某一具体材料也确是客观的真实的，但由于思想方法上缺乏辩证法，所以说好一切都好，说坏一切都坏，结果导致以偏概全。因此，在写稿时，既要以事实概括，又不能以现象代替本质。说好的不可写成“足赤”、“完人”，坏的也不能概括为一无是处。我们看到一些通讯员写的综合新闻，常见的毛病是摆出一副指导的面孔，观点加例子，贴标签戴帽子，使读者不愿看，这种情况应当尽力避免。要对所写的事物有个透彻的了解，有独特的见解和认识，这是写好综合新闻的基础。还要尽力把文字写得生动活泼一点，以求把抽象的观点在生动形象的文字表述下，增强其可读性。

五、新闻专题

新闻专题是指与某一新闻事件或新闻话题相关的新闻集合，常用于网络或者电视媒体。

在网络媒体中，新闻专题通过网络连接来实现；

在电视媒体中，新闻专题一般表现为深度报道，不过在目前的实际新闻操作中，新闻专题实际上成为广告的代名词，以深度报道名义所做的广告。

新闻专题新闻专题具有新闻的实效性，又具有专题的详实和深度，故此称之为新闻专题。一般用来报道突发或者具有重要社会影响的新闻事件，通过深入挖掘，全方位的解读事件。往往会跟踪报道，具有延续性。

六、专题报道

专题报道是对现实生活中某些具有典型意义和较高新闻价值的新闻人物、事件、问题、社会现象等，进行记录调查分析解释评述等，深入系统而又生动反映其发生发展和结果及影响的全过程，揭示主题的深刻意义。这种报道类似报纸广播的通讯这一新闻体裁，是电视新闻深度报道的主要形式之一。

话题作文它不同于以前的半命题、命题及材料作文，是一种崭新的、具有很强生命力的作文样式，下面是关于话题作文的写作基础，一起来学习下吧：

一、从话题的另一意义的角度切入

许多话题都具有多义性，如果只盯住其本义或其常用义，则构思很难出新，写出的作文虽不跑题但也显得一般化，撇开其本义或常见义，转而从其引申义或其比喻义的角度切入，构思就会有新意。如以“水”为话题，如果从自然界之“水”这个意思层面上去理解，把“水”当成名词，则构思很难出新；若把“水”理解成形容词，如“这个人很水”，在这个层面上理解“水”的意思，则其拟题、行文都会很有新意。

二、从缩小话题内涵的角度切入

有许多话题的意思非常宽泛，如果给话题加上一些限制语或修饰语，便缩小了话题的内涵，有利于出新出奇。如以“第一次”为话题，缩小内涵才有利于构思选材，但是添加的限制语或修饰语，必须避开大家都在写的这一误区，要从自己的材料库中许多不为人知的人、事、景、物着手。

三、从话题的逆向思维角度切入

围绕话题，自我多方设问，多方求答，用以开启思维，立意选材，这是众多学生的一般作法。但是，大多数人只知道沿着话题正向发问，很少有逆向发问的。如以“尊重”为话题，可以提出“何为尊重”、“谁尊重谁”、“为什么要尊重”、“谁可做尊重或被他人尊重的典范”等问题，这些都是从正面发问，没能跳出常规思维的圈子；如果从“逆向”角度思考发问，“为什么谁不尊重谁”、“不尊重他人好不好，为什么”、“不尊重的事例或现象有哪些”、“怎样消除不尊重现象”等，这般的提问思考，就使文章的构思、选材步入了新境。

四、从话题的另一时空的角度切入

围绕话题，写自己经历的事，写自己身边的事，从家庭、社会、学校这几个范围立意选材，也没什么不好，这都是从话题的“现实角度”构思的，如果能从话题的“过去”或“未来”的角度构思，只要联想、想象或幻想的人、事、景、物合乎情理，不管写的是话题的“过去”还是“未来”，只要能含蓄、曲折地反映话题的“现实时空”，便能写出颇具新意的作文来。如以“初三生活”为话题，大多数人可能都会写自己或同龄人的初三生活，但是如果从过去或未来的角度出发，比如写爷爷、奶奶的初三生活或几十年以后自己子孙的初三生活，只要合乎情理，那都是非常有新意的作文。

[关于话题作文的写作基础

诗词，是指以古体诗、近体诗和格律词为代表的中国汉族传统诗歌。亦是汉字文化圈的特色之一。小编收集了诗词写作的基础知识，欢迎阅读。

【含义】

押韵，又作压韵，是指在韵文的创作中，把相同韵部的字放在规定的位置上。诗词歌赋句末(偶亦在句中)用同一韵母的字，以使声韵和谐。一般用于偶句句尾。也称韵脚。在某些句子的最后一个字，都使用韵母相同或相近的字，使朗诵或咏唱时，产生铿锵和谐感。

所谓韵部，就是将相同韵母的字归纳到一类，这种类别即为韵部。同一韵部内的字都为同韵字。

任何诗歌都要求押韵，古今中外概莫能外，所不同者，对于押韵的限制多与少、严与宽的不同而已。这也是诗歌同其它文学体裁的最大分别。比较常用的是《108部平水韵》，详见前篇“浅谈古诗词韵律”。

押韵是增强诗歌音乐性的重要手段，近体诗为了使声调和谐、容易记忆，对于押韵十分讲究。古人通常使用官方颁布的专门指导押韵的书，如《唐韵》、《广韵》、《礼部韵略》、《佩文诗韵》、《诗韵集成》、《诗韵合壁》等，以南宋王文郁撰的《新刊韵略》最为流行，刘渊先生后来编著了一本《壬子新刊礼部韵》，即现在的《平水韵》。

韵脚是韵文(诗、词、歌、赋等)句末押韵的字。一篇(首)韵文的一些(或全部)句子的最后一个字，采用韵腹和韵尾相同的字，这就叫做押韵。因为押韵的字一般都放在一句的最后，故称“韵脚”。引这些字的韵母要相似或相同。

韵又叫做韵母。韵母分为韵首、韵腹、韵尾三部分。一般只要韵尾相同，韵腹相同或者相近即可，而对于韵首则不做考虑。律诗里的韵和现代普通话里以及新华字典里的韵不尽相同，有些字，看着读音相同，韵母也一样，但却不属于同一个韵部;而有些字，看着读音有差异。所以，写诗的时候，应该先掌握一些简单的声韵知识。

韵是诗词格律的基本要素之一。从《诗经》到后代的诗词，差不多没有不押韵的。民歌也没有不押韵的。在北方戏曲中，韵又叫辙，押韵叫合辙。一首诗有没有韵，是一般人都觉察得出来的。至于要说明甚么是韵，那却不太简单。但今天的汉语拼音字母，对于韵的概念还是容易说明的。

诗词中所谓韵，大致等于汉语拼音中所谓韵母。大家知道，一个汉字用拼音字母拼起来，一般都有声母，有韵母。例如"公"字拼成gōng，其中g是声母，ōng是韵母。声母总是在前面的，韵母总是在后面的。同韵的字大致都可以用来押韵。

举个例子：

《书湖阴先生壁》

(宋)王安石

茅檐常扫净无苔，

花木成蹊手自栽。

一水护田将绿绕，

两山排闼送青来。

这里"苔"、"栽"和"来"押韵，因为它们的韵母都是ai。"绕"字不押韵，因为"绕"字拼起来是rào，它的韵母是ao，跟"苔"、"栽"、"来"不是同韵字。依照诗律，像这样的四句诗，第三句是不押韵的。

在拼音中，a、e、o的前面可能还有i，u、ü，如ia，ua，uai，iao，ian，uan，üan，iang，uang，ie，üe，iong，ueng等，这种i，u，ü叫做韵头，不同韵头的字也算是同韵字，也可以押韵。

例如：

《四时田园杂兴》

(宋)范成大

昼出耘田夜绩麻，

村庄儿女各当家。

童孙未解供耕织，

也傍桑阴学种瓜。

诗中的"麻"、"家"、"瓜"的韵母是，韵母虽不完全相同，但它们是同韵字，押起韵来是同样谐和的。

押韵的目的是为了声韵的谐和。同类的乐音在同一位置上的重复，这就构成了声音回环的美。但是，为甚么当我们读古人的诗的时候，常常觉得它们的韵并不十分谐和，甚至很不谐和呢?这是因为时代不同的缘故。语言发展了，语音起了变化，我们拿现代的语音去读它们，自然不能完全适合了。

例如：

《山行》

(唐)杜牧

远上寒山石径斜，

白云深处有人家。

停车坐爱枫林晚，

霜叶红于二月花。

xié和jiā，huā不是同韵字，但是，唐代"斜"字读siá(s读浊音)，和上海"斜"字的读音一样。因此，在当时是谐和的。

又如：

《江南曲》

(唐)李益

嫁得瞿塘贾，

朝朝误妾期。

早知潮有信，

嫁与弄潮儿。

在这首诗里，"期"和"儿"是押韵的;按今天普通话去读，qī和ér就不能算押韵了。如果按照上海的白话音念"儿"字，念像ní音(这个音正是接近古音的)。今天我们当然不可能(也不必要)按照古音去读古人的诗;不过我们应该明白这个道理。

古人押韵是依照韵书的。古人所谓"官韵"，就是朝廷颁布的韵书。这种韵书，在唐代，和口语还是基本上一致是;依照韵书押韵，也是比较合理的。宋代以后，语音变化较大，诗人们仍旧依照韵书来押韵，那就变为不合理的了。今天我们如果写旧诗，自然不一定要依照韵书来押韵。不过，当我们读古人的诗的时候。却又应该知道古人的诗韵。

通常讲的押韵，人们比较熟悉。新诗、戏曲、快板、顺口溜，都讲押韵。在这几种文体中，按照汉语拼音，一般韵母相同的字就可以用来押韵。

然而，格律诗的用韵，与此不同。格律诗必须按照诗韵来写，就是要按照韵书中分列的韵目，来辨别平仄和选择押韵的字。一首诗的所有韵脚，必须从同一个韵目中选字来押韵。如李白的《敬亭山》，用的“闲”和“山”这两个韵脚，就同属于“删”这个韵目。

一首诗中，如果有一个韵脚用了别的韵目的字，就叫做“出韵”。在科举中，出韵的诗算不合格。比如按照现代普通话，“闲”和‘先”当然是可以押韵的，但按照诗韵则不可以，因为这两个字分属于两个不同的韵目。

Most of us look away when we pass strangers. It is the expectional person who stops to help the woman maneuvering her kids and groceries up the staircase. We rarely give up in line or on the subway or bus. Locked into our automobiles, we prefer gridlock to giving way.

当我们与陌生人擦肩而过时，多数人往往把目光移开。要是有人停下来帮妇女哄她的小孩和帮她把食品搬上楼梯，反而会被人看成另类。无论是排队还是乘地铁或公共汽车，我们很少让位于他人。坐在自己的汽车里，我们宁愿堵塞交通也不愿给人让路。

These daily encounters, when they are angry or alien, diminish our lives. When they are pleasant, we feel buoyed. Yet when we sit at home and make resolutions, we think about what we can accomplish in private spaces：home, work. Too many have given up the belief that they control the shared, the public world.

这些日常接触，要是气冲冲的或是使人反感的，那便会减少我们生活的乐趣，要是它们令人愉快，那便会使我们精神振奋。然而，当我们坐在家里做出各种决定的时候，我们考虑的仅是在个人天地--家庭和工作里可以实现的目标。太多的人已经放弃了他们也管理着共享的、公共的世界这一信念。

As individuals we can change the contour of a day, the mood of a moment, the way people feel. The demolition and reconstruction of public life is the result of personal decisions made every day：the decision to give up a seat on the bus;the decision to be patient or pleasant against all odds;the decision to let that jerk take a left-hand turn from a right-hand lane without rolling down the window and calling him a jerk.

作为众人的一员，我们可以改变一天的面貌，一时的情绪，以及人们对某件事的感觉。公共生活的毁坏和重建是人们每日所做的种种个人决定的综合结果。这些决定包括：公共汽车上让座，面对逆境而能容忍或具有乐观精神;让那个笨蛋从右车道往左拐而不摇下车窗骂他蠢货。

Its the resolution to be a civil, social creature. This may be a peak period for the battle against the spread of a waistline and creeping cholesterol. But it is also within our will power to fight the spread of urban rudeness and creeping hostility. Civility doesnt stop nuclear holocaust and doesnt put a roof over the head of the homeless. But it makes a difference in the shape of a community, as surely as lifting weights can make a difference in the shape of a human torso.

这是做一个文明的、社会的人的决定。今天也许是人们为减少腰围和降低胆固醇而斗争的高峰期。然而，反对城市野蛮行为和人际敌对态度的蔓延，也是我们只要愿做就能做到的事。有礼貌不能制止核战争，也不能为无家可归者提供栖身之所，但它的确能改变一个社会群体的面貌，犹如举重定能改变一个人的体形一样。

1、开头部分

How nice to hear from you again. Let me tell you something about the activity. I’m glad to have received your letter of Apr. 9th. I’m pleased to hear that you’re coming to China for a visit. I’m writing to thank you for your help during my stay in America.

2、结尾部分

With best wishes. I’m looking forward to your reply. I’d appreciate it if you could reply earlier.

一、构思、准备不充分，匆忙下笔

任何一篇作文出题都是有它独特的道理的，所以提前审题和构思就显得必不可少了。很多孩子目前存在一个情况，想到哪写到哪，有记流水帐的习惯;这也造成了作文杂乱无章，毫无条理，同时容易出现写错单词和用错句型的情况。

针对这种情况可以从以下几个方面予以解决：

1、认真审题，审题的重点放在写作体裁、格式、字数方面，确保第一遍审题就能保证得到基本分。

2、确定文体和时态，因为不同的文体要求的写作格式也是不同的。

3、列提纲，打草稿，然后修改。这样可以保证错误降低至最少或者没有错误，同时也能保持卷面整洁。

二、中心重点不突出，切题不准确

英语写作不是语文散文(形散神不散)，写英语作文，尤其是在中考大压力下短时内写出高分作文一定要注意这一点。造成这种情况的主要原因是动笔前并没有认真审题和思考，对出题者希望得到的预期尚未揣摩透彻，这也就造成了一些同学虽然语言功底非常不错，但是最终的结果还是没有拿到一个自己预期的心理分数，最大的问题就出在切题不准确或者不够突出中心上了。

三、忽视文化差异

我们要时刻牢记一点，中英文表达方式有很大的差异，所以体现在作文表达上也常常会出现生硬的中国式作文表达，降低了我们的作文质量。所以注重中英语言差异，并努力找到两者之间的表达方式上的共通点，并且有意识的运用就能避免类似的问题。

四、忽视细节，无谓失分

很多孩子在写作文时常常感觉"下笔如有神"，但最终结果出来后大惑不解。这方面的问题主要体现在忽视标点、书写、段落安排、大小写的问题，所以只要更加注重细节，这些无谓失分就可以解决。

大多数中国考生的写作过程不是写作过程，而是翻译过程. Therefore, the ABC approach to improve the writing ability for IELTS candidates would be the application of the KISSable principle.

Keep It Short and Simple.

Please remember, in any language available now, there are basically two types of information involved in the communication process. Namely:

Action

State

Action is actualised by verbs, while State is shown by nouns, adjs or prepositional phrases.

It is strongly recommended that beginners of English writing start their practice by using this KISSable approach. Please heed the following examples:

科技改变了人们的日常生活。

食品安全问题始终是一个负责任的政府应该时刻关心的问题。

由于大多数雅思考生的汉语思维和汉语的语言能力已经达到了成人的水平，在翻译写作过程中出现了现有的英文水平对付不了比较复杂的汉语思维所产生的中文信息，从而导致有想法没办法，有思路没门路的尴尬情况。所以刚刚开始练习的考生可以把自己想法中的主要信息挑出来，分成是动作还是状态两种类型，使用简单的主+谓+结构;或者主+系动词+表语的模式来练习写作。 比如上文所提的例子：

Science and technology have altered our daily life.

写人的作文，就是以人物描写为主的文章，人物可以是一个人，也可以是群体。以下是小编今天给大家整理的人物作文的写作基础，欢迎大家查看。

写人文章不同于一般的记事文章，记事文侧重于写一件具体的事，落脚于事情发生的详细过程，人物不是主要的描写内容;写人的文章则着眼于描写人物的言行举止、心理动态等，人物是主要描写的对象，事是为突出人物的性格特点、思想品质服务的。

小学生怎样写好写人作文?以写人为主的记叙文主要是通过对人物外貌、语言、动作、心理活动的描写和典型事例的叙述来反映人物的思想、性格、品质、作风等特点。要写好写人为主的记叙文，应当从以下几方面入手：

(1)一、写好人物的形象。

人物的形象，一般指人物的外貌、语言、动作、心理活动等。人物的外貌，就是人物的外形特征，包括容貌、衣着、姿态、神情等等。外貌描写首先必须从文章中心思想的需要出发，要求抓住人物的本质特征，有选择、有重点地描写。人物的语言包括人物的独白，对话，交谈以及语气。“言为心声”。人物的语言是人物内心世界的直接表现。因此成功的语言描写能恰当地表现人物的身份、年龄、思想、品质、作风和个性特点。描写人物语言时，要注意符合人物的身份，表现人物的思想感情，反映人物相互间的关系。描写人物的动作时，不仅要写出人物“做什么”，还要写出“怎么做”。心理活动是无声的语言，是直接表现人物精神面貌，思想活动的手段。描写人物的心理活动时，要注意把心理活动产生的原因叙述清楚，还要注意与外貌、动作、语言描写结合起来。外貌、语言、动作、心理活动写好了，人物的形象就突出、鲜明了。

详细分解：

a、语言描写：在记叙文写作中，进行人物语言的描写是不可缺少的。进行人物语言的描写，不是随心所欲的，想怎样写就怎样写，而应该像鲁迅先生指出的那样：“人物语言的描写，能使读者由说话看出人来。”这就是说从人物语言的描写中看出人物的鲜明特点。那么，怎样才能达到这种境界呢?

一、人物语言的描写要符合人物的年龄、经历、身份、文化教养等特点。

二、人物语言的描写，力求反映人物的特征。成功的对话描写，不仅要符合人物的身份、年龄、职业等特点，而且也要能反映出人物的思想感情，表现人物的性格特征。

三、人物语言要力求简洁，避免有话必录和拖泥带水的现象。

四、具有鲜明个性的人物语言描写，并不是垂手可得，而要通过艰辛的努力才能获得。同学们为自己笔下的人物设计语言，更应该如此。

b、心理描写：是对人物内心活动的描写。深入描写人物的内心活动，是展示人物形象的重要手段。事出有因。任何心理活动的引起是有原因的，把心理活动的起因写清楚，对于展示人物形象是必不可少的。通过心理描写来展示人物形象，一定要把心理活动的过程展现出来。不然，人物的形象无论如何都会显得苍白无力。

心理活动的展现和其它事物的发展一样，都是有层次的。我们把人物心理活动的层次逐渐写出来，人物形象的展示也会越来越具体。写心理活动时，有一点要特别注意：用第一人称写人时，可以写“我”的心理活动，但不能写别人的心理活动。因为别人心里是怎样想的，“我”是无法知道的呀!

在现实生活中，不同人物之间的性格特征，或同一人物在不同环境下内在性格的变化，常常处在不协调的矛盾状态之中。为了显示人物性格的差异，写作文就必须通过对比加以表现，将他们面对相同的事物作出不同的反应抖落出来，从而突出人物的形象。

c、外貌描写：描写人物的外貌就是指对人物的容貌、身材、衣着和表情的描写，叫做外貌描写。我们有的同学一写到以记人为主的作文时，往往是作这样的描写：高高的个子，大大的眼睛，目光炯炯有神……好像天下的人都是一个模样。其实，世界上的人有千千万万，没有完全相同的外貌。关键的问题是没有根据表达的需要，去描写人物的外貌。

怎样根据表达的需要去描写人物的外貌呢?

第一、根据表达的需要，描写人物的外在特征。每个人物都有他(她)自己的特有外貌，总是在一定的程序上表现出内在状态。由于人们的出身、经历、素养、社会环境的影响，同时自己鲜明的个性，这些在他(她)的表情、姿态、服饰等方面都能流露出来。

第二、根据表达的需要，有重点地描写外貌。

有的同学他们不分主次，不根据中心思想的需要，面面俱到地进行描写。“眉毛胡子一把抓。”可是效果呢?罗里罗嗦，让人看半天也不会知道特征在哪里。

第三、根据表达的需要，安排好外貌描写的顺序。对于一个人的外貌，作者往往是从多方面进行的。这些方方面面，哪些先写，哪些后写，应该遵循一定的顺序。但是，有时为了表达的需要，或者观察角度的变化，外貌描写的顺序也会有变化。

总之，外貌描写要有利于文章的中心思想的表达，有利于人物内心世界的展示，只有这样，才可以说文章的外貌描写是成功的。

二、抓住人物的特点。

每个人都有自己的特点，这个特点可以从人物的年龄、外貌、语言、动作、兴趣、个性、生活习惯等诸方面去考虑。一个人的特点是多方面的，作文时，我们应根据中心思想有所选择地写。

三、选用典型事例。

人与事是分不开的。一个人做的事很多，在作文时我们应选择那些最能表现人物思想、性格和文章中心思想的典型事件。

四、运用细节描写。

细节描写就是对能充分表现文章中心思想的人物外貌，语言、动作、表情等细小环节作具体、细致的描写。

小学阶段以写人为主的记叙文，一般分为三种类型;写一个人、写两个人、写几个人。其中应以写一个人为主。

一、写一个人。

记一个人的写人记叙文，大致有以下三种情况：

(一)通过写一件事写一个人。有的文章写人只写了一件事，写这一类的作文要注意以下几点：

1、要选择有代表性的生动事例画写。反映一个人的精神面貌的事例是很多的，通过一件事写人就要选取最有代表性的生动事例来写。

2、要写出事情的发展过程，使人物的形象逐步完整。

3、要把事情写具体。用一个典型事例记叙一个人，应该把这一事例写具体，这样人物形象才能丰满。

4、为了使读者对人物了解得更全面，使重点记叙的这件事有充分的依据和坚实的思想基础，使人物的形象更加丰富，文章的开头可以对人物作简要的介绍。

(二)通过几件事写一个人。

我们在生活中会接触到各种各样的人，有时使用一件事来反映一个人就显得比较单簿，不足以充分反映人物的特点及其品质，因此，必须用两三件事才可能说的明白，再现得充分。

通过几件事写一个人，要注意以下几点：

1、几件事不能相互矛盾，，人物的性格在几件事中要和谐、统一。

2、概括交代和具体描写相结合。在一篇简短的作文中要用几件事写一个人，不可能将每一件事详细叙述，因此一般可以交代和具体描写相结合的方法。即先概括交代一些事例，再具体记叙一两件事。

3、通过对比的方法写一个人。

通过对比方法写一个人，一般有三种：第一种是同一个人前后相比，说明这个人变化;第二种是对一个人的认识前后相比，说明这个人的品质;第三种是一个人同另一个人比，突出歌颂其中一个人。

通过对比描写来突出人物形象，要注意几点：

运用对比描写，不应该勉强凑合，主要看作文的材料是否适合采用对比的写法。如果材料本身需要用对比的写法，那么作者才可以通过对比来写人，完成自己的写作意图。如果材料的本身不适合采用对比的手段，那么也不要人为的牵强附会，为对比而对比。两个人进行对比，不能割裂开来先写一个，后写一个，互不相干，而是围绕中心事件叙述，刻画两个人不同的思想性格。写人，如果从一个侧面去描写，人物形象往往单薄。如果从多个侧面去描写，人物形象就容易丰满。多侧面地描写人物形象，这个“侧面”的选择不是随心所欲的，而是从众多的材料中选择整理出各具代表性的若干侧面，分工而又合作地表现人物形象。通过多侧面描写来丰满人物形象，我们可以称它是“众星拱月”。“月”就是人物，“星”就是侧面，“拱”就是多侧面展示人物形象的过程。不过应该看到，“众星拱月”的“众星”也不是平分秋色的，它们之间也有主次、详略的区别。所以在写“众星”的时候，是没有必要平均使用力量的。

二、写两个人

写两个人，一般是写《我和**》，**应包括亲人、同学、朋友、老师等熟悉的人，要写好这一类型的作文必须注意：

(一)要写好人物之间的联系。《我和**》，题目中突出了一个“和”字，这就要求从双方写起，通过具体的事例，写出“我”和**之间的联系。在叙事过程中，要写出彼此之间都想了些什么，说了些什么，做了些什么。只有从双方落笔，才能把握住题目要求写的重点。

(二)用对话展开情节。写《我和**》作文时，由于要写出两个人之间的关系，所以一定要写好两个人之间的对话。要用对话展开情节，用对话表现文章的中心。

三、写一群人。

写一群人，比写一个人、两个人难一些，难就难在要通过一定的材料组织，巧妙地将一群人凝聚在一起，从而反映各自的思想、性格、面貌。那么，怎样组织材料才能把一群人凝聚在一起呢?应该抓住贯串各个人物之间的线索。写人物群像，是不是每个人在文章中所占据的位置都一样呢?不是的。在一群人中，有的在文章中担任“主角”，有的在文章中担任“配角”，谁主谁次，是根据表现文章中心思想的需要来决定的。

人体是靠骨架支撑的，文章也是一样的道理。如果把文章的中心思想比作“灵魂”，材料比作“血肉”，那么，结构就是灵魂和血肉的“骨架”。因此，同学们在有了写人的材料以后，就应该进一步考虑它的结构。

写人的结构方式主要有以下两种：

第一种，总分总式。

这是最常见最朴素的写人结构。它的特点是有一个点明题意的开头(a)，简洁醒目，作为文章的总起部分。主干部(b、c、d)也可以说是文章的分述部分，它的几段互相独立，从不同的角度表达中心，在编排先后的次序上还需要有一定的斟酌。结尾e是文章的总结部分，它不仅是d的自然过渡，而且常常是对b、c、d的归纳小结，又是对a的照应。

第二种，逐层进入式。

这种结构方式适用于用一件事写人。它的特点是：第一层次a，写事情的起因;第二层次b，写事情的发展;第三层次c，写事情的高潮;第四层次d，写事情的结局。文章的二三层次是全文的灵魂和力量所在。这两个层次写得好，常常可以使文章内容丰富起来。

一、中国古代代学

(一)先秦代学

①上古神话。

中国古代神话名篇有:女娲(wā)补天后羿(yì)射日，精卫填海、(盘古)开天辟地、黄帝战蚩(chī)尤等。(刘安：《淮南子》)

②先秦散代

A、儒家经典。

“五经”指《诗经》、《尚书》、《礼记》、《易经》、《春秋》。

“六经”又称六艺 ，在“五经”后增加(《乐》)。

“四书”指《论语》《孟子》《大学》《中庸》。

B、历史散代。 《左传》《战国策》《国语》。

“春秋三秋”《左传》《谷梁传》《公羊传》。

C、诸子百家散代。 著名的有：

①老子，李耳， 字聃(dān)，道家学派创始人,著有《道德经》。

②孔子名丘,字仲尼。是儒家学派创始人、《论语》是孔子弟子记载孔子和他的学生言行的书。

③墨子名翟(dí)，墨家学派创始人。《墨子》53篇。

④孟子名轲，字子舆。儒家学派继承者。《孟子》是孟子学生记录孟子言行的书。《得道多助，失道寡助》《生于忧患，死于安乐》《庄暴见孟子》《鱼我所欲也》。

⑤庄子，名周，战国道家。著《庄子》。《庖丁解牛》

⑥荀子， 战国儒家,著《荀子》32篇、《劝学》

⑦韩非子，法家。著《韩非子》。《扁鹊见蔡桓公》《五蠹》《智子疑邻》。

⑧《吕氏春秋》又称《吕览》,是秦相吕不韦和他的门客的集体创作。《察今》。

⑨李斯的代表作是散代《谏逐客书》。

③先秦诗歌

A、《诗经》。《诗经》是我国第一部诗歌总集,共305篇分风、雅、颂三类、风是民歌,雅是乐歌,学习规律,颂是祭歌。诗经的表现手法是比、兴、赋。比即比喻，以彼物比此的。兴,先言他物以引起所咏之词，赋，直陈其事。

B、《楚辞》。西汉学者刘向把屈原宋玉等人的作品编辑成书，定名为《楚辞》。屈原(前340?-前277?)名平,我国伟大爱国主义诗人、曾在楚国任左徒三闾大夫等职。代有作是《离骚》《九歌》《九章》。

(二)、两汉代学

A、两汉散代

①贾谊，世称贾生。又称贾长沙，贾太傅。著《新书》十卷。《过秦论》、《论积贮疏》是他的代表作。

②司马迁，字子长,伟大的史学家、代学家。著《史记》首创“纪传体”,分为本纪、世家、列传、表、书。

鲁迅称《史记》为“史家之绝唱，无韵之离骚”。

③班固的《汉书》 刘向编订的《战国策》都名传史册。

B、乐府民歌和赋。乐,民乐;府，官府、乐府原为汉代音乐机关所搜集的诗、《孔雀东南飞》是汉乐府叙事发展的高峰。最早见于南朝徐陵编纂的《玉台新咏》、赋是我国古代韵代和散代的综合体。司马相如的《子虚赋》《上林赋》。贾谊的《吊屈原赋》都很有名。

(三)、魏晋南北朝代学

1、魏晋南北朝的诗歌和散代

①“三曹”、“三曹”即曹氏父子曹操、 曹丕、 曹植。曹操的《观沧海》，曹丕的《蒿里行》，曹植的《名都篇》《白马篇》《洛神赋》都很有名。

②“建安七子” 。孔融、陈琳、王粲、徐干、阮?、应?、刘桢

③“竹林七贤”。 阮籍、稽康、山涛、刘伶、王戎、向秀、刘咸

④陶渊明,名潜,字元亮，世称靖节先生。 《桃花源记》《归去来辞》《归园田居》《饮酒》是传世之作。

⑤此外, 诸葛亮《出师表》、范晔(yè)《后汉书》、陈寿《三国志》、王羲之《兰亭集序》、刘勰《代心雕龙》、郦道元《水经注》都名垂史册。

2、魏晋南北朝的小说。

①志怪小说以干宝《搜神记》为代表。 《干将莫邪》。

②轶事小说以刘义庆的《世说新语》为代表。《周处》。

句型1.

It (so) happened(chanced) that +clause. = sb. happened /chanced to do sth. =sb.did sth. by chance. 如：

It happened that he was out when I got there. 当我到那儿时，碰巧他不在。=He happened to be out when I got there.= It chanced that he was out when I got there= He was out by chance when I got there.

句型2.

It seems that sb. do/ be doing/ have done/ had done= Sb. seems to do/ be doing/ have done/to be done/to have been done(还有动词appear等可这样使用)如:

It seemed that he had been to Beijing before.他好象以前去过北京。=He seemed to have been to Beijing before.

句型3.

It is / was+被强调的部分+that(who)+剩余的部分.如：

It wasn’t until he came back that I went to bed.直到他回来我才睡觉。(一定要注意被强调句型中的谓语动词否定的转移)。 It was because he was ill that he didn’t come to school today.只因为他有病了今天没有来上学。(只能用because而不能用for, as 或since)

It is I who am a student. 我确实是个学生。(句中am不能用are来代替。)

句型4.

It is high time (time/ about time)+ (that) 主语+should do / did+其它。(从句中的谓语动词用的是虚拟语气。)如:

It is high time that we should go / went home.我们该回家了。

句型5.

It is / was said ( reported…)+that+从句. 如：

It was said that he had read this novel.据说他读过这篇小说。=He was said to have read this novel.

句型6.

It is impossible / necessary/ strange…that clause.(从句中的谓语用should+do / should have done，其形式是虚拟语气。)如：

It is strange that he should have failed in this exam.真奇怪，他这次考试没有及格。

句型7.

It is + a pity/ a shame…that clause.(注意从句中的谓语动词用should do或should have done的形式，但should可以省略。)如：

He didn’t come back until the film ended. It was a pity that he should have missed this film. 他直到电影结束才回来。他没有看到这部电影真可惜。

句型8.

It is suggested / ordered/ commanded /…that +clause.(从句的谓语动词用should do, 但should可以省略。)如：

It is suggested that the meeting should be put off.有人建议推迟会议。

句型9.

It is/was+表示地点的名词+where+从句。(注意本句不是强调句型，而是以where引导的定语从句。)如：

It was this house where I was born.请比较：It was in this house that I was born.(后一句是强调句型。)

句型10.

It is / was +表示时间的名词+when+从句。(注意本句型也不是强调句型，而是以when引导的定语从句。)如：

It was 1999 when he came back from the United States. 请比较：It was in 1999 that he came back from the United States.

句型11.

It is well-known that+从句。如：

It is well-known that she is a learned woman.众所周知，她是个知识渊博的妇女。

句型12.

It is +段时间+since+主语+did. 请比较：

It was +段时间+since+主语+had done. 如：

It is five years since he left here.他已经离开这儿五年了。

It was five years since he left here.(同上)

注意下列句型的翻译:It is five years since he lived here.他从这儿搬走已经有五年了。

句型13.

It +谓语+段时间+before+主语+谓语.( before引导的是时间状语从句。) 如：

It wasn’t long before the people in that country rose up.没有多久那个国家的人民就起义了。

It will be three hours before he comes back.三个小时之后他才能回来。

句型14.

It is +形容词(possible, impossible, necessary等) +for+ sb.+ to do. 如：

It is impossible for me to finish this work before tomorrow.我明天之前完成此工作是不可能的。

句型15.

It is +(心理品质方面的)形容词+of + sb. +to do.= 主语+ be +形容词+to do.(常用的形容词有：kind, stupid; foolish, good, wise等。)如：

It is kind of you to help me.=You are kind to help me.你真好给我提供了帮助。

对于刚刚开始准备SAT写作考试的考生来说，掌握一些非常复杂的词汇，语法和句式都是十分不现实的，所以下面总结的SAT写作技巧就是希望可以在大家掌握很少量的词汇和语法的基础上，提高写作的成绩。

首先要搞明白的是，SAT写作考试中的Essay不是抒情文、记叙文或者文学作品，而是议论文，表现一个学生逻辑思考、思想深度以及行文结构表达方式的载体，所以重要的不是句法、词汇，而是思想、结构。

1. SAT写作不要用长句。

写作用长句不是不好，但是用长句有两个问题，一是中国考生水平不够，很难写出语法没有错误、意思表达准确的长句，语法错误、几个逗号连用、倒装从句混合是经常发生的。二是看essay的考官也是人，没人愿意看很多长句混在一起的文章，短句更讨人喜欢，并且表达意思更加清晰，准确。所以大家要记得的第一个SAT写作技巧就是要用短句，不用或者少用长句。

2. SAT写作技巧中，细节是重中之重。

在SAT写作考试中出现My brother, friend的时候加上名字，出现university的时候要给上名字，给出事例的时候要给出时间地点人物，这几点是最基本的细节问题，没人愿意看我的弟弟去了一个大学，然后再大学里交了很多朋友，后来去了公司里那些朋友成为了他的财富，而我的弟弟Dan去了Upenn读书，在学校里认识了Jeff、Dennis等好朋友，而他后来去Google公司工作的时候发现了他们成为了自己一生宝贵的财富比上面那句好了很多。实在要写流水账也要写出细节和感觉。

记叙文是以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主，以写人物的经历和事物发展变化为主要内容的一种文体形式。下面是小编为大家整理的关于记叙文的六要素的写作基础，欢迎大家阅读!

1.记叙文一般都具备六要素，但有的记叙文，如果其中某些要素是读者熟知的，或者某些要素不交代不影响表达效果，是可以省略的。

2.记叙的人称有第一人称和第三人称。以“我”的口吻或角度来叙述的是第一人称，如《小桔灯》《孔乙己》等。采用第一称来写，便于直抒胸臆，读起来有一种亲切感和真实感。以第三人称的角度来叙述文章中的人物、事件、场景等，如《皇帝的新装》。其优点在于不受空间和时间的限制，能从更多的方面自由地叙述。

3.记叙文的线索形式有：1以时间转移为线索2以一人3以一事4以一物为线索。多数记叙文存在着两条或两条以上的线索。如《藤野先生》，文章除了以作者与藤野先生交往为叙事线索(明线)外，还有作者爱国主度思想感情这一暗线。

4.记叙的顺序要求掌握的是顺叙、倒叙、插叙三种。顺叙指记叙的时候按照事情发生、发展、和结局的顺序来写，前因后果、条理很清楚。如《一面》;倒叙，指记叙的时候把后发生的事情写在前面，把先发生的事情写在后面。先把结局说出来，吸引读者了解其起因和过程，如《背影》;插叙，指在记叙过程中，需要插入另一些有关的情节，再接着叙述后来的事情，如《驿路梨花》。

5.记叙文常用的层次划分方法有以下几种：

(1)按事件和发展过程来划分《皇帝的新装》

(2)按空间转换来划分，如《老山界》

(3)按内容变化来划分，如《从百草园到三味书屋》

(4)按人物、场景变化来划分，如《分马》

(5)按感情变化来划分，如《荔枝蜜》不太喜欢蜜蜂—想去看蜜蜂—赞美蜜蜂—想变成蜜蜂。

(6)按表达方式的变换来划分，如《一件珍贵的衬衫》，抒情—记叙—抒情、议论。

6.理解和分析记叙文中叙述、描写、议论、抒情等多种表达方式综合运用的特点和作用。理解和分析记叙文中常用的表现手法(象征、对照、衬托等)和修辞手法(比喻、拟人、排比等)，理解记叙性语言准确、生动的特点。

7.记叙文虽然以叙述、描写为主要表达方式，但常常借助议论、抒情、说明来开拓意境，深化主题。很多是各种表达方工综合运用。

(1) 叙述：把人物的经历和事物的发展变化过程表达出来的一种表达方式。它是写作中最基本、最常见、也是最主要的表达方式。

(2 )描写：是对人物的外形、动作、事物的性质、形态和景物的状貌，变化所作的具体刻画和生动描摹。

(3 )说明：是用简明的语言、客观而准确地解说事物或阐述说事理的一种表达方式。

(4)抒情：是作者通过作品中心人物表达主观感受，倾吐心中情感的文字表露，可分为直接抒情、间接抒情两种。直接抒情即直抒胸臆。间接抒情是在叙述、描写、议论中流露出爱憎感情。

(5)议论:根据作品写出自己的见解或道理.

8.记叙文的语言的特点：准确，生动。

小结：

1.记叙文的要素

2.记叙文的人称

3.记叙文的线索：1以时间转移为线索2以一人3以一事4以一物为线索

4.记叙文的顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙三种

5.记叙文的划分

6.记叙文的表达方式：叙述、描写(语言，动作，外貌，心理，神态，环境等或正面，侧面)、议论、抒情、说明等

7.记叙文的语言的特点：准确，生动

8.记叙文的表现手法：白描、衬托、渲染、对比、伏笔、铺垫等。

总结：

1.关于记叙文和文学作品阅读题的解答主要从两主面着手：

一是概括文章的内容，抓住以下几个要点：

(1)把握记叙文的要素，以写事为主的应明确写什么事，写人为主的应明确写什么样的人。

(2)把握关键性语句，揣摩作者为什么要写这些人、事。

(3)分析层与层之间的关系，理清文章脉络，然后概括。

二是弄清记叙文和文学作品的结构特点及表现形式。掌握以下划分段落的方式：

(1) 以时空变化划分 (2) 以作者思想感情的变化来划分 (3) 按记叙内容的变化来划分 (4) 按描述角度的变化、事情发展的阶段来划分

2.文段在内容上：以中心、意思相联系(思想感情)来答

在结构上：

文段在开头：总起全文

文段在中间：承上启下

文段在结尾：总结全文或照应主题或首尾呼应。

记叙文的阅读，要明确有关的知识点，把握其文体特征。

一、记叙文的概念：记叙文是以记叙、描写为主要表达方式，以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主要内容的文章。中学阶段，为了教学的方便，常常把消息、通讯、人物传记、回忆录、寓言、童话、小说等，都划归到记叙文教学中。

二、记叙文的分类：从写作内容与方式看，可分为两类：简单的记叙文和复杂的记叙文。从写作对象的不同，可分为四类：

1.写人的记叙文;2.叙事的记叙文;3.写景的记叙文(即散文);4.状物的记叙文。

三、记叙的要素：记叙文有六要素——时间、地点、人物、事件的起因、经过、结果。

四、记叙的顺序：常用的有三种——顺叙、倒叙、插叙。

五、记叙的线索：一般有以下几种——人线、物线、情线、事线、时线、地线。

六、记叙的人称：一般采用第一人称或第三人称，个别时候使用第二人称。

七、记叙的中心与详略：整体感知，准确把握文章中心。分析材料与中心的关系，理解材料的详略安排。

八、记叙文所用的表达方式：常见的是五种——记叙、描写、说明、议论和抒情。比较复杂的记叙文，往往几种表达方式综合运用。

小学阶段不同年级的作文有不同要求和写作技巧小学英语写作指导小学英语写作指导。

对于小学3年级的学生，在他们已经掌握好了如颜色(colour)、衣服(clothes)、数字(number)、星期(day of the week)、月份(month)、宠物(pet)、情感(feeling)、身体部位(body)、文具(school things)的基础上进行文章的填空，如果学生能够按照文章的要求写进相关的信息，那就已经很不错了。下面是一个自我介绍的简单例子：

Myself

Hello，my name is_____. I am_____years old.My favourite colour is_____，_____， and_____.My favourite pet is______，_____ and______. My favourite food is_____，______and______.My favourite day is______. My favourite school thing is______and______.My favourite number is and______.I am______today.

上面的这个例子，如果学生能够依次能吧自己的姓名、年龄、喜欢的颜色、喜欢的宠物、喜欢的食物、喜欢的日子、喜欢的文具、喜欢的数字和今天的心情准确无误地写出来，那么就已经能够完成了3年级阶段的作文要求。

对于4年级的学生，可以写一篇介绍自己课室或者自己卧室的文章。下面是一篇4年级学生的介绍课室范文。

My classroom

I am studying at Tongji primary school.I am in Class Two, Grade Four. (介绍自己所在的学校和所在的年级) There is a blackboard in front of the classroom. There are twenty-five desks in our classroom, they are brown. There are many books on the desk. There are fifty students, thirty boys and twenty girls. There is a picture on the wall. There are two fans on the wall. (用there+be句型把班里和摆设和班上的人数都表达出来了) It is tidy and clean.I like my classroom very much.(最后是作者的总结)

对于5年级的学生，作文的要求也提高了很多，很多学生在介绍别人或者是写自己喜欢的小动物的时候很容易忘了第三人称单数动词要加ses，如：He get up at 7 o’clock(get忘了加s)，在用到现在进行的时候动词很容易忘了加ing(如I am play the piano，play就忘记了加ing)，介词和介词短语也占了很重要的位置如介词in，on，at，of。介词短语如dream of(区分dream that)和be afraid of都是很重要的介词短语，很多学生忘记了介词后面要加动词小学英语写作指导少儿基础英语。

对于6年级的学生，作文考查的是英语的综合应用能力，而且出的题目大部分都是看图作文，这就在一定程度上增加了写作的难度，它也是综合了3年级的分类词汇，4年级的句型，方位介词，5年级的重点介词短语和时态，不过我相信只要平时多点积累单词和句型、多点动笔、多注意语法上的问题、多看作文书，那么就能写出流畅、有深度的文章。

俗话说“千里之行始于足下”。英语书面表达能力的形成不是一日之功，必须从平时的课堂学习一点一滴抓起，持之以恒。

一篇优秀的英语作文在内容和语言两方面应是一个统一体，任何一方面的欠缺都会直接影响到作文的质量。然而，很多考生在写作中或者由于粗心大意，或者由于基本功不扎实而经常出现名词不变复数、第三人称单数不加s，前后不一致，以及时态语态、句子完整性等方面的错误。

1. 审题不清

如2004年中考作文要求写一项最喜欢的课外活动，有些考生将作文的主题定位为“我最喜欢的活动”，偏离了“一项、课外活动”这一主题。依据作文的评分原则，若文章内容不切题，则不管语言如何规范、用词如何准确，都会被判为零分。

2.拼写错误

拼写是考生应该具备的最起码的基本功，但在考生的作文中却经常能发现很多拼写错误。有拼写错误的作文肯定会被酌情扣分，而且有大量拼写错误存在的作文不仅体现出语言基本功差，同时也直接影响内容的表达，通常会降低作文的档次。

3.名词单复数问题

误 my father and my mother is all teacher。

正 my father and my mother are both teachers。

[中考英语作文写作常见的三个错误

1)做模版：拿几片范文，找几句比较拽的结构型句子，拼凑出一个你自己顺手的框架即可。不用到处找，也不用找很多，一个框架即可，当然，准备一些可以替换的词：比如recommendation替换conclusion.漂亮句子很多，但若水三千，我只掬一瓢饮。

2)找出主要的错误类型，每种写出一道两句经典的表述即可。

3)考时30分钟分三个阶段：一)12-15分钟，写出完整的第一段，三个征文段的topic sentence，和完整的末段。写第一段的同时就构思topicsentence,末段无非是重复结论和三句topic。这样的好处是结构已经完整了，你不用慌了。。二)13-10分钟，完成三段正文。我以前觉得这个很困难，后来想通了。无非是把这层意思说清楚就行。3句话就够了。也够长了。三)5分钟check.还一个作用时，是在前面没有完成，还有一个buffer,也不至于弹尽粮绝。

4)非常措施：考试万一时间不够，首段就抄原句;如果时间还不够，末段就cut-paste首段和topic 的文本，稍加修改即可。但是，结构是完整的。

5)ok作文法的精髓和适用范围：精髓：看上去很美。适用范围：不想得6分的人(因为想的6分的人追求的是实际上也很美。如果运气好，可以的5分，运气不好，可以的4分。