自考英语写作基础【合集20篇】

应用文是人类在长期社会实践活动中形成的一种文体，下面是小编整理的应用写作基础知识，希望对你有帮助。

一、应掌握的应用文写作基础知识

（一）公文格式

1、行政公文的格式的概念：行政公文的格式就是指行政公文的文面格式、用纸规范和印制规范的总和。

2、行政公文的格式的内容：2001年1月1日施行的《国家行政机关公文处理办法》第三章第十条对行政公文的格式做出了规范性的规定：“公文一般由秘密等级和保密期限、紧急程度、发文机关标识、发文字号、签发人、标题、主送机关、正文、附件说明、成文日期、印章、附注、附件、主题词、抄送机关、印发机关和印发日期等部分组成。”现行的行政公文[除命令(令)、公告、通告、会议纪要等以外)的格式一般由文面格式、用纸格式和印装格式三部分组成。

行政公文的书面格式划分为眉首、主体、版记三部分。置于公文首页红色反线(又称“间隔横线”)以上的各要素统称眉首；置于红色反线(不含红色反线)以下的各要素统称主体；置于主题词(包含主题词)以下的各要素统称版记。

（1）眉首：眉首又称文件头，位于公文首页上部，用套红印刷，占首页的三分之一或五分之二；一般由秘密等级和保密期限、紧急程度、发文机关标识、发文字号、签发人、红色反线等部分组成。

秘密等级和保密期限。为了有效保证公文在传递、处理过程中的国家秘密的安全，涉及国家秘密的公文应标明密级和保密期限。秘密公文分为绝密、机密、秘密三级，其中“绝密”、“机密”级公文还应标明份数序号。

紧急程度。紧急公文应当根据紧急程度分别标明“特急”、“急件”。如需同时标识秘密等级，则紧急程度在下，秘密等级在上。

发文机关标识。发文机关又称版头，用红色标识居文件头部分正中，一般有两种形式：一种是由发文机关名称和“文件’’二部分组成，如“北京市人民政府文件”；另一种是只标明发文机关名称(适用于信函式格式)，如“x x省人民政府”。发文机关名称要用全称或规范化简称，如果是几个单位联合行文，主办机关排列在前。

发文字号。由发文机关代字、年份和序号三部分组成。联合行文一般只标明主办机关的发文字号。

签发人。签发人是指代表发文机关核准、制发该公文的负责人，是公文生效的具体责任者。上行文(包括上报的“请示”“意见”“报告”)应当在首页注明签发人、会签人姓名。

红色反线(又称“间隔横线”)。红色反线是一条较粗的通栏红线，位于“发文字号”与文件主体部分的“标题”之间，把文件头部分和正文部分分开。一般政府机关公文用一条通栏红线，党的机关文件在通栏红线正中加一颗红五星做标志。

(2)主体：是文件的主要部分，包括标题、主送机关、正文、附件说明、成文日期、印章、附注、附件八个部分。

标题。公文标题的三要素：完整的公文标题由发文机关、事由、文种三部分组成。如《国务院办公厅关于表彰奖励中国女子足球队的通报》(国办发[1999]61号)，发文机关是“国务院办公厅”，事由是“表彰奖励中国女子足球队”，文种是“通报”。

公文标题的核心要素：“文种”是公文标题的核心要素，同时也是不能省略的要素。

公文标题除了采用三要素齐备的完整式标题形式外，还可以采用省略式标题形式。省略式标题包括以下三种情况：一是省略发文机关的标题，如《关于严厉打击传销和变相传销等非法经营活动的意见》，通常有文件版头的公文（主要指上行文），标题不必再重复发文机关；二是省略事由只由发文机关和文种组成的标题，如《中华人民共和国主席令》、《中国人民银行通告》等；三是省略发文机关和事由，只有“文种”一个要素的标题，如《通告》、《公告》，这类标题一般适用于内容较单一的公布性、知照性公文。

注意：公文标题中除法规、规章名称加书名号外，一般不用标点符号。对于转发文，除批转法规性文件加书名号外，均不对原标题加书名号。

转发上级机关的文件，如果标题过长，可以自拟事由摘要转发；如果是层层转发的文件，可以只转发首发机关的名称。

例题：

1、国家税务总局转发了国务院题为“关于做好税制改革工作的通知”这一文件，自治区地税局再转发给各盟市地税局，盟市地税局再进行转发时，写成了《通辽市地方税务局关于转发内蒙古自治区地方税务局关于转发国家税务总局关于转发国务院关于做好税制改革工作的通知的通知的通知》，如何修改。

2、标题过长或中间需停顿的，可用空格或换行的方式表述。如：国务院关于依靠科技振兴农业加强农业科技成果推广工作的决定

主送机关：是指负责办理和答复该份公文的主要受理机关，应当使用全称或者规范化简称、统称。

下级向上级机关发出的请示或报告，一般只写一个主送机关，受双重领导的下级机关向上级请示时，也要确定一个主送机关，其他用抄送形式，不能多头主送，避免出现责任不明，误时误事的现象；上级对下级机关的发文，主送机关应按法定或约定俗成的惯例排序，如通辽市人民政府下发的普发性文件，主送机关可以是“各旗、县、市、区人民政府，市政府各委、办、局”；凡是直接向社会或群众公布的公文及法规章程等，一般不写主送机关。如通告、公告等。

正文：是行政公文的核心部分，是用来表达具体的思想内容的。正文应根据文种和写作意图选择恰当的表达方式和结构，在公文格式规范、行文关系正确的前提下，一篇公文的水平与效果关键取决于正文的拟定。

正文中的人名、地名、数字、引文应当准确。引用公文应当先引标题，后引发文字号；引用外文应当标明其中文含义。正文写作的要求：

第一，符合国家法律、法规，符合党和政府的方针、政策以及上级机关的有关规定。

第二，要有针对性，即以事实为根据，分析问题，做到有的放矢。

第三，一般应一文一事，事由要集中、明确、重点突出。

第四，行文逻辑缜密，层次清晰，条理清楚。

第五，具体措施或意见要符合实际，明确具体，可操作性强。

第六，语言要准确、简洁、规范。

公文中的数字：公文中的数字，除成文日期、部分结构层次数和在词、词组、成语、惯用语、缩略语、具有修辞色彩语句中作为词素的数字必须使用汉字外，应当使用阿拉伯数字

正文层次标识方法：

第一层用“一、”“二、”“三、”……

第二层用“(一)”“(二)”“(三)”……

第三层用“1．”“2．”“3．”……

第四层用“(1)”“(2)”“(3)”．．．．．．

附件说明：公文如有附件，应在正文之后注明附件说明。

附件说明写在正文下空一行，左空二字用3号仿宋体字标识“附件”，后标冒号，然后说明附件顺序和名称。附件序号用阿拉伯数码，附件名称后不加标点符号。

成文日期：是指公文完成并定稿的时间，是公文生效的标志。成文日期以负责人签发的日期为准，联合行文以最后签发机关负责人的签发日期为准。决定、会议纪要等会议讨论通过的公文，以通过日期为准。电报以发出日期为准。

成文日期标注在正文右下方，右空四字，用汉字将年、月、日标全，“零”写为“O”，如“二OO二年十月一日”。

印章：是公文合法生效的标志之一。公文除会议纪要和以电报形式发出的以外，应当加盖印章。联合上报的公文，由主办机关加盖印章；联合下发的公文，发文机关都应当加盖印章。单一机关制发的公文在落款处不署发文机关名称，只标识成文日期，加盖印章应上距正文一行之内，下压日期，端正，印章用红色；联合行文并需加盖两个印章时，应将成文日期拉开，左右各空七个字格，主办机关印章在前，两个印章均压成文日期，不相交或相切；联合行文并需加盖三个以上印章时，应将各发文机关名称(可用简称)按加盖印章顺序排列则在相应位置，并使印章加盖其上。

当公文排版所剩空白不能空下印章位置时，应采取调整行距、字距的措施加以解决，务必使印章与正文在同一版面，不得采用标识“此页无正文”的方式解决。

附注：指需要说明的其他事项，包括说明传达范围(如“此件发至县团级”)、使用方法(如“此件可以翻印”)、正文中出现的名词术语的解释等，或在使用请示文种时注明联系人的姓名和电话。

附注标识在成文日期下一行，居左空二字，应当加圆括号标注。

附件：是附在正文之后用于补充、说明正文的文字材料或图表材料，是公文的重要组成部分。有的公文因内容需要，又不便于写入正文的材料才用附件的形式表达，并不是每份公文都有附件。

常见的附件有两种：一是随文所颁布、批转(转发)、报送的文字材料，实际是公文的主要内容，而主件只起批准颁布、批转转发、报送或按语作用，这类附件与公文正件具有同等效力。二是补充、说明、解释正文内容的材料，如代表名单、数字报表、图文资料等，其作用是为正确理解和执行公文正件提供参考。

附件应与公文正文一起装订，并在附件左上角第一行顶格标识“附件”，有序号时标识序号；如不能一起装订，应在附件左上角第一行顶格标识公文的发文字号并在其后标识附件(或带序号)。

(3)版记：版记也称文尾，位于公文末页最下部，包括主题词、抄送机关、印发机关和印发日期三个要素。版记的最后一个要素置于最后一行。

主题词。主题词是确切表达公文主题和归属类别的规范化名词或名词性词组，是文件信息输入计算机的一种信息符号。因为按照区局文件精神，从今年开始系统内部行文不再标注主题词，因为全区办公自动化系统都已开通，标注主题词已没有必要。但向系统外行文仍然要标注。注意：一份文件的标引，一般不超过6个主题词。

抄送机关：指除主送机关外需要执行或知晓公文的机关。抄送上级机关的用“抄报”；抄送平级和下级机关的用“抄送”。

抄送机关应使用全称或者规范化简称、统称，位置在主题词下一行，左空一字标识“抄送”，后加冒号；抄送机关间用顿号隔开，回行时与冒号后的抄送机关对齐；在最后一个抄送机关后标句号。

印发机关和印发日期。印发机关多数不以行文机关名称出现，而只用该机关办公室(厅)名称。印发机关位于抄送机关之下，占一行位置。印发机关左空一字，印发日期右空一字。印发日期以公文付印的日期为准，用阿拉伯数码标识。

（二）行政公文的行文规则

一个机关的文件，按照行文关系、文件的去向，可以分为上行文、平行文、下行文和泛行文。

基本行文规则：

(1)根据机关隶属关系和职责范围行文的原则。

(2)公文不直接报领导者个人的原则。

(3)非特殊情况不越级行文原则。

(4)同级机关可以联合行文的原则。

(5)部门会签未经协调一致不得各自单独行文的原则。

受双重领导的机关向上级机关行文，应当写明主送机关和抄送机关。上级机关向受双重领导的下级机关行文，必要时应当抄送其另一上级机关。

以下两种情况不宜用抄送：

1．请示不得在主送上级机关的同时向其下级机关抄送；

2．凡与办理公文无关的机关一律不予抄送。

请示应一事一请示，不要一文多事。如确有几件事需要请示上级，可分别写成几份请示上呈。

报告不得夹带请示事项的规则。

部门内设机构除办公厅（室）外不得对外正式行文。

公文的语言特点：庄重、准确、朴实、精炼、严谨、规范。庄重是指语言端庄、格调郑重严肃；准确是指在表情达意时，语言真实确切，无虚假无错漏，褒贬得当，语意明确界限清楚，符合实际，真切表达欲表达的内容；朴实是指语言平直自然、是非清楚、明白晓畅、恰如其分、通俗易懂，无浮华夸饰、无渲染、无形象描绘、无矫揉造作，忌堆砌华丽辞藻，忌滥用辞格，讲求于平淡之中见神奇；精炼是指语言简明扼要，精当不凡，去浮辞，忌冗长空泛，同时，又不苟简，即服从行文目的和表现主题的需要，当祥则祥，当略则略；严谨是指语言含义确切、文句严谨、细致周密、分寸得当，忌模糊含混、语意多歧；规范是指语言单位构成及组合不仅应符合现代汉语的语法规则和一般逻辑规则，而且应合乎公务活动所提出的特殊规范性要求。

二、12种应用文体的写作

（一）计划与方案

计划与方案其实就是工作的打算和安排，进行书面化、条理化、具体化以后就是通常所说的“工作安排”、“工作要点”、“工作规划”、“工作方案”，我们经常用到的就是“工作要点”或者叫“工作安排”。不经常用到的如书中提到的“中长期规划”、“项目方案”、“综合方案”等大家可以看看书了解一下不作为重点掌握。但要清楚计划或要点是把想要做的工作具体化，而方案则是把计划进一步明细化，有完成计划的具体方法和步骤，具有可直接操作的特点。

重点学习一下工作要点的结构和写作特点。工作要点是一级机关或一个职能部门针对未来一个时期工作的简明扼要安排，多由于领导机关或部门对下属单位布置工作和交待任务。如通辽市地税局2006年工作要点、2006年纪检监察工作要点等，要点的要求明确，指导性强，便于执行，也有利于事后检查。

工作要点有标题、正文、署名和成文日期四部分组成，

工作要点的特点是具有指导性、预见性、可行性和约束

性。

（二）总结

总结就是单位或个人对过去一定阶段所做的工作或开展的活动进行全面系统的分析、研究和评价，从中找出成绩、问题、经验和教训，揭示规律的书面报告材料。总结是一种比较灵活的应用文体，经常用的有三大类：单位总结、个人总结、专题总结。重点掌握个人总结的结构要素和写作要求，一般了解单位总结和专题总结的写作要求与技巧。

个人总结要抓住主要问题，突出经验、教训和个人思想上的收获体会，不可停留在工作过程的回顾或一般优缺点的检查上。

个人总结行文结构一般由标题、正文、落款三部分组成。

标题：单位名称＋期限＋内容＋文种

正文：1、前言：交代与中心内容有关的情况；

2、全面总结一般包括成绩收获、经验体会、问题教训三个部分；

3、总结经验教训，提出努力方向。

落款：写作者姓名、日期

说一下年终自我小结的写法，一般地说，除标题外，可分为三部分：

第一部分：工作成绩。可先写工作，后写成绩，也可把工作和成绩结合起来写。开头不宜多说。如：“一年来我做了以下几项工作：”或“我在2005年中做了以下工作：”。

第二部分：存在的问题及原因。

第三部分：努力方向。

（三）简报

简报是反映所在单位或系统完成工作任务的情况和经验，实际工作中出现的新情况、新问题及值得注意的新思路，或某项调查研究的成果和有价值的统计数字的内容简要的内部资料，起着上情下达、下情上达、左右沟通、交流经验的作用。

按照内容简报可分为思想动态简报、工作简报和会议简报。我们在工作中应重点掌握工作简报、会议简报的写作格式、写作要求和写作技巧。

工作简报的版式由版头、正文、版尾等要素组成。

简报的写作要求：

1、新：反映新情况、新问题、新经验；

2、准：材料真实确切、问题切中要害、政策把握准确；

3、简：篇幅短小精悍，语言简洁明了；

4、快：迅速及时，快编快发；

5、全：要素齐全，格式规范。

这里强调一下，我们在写信息简报时，首先要制作好标题，“题好文一半，眉清目传神”，所谓“看人先看脸、看报先看题、看书先看皮”，标题是信息的“脸面”。如：《通辽市地税部门推行电子纳税受欢迎》，让人一看事实清楚，一目了然。

（四）调查报告

调查报告是为了工作需要和特定目的，对某一事物、问题或事件进行调查研究后，通过分析、加工，利用调查材料和研究结论整理撰写出来的书面报告。

调查报告也称为考察报告。其主要特点，一是针对性强—针对人们普遍关心的事情或者亟待解决的问题而写；二是用事实说话—报告的内容真实准确，建立在深入细致的调查研究基础之上；三是揭示规律性—通过对事实的分析研究，得出规律性的认识。调查报告按照调查范围和内容，可分为综合调查报告、专题调查报告；按照作用，则可分为基本情况的调查报告、典型经验的调查报告、新生事物的调查报告、揭露问题的调查报告、澄清事实真相的调查报告等五类。

调查报告一般由标题、正文、落款等三部分构成。

（1）公文式标题。由调查对象和内容加“调查报告”、“调查”、“考察”、“调查与思考”组成。

（2）通讯式标题。①单式标题，用一句话或一两个短语概括调查报告的主题或要回答的问题。②复式标题，由主题和副题组成。由主题概括调查报告的主旨或要回答的问题，用副题标明调查对象及其内容和文体。

（3）正文。由前言、主体、结尾组成。

①前言。根据具体情况和要求，选择说明以下内容：调查对象的基本情况，调查的方法，调查报告的主题和主要内容，调查报告要回答的问题等。前言的作用在于读者对调查内容获得总体认识，并为主体部分展开做准备。

②主体。总体要求，不仅反映已调查清楚的具体情况，更要反映从实际情况中总结出来的规律性认识，即成功的经验、有效的措施或做法，问题产生的原因、教训和解决问题的办法等。要做到有理有据，先后成序，详略分明，主题突出。

③结尾。或总结全文，或表达意见和建议，或提出发人深省的问题，或展望前景。形式多样，灵活掌握。但须简洁凝练，不拖泥带水。有些调查报告的前言和正文已说清楚，就不必再写结尾。

（3）落款。内部使用的调查报告，正文之后应署调查者（单位、调查组或个人）的名称或名字，并标明调查    报告的成文日期；公开发表的调查报告，大多将调查者署在标题之下，正文之后不写成文日期。

（五）汇报提纲

汇报提纲是下级机关向上级机关汇报工作时所撰写的汇报内容提要。按照汇报内容分为综合工作汇报提纲和  专题工作汇报提纲。

汇报提纲在内容上具有特定的针对性，结构上具有逻辑条理性，语言上要求朴实简练。

汇报提纲一般分为标题、正文、落款三个部分。

标题：公文写法，如《关于税收工作情况的汇报提纲》；直接写法，如《关于公务用车改革进展情况的汇报提纲》。

正文：分两层，一是前言，二是主体。

落款：汇报单位名称可在标题下面，也可放在文尾，与时间并行。

（六）会议记录

会议记录是在开会过程中，由专门人员把会议的组织情况和具体内容如实记录下来的文字材料。

会议记录一般由记录头、记录主体、审阅签名三部分组成。

1、记录头：会议名称、会议时间、会议地点、会议主持人、会议出席列席和缺席情况、会议记录人员签名等。

2、记录主体：会议中心议题、会议讨论焦点及主要意见、主要领导权威人士或代表人物的言论、定调性言论和总结性言论、会议决议或议而未决事项。

会议记录两条最基本的写作原则：真实性、完整性。

（七）会议纪要

会议纪要是一种常用公文，是在会议记录的基础上整理加工而成的、记载传达会议决定事项和主要精神，要求与会单位共同遵守、执行的，具有纪实性和指导性的公文。

会议纪要一般分为办公会议纪要和专题会议纪要。

会议纪要一般分为标题、日期、签发人、正文、落款五个部分。

1、标题：多由“会议名称+文种”组成，与常用的简报报头非常相似，因此又叫简报式会议纪要。目前常见的构成形式有四种：

（1）会议名称加文种，如《全国水利建设现场经验交流会议纪要》、《高等院校后勤管理体制改革会议纪要》。

（2）发文机关、会议名称加文种构成，如《财政部中专学校校长会议纪要》。

（3）与会单位加会议内容加文种，如《坏渤海地区商讨对外开放工作会议纪要》。

（4）由主标题和副标题构成，主标题提示会议的主旨，副标题标明会议名称和文种，如《以“三个代表”为指针，进行教育改革——济南市部分教育工作者学习“三个代表”的座谈会纪要》。

2、编号：一般加括号写于标题下方正中位置。

3、日期：会议纪要的成文时间即会议通过的时间或领导人签发的时间。

4、签发：由会议召集人签名。

5、正文：会议纪要的正文分为前言、主体、结尾三部分。前言，简要介绍会议的基本情况，会议召开的目的，会议的起止时间、地点、参加人员，会议的基本议程、主要活动和会议结果；主体，具体阐述会议讨论的问题和意见、结论和决定，以及对今后工作提出的要求；结尾，一般不单独写。

6、落款：会议纪要不加盖印章。在正文后分别注明主持人、出席人和发送单位。

（八）通知

通知适用于批转下级机关公文、转发上级机关和不相隶属机关的公文、发布规范性公文、传达事项、任免人员等。

通知是公文中使用频率最高、适用范围最广的一个文种，是上级向下级传达、告知事项的一种下行文。通知具有使用范围的广泛性、受文单位的专指性和较强的时间性，同时还具有行文简便、写法灵活、种类多样的特点。

通知一般可分为批示性（批转性）通知、指示性通知、事务性通知、知照性通知等。如：国务院批转财政部、国家计委关于进一步加强外国政府贷款管理若干意见的通知（批示性）、国务院关于进一步精简会议和文件的通知（指示性）、国务院关于发布《国家行政机关公文处理办法》的通知（发布性）、通辽市地方税务局关于作好五一长假期间值班值宿的通知（事务性）

通知一般由标题、主送机关、正文、落款和日期几部分组成。

1、标题：标题一般由发文机关、事由及文种三部分组成。除发布的规章应用书名号，其余均不使用书名号和标点符号。要具体处理好“关于”引起的介词结构和文种表述，杜绝重复出现“关于”和“的通知”字样。

2、主送机关：指通知的对象，一般应写全称或规范化简称、统称。主送机关较多时注意排列的规范性。同级机关用“、”，不同级别、类别的机关用“，”分开。

3、正文：包括通知的依据和目的、通知事项、通知结语三部分。

4、落款和日期：在公文右下方写明发文时间，并加盖公章。

（九）报告

适用于向上级机关汇报工作，反映情况，答复上级机关的询问。

报告是下级机关向上级机关汇报工作、反映情况、提出意见或者建议、答复询问与要求、报送资料使用的一种陈述性公文，是典型的上行文。

报告按内容可分为工作报告、情况报告、答复报告等。

报告中不得夹带请示事项或要求上级机关答复的事项。报告一般有标题、主送机关、正文、成文日期组成。

1、标题：报告是上行文，可采省略发文机关名称的两项式标题结构形式，即“事由+文种”。如《关于2003年上半年工作情况的报告》。

2、主送机关：只有一个，即有隶属关系的上级机关。

3、正文：把握以下几点：

（1）前言。概述，并用“现将……报告如下”。

（2）工作情况和成绩。

（3）工作经验。体会。

（4）存在问题。一分为二。

（5）今后打算。改进措施。

4、成文日期

（十）请示

适用于向上级机关请求指示、批准。请示具有隶属性，只有本部门和本系统的下级机关方可向上级机关请示。请示按其内容分有税政业务请示和行政事务请示两类。

下级机关向上级机关请示必须做到：凡属职权范围内的一般问题不随意请示；请示必须一文一事，且主送机关只有一个；请示必须在事前；上级机关收到请示后应认真研究，及时予以批复。请示属上行文，文末必须有请示语。

1、标题：请示标题通常由事由和文种两部分组成。

2、主送机关：应是发文机关的直属上级机关，不得多头请示。如是受双重领导的机关向上级机关请示，应写明主送机关和抄送机关，由主送机关负责答复。应根据隶属关系逐级请示，不得越级请示，因特殊情况必须越级行文时，应同时抄送被超过的上级机关。

3、正文：请示正文一般由请示起因、请示事项和请示尾语三部分构成。请示起因一般先说明行文的目的、依据，强调请示的必要性，为请示事项的提出作好必要铺垫；请示事项是请示的核心内容，要求明确、具体地指出，并做到既符合政策、法规，又具有建设性、可行性；请示尾语一般有“特此请示，望于批复”，“以上请示请批准”等惯用语。

4、落款：正文结束，在右下方署名署时并盖公章。

（十一）批复

批复是上级机关用来答复下级机关请示事项的下行公文。批复具有上级机关答复下级机关请示事项的专指性，下级有请示，上级才有批复。而且针对性极强，下级机关请示什么上级机关就答复什么。

批复由标题、主送机关、正文、成文日期组成。

标题：一般由“发文机关名称+事由+文种”构成。

主送机关：发出请示的下级机关。

正文：一般由批复依据、批复事项、执行要求三部分组成。

成文日期：

（十二）函

函适用于不相隶属机关之间商洽工作，询问和答复问题，请求批准和答复审批事项。内容上可分为申请函、商洽函、询问函、答复函、告知函。从行文方向上，“函”有来函和复函之分。函作为公文中唯一的一种平行文种，其适用的范围相当广泛。在行文方向上比较灵活，不仅可以在平行机关、不相隶属的机关之间行文，而且还可以向上级机关或者下级机关之间行文。有隶属关系的上下级机关之间不得使用函，上级机关的内设机构可以向下级机关的相关业务部门行便函，便函属于非正式文。

1、标题：函的标题一般由发文机关、事由和文种三部门组成。发文机关视具体情况一般可省略。属答复性质的函，文种均须标明“复函”。

2、主送机关：顶格写机关全称或规范化简称，后标冒号。复函的主送机关即来函单位。

3、正文：一般由缘由、事项、希望与请求和结语几部分组成。复函的开头应引述来函的日期、文号或标题等。尾语一般用“专此函告”，“敬请函复”等作结；复函多用“此复”、“特此函复”等为结尾。

4、落款：正文右下方署名署时并盖公章。

三、几种辨别关系

（一）请示与报告的异同点

相同点：①两者都属上行文。②为督促各级领导干部认真履行职责，对行文负全责，上报的报告、请示首页须注明签发人。③通常情况下，报告和请示的标题可省略发文机关。

相异点：①性质和行文目的不同，报告属陈述性公文，其行文目的在于汇报工作、反映情况、提出意见和建议、答复询问等，故不要求上级机关回复；请示属呈请性公文，其行文目的 在于请求指示或审核批准，需要上级机关给予答复。②上级机关处理原则不同，对待报告上级机关只在认为有必要时才予批复，而对请示上级机关不管同意与否均应批复。③篇幅容量 不同，对报告虽也提倡一文一事，但像综合报告等显然多为一文数事且篇幅较长；对请示则严格要求一事一请，篇幅相对较短小。④行文时间不同，报告在事前、事中、事后均可行文；而请示必须事前行文。

（二）会议纪要与会议记录的主要区别

1.性质不同。会议纪要是规定性行政公文,而会议记录是记录会议情况和议定事项的事务性文书.

2.内容的繁简程度不同。会议纪要的内容是对会议记录进行整理提炼而形成的会议内容的要点,重点体现会议的宗旨;而会议记录是对会议情况的原始、详尽的记录,重点体现会议的过程性和具体性.

3.形式有所不同。会议纪要具有一段公文的规范格式,而会议记录的形式则比较灵活自由。会议纪要通常采用总分式结构，而会议记录则采用顺时结构。

4.处置方式和作用不同。会议纪要一般可以文件的形式发布或在报刊上公开发表，用来“传达会议情况和议定事项”;而会议记录只作为内部资料,以备查考。

消息、通讯、新闻评论都是新闻文体。所谓新闻，就是对新近发生的事实的报道。

时代不同，新闻事业的性质不同，新闻的含义也就不同。后滕武男在《新闻纸研究》一文中认为，最早的新闻是政府的新闻。公元前一世纪，罗马统治者凯撒为了使公民知道和他们有关的官方规定，要求把政府的行为公布在罗马广场上的《每日公报》上。这个说法与我国的情况吻合。我国唐朝就用邸报向宫廷官员通报朝廷的行动。邸报是中国古代报纸的统称。目前大陆所能看到的最早的邸报，是尹钧公从北京图书馆找到的明代《急选报》，该报出版于公元1580年4月。人类最早的新闻是通报官方行动。16、17世纪西方，新闻主要指的是商业行为。

新闻事业的商业性质，决定了新闻行为以人们的接受心理为导向。当然新闻事业打从一开始，就是与政治联姻的，后来只不过披上了商业的面纱而已。事实上，从某个角度而言，在整个资本主义发展的过程中，商业行为本身就是一种政治行为。今天西方发达的资本主义国家鼓吹新闻自由，但当美国新闻记者经过千辛万苦的调查，独家报导了美国侵越期间在一小岛上进行惨绝人寰屠杀的轰动的新闻之后，马上就在政府的干预下被老板吵了鱿鱼。这至少说明，他们的“新闻自由”决不是没有前提的。

无产阶级则公开宣称报纸、电台是他们的“喉舌”。

我们现在的新闻事业虽然也在逐步走向市场，但其性质同资本主义国家新闻的性质是有根本区别的。陆定一同志在《我们对于新闻学的基本的观点》中说:“新闻的定义就是新近发生的事实的报道。”这一定义跳出了一切时代与阶级的局限，高度准确的概括了新闻最本质的特征。

一、新闻的特点

新闻最本质的特点是事实性、真实性和时效性。

1.事实性

新闻是以社会生活中发生的客观事实为报道对象。离开了事实，新闻就不复存在。即使是新闻评论，它也是来源于新闻事实和对新闻事实的评论。

2.真实性

真实是新闻的生命。因为，追本溯源，新闻的产生，是发布新闻的主体把正在发生和将要发生的事情告诉受众，希望受众于以配合，以使主体的意图充分实现。不真实的新闻会使结果相反，此其一。第二，新闻作为一种事业能够存在和发展，正是由于他的真实使其具有正确认识外部世界的价值，失实的新闻是毫无价值的，也就不算是新闻了。第三，新闻是人们了解外部世界，决定自己的行动，端正自己的认识的重要信息源，不实的新闻会使受众产生错误，这是道德和法律所不能允许的。第四，真实性是形成和确保新闻权威性的根本前提。

3.时效性

时效是新闻竞争的核心。新闻的时效性有两层含义，一是指新闻发生的新近性，二是指报道的及时性。

二、新闻价值

新闻价值是指构成新闻事实和材料本身所具有的满足社会对新闻的需要的信息意义。新闻价值是判定一个事实值不值得报道的客观标准。新闻价值包括5个要素:

1.时新性:新闻姓“新”，时间越近，新闻越新，所具有的新闻价值就越大。

2.重要性:指社会生活中出现的影响较大而又为许多人所关注的事件。

3.显著性:指引人注目的人物和事件。

4.接近性:指新闻与受众在地理上、思想上、职业上、性别上、年龄上、心理上的关联。其关联程度越紧密，越能引起受众的兴趣，新闻价值越大。

5.趣味性:新闻报道的内容必须是广大读者的感兴趣的。有的新闻事实不一定具有很大的社会意义，但只要是有健康趣味的，也是有新闻价值的。

三、 新闻写作的常用文体与类型

消息是迅速及时地报道社会生活中重要的突出事件和新近发生或发现的事物、成就、问题、情况等的新闻文体，是新闻报道的主要形式，也是新闻报道的最常见、最主要的文体。

一.消息的结构

消息的结构是指一篇消息的材料组合和段落安排的总体设计，也就是写作顺序。

新闻写作中对消息的材料结构的总的要求是:简明扼要，层次清晰，能准确地叙述事实，能发挥新闻价值的最佳效果，最有利于表现主题，最能够吸引读者。

目前，国内外常见的消息形式，大致有三大类。

1倒金字塔式结构

这是采用最多的一种消息结构，也称为“倒三角结构”。它的特点是将最重要、最新鲜、最吸引人的新闻事实放在最前面，并按材料的重要性来安排段落层次:重要的居前，次要的继之，再次要的置于末尾。

2金字塔结构

作者完全按事件发生、发展的先后顺序安排层次。事件的开头就是消息的开头，事件的结尾就是消息的结尾。这种编年史式的写法，读者容易接受和理解。一些故事性强、人情浓的消息常采用这种结构。

3自由式结构

现实生活是丰富多彩的，消息的内容也是千姿百态、千变万化的，因此，消息的结构形式也是多种多样的。消息还有并列式结构、对比式结构、问答式结构、总结式结构，等等。

二.消息的标题

一般来说，一篇消息可以分为5个部分:标题、导语、主体、背景、结尾。其中导语、主体、背景是主要部分。当然，并非任何一则消息都包含有完整的5个部分，有的只有其中的两或三四个部分。

消息的标题具有多行性的特点，信息量大。它有所谓引题、主题、副题之分。

引题，又称肩题、眉题或看题。它主要用来揭示新闻事实的意义，交代形势，说明背景，烘托气氛，引出主题;在主题为虚题时，还有说明“主题”的作用。其位置在主题的上方。

主题，又称正题，它一般用来点明消息的主要事实或概括说明消息所表达的思想和观点。它在引题之下，副题之上，其位居中，且字体比引题、副题大。

副题，又称辅题或子题，一般用以报道事实的结构或提要，有是也用来的说明主题的来源、依据，弥补主题的不足。其位置在主题之下。

三.消息的导语

消息的导语，即消息的开头，通常是指消息的第一自然段。它以极简要的文字写出消息的主要内容，用最新鲜、最重要、最引人的事实，揭示新闻的主题，引起读者的兴趣和注意。

由两个或多个自然段组成的导语，称“复合导语”。

导语写法多样，而且可以按不同标准分类。按消息要素在导语里出现的多少分类，导语可分为全型导语和微型导语两种。

所谓全型导语，就是消息的六个要素齐全的导语。

随着新闻事业的发展，全型导语的采用越来越少了，代之而起的是部分要素导语，也称做微型导语。

按照导语中强调的要素，可分为突出“何人”的导语，突出“何地”、“何时”、“何事”的导语等。

按导语表达方式，可分为叙述式的导语、描写式导语、评论式导语和引语式导语，等等。

导语的表现形式还有一些，如比喻式、摘要式、对比式、抒情式、悬念式，等等。一则消息的导语究竟如何写，主要根据新闻事实的特点还决定，不应拘泥于某种形式。

四.消息的主体和结尾

主体是消息的主干部分。他承接导语，用具体、充实的材料，展开导语，揭示消息的主题。

消息主体的结构形式一般有时间顺序、逻辑顺序和时间顺序和逻辑顺序结合三种。

五.消息的背景

新闻背景是有关新闻事实的历史和环境资料。用背景材料衬托或说明新闻事实，可以显示或强调信息的重要意义。

新闻背景材料可分为说明性材料和注释性材料。

说明性材料即对新闻人物或事件的政治背景、地理环境、历史演变及其他情况做介绍和交代，以说明事物产生的各种因素，揭示事物发生和变化的意义。注释性材料，是对有关名词科技知识等的注释。它能帮助读者看懂消息的内容，增长知识和见闻。

语言和内容是评判一篇英语论文质量高低的重要依据;但是,写作格式规范与否亦是一个不可忽略的衡量标准。小编收集了英语论文的格式与写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、英语论文的标题

一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:Dr./Prof.C.Prager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English 734或British Novel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需double space,即隔行打印,行距约为0.6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。

就学生而言,如果英语论文篇幅较短,亦可不做标题页(及提纲页),而将标题页的内容打在正文第一页的左上方。第一行为作者姓名,与打印纸顶端距离约为2.5cm,以下各行依次为教师学衔和姓、课程编号(或名称)及日期;各行左边上下对齐,并留出2.5cm左右的页边空白(下同)。接下来便是论文标题及正文(日期与标题之间及标题与正文第一行之间只需隔行打印,不必留出更多空白)。

二、英语论文提纲

英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为2.5cm左右)的始端打上 Thesis 一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母;处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。

三、英语论文正文

有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约1.5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码;阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。

四、英语论文的文中引述

正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节;既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式 (即英语论文参考文献)的规范性。引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。目前美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。现针对文中引述的不同情况,将部分规范格式分述如下。

1.若引文不足三行,则可将引文有机地融合在论文中。如:

The divorce of Arnolds personal desire from his inheritance results in “the familiar picture of Victorian man alone in an alien universe”(Roper9).

这里,圆括弧中的Roper为引文作者的姓(不必注出全名);阿拉伯数字为引文出处的页码(不要写成p.9);作者姓与页码之间需空一格,但不需任何标点符号;句号应置于第二个圆括弧后。

2.被引述的文字如果超过三行,则应将引文与论文文字分开,如下例所示:

Whitman has proved himself an eminent democratic representative and precursor, and his “Democratic Vistas”

is an admirable and characteristic

diatribe. And if one is sorry that in it

Whitman is unable to conceive the

extreme crises of society, one is certain

that no society would be tolerable whoses

citizens could not find refreshment in its

buoyant democratic idealism.(Chase 165)

这里的格式有两点要加以注意。一是引文各行距英语论文的左边第一个字母十个空格,即应从第十一格打起;二是引文不需加引号,末尾的句号应标在最后一个词后。

3.如需在引文中插注,对某些词语加以解释,则要使用方括号(不可用圆括弧)。如:

Dr.Beaman points out that“he [Charles Darw in] has been an important factor in the debate between evolutionary theory and biblical creationism”(9).

值得注意的是,本例中引文作者的姓已出现在引导句中,故圆括弧中只需注明引文出处的页码即可。

4.如果拟引用的文字中有与论文无关的词语需要删除,则需用省略号。如果省略号出现在引文中则用三个点,如出现在引文末,则用四个点,最后一点表示句号,置于第二个圆括弧后(一般说来,应避免在引文开头使用省略号);点与字母之间,或点与点之间都需空一格。如:

Mary Shelley hated tyranny and“looked upon the poor as pathetic victims of the social system and upon the rich and highborn...with undisguised scorn and contempt...(Nitchie 43).

5.若引文出自一部多卷书,除注明作者姓和页码外,还需注明卷号。如:

Professor Chen Jias A History of English Literature aimed to give Chinese readers“a historical survey of English literature from its earliest beginnings down to the 20thcentury”(Chen,1:i).

圆括弧里的1为卷号,小写罗马数字i为页码,说明引文出自第1卷序言(引言、序言、导言等多使用小写的罗马数字标明页码)。此外,书名 A History of English Literature 下划了线;规范的格式是:书名,包括以成书形式出版的作品名(如《失乐园》)均需划线,或用斜体字;其他作品,如诗歌、散文、短篇小说等的标题则以双引号标出,如“To Autumn”及前面出现的“Democratic Vistas”等。

6.如果英语论文中引用了同一作者的两篇或两篇以上的作品,除注明引文作者及页码外,还要注明作品名。如:

Bacon condemned Platoas“an obstacle to science”(Farrington, Philosophy 35).

Farrington points out that Aristotles father Nicomachus, a physician, probably trained his son in medicine(Aristotle 15).

这两个例子分别引用了Farrington的两部著作,故在各自的圆括弧中分别注出所引用的书名,以免混淆。两部作品名均为缩写形式(如书名太长,在圆括弧中加以注明时均需使用缩写形式),其全名分别为 Founder of Scientific Philosophy 及 The Philosophy of Francis Baconand Aristotle。

7.评析诗歌常需引用原诗句,其引用格式如下例所示。

When Beowulf dives upwards through the water and reaches the surface,“The surging waves, great tracts of water, / were all cleansed...”(1.1620-21).

这里,被引用的诗句以斜线号隔开,斜线号与前后字母及标点符号间均需空一格;圆括弧中小写的1是line的缩写;21不必写成1621。如果引用的诗句超过三行,仍需将引用的诗句与论文文字分开(参见第四项第2点内容)。

五、英语论文的文献目录

论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为 Works Cited, 其格式须注意下列几点:

1.目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。

2.目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码;如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码(但必须计算页数),其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。标题Works Cited与打印纸顶端的距离约为2.5cm,与第一条目中第一行的距离仍为0.6cm;各条目之间及各行之间的距离亦为0.6cm,不必留出更多空白。

3.各条目内容顺序分别为作者姓、名、作品名、出版社名称、出版地、出版年份及起止页码等;各条目应严格按各作者姓的首字母顺序排列,但不要给各条目编码,也不必将书条与杂志、期刊等条目分列。

4.各条目第一行需顶格打印,回行时均需缩进五格,以将该条目与其他条目区分开来。

现将部分较为特殊的条目分列如下,并略加说明,供读者参考。

Two or More Books by the Same Author

Brooks, Cleanth. Fundamentals of Good Writing: A

Handbook of Modern Rhetoric. NewYork: Harcourt, 1950.

---The Hidden God: Studies in Hemingway, Faulkner, Yeats,

Eliot, and Warren. New Haven: Yale UP,1963.

引用同一作者的多部著作,只需在第一条目中注明该作者姓名,余下各条目则以三条连字符及一句点代替该作者姓名;各条目须按书名的第一个词(冠词除外)的字母顺序排列。

An Author with an Editor

Shake speare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. Ed. Louis B.

Wright. New York: Washington Square, 1959.

本条目将作者 Shakespeare 的姓名排在前面,而将编者姓名(不颠倒)放在后面,表明引文出自 The Tragedy of Macbeth;如果引文出自编者写的序言、导言等,则需将编者姓名置前,如:

Blackmur, Richard P.Introduction. The Art of the Novel:

Critical Prefaces. By Henry James. New York: Scribners,

1962.vii-xxxix.

如果引言与著作为同一人所写,则其格式如下例所示(By后只需注明作者姓即可):

Emery, Donald. Preface. English Fundamentals. By Emery.

London: Macmillan, 1972.v-vi.

A Multivolume Work

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. 4 vols. London: Faber, 1928.

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. Vol.2. London: Faber, 1928. 4 vols.

第一条目表明该著作共4卷,而论文作者使用了各卷内容;第二条目则表明论文作者只使用了第2卷中的内容。

A Selection from an Anthology

Abram, M. H.“English Romanticism: The Spirit of the Age.”

Romanticism Reconsidered. Ed. Northrop Frye. New

York: Columbia UP,1963.63-88.

被引用的英语论文名须用引号标出,并注意将英语论文名后的句点置于引号内。条目末尾必须注明该文在选集中的起止页码。

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers

Otto, Mary L.“Child Abuse: Group Treatment for Parents.”

Personnel and Guidance Journal 62(1984): 336-48.

报刊杂志名需划线,但其后不需任何标点符号。62为卷号或期号,如既有卷号,又有期号,则要将二者以句号分开。如:(3.3);1984为出版年份,应置于圆括弧中。

Arnold, Marilgn.“Willa Cathers Nostalgia: A Study in

Ambivalance.”Research Studies Mar.1981:23-24,28.

月刊或双月刊须同时注明出版年月;23-24,28表示该文的前一部分刊于第23和24两页,后一部分则转至第28页。

Gorney, Cynthia.“When the Gorilla Speaks.”Washington Post

31 July,1985:B1.

引用日报上的英语论文必须同时注明报纸出版的年、月、日。B1为该文在报纸中的版面及页码。参考文献(略)

小作文测试并不新鲜，从上世纪80年代到现在，小作文已经多少见诸于高考试卷，比如1990年要求描写进入玫瑰园的一对孪生小姑娘的肖像，表现她们的同和异;1991年要求把“圆”想象成除一轮满月之外的另一个“圆”的物体，描写有陪衬物但以圆形物体为主的画面和场景;1993年要求写一段关于圆规的功能、构造和使用方法的说明性文字;1997年上海卷要求考生推荐一部电影(电视剧或戏剧作品);1998年要求根据给出的开头和结尾补写《妈妈只洗了一只鞋》相关内容，综合考查学生对心理、动作、语言等描述能力以及想象能力;2005年重庆卷要求考生以“筷子”为对象写一篇说明文。

微写作字数不是太多，也就二三百字，可以是应用文也可以是说明性、议论性的文段。

纵观高考曾出现的小作文，无论是事理说明文、情境记叙文，还是事物评论文，都有文体的要求，有写作对象(即具体内容)的要求，有表达方式的要求，有表现手法的要求，字数一般是200至350，但都属于“规定动作”，而非“自选动作”，这是高考的公平性所决定的，是考试性质的难度、信度、效度及区分度所决定的，在同一个尺度下，检测考生语文学习的综合能力与素质。

从本质上看来，小作文，其实就是一种语言综合运用题。语言运用题往往又是语基题方面的各种新题型的试验基地，是最值得广大考生关注和训练的。

研究已出现过的小作文，其命题特点是非常明确的，就是字数限定在200字左右，注重单项训练，比如说明训练、描写训练、对话训练、想象训练……具体说来，高考小作文的种类大概有如下一些：

一是说明类：就是要求考生能写简短的

说明文，能够采用说明的表达方式对事物进行简单说明和介绍。具体又可以包括：介绍日常实用物品、介绍一部影视作品、介绍说明漫画的画面内容、介绍一处场所或一种建筑、介绍时令特征等等。介绍日常实用物品，如1993年要求写一段关于圆规的功能、构造和使用方法的说明性文字;2005年重庆卷要求以“筷子”为对象写一篇说明文。介绍一部影视作品，如1997年上海卷要求考生推荐一部电影(电视剧或戏剧作品)。介绍说明漫画的画面内容，如1983年为漫画《这下面没有水》写一段说明性文字，向没有看过这幅画的人介绍画面内容;1996年介绍《给六指做整形手术》和《截错了》两幅漫画的内容。介绍一处场所或一种建筑，如1994年上海卷要求介绍一家街头(或乡间)小店。介绍时令特征，如1996年上海卷要求考生从三个方面介绍初夏的时令特征。

二是描写类。

就是要求考生能够进行各种各样的描写、描述、描绘、描摹等等，能够进行各种各样的想象，和对想象作出描绘等等。具体又可以包括：心理描写、肖像描写、动作描写、语言对话描写、想象联想描写、场景画面描写和综合性的描写等等。心理描写，如1999年上海卷要求以“开考时刻”为题，描写当年高考开考时的心情。肖像描写，如1990年描写进入玫瑰园的一对孪生小姑娘的肖像，要求符合人物的年龄和性格，显示出她们的同和异。动作或行动描写，如1997年描写小新背双腿瘫痪的同学小牧上学的情景，要求以行动描写为重点。语言对话描写，如1995年描写两种小鸟的对话，要求想象合理，必须以对话的方式写。

场景画面描写，如1991年要求把圆想象成除一轮满月之外的另一个物体，然后加上陪衬物，再用文字描述出以圆形物体为主的画面、场景、镜头;1991年“三南”(湖南、云南、海南)卷描述漫画《我从小就知道》的两幅画面的内容，要求内容具体，描写生动;2000年上海卷以“节日小景”为题写一篇短文，要求考生主要采用描写的表达方式来展示节日的一个小场景。综合性描写，如1998年要求根据给出的开头和结尾补写《妈妈只洗了一只鞋》的有关内容，综合考查对肖像、语言(包括对话语气)、神态、心理、动作、细节、景物等的描述能力、想象能力等等。

三是赏析评价类。

就是要求考生能够对某一事物、某种现象、某篇文章等发表评论或加以赏析。具体又可以包括：诗文漫画等赏析、思想评价、事物名称评价、某种活动评价等等。诗文漫画等赏析，如2005年湖南卷将小作文变成了现代文阅读的赏析题目：“从下列题目中任选一个，写一篇300字左右的赏析短文。思想评价，如1992年要求选择所提供材料中的一个或几个人物(包括”我”)的思想行为，进行分析，展开议论，写一篇小议论文。事物名称评价，如1988年上海卷列出几个拟用的文学社名——“新潮”、“阿波罗”、“丑小鸭”、“浅草”，要求写出喜欢其中一个的理由。某种活动评价，如1989年上海卷要求考生就中学生各式各样的竞赛发表自己的看法等等。

四是应用类：就是要求考生们熟悉各种各样的

应用文体，能够拟写各种各样的应用文，如请柬、书信、短信、通讯、消息、广告、通知、摘要、聘书、海报、解说词、

申请书、讲话稿、留言条、欢迎辞、欢送辞、广播稿等等，如1987年要求根据提供的材料写一篇通讯，1990年上海卷要求考生写出在班级举行的一位老教师光荣退休欢送会上自己的欢送辞，1995年上海卷要求就学校里最近举行过的一次活动(运动会、艺术节或主题班会)写一则简短的消息等等。

五是扩缩改写类。

就是要求考生们能够对一些文字或文段进行扩展或压缩，或改写成其他形式的短文等等，如1998年上海卷的小作文是，将冰心的小诗《春水》“墙角的花!你孤芳自赏时，天地便小了”改写成短文，要求根据这首诗的诗意，展开想象，从周围环境、花的性格、全诗寓意等方面，去进行改写。

今后的小作文，会如何命题，命题的走势如何呢?我们的判断是，有继承，也有创新。一方面，将继承以往的形式和内容，具体地说就是，以上所列举的五大类的小作文命题形式，仍然会继承，这是毫无疑问的;另一方面，也会在继承的基础上进行一些创新，比如，创拟哲理笑话、写趣味小品文、写微型小小说、提供情景、氛围等，要求转述;根据中间，补写首尾;把记叙文、散文等转换成诗歌，或把诗歌转换记叙文、散文……

此外，在小作文的备考中，一定要加强各种表达方式的训练。如说明方式，要弄清对象是具体事物、抽象事理，还是事物的形成过程;顺序是以空间、时间为序，还是以逻辑事理为序;语言是平实性说明，还是文艺性说明。如描写方式，要懂得按照对象分为，写景、写人、状物;按手法又可分为，工笔细描和粗笔勾勒;按顺序可，由远到近、由高到低、由大到小、由静到动、由整体到局部等。单就写人而言，要会运用语言描写、肖像描写、神态描写、心理描写、动作描写、细节描写等;单就写景而言，要能充分调动人的感觉器官，从人的听觉、视觉、味觉、嗅觉等方面表现景物的特点，要能充分运用拟人、比喻、对比、夸张、通感等修辞方法，要善于使用对比烘托、动静结合、虚实相生、情景交融等写作技巧。记叙、议论、抒情这几种表达方式，也都应做到分门别类，了如指掌才行。

打好写作基础，练好写句子的基本功，要从把句子写完整、具体、通顺、连贯这几方面做起。下面是小学生写作基础，为大家提供参考。

一、把句子写完整

怎样的句子才算是完整的呢？读读下面的句子：

1.我们劳动。(谁，干什么)

2.小蚂蚁运送食物。(什么，干什么)

3.哥哥是一名少先队员。(谁，是什么)

不难看出：在一般情况下，句子是由两部分组成的，前半部分交代“谁”或“什么”，后半部分交代“做什么”“怎么样”或者“是什么”。前后两部分说全了，句子才算是一句完整的话。

需要强调说明的是：知道什么是完整句，怎样的句子才算完整，这只是一个知识性的问题;落实在行动上，即平日在说每一句话，在写每一句话时，都要认真思考，反复斟酌，提高“完整”意识，不写残缺不全的句子，这才是最重要的。

二、把句子写具体

句子要完整，这是首要的。但在许多时候，句子只做到“完整”是不能准确表达意思的，还要做到“具体”。怎样的句子才算是具体的呢?读读下面这几组句子，体会一下：

第一组：

1、爸爸做工。

2.爸爸在工厂里做工。

分析：第二句写清了爸爸在哪儿做工。

第二组：

1.小蜜蜂飞来。

2.夏日，一只金色的小蜜蜂从远处嗡嗡地飞来。

分析：第二句写清什么时候，有多少，什么样，从哪儿，怎么样。

由上面这两组句子可以看出：在句子主要成分的前面或后面，写清什么时候(时间)、有多少(数量)、在什么地方或从哪儿(地点)、什么样(形状或颜色)、怎么样(态势)、达到什么程度(情境)等，就写清了事物外形特点、活动特点，就把自己要准确表达的意思写出来了，这就叫做把句子写具体。这样的句子就算是完整、具体的句子。

学习把句子写具体，这是一项极为重要的技能，需要同学们抓住人物或事物的特点，准确运用词语，进行持久练习。

三、把句子写通顺

句子通顺，就是句意明白，读得顺口。具体来说，句子通顺包括以下几个方面：

1.用词要准确，经得起推敲。例如：我们把门口的泥土消除掉了。句中，“泥土”不能“消除”，只能“清除”掉。

2.句中词语排列的顺序要合理。例如：正在花上，有几只漂亮的蝴蝶翩翩起舞。这句话改成“有几只漂亮的蝴蝶，正在花上翩翩起舞”,句子就通顺了。

3.词语使用搭配要得当。例如：公园里生长着各种树木和五颜六色的鲜花。句中“生长”和“鲜花”两词搭配不当，应改为“公园里生长着各种树木，盛开着五颜六色的鲜花”。

4.句中各词语的意思不能自相矛盾。例如：我断定他大概是王小刚的哥哥。句中“断定”与“大概”矛盾，应删掉“大概”。

5.关联词语的使用恰到好处。例如：只有天下雨，地才会湿。“下雨”不是“地湿”的唯一条件，因此，第一句应改为：只要天下雨，地就会湿。

6.句意明白，合乎实际，符合情理。例如：博物馆里展出了五千多年前新出土的文物。说“五千多年前新出土的文物”不合实际，应改为：博物馆里展出了新出土的五千多年前的文物。

四、把句子写连贯

连贯，即句子之间连接贯通。显然，把句子写连贯，这是指写几句话(又叫“句群”)来说的。

翻开某些同学的作文本，段落中上下句不连贯的现象比比皆是，主要表现在：句子之间无顺序，承接不紧密，跨度大;上下句之间，被描述的对象(即“主语”)重复出现，不会运用“他(她)”或者“它”这些人称代词。怎样才能做到把句子写连贯呢?

1.合理安排顺序，使句子连贯。

有顺序，这是写几句意思连贯的话的最基本的要求。这就要求我们，在写几句话时，一定不能东一句、西一句，想到哪儿就写到哪儿;总要围绕既定的中心意思，按照一定的顺序，把相关的句子组织在一起，使句子前后连贯。

2.学会运用“他(她)”或“它”这些人称代词，使句子连贯。

读读下面这段话，想一想，有什么毛病，怎样说才好：

妈妈的衣袖破了。妈妈赶忙从抽屉里拿出一个小布包。妈妈先从布包里拿出一根针，一根青线，用牙咬了咬线头，把线头穿过针眼。妈妈又从布包里找出一小块布，贴在破了的地方，然后一针一线地缝起来。

读后，大家一定会发现：这几句话写的对象是妈妈，主要写的是妈妈缝补衣服时所作的准备工作，是按事情经过的先后顺序排列的。只是由于这四句话的开头重复出现“妈妈”一词，因此读起来显得很拗口。如果把后面三句开头中的“妈妈”改成“她”字，这几句话就连贯多了。

这就告诉我们：在几个句子里，如果写的是同一个人物(或事物)，后面再指这个人物(或事物)时，就可以用“他(她)”或“它”来代替。

一、LETTER(书信)

书信通常由信头、信内地址、称呼、正文、谦称和签名六个部分构成。

1.从信纸中偏右处向右写发信人的地址和写信日期。由小到大，分数行书写，同一行的两部分之间用逗号隔开。顺序为：门牌号→楼号→街名→城镇名→省名→邮政编码→国名(在寄往国外时)。美国人常采用左边开头式;英国人常采取每行逐渐向右缩进式。注意要把地址写在上面，日期写在下面，每个词的首字母要大写。日期的写法与日记中日期写法相同。

2.从信纸的左上方比信头(发信人的地址和写信日期)低1—2行处顶格写收信人姓名、地址，常采用齐头式，姓名在上，地址在下，写法同发信人地址。若是私人信函，这一部分可省略不写。

3.称呼要从信纸左边顶格写起，其位置低于信头和信内地址。对不熟悉的女性用Dear Madam，Dear Ladies，作称呼语;对不熟悉的男性用Dear Sir，Dear Sirs，作称呼语;对所熟悉的人用Dear Tom，Dear Mary，即：在Dear后直写其名作称呼语;对有地位头衔的人用“Dear+ 头衔+姓”作为称呼语，如：Dear Editor Kang，Dear Doctor Li，Dear Professor Zhao，对一般人用Dear Mr Lin，Dear Ms Li，Dear Miss Liu。即：在Dear后加尊称加姓氏作为称呼语。美国人在称呼语后用冒号，英国人用逗号。

4.正文是信的主体。一般在称呼下一行顶格写起，从第二段起，在起首处空4—6个字母的距离。书信可根据表达的需要，灵活选用时态。起首语常用：(1)Your letter came to me this afternoon.(2)Im very glad to receive your letter.(3)Your letter reached me yest erday.(4)I have the pleasure to tell you that…(5)Im glad to tell you that…(6) I was shocked to learn that…(7)Thank you for writing to me.(8)Thanks for your lett er .It was lovely to hear from you.结束语常用：(1)Please remember me to…(2)With be st wishes to your family.(3)I wish to inform you that…(4)Please write soon.(5)I m ust stop writing now，as I have rather a lot of work to do.(6)Wish you the best of s uccess.(7)Wish you the best of health.(8)Give my best wishes to …

5.结尾的谦称是在正文下面，信纸中间偏右所写的客套语。第一个字母要大写，末尾用逗号。北美洲的国家常把yours放在后边，欧洲国家常把yours放在前边。写给上级、长者、位尊者常用：Yours respectfully，Respectfully yours，Yours，Very respectfully，Yours sincerely，Sincerely yours;写给不认识的人时常用：Yours truly，Yours faithfully;写给朋友时常用：Yours lovely;Yours，Yours ever;写给亲属和挚友时常用：Your loving daughter，Your loving son，Yours，Yours affectionately.

6.签名一般写在谦称下一行偏右，使尾字母与谦称尾字母对齐。

7.范文请参阅：NMET1995书面表达;JEFCⅡ-Unit 16;SEFC1A-Unit 1。

8.书信除按以上格式书写之外，现在英美人士常把书信的六个部分，按照顺序一律从信纸左边顶格写完六个部分，且用的人越来越多。

二、DIARY(日记)

日记是用来记述一天生活中发生的重要事情及感受的文体。

1.在纸的左上角顶格写星期和日期。星期在左，常用Sunday，Monday，Tuesday，Wednesday，T hursday，Friday，Saturday。日期在右，美国人习惯上先写月，再写日，最后写年。如：October 20，1998。英国人习惯上先写日，再写月，最后写年;如：20 June 1998。

2.在纸的右上角写天气。表示天气情况时常用Bright，Clear，Sunny，Fine(晴);Cloudy(多云);Rainy(雨);Overcast(阴);Foggy(雾);Windy(风);Hot(热);Haily(冰雹);Sh ower(阵雨);Warm(暖和);Thundering(雷雨);Snowy(雪);Fog(雾)。

3.日记的小标题写在第二行，也可省略。

4.正文第一段常顶格书写，也可不顶格写。日记记述的是当天或前一天发生过的事情，所以，日记常用一般过去时写。

5.若要表达自己的感受、想法，针对某件事发表议论，进行说理，或者为了抒情、描景写人生动，则用一般现在时。

6.范文请参阅：JEFCⅡ-Unit 27;SEFC1A-Unit 14;SEFC1A《同步听力》p.49;NMET1992和N MET1998书面表达;JEFCⅢ-Unit 23。

三、CARDS OF CONGRATULATION(贺卡)

贺卡是逢年过节，向亲朋好友表示祝贺的最方便的方式。贺卡可分为圣诞卡、贺年卡、教师节贺卡及纪念日卡等等，写法格式通常有两种。一种由称呼、贺词、祝贺人签名三部分构成 ，另一种用短信代替卡片。

1.称呼是指祝贺人对受贺人的称呼，一般从卡片的左上方写起。常用：To dear+受贺人称谓，To+受贺人称谓，也可以省略前边的to，称呼后用逗号。如：To dear teacher，Mr and Mrs Mike

2.贺词是向受贺人表达良好祝愿的话。一般写在称呼下一行，句首可与称呼语齐头，也可以向右空出4—6个字母。写贺年片时常用：(1)May the New Year be a happy one for you all!(2)Best wishes to the four of you for a prosperous and Happy New Year!(3)Happy New Year to you!(4)A Happy New Year!(5)Wish to see more of you next year!(6)Best wishes for a bright New Year!(7)Youll have a very Happy New Year!(8)Let me wish you and your family a Happy and Healthy New Year!(9)I do hope this finds you well with a Happy New Year ahead!(10)I wish you the Happiest Possible New Year!写教师节贺卡时常用：(1)Happy Teachers Day!(2)Good Luck!(3)Best wishes!(4)We hope youll have a very happy year in our class.(5)Thank you for teaching us so well.(6)With our best wishes for TeachersDay.(7)Hope you are having a very Pleasant Day.(8)Hope it will bring you Good Health and Happiness.(9)I am thinking of you often.(10)All my family joins me in wishing you health and happiness.写圣诞卡时常用：(1)A Merry Christmas!(2)I wish you a Merry Christmas!(3)Hope you have a very Good Christmas!( 4)May this Christmas be your Merriest!(5)We send our love to all of you and the hope that youll have a Merry Christmas!(6)Hope youll have a very merry Christmas!( 7) Merry Christmas!(8)A merry Christmas to you.(9)A Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year!(10)Best wishes to you for a Prosperous and Merry Christmas!写生日贺卡时常用：(1)Happy birthday to you!(2)Happy birthday!(3)With Best Wishes for a Happy Brithday!

3.祝贺人签名一般写在贺卡的右下方，把from常常加在姓名前，也可以省略from。如：From your student Liu Zhong，From Mr and Mrs White，Your loving son Lei，Your students，

4.贺卡也可以用短信形式书写，在逢年过节或者特别纪念日，把贺词连同你的近况等写成短信，寄给亲朋好友。

范文请参阅：JEFCⅠ-99;JEFCⅢ-Unit 1;JEFCⅢp.97。

四、NOTICE(通知)

通知又称通告或布告，是上级对下级、组织对成员部署工作、传达事情、召开会议所使用的一种文体。

1.通知的第一行正中写发出通知的单位名称，发出通知的单位名称还可以写在正文下方的右侧，也可以把单位省略不写。

2.把NOTICE写在正文上方正中的位置。

3.正文是通知的内容，是通知的主体。要简明扼要地把通知的对象、事由、时间、地点及内容写清楚，语言应简洁明了，条理清晰，要求明确，常用一般现在时和一般将来时写。

4.在正文下方的左侧写出通知的日期，日期也可省略不写。

5.广播通知和口头通知，在开头要用称呼语，常用的称呼语有：(1)Boys and Girls，(2)De ar friends，(3)Ladies，(4)Dear ladies，(5)Gentlmen，(6)Ladies and gentlmen，(7)Comrades，常把称呼语从左侧顶格书写，在后面用逗号或冒号。

6.常用的正文开头用语有：(1)May I have your attention，please?(2)Attention，please !I have something to tell you.(3)Attention，please!I have an announcement to make.(4)Attention，please!I have good news for you all.(5)Attention please，everyone!

7.常用的正文结尾用语有：(1)Thats all!Thank you!(2)Please be there on time.(3)E ver yone is welcome.(4)Dont be late，will you?(5)Thank you for your attention.(6)Don t be late!(7)Dont forget，will you?(8)We must get there on time.(9)I hope all of you will have a good time.

8.在正文中常用的句式有：(1)It has been decided that well visit…(2)We have dec ided that well pay a visit to…(3)Well have a talk from…to…(4)Professor Liu will give us a talk on…(5)The football star will give us a lecture on…(6)You are r equired to come on time.(7)A lecture will be given by….(8)There will be a visit to …(9)A talk will be given by…(10)I’m sure well learn a lot of things from it. (11)It will be given in…(12)Youd better take your valuables with you.

9.范文请参阅：SEFC1A-Unit 6;NMET1989高考书面表达答案;NMET1994高考书面表达答案。

五、MESSAGE(留言条)

留言条是转达事情所使用的一种便条。

1.若拿起电话听筒，对方要找的人未在场时，你可以签写一张留言条。正中上方写TELEPHONE MESSAGE，在左边的“From”：后签对方的姓名，在右边的“To”：后签要找的人的姓名，在左边的 “Date”：后写接电话的日期，在右边的“Time”：后写接电话的时间。在“Message”：后写所要通知的事情，这部分是主体，写清人物、时间、地点和事由。在右下边的Signature：后签写留言条人的姓名。

2.留言条也可以把“FROM：”、“TO：”、“DATE：”、“MESSAGE：”按顺序从上到下顶格齐头排列，把“TIME：”写在“DATE：”的后边，省略“SIGNATURE：”。

3.在MESSAGE：后常写的句式有：(1)He wants to see you as soon as possible.(2)He w ould like to meet you…(3)Be sure to call…(4)She wants to meet…

4.若要找某人安排工作、通知会议等，当要找的人不在时，写一张内容简短的书信，右上边写日期，第二行从左边顶格写称呼，第三行从左边起写正文，在正文右下方签名。

5.范文请参阅：JEFCⅢ-Unit 10。

六、WRITTEN REQUEST FOR LEAVE(请假条)

请假条是日常生活和工作中，临时遇到一些事情或因生病等需要请假，给主管部门的负责人所写的简便字据。格式与书信格式大致相同，在纸的第一行右边写请假日期，在第二行左边顶格写称呼语，称呼语后用逗号。在第三行左边起首处空4—6个字母的距离，开始写正文。内容、事由、时间写清就行。在正文下偏右处写谦称，在谦称下写姓名。

1.写请假条时常用语有：(1)Im sorry I cant come to school because…(2)My grandm ot her is seriously ill. There is no one at home…(3)I have got a high fever and cough badly…(4)Im writing to ask for sick leave of one day.(5)I cant go to school be cause I have got a cold.(6)Please give an extension of leave for two days.(7)I have to go to Xian tomorrow because…(8)I have got things to do this afternoon.Im writing to ask for leave…(9)I want to ask for…leave.

2.若请病假，常在假条后附医生建议书。

七、POSTAL TELEGRAM(电报)

电报是与外地进行紧急通讯交流的有效手段，是准确传递信息的有效途径，是一种对文字力求精炼、准确与简明的文体。

1.正上方的空白栏由邮局营业员填写。如：报费、流水号码、记账号码、原来号码、发出时间、营业员、值机员、报类、字数、发出局名和日期时间。

2.电文第一行在左边顶格写称呼，常直呼其名，一般要大写，不要标点符号。

3.电文第二行和第三行写收报人的地址。

4.从第四行左边顶格写正文，正文全文都用大写字母，有时也可以把各词的第一个字母大写。一般只写实词，虚词常常省略。电文控制在10个字以内最为节约。

5.电文中常用动词不定式表示要求对方行动，用现在分词表示自己的行为。

6.常用电文有：(1)Send Money Soon〈速汇款〉(2)Arriving Home Safely(3)Best Wishes on Your Birthday〈谨贺生日愉快〉(4)Mother Illness Critical Return Soonest〈母病危速归〉(5)Unable Return Sunday Giving Date Later(6)Urgent Business Return Immediately(7)Send if Found Bag(8)Why Unmoney(9)Arriving 9∶00 Morning Can You Meet(10)Express Sorrow For Your Mothers Death〈惊闻令堂仙逝不胜悲痛〉

7.在正文右下方署名。

八、CERTIFICATE OF MERIT(奖状)

奖状是给获胜者及取得显著成绩的工作者所颁发的荣誉证明。

1.在奖状正中上方用大写字母写CERTIFICATE OF MERIT。

2.在奖状左上方顶格写To及获奖者姓名，姓名后用逗号。

3.在姓名下右边空4—6个字母处开始写获奖原由。

4.把发奖单位写在原由下左边，注意要顶格写，各单词首字母要大写。

5.把发奖日期写在发奖单位下边，注意要从左边顶格写起。

6.范文：

CERTIFICATE OF MERIT

To Zhao Xin，

In the English competition of this year，you have won remarkable success. For enc ouragement this certificate is hereby given.

Guanshan Middle School

November 10，1999

九、WELCOMING SPEECH(欢迎词)

欢迎词是在接待客人等正式场合中使用的一种文体。一般由称呼语、正文和结束语构成。正文中对客人的来访表示欢迎，简介客人情况并向客人作自我介绍，概括叙述所要从事的活动。主题要写明确，感情真挚;条理要清;语言力求通俗、简洁、准确。

1.称呼语写在第一行左边，顶格书写。客人是人时常用：(1)Dear Miss…(2)Dear Mr…(3) Dea r Mrs…(4)Dear sir，(5)Dear Madame，(6)Dear…客人是多人时常用：(1)Dear comrades，( 2)Dear friends，(3)Dear ladies，(4)Dear gentlemen，(5)Ladies and gentlemen，(6)Boys and girls，(7)Dear comrades and friends，

2.写正文时常用句式有：(1)We thank you for your accepting our invitation to come here.(2)You are warmly welcome to our…(3)First of all，Ill introduce our…to you. (4)Now our friend is going to give us a talk on…(5)We hope you will have a nice time during your stay here.(6)I hope you will enjoy yourself.(7)Id like to express our thanks for your coming…(8)Now let me invite our friends to speak to us.(9) We feel very much honoured to have a chance to get together with…(10)First of all ， on behalf of all present here，allow me to give our warm welcome to our distingui shed guest.

3.结束语写在正文下，从左边空4—6个字母的距离处写起。常用语有：“Thank you!”“Le ts welcome…to speak to us.”;“I wish you have a good time.”;“Let us invite …to speak to us.”

十、FOUND(招领启事)

招领启事是一种公告性的应用文。由日期、启事正文、拾物人姓名构成。

1.在纸正上方中间写FOUND。

2.在右上方写日期。

3.在左边空4—6个字母的距离处起首写正文。常用句式有：(1)A wallet was left in the … (2)Will the owner pleasering…(3)I happened to find…(4)Loser is expect to come to…(5)I found…on…

4.拾物人姓名署在右下角。

5.范文请参阅：SEFC1B-Unit 18。

十一、LOST(寻物启事)

寻物启事一般由标题、正文、结束语及署名构成，是一种公告性的文体。

1.在纸的正中上方写标题LOST。

2.正文从左边写起，写清丢失物名、丢失时间、丢失地点，描述物品特征及联系方式。写正文时常用的句式有：(1)A bag with a wallet， left in…(2)I lost…(3)Will the finder please come to…(4)On…，I lost…with…(5)At…I left my…in…

3.在正文右下方用感谢语作结束语。

4.寻物人姓名署在左下角。

5.范文请参阅：SEFC1B-Unit 18。

十二、BILL(单据)

单据包括借条、收条和领条。是日常生活中向别人因手续上的需要而写的简短凭证。单据应写明事情和与事情相关的原因、人称、地点、时间和数量。

1.在单据左上方写日期。

2.在单据右顶格写“To+所借物主姓名”，另起一格写“I owe you+物品名称only”，常用 “I.O.U”代替“I owe you.”。

3.在左下角写借物人姓名。

4.领条和收条常在日期下一格右边空4—6个字母的距离处起首写Received from+姓名…。在右下方写收件人姓名及单位，在单位前常加For。

5.范文：

(1)借条

November 20，1999

To Zhang Ping

I.O.U.one hundred yuan(￥100)only.

Chang Ming

(2)收条

November 10，1999

Received from Li Hua 500 yuan for tuition.

Qiao Hongsheng

十三、INTRODUCTION OF CHARACTERS(人物介绍)

人物介绍是把某人的性格特征、工作业绩及爱憎感情通过报刊杂志进行宣传的文件。

1.把标题写在纸上方正中位置。

2.介绍人物的生平和事迹按照事情发生的先后顺序描写。一般按出生、童年、事业与兴趣、成绩等安排材料。

3.介绍人物时的常用句式有：(1)Charle Chaplin is considered one of the greatest and funniest actors in the history of the cinema.(2)He was born in London in 1889.(3)At the age of eight， he joined a group of child dancers.(4)As early as his second film， Chaplin had developed his own manner of acting， the one that was to become world?famous.(5)Mart in Luther King，Jr.， who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964，was an important political leader in the USA.(6)He had fair hair and blue eyes.(7)Joe Hill was a tall，thin，good?looking man.(8)She was a young woman who was studying art.(9)He became famous for his new theory.(10)We regard Ding Ding as our model.(11)People spoke highly of her and all respeced her.(12)She is fond of art. (13)He was interested in the theory.(14)One of the pioneers of farming was Jia Sixie.(15)When he was a child he was always trying out new ideas.

4.范文请参阅：JEFCⅢ-Unit 11;SEFC1A-Unit 13;SEFC1B-Unit 24;SEFC2A-Unit 5;SEFC2B -Unit 13;SEFC2B-Unit 19。

十四、INSTRUCTION(须知)或(说明)

须知是日常生活中，安排工作时要求工作人员应明确的事项及应注意的问题所应用的一种文体。

1.把标题一般写在纸的上方正中，每个字母均要大写，也可以把标题从上方左边顶格书写，字母大字。

2.正文常用数词标明，逐条写明应明确的事项和应注意的问题，条理要清楚，内容要准确，解释要科学、客观。

3.正文还可以从左边顶格起首分层次叙述。

4.正文常用句式是祈使句和简单句。

5.范文请参阅：JEFCⅢ-Unit 18;SEFC1B-Unit 16。

十五、RÉSUMÉ(履历表)

履历表是个人对自己的姓名、身份、学历和经历等情况作自我介绍时所填写的表格。

1.表格上方正中写有RÉSUMÉ。

2.表中项目从左边顶格依次向下排列。在“Name in Full：”后填姓名，在“Date of Birt h：”后填出生年月日，在“Place of Birth：”后填出生地点，在“Education：”后填学历，分时段填明，在“Permanent Address：”后填永久通讯地址，在“Health：”后填健康状况，在“Sex：”后填性别，在“Marital Status：”后填婚姻状况，在“Honours and Awards： ”后填受奖情况，在“Working Experience：”后填工作简历。

3.填写原则是客观、准确。

4.范文请参阅NMET1996书面表达答案。

十六、FAREWELL SPEECH(欢送词)

欢送词是欢送客人时的致辞。一般由称呼语、正文和结束语构成。

1.称呼语从纸上方第一行左边顶格起首。若欢送的是一个人，常用“Dear Mr…，”;“Dear Miss…，”;“Dear Doctor…，”;“Dear Mrs…”等等。若欢送的人多，常用“Dear friends，”;“Dear ladies and gentlemen，”;“Dear comrades and friends，”;“Dear boys and girls”等等。

2.正文在称呼语下，从左边空出4—6个字母的距离处起首。常用句式有(1)Today we gather here to have a send?off meeting.(2)Dr.Ge is going to leave his post and return to Xian.(3)He is loved and respected by us all.(4)We thank him very much for his wo nderful work.(5)We hope youll have a nice time.(6)Miss Di will leave for Beijing.(7)We wish her a pleasant journey and good health.(8)May the friendship between our two cities last for ever.(9)Well take this chance to ask Mr White to convey our friendship to the British people.(10)We are happily gathered here to give Professor Kang a warm send?off.(11)To our great joy， we are gathered here to give Mr Smith a warm seeing?off.(12)We will give a warm send?off to Miss Li going to visit Xian.(13)Dr Zhang is going to leave for home today.(14)Professor Lius visit to Xian is short but very successful.(15)In saying good?bye to him，we sincerely hope that hell have a good health.

3.结束语常另起一行，在正文下用“Thank you!”等表示谢意。

十七、POSTER(海报)

海报是向公众作广告宣传的文体。内容包括节目表、影讯、报告会、联欢会、球讯等。

1.节目表常在正上方用大写名称，在左边写Items， Items下方逐一列出节目名称，右边写P erformed by，并在下方逐一列出表演者。

2.节目表常用语有：(1)Solo：(独唱)(2)Chorus：(合唱)(3)Folk song：(民歌)(4)Comic dialogue：(相声)(5)Skit：(短剧)(6)Folk dance：(民间舞蹈)(7)Ballet：(芭蕾)(8)Peacock Dance：(孔雀舞)。

3.影讯常在正上方中间写Film Show;从左边写Name of the film：冒号右边写上上映的片名，如：Laugh Laugh Laugh;在左边另起一行写“Time”：冒号右边写映出时间，如：October 10，10∶00 PM;从左边另起一格写“Place：”冒号右边写上映地点，如：Peoples Cinema.在“Face：”后写票价;在“Ticket Office：”后写售票地点。

4.球讯常在正上方中间写“Basketball Match”;“Football Match”;“Friendly Basket ball Match”等，有时在上边写有“POSTER”。在第二行中间写比赛队名称，如：ClassⅡ vs .ClassⅢ(注：vs.=versus对);在第三行左边顶格写“Time：”，在后写比赛时间，如：6∶00 PM.Monday;在第四行左边写“Place：”在后写比赛地点。球讯也可以在醒目的标题下 ，用简炼文字叙述清比赛队名、时间、地点等，在右下方写明举办单位，在左下方顶格写出海报的日期。

5.报告会常在海报正上方中间写“Talk”，从第二行左边顶格起首写“Speaker：”在后边写报告人姓名;第三行顶格写“Subject：”在后边写报告的专题名称;第四行顶格写“Time ：”后边写清具体时间，第五行顶格写“Place：”后边写报告会地点。

6.联欢会、报告会、音乐会主持人常用语有：(1)The program is about to begin.(2)Att ention，please?(3)Ladies and gentlemen，may I have your attention，please?(4)Have your seat，everyone.(5)We heartly welcome…to join in our party.(6)We are very much honoured to have many teachers as our guests.Among them are…(7)Now the concert begins.(8)Now the talk begins.Take your seat，everyone.(9)No more talking，please.

十八、INVITATIONS(请柬)

请柬是正式社交场合采用的简短邀请信函。

1.第一行正中是邀请人的姓名;第二行常写request the pleasure of(恭请…光临);第三行写被邀请人姓名;第四行写活动内容;第五行写日期;第六行写时间;第七行写地点，第八行在左边顶格写R.S.V.P(请赐回音;请答复)在右下边可以写上电话号码。

2.请柬还可以用文字叙述清楚内容。复函时常在上方正中写“Accepting the above Invit ation”，在第二行右边写复函日期;在第三行左边顶格起首写称呼语，从第四行起写正文，格式与书信相同，右下角为谦称。

十九、PLACE OF INTRODUCTION(地点介绍)

地点介绍是对某一地方的自然环境、现在、过去及未来的情况进行描述，向大众展示该地区风貌的文体。

1.写地点介绍时，把标题写在正上方。

2.描写常按照空间位置，由近及远依次描写，也可以先总体描述后局部描述，描写时要抓住中心点和特色。叙述不同时间发生的事情要用不同的时态，用好被动语态和there be 句型。

3.地点介绍常用的句式有(1)Its to the north of England.(2)Its in the east of Shaanxi.(3)Its on the west of Shaanxi.(4)It lies south of France.(5)The city is separated by the river.(6)It is made up of four buildings.(7)It is famous for its beautiful countryside.(8)The city lies on the river.(9)It is divided into two parts.(10)The weather here is neither too cold in winter nor too hot in summer.(11)They lived mainly on potatoes.(12)The library was set up in 1997.(13)Our school has a library with books，newspapers and magazines.(14)The house used to be a temple.(15)Mountain Li is famous for its beauty.(16)It is a place where the famous men can spend their spare time.(17)In front of it is a garden.(18) In the middle of the city stands a bell tower.(19)It covers a n area 2578 square kilometers with a population of 1.26 million.(20)There are three famous parks in and around the city.

4.范文请参阅：SEFC1A-Unit 22，MET1990高考书面表达参考答案。

二十、SAFETY IN THE HOME(家庭安全公约)

家庭安全公约是家庭每个成员必须去做的成文规定。

1.在正中或从左边顶格写SAFETY IN THE HOME。

2.从第2行左边顶格起首向下依次写“POISONS：”、“FIRES：”、“ELECTRICITY：”、“GAS FIRES：”、“COOKING：”、“LADDERS：”、“WATER：”、“THINGS IN MOUTH： ”，在各栏目后用 祈使句写清务必要做到的事项。

3.范文请参阅：SEFC2A-Unit 8。

记叙文是以写人、记事、状物为主要内容，以叙述和描写为表达方式的文章。

以写人为主的记叙文，应该注意肖像描写、行动描写、语言描写、心理描写以及对细节的描写，考生应根据写作的要求，灵活掌握，突出重点。

以写事为主的记叙文，应该注意交待六要素(时间、地点、人物、事件、原因、结果)，应该注意描写先后顺序以及记事的相对完整，注意把握好事情的开始、发展、高潮及结局。

以与景为主的记叙文，应该注意景物的主要特征，景物描写的层次，以及人与物的情感交融。

记叙文写作要点如下：

1. 明确写作目的和叙述的中心思想，段落叙述始终围绕着主题而展开，避免空间的叙述和与主题无关的内容。

2. 一篇好叙述文需要直接或间接表达以下六个问题，即：when?该事发生的时间， where?该事发生的地点，who?人物角色是谁，what?发生的是什么事，why?该事发生的原因，以及how?事件的结果是如何造成的等等。

3. 一篇记叙文，无论长短如何都应该是一个完全独立的事实，因此，在下笔时必须明确：该从何处开始叙述，该在何处结束叙述，以及应该提供何种事实才能使叙述完整。

4. 写作顺序可以采用“顺叙”、“倒叙”和“穿插叙述”的方法，但初学者最好采用“顺叙”的方法进行训练，以情节发生时间的先后为序。

记叙文高考指引

记叙文是高考书面表达中比较常用的一种形式。

1)记叙文要写作者比较了解的人或事物。

2)仔细审题，看准题目要求，确定文章的主题。文章的内容、结构、层次及所用语言都应围绕主题进行。

3)具体详细地描述。要使文章有说服力，叙述就必须繁简疏密相间。详细具体的描写有助于读者对所叙述的人物或事件等有个深刻的印象。

4)写作时要避免句子单调、毫无花样。这就要求写作时长短句结合，注意衔接词的运用。

5)叙述要生动。要使文章叙述生动，具有吸引力，必须请注意词汇的选择，时态的运用以及上下文的一致问题。词语的运用应注意是否恰当、通顺、简洁和准确。时态的运用应注意上下文的相关性、连续性，要与表达的内容一致。

6)叙述的顺序。大多数情况下叙述都是按照事情的发展及时间的先后进行的，但有时也可以采用其它顺序，如倒叙、插叙等。

7)人称。一般说来，记叙文用第一人称或第三人称来叙述。用第一人称叙述的优点是：文章比较生动、形象，使读者有身临其境的感觉，因而加强了故事的真实感和感染力。其缺点是，描写的范围受到限制。一篇文章中，由于角色的变化，人称也要随之而变，但应注意前后一致性。

导语：中学经常接触到三种题材的写作，分别是记叙文，说明文，议论文，下面小编带来三种文体的知识口诀，一起来看看吧!

一、记叙文知识点

时间地点和人物，主要人物中心定;(中心：中心思想)

起因经过和结果，记叙要素要分清;

记叙顺序有四种，顺插倒补看事情;(顺插倒补：顺叙、插叙、倒叙、补叙)

第一人称以我写，局外人写三人称;

表达方式有五种，叙议抒描和说明;(叙议抒描：记叙、议论、抒情、描写)

人物描写有四种，肖像动作和言心;(言心：语言描写和心理活动描写)

环境描写记分明，社会自然要分清;

记叙文体多线索，时空物人和感情;(时空物人：时间、空间、事物和人物)

抑扬对比和陪衬，象征手法加拟人。(抑扬：先抑后扬和先扬后抑;手法：写作手法)

二、说明文知识点

给人知识说明文，介绍事物阐事理;

基本要求抓特征，多用方法来表意;(特征：事物的特征;方法：说明方法)

图表数字和举例，诠释分类下定义;(画图表、列数字、举例子、作诠释、分类别)

还有比较和比方，阅读写作要注意;(作比较、打比方)

说明顺序只三种，时间空间和逻辑;

说明语言要准确，简洁平实求浅易;

总分并列和递进，说明结构细分析。(总分：包括总分关系、总分总关系和分总关系)

三、议论文知识点

表明观点和主张，以理服人议论文;

观点态度要鲜明，论据一定要充分;

例证引证和喻证，对比论证要分明;(四种论证方法)

提出问题是引证，分析问题即本论;

解决问题是结论，议论结构须分清;

议论语言要准确，更是要求严密性。

散文是指以文字为创作、审美对象的文学艺术体裁，是文学中的一种体裁形式。小编收集了散文写作基础，欢迎阅读。

一、精于立意

“凡文以意为主”。散文的“意”是存在于深厚的生活土壤和浩瀚的生活海洋中的。要获得它，必须依靠我们对生活的深入观察、感受、理解。因此，散文立意只要从生活实际出发，凭着鲜明的感受，锋锐的观察能力，同人民同时代共同跳动的脉博，深厚的感情，丰富的想象，深沉的思索，就会感到我们生活中洋溢着的诗意。这诗意，就是使我们心灵受到触动的东西，使我们眼睛豁然开朗的东西，思想突然升华的东西，感情更为纯洁的东西，它就诗的灵感。我们要为自己的散文立意就要赶紧捕捉住它。因为这里面有心灵的颤动，思想的闪光。刘白羽说：“哪怕是微弱的闪耀也比没有闪耀要好，这才不是一般的照相，这才是文 学。”(《早晨的太阳》序)

譬如，一个作家去看茶花，品种繁多，美不胜收的茶花引起了他的思索：“茶花是美啊。凡是生活中美的事物都是劳动创造的。是谁白天黑夜、积年累月，拿自己的汗水浇着花，象抚育自己儿女一样抚育着花秧，终于培养出这样绝色的好花?应该感谢那为我们美化生活的人。”这就是思想的闪耀，作家十分宝贵它，就及时把这个意思记下来。后来，他听一位花匠介绍一种茶花说：“这叫童子面，花期迟，刚打开骨朵，开起来颜色深红，倒是最好看的。” 并没有引起思索，但他是记住这种茶花的名称的。过了一会，恰巧一群小孩也来看茶花，这事引起了作家的注意，他看见孩子们一个个仰着鲜红的小脸，甜蜜蜜地笑着，唧唧喳喳叫个不休，心灵猛然一颤，不禁脱口说出：“童子面茶花开了。”而花匠听了这话省悟后说：“真的呢，再没有比这种童子面更好看的茶花了。”这话使得一个念头突然跳出他的脑海，他说：“我得到一幅画的构思。如果用最浓最艳的朱红画一大朵含露乍开的童子面茶花，岂不正可以象征着祖国的面貌?”于是，作家就把看茶花引起的感受、思索写成一篇文情并茂的散文《茶花赋》。这个作家就杨朔。而读者、评论者通过阅读就可以悟出作家写此文的立意：歌 颂如花的祖国，歌颂美化祖国的劳动人民。

二、善于构思

构思是写作者对生活素材进行去粗取精、去伪存真、由此及彼、由表及里的加工、提炼的过程。写作者要在构思中为散文的思想内容寻找尽量完美的艺术形式，使思想性与艺术性达到和谐的统一。因此，构思要解决立意、选材、创造意境、确定体裁、基本手法、布局谋篇等问题。这里着重讲讲确定体裁、寻找线索、创造意境三个问题。

第一、确定体裁。散文的体裁灵活多样。我们有了一个好的意思(思想)，并且选取了表现这一意思(思想)的材料，那么就要考虑：是写成书信体，还是写成日记体?是写成随笔，还是写成偶感?是写成游记，还是写成回忆录?是写成序或跋，还是写成读后感?确定具体体裁的原则是内容决定形式，形式为内容服务。譬如到苏州旅游之后，你感到要向父母报告一下自己的游踪和观感，你就可以写成书信;你在游玩中遇到一些使你感动的人或事，你就可以写随笔、漫录;你在游玩虎丘、狮子林、寒山寺、西园、留园等地之后，觉得寒山寺的钟特别吸引人，并引起你的遐思，你就可以写成如《社稷坛抒情》那样诗意浓郁的抒情文;你如果是旧地重游，吃到苏州某种土特产而忆起往事，则可以偏重于回忆，写成《小米的回忆》那样的回忆式的散文……总之，要根据立意内容来确定表现形式——具体的体裁。

第二、寻找线索。散文的材料应该是很“散”的，每一个材料都是一颗珍珠，但这些珍珠互相之间有内在的联系，我们写作者要寻找一根线，用笔作针，将这些散乱的珍珠穿起来，成为一串光彩夺目的珠圈、项链。那末，有哪些东西可以作为线索呢?一是感情线索。我们的感情在生活中发生变化，如由厌恶到喜爱，或从喜欢到厌恶，就可以用这条感情的线索把一些似乎没有关联的材料联结起来。如杨朔写《荔枝蜜》就是利用感情线索，才把儿时记忆、从化疗养、荔枝树林、苏轼诗词、喜尝蜂蜜、参观蜂场、赞扬蜜 蜂、农民劳动和夜晚梦蜂等事串连起来的。

二是事物线索。如曹靖华在日常生活中感受到：今天仍然需要发扬延安时期“小米加步枪”的艰苦奋斗精神，就搜罗记忆中有关小米的往事，用小米把发生在不同地点、不同时间、不同情况下的事件组合在一起。许多托物咏志的散文也是以物为线索的，如冰心的《樱花赞》。

三是人物线索。如写某一个人物在不同时间、不同地点的活动，可以用这个人物作为线索串连起来，也可以用另一个人物把不同时间、不同地点、不同人物、不同内容的事物串连起来。这个人物还可以是写作者本人——“我”。

四是思绪线索。如面对某一事物、景物沉思遐想，“鹜趋八极，心游万仞”，“观古今于须臾，抚四海于一瞬”，“笼天地于形内，挫万物于笔端”。就能通过联想与想象，把有关的材料组织在一起，表达原定的主题思想。如秦牧的《土地》、杨朔的《海市》、贾平凹的《丑 石》等。

五是景物线索。“一切景语皆情语也”。通过景物描写，在写景中融进写作者的思想感情。

如《天山景物记》、《西湖即景》。

六是行动线索。如游记以游程行踪为线索。刘白羽写《长江三日》就以游程为主线来写，当然，全文还有一条哲理性的思绪线索：“战斗——航进——穿过黑夜走向黎明”。

“文无定法”，散文的线索很多，以上六种线索是较为人们常用的。

第三、创造意境。散文的意境是情和景的交融，是意和境的统一，是作者浸透了时代精神的主观感情、意志与自然环境和社会环境的统一。意是灵魂，境是血肉。意高则境深，意低则境浅。散文的这种意境应是诗的意境，即所谓“诗情画意”。它是可以捉摸的，可以感受的，是物质的，形象的，但它又是动人心弦的，震颤魂魄的，是精神的，性灵的。如朱自清写《荷塘月色》，全篇着力于“淡淡的情趣”，顺着沿路走来、伫立凝想的线索，通过描绘使小路、荷塘、花姿、月色、树影、雾气、灯光……色彩斑烂，可见可感，而叶香、蛙鸣、蝉声，又可味可闻。更加上心情的抒写，巧妙的譬喻，创造出一种淡雅、闲静、情景交融的意境。这种优美的意境，正是散文写作者要努力追求、刻意创造的。

构思方法可以向前人借鉴，更需自己创新。过去就有一个青年作者发明出一种“散文快速构思法”，为《青春》、《采石》等刊物的编辑所重视。

三、巧于布局散文一般篇幅短小，布局有方便的地方，但要布局得好，却因篇幅短小而有其难处。这犹如一座大山上有小堆的乱石，常常无损大山的壮观。但是一个小园中有一堆乱石，就很容易破坏园林之美。因此，散文的布局——结构十分重要。参观苏州园林，从它精巧的建筑布局上，我们可以得到启示，可以借鉴它的园林建筑布局来考虑散文的布局。叶圣陶在《苏州园林》中写道，苏州园林建筑的设计者和匠师们“讲究亭台轩榭的布局，讲究假山池沼的配合，讲究花草树木的映衬，讲究近景远景的层次。总之，一切都要为构成完美的图画而存在，决不容许有欠美伤美的败笔。”作为散文的写作来说，也要这样讲究材料的布局、配合、映衬、层次。苏州园林不讲究对称，但散文布局有时则需讲究对称，或对比。叶圣陶又说：“苏州园林在每一个角度都注意图画美。”那么，散文的整体布局要讲究艺术性，它的局部的布 局不是同样要讲究艺术性吗?至于布局的具体方法是很多的，前面讲的线索问题也与布局有关。这里可以着重提一下的是：不少散文的布局都要巧设“文眼”，开头往往似谈家常，结尾则加以深化，画龙点睛， “卒章显其志”，并且首尾呼应，通体一贯，有机结合。初学散文写作，不妨学习这种布局 的方法。

四、明于断续散文要“散”得起来，除了选材要有技巧之外，就是在叙写上要注意断续的技巧。明于断续，才能使散文的行文上挥洒自如。贾平凹说：“记住：越是你知道多的地方，越要不写或者写得很少;空白，这正是你要写的地方呢。”他认为，“讲究了‘空白’处理，一是散文可以散起来，断续之，续断之，文能‘飞起’，神妙便显也。二是散文可以含蓄起来，古人也讲过：意在笔先，故得举止闲暇，看似胡乱说，骨子里却有分数。”(《怎样写好散文》)我们要多阅读古人优秀的散文作品，学习他人的断续技巧，在写作实践中多次运用之后就必然 熟能生巧。

1、参考历年真题，总结规律。一般来说，高考英语作文体裁相对稳定，考生可参考当地最近五年的高考作文题目，从中分析规律，得出大的命题方向。如陕西对高考英语作文这一板块的考察，从新课改后重点突出的是学生对日常文体的应用，从09年至11年分别以电子邮件或写回信的方式让学生表达出对老师的真挚友谊、与家长沟通学习压力、或解决一些基本的学习难点等。因此我们不难看出，高考对学生作文的考察，会从学生的生活、学习、交友、家庭、社会活动等高中生较熟悉的层面，结合应用文的常见考察点：申请类、投诉类、感谢类、祝贺类等进行综合考察。

2、把对语言基础的应用作为考前强化重点。近年来的高考作文都非常注重考查学生的语言综合运用能力，根据《普通高中英语课程标准》对写作技能目标的要求，英语作文写作须“能根据所读文章进行转述或写摘要;能根据用文字及图表提供的信息写短文或报告;能写出语意连贯且结构完整的短文，叙述事情或表达观点和态度;能在写作中做到问题规范、语句通顺。”2012年高考英语作文的命题趋势，仍将会把学生对语言基础的应用作为首要考察点。

3、关注热点话题。纵观近几年的高考作文，可以发现，题材始终贴近社会、贴近现代生活，是中学生所熟知的热点话题。

除了把握好命题原则，掌握高考英语作文写作技巧更不可少：

1、审题：审题是做到切题的第一步。所谓审题就是要看清题意，确定文章的中心思想、主题，并围绕中心思想组织材料。

2、进行构思，列出简单的提纲，打造文章之骨架：审好题、立好意后，就要写提纲，打造文章的骨架。文章布局要做好几件事：安排好层次段落，铺设好过渡，处理好开头和结尾。

3、扩展成文：根据字数多少扩展成篇。扩展的内容一定要紧扣主题，千万不要写那些与主题不相关的内容。展开的方式包括：顺序法、举例法、比较法、对比法、说明法、因果法、推导法、归纳法和下定义等。可以根据需要任选一种或几种方式。

一、函的概念 函是不相隶属机关之间相互洽工作、询问和答复问题，或者向有关主管部门请求批准事项时所使用的公文。

函作为公文中惟一的一种平行文种，其适用的范围相当广泛。在行文方向上，不仅可以在平行机关之间行文，而且可以在不相隶属的机关之间行文，其中包括上级机关或者下级机关行文。在适用的内容方面，它除了主要用于不相隶属机关相互洽工作、询问和答复问题外，也可以向有关主管部门请求批准事项，向上级机关询问具体事项、请示较小事宜，还可以用于上级机关答复下级机关的询问或请求批准事项，以及上级机关催办下级机关有关事宜，如要求下级机关函报报表、材料、统计数字等。通知一般事项，如通知召开一般性会议。此外，函有时还可用于上级机关对某件原发文件作较小的补充或更正。不过这种情况并不多见。

二、函的特点

(一)沟通性。函对于不相隶属机关之间相互洽工作、询问和答复问题，起着沟通作用，充分显示平行文种的功能，这是其他公文所不具备的特点。

(二)灵活性。表现在两个方面：一是行文关系灵活。函是平行公文，但是它除了平行行文外，还可以向上行文或向下行文，没有其他文种那样严格的特殊行文关系的限制。二是格式灵活，除了国家高级机关的主要函必须按

照公文的格式、行文要求行文外，其他一般函，比较灵活自便，也可以按照公文的格式及行文要求办。可以有文头版，也可以没有文头版，不编发文字号，甚至可以不拟标题。

(三)单一性。函的主体内容应该具备单一性的特点，一份函只宜写一件事项。

三、函的分类。

(一)按性质分，可以分为公函和便函两种。公函用于机关单位正式的公务活动往来;便函则用于日常事务性工作的处理。便函不属于正式公文，没有公文格式要求，甚至可以不要标题，不用发文字号，只需要在尾部署上机关单位名称、成文时间并加盖公章即可。

(二)按发文目的分。函可以分为发函和复函两种。发函即主动提出了公事事项所发出的函。复函则是为回复对方所发出的函。

(三)另外，从内容和用途上，还可以分为洽事宜函，通知事宜函，催办事宜函，邀请函、请示答复事宜函，转办函，催办函，报送材料函等等。

四、函的结构、内容和写法

由于函的类别较多，从制作格式到内容表述均有一定灵活机动性。主要介绍规范性公函的结构、内容和写法。

公函由首部、正文和尾部三部分组成。其各部分的格式、内容和写法要求如下：

(一)首部。主要包括标题、主送机关两个项目内容。

1、标题。

2、主送机关。

(二)正文。其结构一般由开头、主体、结尾、结语等部分组成。

(三)结尾。一般用礼貌性语言向对方提出希望。或请对方协助解决某一问题，或请对方及时复函，或请对方提出意见或请主管部门批准等。

(四)结语。通常应根据函询、函告、函或函复的事项，选择运用不同的结束语。如“特此函询()”、“请即复函”、“特此函告”、“特此函复”等。有的函也可以不用结束语，如属便函，可以像普通信件一样，使用“此致”、“敬礼”。

(五)结尾落款。一般包括署名和成文时间两项内容。

署名机关单位名称，写明成文时间年、月、日;并加盖公章。

五、撰写函件应注意的问题

函的写作，首先要注意行文简洁明确，用语把握分寸。无论是平行机关或者是不相隶属的行文，都要注意语气平和有礼，不要倚势压人或强人所难，也不必逢迎恭维、曲意客套。至于复函，则要注意行文的针对性，答复的明确性。

其次，函也有时效性的问题，特别是复函更应该迅速、及时。像对待其他公文一样，及时处理函件，以保证公务等活动的正常进行。

例文 通知事宜函

国务院办公厅关于羊毛产销和质量等问题的函

国家计委、经贸办、农业部、业部、经贸部、纺织部、技术监督局： 为进一步发展我国羊毛生产，搞活羊毛流通，提高羊毛质量，根据国务院领导同志的批示，现就有关问题通知如下：

一、要切实抓紧抓好草场改造和羊种改良工作。(略)

二、技术监督局要加强羊毛的质量监督和检验工作。(略)

三、要尽快组织直接进入国际羊毛拍卖市场。(略)

四、为了促进国内养羊业的发展，支持纺织工业生产和扩大出口创汇。(略) 上述有关政策，请有关部门、各地区特别是羊毛生产区认真研究落实，执行中的问题，由国家计委和经贸办协调，并督促落实。

国务院办公厅(盖章)

中考英语作文评分标准一般分为三类：一等作文、二等作文和三等作文。为了让不同层次的学生在作文得分率上都能有所提高，现对各类作文进行分析，找出相应的得分秘诀。下面说说中考英语一等作文的写作方法。

一、中考英语一等作文的评分标准

内容完整，具体，丰富，包含所有要点，能够围绕内容适当发挥，语句流畅，应用了较丰富的语言结构和词汇，用词准确，句子通顺，行文连续，层次分明，表达清楚，无语法错误，书写规范，标点正确，计满分。

二、中考英语一等作文的写作要求

(一)确保作文的完整性，关注评卷第一印象

考试的时候，要尽量留出充足的时间写作文。这样，我们才能有足够的时间去构思，打草稿。由于评卷是人工进行的，所以作文留给人的第一印象是很重要的，从以往经验看，第一印象至少占1分，那些卷面整洁，文字自然流畅，书写工整，标点符号正确的非常“吃香”，所以，大家平时就应该注意作文的“形象”，“仪表”一定要保证自己看卷面时觉得舒服，那么中考得高分就不是一句空话了。

不论做哪种题目，审题是最关键的，写好中考作文更是这样!要做到内容完整，我们首先要认真看好题目的要求，分析题目到底要我们写什么。比如要求我们用第三人称来写作，如果审题没有审好，用了第一人称，那么，作文一定得不到满分，说不定还是最差的。所以，要重视审题，按题目的具体要求进行构思。中考书面表达基本上都是提示性作文(包括看图作文)，因此要保证运用所有的提示要点，进行合理的发挥，为写下满分作文打好基础。

(二)打好草稿质量，全面留意扣主题

写好中考英语一等作文除了做到上面讲的内容之外，还要做到以下几点：

1. 要做到内容具体。中考提示性作文都有具体的内容和要求，写作时只要按规定将作文写出来，得分就不难，但是要想得满分，必须做到围绕内容适当发挥，并且要突出文章的主题，体现实际的中心思想。

2. 要做到语句流畅。这就要求有扎实的英语基本功。在平时的学习过程中，注意一些常用句式的表达方法。要尽量使用自己最熟悉的词语和句型，要尽量避免汉语式的表达方式。要注意句子之间的连贯性，不仅仅从语法上，更主要的是从句意上，把握句子的连贯性。

3. 要做到层次分明。写文章不都是一个段落，一个模式，要根据文章的具体需要，来确定文章究竟用几个段落，作文要讲究层次分明，突出主题。

4. 要按规定的词数书写。中考提示作文都有具体的词数要求，写作时要注意数一数所用的单词数量，词数过多或过少都会丢分。

5. 最后要注意检查。写完作文不是没事可做，最后一步就是细心检查，这很关键。检查时要从题目要求开始，到具体内容无误结束。保证词语，句型的运用正确，标点运用得当等等，都是重点检查的项目，直到在一定的时间之内完成好作文，不留遗憾为止。

英语写作中有不少短语和表达大家会经常用到，下面我们就总结了100条常用的短语和表达句子，希望能给大家一些参考。

1. 经济的快速发展 the rapiddevelopment of economy

2.人民生活水平的显著提高/稳步增长theremarkableimprovement/ steady growth ofpeople’s livingstandard

3.先进的科学技术advanced science and technology

4.面临新的机遇和挑战 be faced with new opportunities and challenges

5.人们普遍认为 It is commonly believed/ recognized that…

6.社会发展的必然结果 the inevitable result of social development

7.引起了广泛的公众关注 arouse wide public concern/ draw publicattention

8.不可否认 Itis undeniable that…/ There is no denying that…

9.热烈的讨论/争论 a heated discussion/ debate

10.有争议性的问题 a controversialissue

11.完全不同的观点 a totally different argument

12.一些人 …而另外一些人 … Some people… while others…

13. 就我而言/ 就个人而言 As far as I am concerned, / Personally,

14.就…达到绝对的一致 reach an absolute consensus on…

15.有充分的理由支持 be supported by sound reasons

16.双方的论点 argument on both sides

17.发挥着日益重要的作用 play an increasingly important role in…

18.对…必不可少 be indispensableto …

19.正如谚语所说 As the proverb goes:

20.…也不例外 …be no exception

21.对…产生有利/不利的影响 exert positive/ negative effects on…

22.利远远大于弊 the advantages far outweigh the disadvantages。

23.导致，引起 lead to/ give rise to/ contribute to/ result in

24.复杂的社会现象 a complicated social phenomenon

25.责任感 / 成就感 sense of responsibility/ sense of achievement

26. 竞争与合作精神 sense of competition and cooperation

27. 开阔眼界 widen one’s horizon/ broaden one’s vision

28.学习知识和技能 acquire knowledge and skills

29.经济/心理负担 financial burden / psychologicalburden

30.考虑到诸多因素 take many factors into account/ consideration

31. 从另一个角度 from another perspective

32.做出共同努力 make joint efforts

33. 对…有益 be beneficial / conducive to…

34.为社会做贡献 make contributions to the society

35.打下坚实的基础 lay a solid foundation for…

36.综合素质 comprehensivequality

37.无可非议 blameless / beyond reproach

38.加大了…的可能性 increase the chances of

39.致力于/ 投身于 be committed / devoted to…

40. 应当承认 Admittedly

41.不可推卸的义务 unshakable duty

42. 满足需求 satisfy/ meet the needs of…

43.可靠的信息源 a reliablesource of information

44.宝贵的自然资源 valuable natural resources

45.因特网 the Internet (一定要由冠词，字母I

46.方便快捷 convenient andefficient

47.在人类生活的方方面面 in all aspects of human life

48.环保(的) environmental protection /environmentallyfriendly

49.社会进步的体现 a symbol of society progress

50.科技的飞速更新 the ever-accelerated updating of scienceandtechnology

51.对这一问题持有不同态度 hold different attitudes towards this issue

52.支持前/后种观点的人 people / those in favor of theformer/latteropinion

53.有/ 提供如下理由/ 证据 have/ provide the followingreasons/evidence

54.在一定程度上 to some extent/ degree / in some way

55. 理论和实践相结合 integratetheory with practice

56. …必然趋势 an irresistible trend of…

57.日益激烈的社会竞争 the increasingly fierce social competition

58.眼前利益 immediate interest/ short-term interest

59.长远利益. interest in the long run

60.…有其自身的优缺点 … has its merits and demerits/ advantagesanddisadvantages

61.扬长避短 Exploit to the full one’s favorableconditions andavoidunfavorable ones

62.取其精髓，去其糟粕 Take the essence and discard the dregs。

63.对…有害 do harm to / be harmful to/ be detrimental to

64.交流思想/ 情感/ 信息 exchange ideas/ emotions/ information

65.跟上…的最新发展 keep pace with / catch up with/ keep abreastwiththe latest development of …

66.采取有效措施来… take effective measures to do sth。

67.…的健康发展 the healthy development of …

68.有利有弊 Every coin has its two sides。(不推荐用。。。) No gardenwithout weeds。

69.对…观点因人而异 Views on …vary from person to person。

70.重视 attach great importance to…

71.社会地位 social status

72.把时间和精力放在…上 focus time and energy on…

73.扩大知识面 expand one’s scopeof knowledge

74.身心两方面 both physically and mentally

75.有直接/间接关系 be directly / indirectly related to…

76. 提出折中提议 set forth a compromise proposal

77. 可以取代 “think”的词 believe, claim, hold the opinion/beliefthat

78.缓解压力/ 减轻负担 relievestress/ burden

79.优先考虑/发展… give (top) priority to sth。

80.与…比较 compared with…/ in comparison with

81. 相反 in contrast / on the contrary。

82.代替 replace/ substitute / take the place of 大写)

83.经不起推敲 cannot bear closer analysis / cannot hold water

84.提供就业机会 offer job opportunities

85. 社会进步的反映 mirror of social progress

86.毫无疑问 Undoubtedly, / There is no doubt that…

87.增进相互了解 enhance/ promote mutualunderstanding

88.充分利用 make full use of / take advantage of

89.承受更大的工作压力 suffer from heavier work pressure

90.保障社会的稳定和繁荣 guarantee the stability and prosperity ofoursociety

91.更多地强调 put more emphasis on…

92.适应社会发展 adapt oneself to the development of society

93.实现梦想 realize one’s dream/ make one’s dream come true

94. 主要理由列举如下 The main reasons are listed as follows:

95. 首先 First， Firstly， In the first place, To begin with

96.其次 Second, Secondly, In the second place

97. 再次 Besides，In addition, Additionally,Moreover,Furthermore

98. 最后 Finally, Last but not the least, Above all, Lastly,

99. 总而言之 All in all, To sum up, In summary, In a word,

100.我们还有很长的路要走 We still have a long way to go

导语：许多同学在观看影片后常会有感而发，尝试写作影评，这对于提高我们的影视鉴赏能力，端正我们的审美观念有相当大的帮助。那么，如何写好影评?

写好影视评论的前提是细心观赏。影视评论不同于书评，书可以反复地看，而影片却一闪即逝，因此，在看电影时不能漫不经心，而要全神贯注，眼观六路，耳听八方，对画面、音乐、对白、音响、表演等方面都要体察精微，并及时捕捉闪光的东西。这样在写的时候才能得心应手，运用自如。

(一)“评什么”

在影片中可评的角度很多。就一部影片而言，可以评主题、评人物、评细节、评场面、评艺术特点、评电影语言的运用等;就多部影片来说，可综合评论一系列影片，阐明某一时期电影艺术创作的倾向和特点;可综合某一类影片(如惊险片、探索片等)进行评论;可综合同一类问题(如古装片的雷同化等)进行评论;另外，还可以进行电影专评，如平添编剧、评导演、评演员、评摄影、评美工、评音乐等。

面对这些可评的内容，初学写影评的中学生具体应如何处理呢?最好的办法是“集中优势兵力歼灭敌人”，抓住影片中给自己留下印象最为深刻、最能激发自己写作欲望的问题来写，这样便于对问题作深入细致的评论，忌面面俱到。

影评写作可以有长有短，可着眼于一部影片的一个镜头，也可以着眼于一种电影现象。对于我们初中生来说，要对一部影片作出全面的评价比较困难，练习写影评，可从评论一个人物形象、一个情节、一个场面入手，可对演员演技。拍摄技巧、导演意图、影片风格、色彩、语言、音乐等进行单一的评析。随着写影评水平的提高，就可对某一人物形象，如影片中的学生、教师、军人等银幕形象发表看法，也可以从纵向谈某一阶段电影的回顾或某一体裁电影的回顾，分析其得失;或从横向谈某一风格的电影，如西部电影、贺岁片、娱乐片等，或横纵向结合，谈一个导演的风格，如谢晋模式、张艺谋现象等到。初涉影评写作不宜贪大求全，而应从一点一滴写起，思考挖掘，连缀成篇。

(二)写影评，应该把握好这样几点

1、捕捉住感受点。

一部电影涉及的方面很广，需要品评的着笔点很多。这就需要对电影反复回味思考，用心灵再度感受，把握往影片中最能动人的地方，并使之在自己的笔下得到理性的升华。如观看了《泰坦尼克号》，不能只简单地叙述这场爱情故事，而要从主人公生与死的考验中感悟到人性的光芒。

2、抓住细节，诠释其深刻涵义。

所谓细节，是影片画面中对表现对象的局部或细微的变化进行精要细致的描绘。细节包括人物的举手投足、一颦一笑，道具的运用，色彩的调度，声音的变化等。典型的细节对展现人物性格、设置悬念、推动情节发展都起着积极作用。如《大转折》中先后三次出现蒋介石的背影，每一次出现都预示着国民党军队下一次的失败，通过三次背影的刻划，将蒋介石政权日薄西山的局面富于象征性地体现出来。

3、立意要新，开掘要深。

写影评要有新意，要有独到的见解，抓往要点，自感而发。要做到有新意，一是要抓住影片内容，结合台社会现买;二是要准确把握住影片的精神实质，挖掘影片本身所包含的深刻内涵。例如对张艺谋电影的分析要紧扣住时代背景，但也不必要都从思想意义角度分析，如巩俐在张艺谋电影中的形象塑造，张艺谋电影中的男性形象等，都是可以开掘的领域。

4、要实事实是地分析评价。

鲁迅先生说过：评论作品必须坏处说坏，好处说好，还要知入论世。他说倘若论文，最好的是顾及全篇，非目顾及作者全人，以及他所处的社会状况，这有较为确凿。对影片作实事来是的评价，要求我们用全面的观点，不是顾其一点，而是观照全片。顾及编导的意图、表演的全部以及当时的社会环境、历史背景等等，作恰如其分的分析与评价。不能强导演、演员、片中人物所难，求全责备。同的，我们在写影评时，也不能人云亦云，如评《情深深雨濛濛》时，有一位同学冷静地指出编导将荧屏中的军阀(如萍、依萍的父亲)形象拔高了——他遇见美丽的女子就抢来作为姨太太，可原因居然是她们像自己的初恋情人。

5、要重视影片的艺术分析。

电影是通过艺术手段来表现主题、塑造人物、抒发感情的，所以影评要重视对影片艺术的高下进行分析。这种分析应具体详细，由表及里，言之有物;评价则应观点鲜明，实事求是。在艺术评析中，字里行间渗透出电影意识，尽可能恰当地运用电影艺术名词术语，还需要有对电影艺术的深刻感受与理性把握。这可以通过阅读电影理论书籍和多欣赏优秀影片来解决。

开始练习写作影评时还应该注意：语言要朴实，要个性化。写影评一定要讲真话，讲自己的话，不要抄袭别人的评论。唯独自己的感受和朴实的语言，才会使自己的评论富有个性和新意，也才会给读者带来清新的感受。

叙议要结合，突出评论。影评离不开叙事。但切忌过多地叙述故事，要突出分析写评价。当然，所评所析不得脱离影片孤立地进行。

设计好影评的标题至关重要。一般来说，它由正副标题构成。正题--揭示文章的中心，必须简明扼要，而又耐人寻味，能够引起读者的阅读兴趣，同时也能给读者带来审美愉悦，它是贯穿全文的主线;副题--点明评论对象，交待片名或评论角度，它是正题必要的补充。二者相得益彰，能使文章增色不少。

导语：一篇好文章要有个好的开头，别开生面、新颖别致的开头，才有震撼力、吸引力，让人产生一种欲读之而后快之感。所谓“凤头”，亦是这个道理。文章开篇的方法众多，如下十二种方法是常用的：

一、开门见山，落笔扣题

所谓“开门见山”，是一种比喻的说法，指的是直截了当地切入要旨。

如《白杨礼赞》一开头就触及题旨：“白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树!”这种写法干脆利落，入题快捷，不枝不蔓，所以受很多同学所青睐。

二、引用经典，彰显底蕴

开头引用警句、名言、诗句或俗语、谚语等，能增强开端的气势，使人感到峥嵘、高远，达到吸引读者、突出中心的效果。

如下例几种常用的：

1.诗词开头

以诗句开头，气势磅礴，震撼人心。如：“莫等闲，白了少年头。”我的爸爸四十多了，白了头，可是依然很平凡……

2.俗语开头

俗语是孩子们所熟悉的，以此开头，倍感亲切，激发兴趣。如：中国有句俗语说：“三棒槌打不出一个屁来。”我的爸爸就是一个不爱说话的人……

3.名人名言开头

这种开头法不仅使你所要表达的意思简明扼要，言简意丰，而且能集中地表达文章的主旨，起到画龙点睛的作用，使文章增色不少。如一学生写《自信》：著名科学家爱迪生说：“自信是成功的第一秘诀。”是的，拥有自信，不断努力，就能获得成功。

4.故事导入

引用一则典故或现实生活中的小故事来开头的方法，可以增加文章的趣味性，能引起读者的兴趣。如一学生写《宽容》时，这样开头：“一位理发师正在给周恩来总理刮脸，由于周总理咳嗽了一声，理发师不小心将他的脸刮破了，这时理发师紧张不已，以为周总理会大发雷霆。想不到，周总理却很抱歉地说：‘这不关你的事，要是在咳嗽之前给你打个招呼，你就不会刮破我的脸了。’这样一句暖人的安慰，我们可以从周总理身上看到可贵的品质——宽容。”

5.声音开头

对话、琴声、风声、雷声等等，都可以用来开头，信手拈来，渲染氛围。如：“请把我的歌，带回你的家，请把你的微笑留下……”每当耳边响起这熟悉的旋律，自己就像遇见了多年不见的老朋友一样，感觉格外亲切。

三、精辟修辞，韵味悠长

用修辞手法开头，易抒写作者心灵的感悟，引发读者赏读的情趣。

1.比喻

开头设喻，以引起读者对要说明的事物或道理的兴趣。如《中国石拱桥》开头：“石拱桥的桥洞成弧形，就像虹。”

2.对比

用对比来开头的方法，可以加强文采，有力地突出主题。如：古今中外，凡是在事业上有所造就、取得成功的人，其成功没有不是用辛勤的汗水换来的;反之，那些懒惰昏庸的人，则无法成就事业，由此可见，勤则成事，惰则败业。

3.排比

用排比句开头，句式整齐，语势铿锵，促人赏读。如：假如我是小鸟，我会记住那出生时的巢穴;假如我是树苗，我无法忘记那滋养我的土地;假如我是江河，那雪域高原成为我记忆中的烙印……

4.设问

设问开头，铺排文气，先声夺人。如：为什么服装设计师总要千方百计地设计一套又一套的时装?为什么我们的祖国在前进的号角中总夹杂着这样一句话——提倡科技创新?为什么一座座拔地而起的高楼不沿用20世纪五六十年代建筑的风格?一切的一切，只因为时代在变化，人的思想也在变化。时装要迎合时代潮流，发展要与时俱进，生活赋予了我们创新的动力。

四、借物联想，引发情趣

文章的开头或从远到近，或由此及彼，从别的事物写起，再联想到要写的事物上来，借以烘托要写的事物。

如一学生这样写《路》：日常行走的路有大路、小路之别，人生之路有正路、歧路之分。人，应该择路而行。

五、巧设悬念，曲径通幽

开头设置一个悬而未决的问题，引起读者的关注，激发读者的兴趣，同时增加文章的曲折，显现布局之美。如一学生写《感受生活之美》：“我快要死了——我躺在病床上，四周黑漆漆的一片，十分寂静，偌大的房间里，只能听得见我微弱的呼吸声。”

六、名人作答，启人深思

采用名人作答的方式展开文章，有利增强开端气势，给人高远之感。如一学生如此写《幸福》的开篇：有人问：幸福是什么?答案是丰富多彩的。尼采认为：“能把蜈蚣、碎玻璃、肉虫、石头一齐吞下肚，却毫不恶心，这种人是最幸福的。”而思多葛派却认为：“拥有无穷的财富和威力，而且能够处事不惊，那才是真正的幸福。”

七、场景描写，渲染气氛

描写法即借助某种修辞或某种描写技法，通过对景物的描写，渲染气氛，烘托氛围，为下文人物或事情的开端做好衬托铺垫。

请看《考试》一文的开端：教室外，呼啸着的北风挟着密集的雨点扑打在墙上，“嚓、嚓”地响，教室内，一场全能竞赛考试进行到了白热化的阶段。

八、交代要素，引人入胜

交代要素式也是写作文较为常见的一种开头形式，即交代记叙文的几要素：时间、地点、人物和事件。

如《捉鱼》一文的开头：“一个星期天的早晨，我和小辰拿着小盆，拎着小桶来到一条小溪边围坝捉鱼。”这样开头可以让读者清楚地了解到记叙文的几要素，为下文展开故事情节作准备。

九、介绍背景，蓄势待发

以介绍情况、交代背景的方式开篇，可以让读者充分了解事情原委，有利于对整篇文章的正确、顺利解读。这种方法主要用于写一些事件或重要人物的文章。

如《火烧赤壁》一文的开头：“东汉末年，曹操率领大军南下，想夺取江南东吴的地方。东吴的周瑜调兵遣将，驻在赤壁，同曹操的兵隔江相对。曹操的兵在北岸，周瑜的兵在南岸。”这个开头，使读者看了以后，对两军相对峙的形势、所处的地理位置和即将发生的事一目了然。

十、概括内容，凸显主旨

开头总领全文，下文则围绕着它进行“分述”，全文因此而比较有条理，而且可以让读者迅速了解文章梗概，一睹为快，为下文的阅读埋下情感基调。如作文《春花朵朵》一文的开头：

“五讲文明的春风，吹开了学校这万紫千红的百花园中的朵朵春花。让我们从这万紫千红的百花园中摘取几朵，领略一下那满园春色吧!”

下面是语文迷小编整理提供的100个英语写作句式，欢迎大家阅读参考。

1. According to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.

依照最近的一项调查，每年有4，000，000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.

最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.

没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

4. People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.

人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。

5. An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.

越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。

6. When it comes to education, the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.

说到教育，大部分人认为其是一个终生的学习。

7. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.

许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

8. Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful

effects of international tourism.

应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量，努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。

9. An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However, this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents, who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.

越来越多的专家相信移民对城市的建设起到积极作用。然而，越来越多的城市居民却怀疑这种说法，他们抱怨民工给城市带来了许多严重的问题，像犯罪和卖淫。

10. Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus, which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.

许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少，以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车，而车上可能已满载乘客。

11. There is no denying the fact that air pollution is an extremely serious problem: the city authorities should take strong measures to deal with it.

无可否认，空气污染是一个极其严重的问题：城市当局应该采取有力措施来解决它。

12. An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward retirement.

一项调查显示妇女欢迎退休。

13. A proper part-time job does not occupy students too much time. In fact, it is unhealthy for them to spend all of time on their study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

一份适当的业余工作并不会占用学生太多的时间，事实上，把全部的时间都用到学习上并不健康，正如那句老话：只工作，不玩耍，聪明的孩子会变傻。

14. Any government, which is blind to this point, may pay a heavy price.

任何政府忽视这一点都将付出巨大的代价。

15.Nowadays, many students always go into raptures at the mere mention of the coming life of high school or college they will begin. Unfortunately, for most young people, it is not pleasant experience on their first day on campus.

当前，一提到即将开始的学校生活，许多学生都会兴高采烈。然而，对多数年轻人来说，校园刚开始的日子并不是什么愉快的经历。

16. In view of the seriousness of this problem, effective measures should be taken before things get worse.

考虑到问题的严重性，在事态进一步恶化之前，必须采取有效的措施。

17. The majority of students believe that part-time job will provide them with more opportunities to develop their interpersonal skills, which may put them in a favorable position in the future job markets.

大部分学生相信业余工作会使他们有更多机会发展人际交往能力，而这对他们未来找工作是非常有好处的。

18. It is indisputable that there are millions of people who still have a miserable life and have to face the dangers of starvation and exposure.

无可争辩，现在有成千上万的人仍过着挨饿受冻的痛苦生活。

19. Although this view is wildly held, this is little evidence that education can be obtained at any age and at any place.

尽管这一观点被广泛接受，很少有证据表明教育能够在任何地点、任何年龄进行。

20. No one can deny the fact that a persons education is the most important aspect of his life.

没有人能否认：教育是人生最重要的一方面。

21. People equate success in life with the ability of operating computer.

人们把会使用计算机与人生成功相提并论。

22. In the last decades, advances in medical technology have made it possible for people to live longer than in the past.

在过去的几十年，先进的医疗技术已经使得人们比过去活的时间更长成为可能。

23. In fact, we have to admit the fact that the quality of life is as important as life itself.

事实上，我们必须承认生命的质量和生命本身一样重要。

24. We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。

25. People believe that computer skills will enhance their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

人们相信拥有计算机技术可以获得更多工作或提升的机会。

26. The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that this knowledge may be less useful than most people think.

从这几年我搜集的信息来看，这些知识并没有人们想象的那么有用。

27. Now, it is generally accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduation.

现在，人们普遍认为没有一所大学能够在毕业时候教给学生所有的知识。

28. This is a matter of life and death--a matter no country can afford to ignore.

这是一个关系到生死的问题，任何国家都不能忽视。

29. For my part, I agree with the latter opinion for the following reasons:

我同意后者，有如下理由：

30. Before giving my opinion, I think it is important to look at the arguments on both sides.

在给出我的观点之前，我想看看双方的观点是重要的。

31. This view is now being questioned by more and more people.

这一观点正受到越来越多人的质疑。

32. Although many people claim that, along with the rapidly economic development, the number of people who use bicycle are decreasing and bicycle is bound to die out. The information Ive collected over the recent years leads me to believe that bicycle will continue to play extremely important roles in modern society.

尽管许多人认为随着经济的高速发展，用自行车的人数会减少，自行车可能会消亡， 然而，这几年我收集的一些信息让我相信自行车仍然会继续在现代社会发挥极其重要的作用。

33. Environmental experts point out that increasing pollution not only causes serious problems such as global warming but also could threaten to end human life on our planet.

环境学家指出：持续增加的污染不仅会导致像全球变暖这样严重的问题，而且还将威胁到人类在这个星球的生存。

34. In view of such serious situation, environmental tools of transportation like bicycle are more important than any time before.

考虑到这些严重的状况，我们比以往任何时候更需要像自行车这样的环保型交通工具。

35. Using bicycle contributes greatly to peoples physical fitness as well as easing traffic jams.

使用自行车有助于人们的身体健康，并极大地缓解了交通阻塞。

36. Despite many obvious advantages of bicycle, it is not without its problem.

尽管自行车有许多明显的优点，但是它也存在它的问题。

37. Bicycle cant be compared with other means of transportation like car and train for speed and comfort.

在速度和舒适度方面，自行车是无法和汽车、火车这样的交通工具相比的。

38. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that advantages of bicycle far outweigh its disadvantages and it will still play essential roles in modern society.

通过以上讨论，我们可以得出结论：自行车的优点远大于缺点，并且在现代社会它仍将发挥重要作用。

39. There is a general discussion these days over education in many colleges and institutes. One of the questions under debate is whether education is a lifetime study.

当前在高校和研究机构对教育存在着大量争论，其中一个问题就是教育是否是个终身学习的过程。

40. This issue has caused wide public concern.

这个问题已经引起了广泛关注。

41. It must be noted that learning must be done by a person himself.

必须指出学习只能靠自己。

42. A large number of people tend to live under the illusion that they had completed their education when they finished their schooling. Obviously, they seem to fail to take into account the basic fact that a persons education is a most important aspect of his life.

许多人存在这样的误解，认为离开学校就意味着结束了他们的教育。显然，他们忽视了教育是人生重要部分这一基本事实。

43. As for me, Im in favor of the opinion that education is not complete with graduation, for the following reasons:

就我而言，我同意教育不应该随着毕业而结束的观点，有以下原因：

44. It is commonly accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduate.

人们普遍认为高校是不可能在毕业的时候教会他们的学生所有知识的。

45. Even the best possible graduate needs to continue learning before she or he becomes an educated person.

即使最优秀的毕业生，要想成为一个博学的人也要不断地学习。

46. It is commonly thought that our society had dramatically changed by modern science and technology, and human had made extraordinary progress in knowledge and technology over the recent decades.

人们普遍认为我们的现代科技使我们的社会发生了巨大的变化，近几十年人类在科技方面取得了惊人的进步。

47. Now people in growing numbers are beginning to believe that learning new skills and knowledge contributes directly to enhancing their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

现在越来越多的人开始相信学习新的技术和知识能直接帮助他们获得工作就会或提升的机会。

48. An investigation shows that many older people express a strong desire to continue studying in university or college.

一项调查显示许多老人都有到大学继续学习的愿望。

49. For the majority of people, reading or learning a new skill has become the focus of their lives and the source of their happiness and contentment after their retirement.

对大多数人来讲，退休以后，阅读或学习一项新技术已成为他们生活的中心和快乐的来源。

50. For people who want to adopt a healthy and meaningful life style, it is important to find time to learn certain new knowledge. Just as an old saying goes: it is never too late to learn.

对于那些想过上健康而有意义的生活的人们来说，找时间学习一些新知识是很重要的，正如那句老话：活到老，学到老。

51. There is a general debate on the campus today over the phenomenon of college or high school students doing a part-time job.

对于大学或高中生打工这一现象，校园里进行着广泛的争论。

52. By taking a major-related part-job, students can not only improve their academic studies, but gain much experience, experience they will never be able to get from the textbooks.

通过做一份和专业相关的工作，学生不仅能够提高他们的专业能力，而且能获得从课本上得不到的经验。

53. Although peoples lives have been dramatically changed over the last decades, it must be admitted that, shortage of funds is still the one of the biggest questions that students nowadays have to face because that tuition fees and prices of books are soaring by the day

近几十年，尽管人们的生活有了惊人的改变，但必须承认，由于学费和书费日益飞涨，资金短缺仍然是学生们面临的最大问题之一。

54. Consequently, the extra money obtained from part-time job will strongly support students to continue to their study life.

因此，业余工作挣来的钱将强有力地支持学生们继续他们的求学生活。

55. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw a conclusion that part-time job can produce a far-reaching impact on students and they should be encouraged to take part-time job, which will benefit students and their family, even the society as a whole.

通过上面的讨论，我们不难得出结论：业余工作对学生们会产生深远的影响，我们应鼓励学生从事业余工作，这将有利于学生和他们的家庭，甚至整个社会。

56. These days, people in growing numbers are beginning to complain that work is more stressful and less leisurely than in past. Many experts point out that, along with the development of modern society, it is an inevitable result and there is no way to avoid it.

现在，越来越多的人们开始抱怨工作比以前更有压力。许多专家指出这是现代社会发展必然的结果，无法避免。

57. It is widely acknowledged that computer and other machines have become an indispensable part of our society, which make our life and work more comfortable and less laborious.

人们普遍认为计算机和其他机器已经成为我们社会必不可少的一部分。 它们使我们的生活更舒适，减少了大量劳动。

58. At the same time, along with the benefits of such machines, employees must study knowledge involved in such machines so that they are able to control them.

同时，随着这些机器带给我们的好处，员工们也必须要学习与之相关的知识以便使用它们。

59. No one can deny the basic fact that it is impossible for average workers to master those high-technology skills easily.

没有人能否认这一基本事实：对于一般工人来讲，轻松掌握这些技术是不可能的。

60. In the second place, there seem to be too many people without job and not enough job position.

第二方面，失业的人似乎太多而又没有足够的工作岗位。

61. Millions of people have to spend more time and energy on studying new skills and technology so that they can keep a favorable position in job market.

成千上万的人们不得不花费更多的精力和时间学习新的技术和知识，使得他们在就业市场能保持优势。

62. According to a recent survey, a growing number of people express a strong desire to take another job or spend more time on their job in order to get more money to support their family.

根据最近的一项调查，越来越多的人表达了想从事另外的工作或加班以赚取更多的钱来补贴家用的强烈愿望。

63. From what has been discussed above, I am fully convinced that the leisure life-style is undergoing a decline with the progress of modern society, it is not necessary a bad thing.

通过以上讨论，我完全相信，随着现代社会的进步，幽闲的生活方式正在消失并不是件坏事。

64. The problem of international tourism has caused wide public concern over the recent years.

近些年，国际旅游的问题引起了广泛关注。

65. Many people believe that international tourism produce positive effects on economic growth and local government should be encouraged to promote international tourism.

许多人认为国际旅游对经济发展有积极作用，应鼓励地方政府发展国际旅游。

66. But what these people fail to see is that international tourism may bring about a disastrous impact on our environment and local history.

但是这些人忽视了国际旅游可能会给当地环境和历史造成的灾难性的影响。

67. As for me, Im firmly convinced that the number of foreign tourists should be limited, for the following reasons:

就我而言，我坚定地认为国外旅游者的数量应得到限制，理由如下：

68. In addition, in order to attract tourists, a lot of artificial facilities have been built, which have certain unfavorable effects on the environment.

另外，为了吸引旅游者，大量人工设施被修建，这对环境是不利的。

69. For lack of distinct culture, some places will not attract tourists any more. Consequently, the fast rise in number of foreign tourists may eventually lead to the decline of local tourism.

由于缺乏独特的文化，一些地方不再吸引旅游者。因此，国外旅游者数量的快速增加可能最终会导致当地旅游业的衰败。

70. There is a growing tendency for parents to ask their children to accept extra educational programs over the recent years.

近些年，父母要求他们的孩子接受额外的教育呈增长的势头。

71. This phenomenon has caused wide public concern in many places of world.

这一现象在全世界许多地方已引起了广泛关注。

72. Many parents believe that additional educational activities enjoy obvious advantage. By extra studies, they maintain, their children are able to obtain many kinds of practical skills and useful knowledge, which will put them in a beneficial position in the future job markets when they grow up.

许多家长相信额外的教育活动有许多优点，通过学习，他们的孩子可以获得很多实践技能和有用的知识，当他们长大后，这些对他们就业是大有好处的。

73. In the first place, extra studies bring about unhealthy impacts on physical growth of children. Educational experts point out that, it is equally important to take some sport activities instead of extra studies when children have spent the whole day in a boring classroom.

首先，额外的学习对孩子们的身体发育是不利的。教育专家指出，孩子们在枯燥的教室里呆了一整天后，从事一些体育活动，而不是额外的学习，是非常重要的。

74. Children are undergoing fast physical development; lack of physical exercise may produce disastrous influence on their later life.

孩子们正处于身体快速发育时期，缺乏体育锻炼可能会对他们未来的生活造成严重的影响。

75. In the second place, from psychological aspect, the majority of children seem to tend to have an unfavorable attitude toward additional educational activities.

第二，从心理上讲，大部分孩子似乎对额外的学习没有什么好感。

76. It is hard to imagine a student focusing their energy on textbook while other children are playing.

当别的孩子在玩耍的时候，很难想象一个学生能集中精力在课本上。

77. Moreover, children will have less time to play and communicate with their peers due to extra studies, consequently, it is difficult to develop and cultivate their character and interpersonal skills. They may become more solitary and even suffer from certain mental illness.

而且，由于要额外地学习，孩子们没有多少时间和同龄的孩子玩耍和交流，很难培养他们的个性和交际能力。他们可能变得孤僻甚至产生某些心理疾病。

78. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that, although extra studies indeed enjoy many obvious advantages, its disadvantages shouldnt be ignored and far outweigh its advantages. It is absurd to force children to take extra studies after school.

通过以上讨论，我们可以得出结论：尽管额外学习的确有很多优点，但它的缺点不可忽视，且远大于它的优点。因此，放学后强迫孩子额外学习是不明智的。

79. Any parents should place considerable emphasis on their children to keep the balance between play and study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

任何家长都应非常重视保持孩子在学习与玩耍的平衡，正如那句老话：只工作，不玩耍，聪明的孩子会变傻。

80. There is a growing tendency for parent these days to stay at home to look after their children instead of returning to work earlier.

现在，父亲或母亲留在家里照顾他们的孩子而不愿过早返回工作岗位正成为增加的趋势。

81. Parents are firmly convinced that, to send their child to kindergartens or nursery schools will have an unfavorable influence on the growth of children.

父母们坚定地相信把孩子送到幼儿园对他们的成长不利。

82. However, this idea is now being questioned by more and more experts, who point out that it is unhealthy for children who always stay with their parents at home.

然而，这一想法正遭受越来越多的专家的质疑，他们指出，孩子总是呆在家里，和父母在一起，是不健康的。

83. Although parent would be able to devote much more time and energy to their children, it must be admitted that, parent has less experience and knowledge about how to educate and supervise children, when compared with professional teachers working in kindergartens or nursery schools.

尽管父母能在他们孩子身上投入更多时间和精力，但是必须承认，与工作在幼儿园的专职教师相比，他们在如何管理教育孩子方面缺乏知识和经验。

84. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw a conclusion that, although the parents desire to look after children by themselves is understandable, its disadvantages far outweigh the advantages.

通过以上讨论，我们可以得出如下结论：尽管家长想亲自照看孩子的愿望是可以理解的，但是这样做的缺点远大于优点。

85. Parents should be encouraged to send their children to nursery schools, which will bring about profound impacts on children and families, and even the society as a whole.

应该鼓励父母将他们的孩子送到幼儿园，这将对孩子，家庭，甚至整个社会产生深远的影响。

86. Many leaders of government always go into raptures at the mere mention of artistic and cultural projects. They are forever talking about the nice parks, the smart sculptures in central city and the art galleries with various valuable rarities. Nothing, they maintain, is more essential than such projects in the economic growth.

只要一提起艺术和文化项目，一些政府领导就会兴奋不已，他们滔滔不绝地说着美丽的公园，城市中心漂亮的雕塑，还有满是稀世珍宝的艺术展览馆。他们认为在经济发展中，没有什么比这些艺术项目更重要了。

87. But is it really the case? The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that artistic and cultural projects may be less useful than many governments think. In fact, basic infrastructure projects are playing extremely important role and should be given priority.

这是真的吗?这些年我收集的信息让我相信这些文化、艺术项目并没有许多政府想象的那么重要。事实上，基础设施建设非常重要，应该放在首位。

88. Those who are in favor of artistic and cultural projects advocate that cultural environment will attract more tourists, which will bring huge profits to local residents. Some people even equate the build of such projects with the improving of economic construction.

那些赞成建设文化艺术项目的人认为文化环境会吸引更多的游客，这将给当地居民带来巨大的利益。一些人甚至把建设文化艺术项目与发展经济建设等同起来。

89. Unfortunately, there is very few evidence that big companies are willing to invest a huge sums of money in a place without sufficient basic projects, such as supplies of electricity and water.

然而，很少有证据表明大公司愿意把巨额的资金投到一个连水电这些基础设施都不完善的地方去。

90. From what has been discussed above, it would be reasonable to believe that basic projects play far more important role than artistic and cultural projects in peoples life and economic growth.

通过以上讨论，我们有理由相信在人们的生活和经济发展方面，基础建设比艺术文化项目发挥更大的作用。

91. Those urban planners who are blind to this point will pay a heavy price, which they cannot afford it.

那些城市的规划者们如果忽视这一点，将会付出他们无法承受的代价。

92. There is a growing tendency these days for many people who live in rural areas to come into and work in city. This problem has caused wide public concern in most cities all over the world.

农民进城打工正成为增长的趋势，这一问题在世界上大部分城市已引起普遍关注。

93. An investigation shows that many emigrants think that working at city provide them with not only a higher salary but also the opportunity of learning new skills.

一项调查显示许多民工认为在城市打工不仅有较高的收入，而且能学到一些新技术。

94. It must be noted that improvement in agriculture seems to not be able to catch up with the increase in population of rural areas and there are millions of peasants who still live a miserable life and have to face the dangers of exposure and starvation.

必须指出，农业的发展似乎赶不上农村人口的增加，并且仍有成千上万的农民过着缺衣挨饿的贫寒生活。

95. Although rural emigrants contribute greatly to the economic growth of the cities, they may inevitably bring about many negative impacts.

尽管民工对城市的经济发展做出了巨大贡献，然而他们也不可避免的带来了一些负面影响。

96. Many sociologists point out that rural emigrants are putting pressure on population control and social order; that they are threatening to take already scarce city jobs; and that they have worsened traffic and public health problems.

许多社会学家指出民工正给人口控制和社会治安带来压力。他们正在威胁着本已萧条的工作市场，他们恶化了交通和公共卫生状况。

97. It is suggested that governments ought to make efforts to reduce the increasing gap between cities and countryside. They ought to set aside an appropriate fund for improvement of the standard of peasants lives. They ought to invite some experts in agriculture to share their experiences, information and knowledge with peasants, which will contribute directly to the economic growth of rural areas.

建议政府应该努力减少正在拉大的城乡差距。应该划拨适当的资金提高农民的生活水平;应该邀请农业专家向农民介绍他们的经验，知识和信息，这些将有助于发展农村经济。

98. In conclusion, we must take into account this problem rationally and place more emphases on peasants lives. Any government that is blind to this point will pay a heavy price.

总之，我们应理智考虑这一问题，重视农民的生活。任何政府忽视这一点都将付出巨大的代价。

99. Although many experts from universities and institutes consistently maintain that it is an inevitable part of an independent life, parents in growing numbers are starting to realize that people, including teachers and experts in education, should pay considerable attention to this problem.

尽管来自高校和研究院的许多专家坚持认为这是独立生活不可避免的一部分，然而越来越多的家长开始意识到包括教师和教育专家在内的人们应该认真对待这一问题。

100. As for me, it is essential to know, at first, what kind of problems young students possible would encounter on campus.

我认为，首先应看看学生们在校园可能遇到哪些问题。

纵观历年的高考书面表达，其文体题材各异，有书信、口头通知、简介、日记、自我介绍、记叙文、描写文、说明文、看图作文等，不同的体裁需要考生应用适当的篇章结构，将题目所提供的信息清晰、明了、准确，逻辑合理地表达出来。

篇章结构在语言表达中起着非常重要的作用，同样的信息点会因为不同的表达顺序传达出不同的信息。层次分明，逻辑合理的篇章结构会让读者在很短的时间内获得并准确理解题目所规定的信息;而叙述顺序混乱，前言不搭后语的篇章则让人一头雾水，不知所云何物。当然，后者是失败的表达，即使作者在写作的过程中使用了再漂亮的词汇和句型，混乱的文章结构也不会让读者准确领悟作者的意图。

记叙文主要是记叙所发生的事情和经历。常见的形式有：故事、日记、新闻报道、游记等。

记叙文的写作要素：

1 要交待清楚五要素的内容，即where, when, what, who ,how，给读者一个内容完整、细节清晰的故事。

2. 事情的叙述可以按时间或空间的顺序叙述，让读者易于把握所叙述内容之间的内在关联，从而理解文章主题。

3. 时态通常使用与过去有关的时态，如一般过去时。

记叙文的篇章结构：

开头 the beginning——交待必要的背景。如：时间、地点、人物等。

中间 the middle——交待故事情节(事情的主体)。如：事件的发生、发展和前因后果。(可以使用表示时间或空间的连接词，使文章连贯。 如：at first…then…few minutes later…)

结尾 the ending——事情的结果或感想、愿望等。(所表达的感想或愿望应与所记叙的内容有关系，起到扣题或点题的作用，使文章结构紧凑)。

例如NEMT2000

假设你是李华，正在美国探亲。2000年2月8日清晨，你目击了一起交通事故。警察局让你写一份材料，报告当时的所见情况。请根据下列图画写出报告。

注意：1. 目击者应该准确报告事实

2. 词数100左右

3. 结尾已为你写好

下面是语文迷网小编为大家整理的英语写作的经典句式，希望对你有帮助。

1. According to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.

依照最近的一项调查，每年有4，000，000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.

最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.

没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

4. People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.

人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。

5. An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.

越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。

6. When it comes to education, the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.

说到教育，大部分人认为其是一个终生的学习。

7. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.

许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

8. Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful effects of international tourism.

应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量，努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。

9. An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However, this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents, who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.

越来越多的专家相信移民对城市的建设起到积极作用。然而，越来越多的城市居民却怀疑这种说法，他们抱怨民工给城市带来了许多严重的问题，像犯罪和卖淫。

10. Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus, which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.

许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少，以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车，而车上可能已满载乘客。

11. There is no denying the fact that air pollution is an extremely serious problem: the city authorities should take strong measures to deal with it.

无可否认，空气污染是一个极其严重的问题：城市当局应该采取有力措施来解决它。

12. An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward retirement.

一项调查显示妇女欢迎退休。

12a. A proper part-time job does not occupy students too much time. In fact, it is unhealthy for them to spend all of time on their study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

一份适当的业余工作并不会占用学生太多的时间，事实上，把全部的时间都用到学习上并不健康，正如那句老话：只工作，不玩耍，聪明的孩子会变傻。

14. Any government, which is blind to this point, may pay a heavy price.

任何政府忽视这一点都将付出巨大的代价。

15.Nowadays, many students always go into raptures at the mere mention of the coming life of high school or college they will begin. Unfortunately, for most young people, it is not pleasant experience on their first day on campus.

当前，一提到即将开始的学校生活，许多学生都会兴高采烈。然而，对多数年轻人来说，校园刚开始的日子并不是什么愉快的经历。

16. In view of the seriousness of this problem, effective measures should be taken before things get worse.

考虑到问题的严重性，在事态进一步恶化之前，必须采取有效的措施。

17. The majority of students believe that part-time job will provide them with more opportunities to develop their interpersonal skills, which may put them in a favorable position in the future job markets.

大部分学生相信业余工作会使他们有更多机会发展人际交往能力，而这对他们未来找工作是非常有好处的。

18. It is indisputable that there are millions of people who still have a miserable life and have to face the dangers of starvation and exposure.

无可争辩，现在有成千上万的人仍过着挨饿受冻的痛苦生活。

19. Although this view is wildly held, this is little evidence that education can be obtained at any age and at any place.

尽管这一观点被广泛接受，很少有证据表明教育能够在任何地点、任何年龄进行。

20. No one can deny the fact that a persons education is the most important aspect of his life.

没有人能否认：教育是人生最重要的一方面。

21. People equate success in life with the ability of operating computer.

人们把会使用计算机与人生成功相提并论。

22. In the last decades, advances in medical technology have made it possible for people to live longer than in the past.

在过去的几十年，先进的医疗技术已经使得人们比过去活的时间更长成为可能。

23. In fact, we have to admit the fact that the quality of life is as important as life itself.

事实上，我们必须承认生命的质量和生命本身一样重要。

24. We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。

25. People believe that computer skills will enhance their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

人们相信拥有计算机技术可以获得更多工作或提升的机会。

26. The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that this knowledge may be less useful than most people think.

从这几年我搜集的信息来看，这些知识并没有人们想象的那么有用。

27. Now, it is generally accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduation.

现在，人们普遍认为没有一所大学能够在毕业时候教给学生所有的知识。

28. This is a matter of life and death--a matter no country can afford to ignore.

这是一个关系到生死的问题，任何国家都不能忽视。

29. For my part, I agree with the latter opinion for the following reasons:

我同意后者，有如下理由：

30. Before giving my opinion, I think it is important to look at the arguments on both sides.

在给出我的观点之前，我想看看双方的观点是重要的。

31. This view&nbsnbsp;is now being questioned by more and more people.

这一观点正受到越来越多人的质疑。

32. Although many people claim that, along with the rapidly economic development, the number of people who use bicycle are decreasing and bicycle is bound to die out. The information Ive collected over the recent years leads me to believe that bicycle will continue to play extremely important roles in modern society.

尽管许多人认为随着经济的高速发展，用自行车的人数会减少，自行车可能会消亡， 然而，这几年我收集的一些信息让我相信自行车仍然会继续在现代社会发挥极其重要的作用。

33. Environmental experts point out that increasing pollution not only causes serious problems such as global warming but also could threaten to end human life on our planet.

环境学家指出：持续增加的污染不仅会导致像全球变暖这样严重的问题，而且还将威胁到人类在这个星球的生存。

34. In view of such serious situation, environmental tools of transportation like bicycle are more important than any time before.

考虑到这些严重的状况，我们比以往任何时候更需要像自行车这样的环保型交通工具。

35. Using bicycle contributes greatly to peoples physical fitness as well as easing traffic jams.

使用自行车有助于人们的身体健康，并极大地缓解了交通阻塞。

36. Despite many obvious advantages of bicycle, it is not without its problem.

尽管自行车有许多明显的优点，但是它也存在它的问题。

37. Bicycle cant be compared with other means of transportation like car and train for speed and comfort.

在速度和舒适度方面，自行车是无法和汽车、火车这样的交通工具相比的。

38. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that advantages of bicycle far outweigh its disadvantages and it will still play essential roles in modern society.

通过以上讨论，我们可以得出结论：自行车的优点远大于缺点，并且在现代社会它仍将发挥重要作用。

39. There is a general discussion these days over education in many colleges and institutes. One of the questions under debate is whether education is a lifetime study.

当前在高校和研究机构对教育存在着大量争论，其中一个问题就是教育是否是个终身学习的过程。

40. This issue has caused wide public concern.

这个问题已经引起了广泛关注。

41. It must be noted that learning must be done by a person himself.

必须指出学习只能靠自己。

42. A large number of people tend to live under the illusion that they had completed their education when they finished their schooling. Obviously, they seem to fail to take into account the basic fact that a persons education is a most important aspect of his life.

许多人存在这样的误解，认为离开学校就意味着结束了他们的教育。显然，他们忽视了教育是人生重要部分这一基本事实。

43. As for me, Im in favor of the opinion that education is not complete with graduation, for the following reasons:

就我而言，我同意教育不应该随着毕业而结束的观点，有以下原因：

44. It is commonly accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduate.

人们普遍认为高校是不可能在毕业的时候教会他们的学生所有知识的。

45. Even the best possible graduate needs to continue learning before she or he becomes an educated person.

即使最优秀的毕业生，要想成为一个博学的人也要不断地学习。

46. It is commonly thought that our society had dramatically changed by modern science and technology, and human had made extraordinary progress in knowledge and technology over the recent decades.

人们普遍认为我们的现代科技使我们的社会发生了巨大的变化，近几十年人类在科技方面取得了惊人的进步。

47. Now people in growing numbers are beginning to believe that learning new skills and knowledge contributes directly to enhancing their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

现在越来越多的人开始相信学习新的技术和知识能直接帮助他们获得工作就会或提升的机会。

48. An investigation shows that many older people express a strong desire to continue studying in university or college.

一项调查显示许多老人都有到大学继续学习的愿望。

49. For the majority of people, reading or learning a new skill has become the focus of their lives and the source of their happiness and contentment after their retirement.

对大多数人来讲，退休以后，阅读或学习一项新技术已成为他们生活的中心和快乐的来源。

50. For people who want to adopt a healthy and meaningful life style, it is important to find time to learn certain new knowledge. Just as an old saying goes: it is never too late to learn.

对于那些想过上健康而有意义的生活的人们来说，找时间学习一些新知识是很重要的，正如那句老话：活到老，学到老

51. There is a general debate on the campus today over the phenomenon of college or high school students doing a part-time job.

对于大学或高中生打工这一现象，校园里进行着广泛的争论。

52. By taking a major-related part-job, students can not only improve their academic studies, but gain much experience, experience they will never be able to get from the textbooks.

通过做一份和专业相关的工作，学生不仅能够提高他们的专业能力，而且能获得从课本上得不到的经验。

53. Although people’s lives have been dramatically changed over the last decades, it must be admitted that, shortage of funds is still the one of the biggest questions that students nowadays have to face because that tuition fees and prices of books are soaring by the day.

近几十年，尽管人们的生活有了惊人的改变，但必须承认，由于学费和书费日益飞涨，资金短缺仍然是学生们面临的最大问题之一。

54. Consequently, the extra money obtained from part-time job will strongly support students to continue to their study life.

因此，业余工作挣来的钱将强有力地支持学生们继续他们的求学生活。

55. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw a conclusion that part-time job can produce a far-reaching impact on students and they should be encouraged to take part-time job, which will benefit students and their family, even the society as a whole.

通过上面的讨论，我们不难得出结论：业余工作对学生们会产生深远的影响，我们应鼓励学生从事业余工作，这将有利于学生和他们的家庭，甚至整个社会。

56. These days, people in growing numbers are beginning to complain that work is more stressful and less leisurely than in past. Many experts point out that, along with the development of modern society, it is an inevitable result and there is no way to avoid it.

现在，越来越多的人们开始抱怨工作比以前更有压力。许多专家指出这是现代社会发展必然的结果，无法避免。

57. It is widely acknowledged that computer and other machines have become an indispensable part of our society, which make our life and work more comfortable and less laborious.

人们普遍认为计算机和其他机器已经成为我们社会必不可少的一部分。 它们使我们的生活更舒适，减少了大量劳动。

58. At the same time, along with the benefits of such machines, employees must study knowledge involved in such machines so that they are able to control them.

同时，随着这些机器带给我们的好处，员工们也必须要学习与之相关的知识以便使用它们。

59. No one can deny the basic fact that it is impossible for average workers to master those high-technology skills easily.

没有人能否认这一基本事实：对于一般工人来讲，轻松掌握这些技术是不可能的。

60. In the second place, there seem to be too many people without job and not enough job position.

第二方面，失业的人似乎太多而又没有足够的工作岗位。

61. Millions of people have to spend more time and energy on studying new skills and technology so that they can keep a favorable position in job market.

成千上万的人们不得不花费更多的精力和时间学习新的技术和知识，使得他们在就业市场能保持优势。

62. According to a recent survey, a growing number of people express a strong desire to take another job or spend more time on their job in order to get more money to support their family.

根据最近的一项调查，越来越多的人表达了想从事另外的工作或加班以赚取更多的钱来补贴家用的强烈愿望。

63. From what has been discussed above, I am fully convinced that the leisure life-style is undergoing a decline with the progress of modern society, it is not necessary a bad thing.

通过以上讨论，我完全相信，随着现代社会的进步，幽闲的生活方式正在消失并不是件坏事。

64. The problem of international tourism has caused wide public concern over the recent years.

近些年，国际旅游的问题引起了广泛关注。

65. Many people believe that international tourism produce positive effects on economic growth and local government should be encouraged to promote international tourism.

许多人认为国际旅游对经济发展有积极作用，应鼓励地方政府发展国际旅游。

66. But what these people fail to see is that international tourism may bring about a disastrous impact on our environment and local history.

但是这些人忽视了国际旅游可能会给当地环境和历史造成的灾难性的影响。

67. As for me, Im firmly convinced that the number of foreign tourists should be limited, for the following reasons:

就我而言，我坚定地认为国外旅游者的数量应得到限制，理由如下：

68. In addition, in order to attract tourists, a lot of artificial facilities have been built, which have certain unfavorable effects on the environment.

另外，为了吸引旅游者，大量人工设施被修建，这对环境是不利的。

69. For lack of distinct culture, some places will not attract tourists any more. Consequently, the fast rise in number of foreign tourists may eventually lead to the decline of local tourism.

由于缺乏独特的文化，一些地方不再吸引旅游者。因此，国外旅游者数量的快速增加可能最终会导致当地旅游业的衰败。

70. There is a growing tendency for parents to ask their children to accept extra educational programs over the recent years.

近些年，父母要求他们的孩子接受额外的教育呈增长的势头。

71. This phenomenon has caused wide public concern in many places of world.

这一现象在全世界许多地方已引起了广泛关注。

72. Many parents believe that additional educational activities enjoy obvious advantage. By extra studies, they maintain, their children are able to obtain many kinds of practical skills and useful knowledge, which will put them in a beneficial position in the future job&nbsnbsp;markets when they grow up.

许多家长相信额外的教育活动有许多优点，通过学习，他们的孩子可以获得很多实践技能和有用的知识，当他们长大后，这些对他们就业是大有好处的。

73. In the first place, extra studies bring about unhealthy impacts on physical growth of children. Educational experts point out that, it is equally important to take some sport activities instead of extra studies when children have spent the whole day in a boring classroom.

首先，额外的学习对孩子们的身体发育是不利的。教育专家指出，孩子们在枯燥的教室里呆了一整天后，从事一些体育活动，而不是额外的学习，是非常重要的。

74. Children are undergoing fast physical development; lack of physical exercise may produce disastrous influence on their later life.

孩子们正处于身体快速发育时期，缺乏体育锻炼可能会对他们未来的生活造成严重的影响。

75. In the second place, from psychological aspect, the majority of children seem to tend to have an unfavorable attitude toward additional educational activities.

第二，从心理上讲，大部分孩子似乎对额外的学习没有什么好感。

写作是运用语言文字符号反映客观事物、表达思想感情、传递知识信息的创造性脑力劳动过程。作为一个完整的系统过程，写作活动大致可分为"采集-构思-表述"三个阶段。下面是小编整理的关于写作的基础知识，欢迎大家阅读！

1、关于写作

为什么要写一篇文章呢？可能是为了讲一件东西的性状，或者，为讲一件事情的经过，或者，为发表一种主张。等我们确定文章是哪种性质的时候，中心意旨也就定了。那我们回问自己：“这个中心意旨在我们的意念中间怎样来的呢？”这时候我们自然会回答，从某种因缘引起的，或者，从许多事理物理中间发现的。回答有了，同时材料的先后排列，段落的互相衔接，也就有所依据了。我们回问自己道：这项材料可能增加中心意旨的力量吗？那样说法可要打消中心意旨的存在吗？这时候我们自然又会回答，能够增加中心意旨的力量的，或者，和中心意旨完全矛盾的，或者，和中心意旨风马牛不相及的。这就是每篇文章具体组织的方法。

以下的这个我例句我觉得很有用，因此特地摘抄。

当我们看见一幅很好的图画，想把它记述出来，这时我们会问自己：记那画面上的景物呢，还是记那幅画的布局和设色的技巧呢，还是景物和技巧都记？这样一问，中心意旨就决定了。又问道：我们是从什么地方看见那幅画的呢？这样一问，不是开端便是结尾的部分就成立了。又问道：如果记景物，哪一景、哪一物最引起我们的注意呢？如果记技巧，哪一部、哪一色最受到我们的赞赏呢？这样一问之后，或者准备把最引起注意，最受到赞赏的部分作主，依次说开去，或者准备把这等部分留在最后说，前面先说及那些比较不主要的部分：于是全篇的次第便确定了。

写作注意事项

1、文章的好坏，可从三方面来观察，一是文法上有无毛病，二是用词适当与否，三是思想的新鲜、正确、丰富与否。思想内容是靠多读书多体验的。普通人只有普通人的思想，无法可求速效，只好终身修养。

2、不知道就得询问，就得翻查。这样成为习惯，然后读书不致含糊，不致误解，说话作文不致词不达意，不致指鹿为马。

3、必须把怎样美丽、怎样悲痛、怎样有趣、怎样可恨用真实的印象描写出来，人家才会感到美丽、悲痛、有趣和可恨。

4、读书的目的，重在收得其内容意趣，否则只是文字的游戏而已。作文的材料，到处都是，并非仅在书中。

2、如何创作

创作第一步是发现题材，题材须是有新鲜意味的才值得选择认定。世间的事物，原都是现成的，平凡的，旧有的，所谓新鲜的意味，完全要作者自己去发现能够留心，随时随地都可发现的。每日在街上行走会碰到各种各样的人物和事件，平时读书或独坐，会起各种各样的心念和情感，这种时候，事物的新鲜的意味常会电光似地忽然自己投入到头脑里来，随时把它捉住了就是题材。

题材选定了以后，第二步还要使它成熟，无论在读书的时候，看报的时候，听别人谈话的时候，独自散步的时候，都要到处留心，遇有和这题材有关系的事项，一一搜集拢来，使“题材成熟了，这才可以写出。用文章来写，或用绘画来写，都是创作。

3、怎么读文学史

乱读不但无益而且有害。

如果想读文学史，最好先把中国哲学的原书读一遍，先了解原书的大概轮廓，再去读哲学史。

只有先读过几篇《论语》，然后去读哲学史中关于孔子的部分。读过几篇《庄子》，再去翻阅哲学史中关于庄子的部分。才会有意义，才会有真利益。先得了孔子、庄子思想的基本的概念，再去研求关于孔子、庄子思想的评释，才是顺路。也要一边读哲学史、文学史，一边翻读原书，以求知识的充实。

4、写字是一种技术，非加工磨练不可的

以前总要求我们家小侄女要练字，看了《文心》才感觉惭愧。那时候不知道写字的标准，因此也没跟她说要练字的原理及好处。以至她三分热度。

现在我知道写字有四项标准，就是迅速、准确、匀整和合式。1、现在人生活繁忙，做不论什么事情，都要讲时间经济，写字必须迅速是当然的。2、准确呢，就是写下字来没有错误的意思。随笔写错了字，自己不能发觉，以致误事，固是实际上的损害。而写错在先，后经发觉于是涂抹的涂抹，填注的填注，拿出去竟不像一件东西，也是形式上的缺点。所以必须把准确作为写字的标准，落笔要自始到底没有错误。

要达到这两项标准，只有随时留意，随时练习。

匀整和合式是现在人写字美观方面的最低标准，仿佛一条水平线，够不上这条水平线的，就拿不出去；因为拿出去会受人家的鄙视，至少也要引起人家的不快。

3、匀整分两方面：一是每一个字本身笔画的匀整，二是全幅的字通体款式的匀整。每一个字的许多笔画虽不必长短均等，粗细一律，但也不可相差得太远。笔画间的空隙要匀称。

4、使多笔画的字不嫌其局促，少笔画的字也不嫌其宽松。

不管是读书还是写作。首先最重要的还是要先去了解一些它的基础知识。只有了解基本的概念，再去深入，才是顺路。这样才会有意义，才会有真利益。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

在写记叙文时，如果要使文字内容更具体，不空泛，一定要把叙述与描写结合起来。那么如何才能结合好呢?我们首先需要了解一下这两者的基本概念和作用。怎么结合呢?下文是小编整理的相关内容，欢迎阅读参考!

叙述和描写。是作文中两种不同的表现方式。我们这里说的叙述是指把人的经历行为或事件的发生、发展变化表述出来的一种表达方式，它常常把分散的场景，片断的故事和人物的身世，地位，经历，事迹等贯穿起来。它要求做到头绪清楚，脉络分明，有条有理，重点突出。

在记事、写人、状物的文章中，叙述是不可少的，尤其是在介绍人或事物变化为主的文章中叙述的作用更大，甚至有的文章专以叙述为长。我们本讲选的优秀作文《男班长，女班长》就是一个很好的例子。文章中描写部分很少，介绍事件发展过程的叙述占了很大的篇幅，如开头对男女班长来自何方的介绍，女班长对男班长的观察，正副班长必须合作的现实，以及同学们的揶揄，思想的顾虑，同学开玩笑不断，“收到副班长纸条”，到结尾“男女班长仍然合作着处理班里的事务”。这篇文章用很短的篇幅，以叙述为主，把一波三折的事件按发展轨迹清晰有序地介绍出来。对发展过程虽是梗概地介绍，但文章的思想内涵却非常丰富，也可以说在写法上是比较巧妙的。

叙述在按事件发生发展、人物经历的时间来划分，可以有顺叙，倒叙、插叙、补叙等方式，我们在写文章时，可以根据表达的需要去选择叙述的方式。

描写是对人物，事物和环境所作的具体的描绘和摹写，描写是再现描写对象状态的一种表达方式。描写需要采用绘声绘色的办法，把事物的状貌、神采和动态，具体地、真切地饱含情意地勾画出来。写人要使其声可闻，其容可睹;写物要使之可见，可闻，可触，可感;写景要意境鲜明，使读者产生仿佛置身其间的幻觉。

在我们学过的课文中，传神的描写是很多的。如《天山景物记》中对天山深处的描写，“山色逐渐变得柔嫩，山形也变得柔和，很有一伸手就可以触摸到凝脂似的感觉。这里溪流缓慢，萦绕着每一个山脚，在轻轻荡漾着的溪流的两岸，满是高过马头的野花，红、黄、蓝、白、紫，五彩缤纷，像绵延的织锦那么华丽，象天边的彩霞那么耀眼，像高空的长虹那么绚烂。”这段描写抓住山色、溪流、野花这三种最能表现天山特点的事物，重彩浓墨，绘声绘色地把天山美景表现出来。既能使读者如身临其境，也增添了作品的文采。我们在作文时，如果能恰当地运用描写来表现形象，借以表达某种强烈的思想感情。文章的感染力就一定能有所增强。

叙述和描写在记叙性的文字中都是不可缺少的表现方式。叙述着重于一般情况过程的交待，描写则着重形象的描摹和刻画;如果说叙述是纵的绵延，那么描写便是横的扩展。一篇文字若无叙述，就会显得杂乱无章;没有描写，则会干瘪枯燥，毫无生气可言。

实际上，成功的作品中，常常是叙述与描写交错在一起的。我们所选优秀作文，《奶奶与花》就是叙述与描写交融在一起的，近似于一线串珠式的一篇记叙文。

文中以时间为序，先从小时候家门前有一个很大的“花园”叙述开始，然后再描写人物行为语言、花的形态、气味。从而表现我“深深地爱上花”的过程。接着叙述自己病中见到花的情景，描写花的形态，写出自己感受到“花能给人一种强盛的生命力”。接着是叙述“随着年龄的增长，这种认识愈来愈深”又通过对“死不了”“仙人球”的描写，感悟出“花，让我感到一种无尽的生命力，一种明亮的期望”。第五自然段叙述自己养花的过程。这里又运用描写的方式，描绘出花园的美丽，各种花的特点，表现出花可以陶冶情操的作用。这段描写是比较突出的，描写了花的各种色彩，各种形态，用排比、比喻的手法绘色绘形，有丰富的想象力。为了把文章写得曲折有致，第七段、第八段叙述搬进高层楼房前、后我与奶奶对花的珍爱，对小花园的怀念，这里又有对人物的心理、动作的描写，为“小花园”遭到破坏，我和奶奶沉痛心情做了铺垫。

这篇文章用叙述的方式。介绍了事件发展曲折过程，使文章头绪清楚，脉络分明，重点环节突出。这是文章的一条线。在每个重要环节上，作者都生动形象地描绘了人物的行为、场景、物态，内容丰满。叙述和描写有机地结合在一起，深刻地表达了文章的主题思想，增强文章的感染力。

在作文时，恰当地运用叙述与描写，做到有机结合，要注意以下几点。

一、要熟练掌握叙述与描写的功能，注意二者之间互相依存、互相交通的关系。根据作文内容和思想表达的需要，交错运用。

二、在描写范围比较大、内容比较丰富的地域景物或事物状貌时，(例如《天山景物记》等一些游记式的文章)需要有一条贯穿始终的线索，有一个逐步转移、推进的过程，那么这个线索或过程就要依靠叙述来表现。如我们常讲的“移步换景”的写法，其中对“移步”的交代，往往需要叙述。用时间推移来描写事物或人物的发展变化时，对每个阶段的交代，一般也是要运用叙述来完成的。在这种情况下描写的条理性要依靠叙述来体现。

三、在写故事情节比较强文章时，人物的语言，行动往往是构成情节的重要因素、情节又要依靠叙述来展开，这就需要描写人物语言行动与铺叙故事情节同时进行，也就是说要把叙述故事融化在描写中，或把描写融化在叙述情节中。我们仔细玩味一下作文《奶奶与花》，其中有些地方就是把描写与叙述这样融合在一起的。

我们就应当多选读一些优秀作文或名家的文章，刻意体味一下的相依关系，学习二者的结合形式。使自己的作文能更加条理清晰，情节曲折跌宕，内容丰富有致，更具有感染力。

[写作基础：把叙述与描写结合起来