四级英语作文题型写作方法（汇编20篇）

由于人们生活经历、知识状况不同，对事物的看法存在差异，抒发出来的感情必然也不一样，下面抒情作文的写作方法，仅供参考。

借景抒情是一种常用的写作方法，其特点是寓情于景，情景交融，它是通过对景物的描写来抒发自己的感情。例如《第一场雪》里说：“荷！好大的雪啊！山川、树木、房屋、全都罩上一层厚的雪，万里江山变马了粉妆玉砌的世界。”字里行间流露出作者对大雪的喜爱。

尽管如此，由于人们生活经历、知识状况不同，对事物的看法存在差异，抒发出来的感情必然也不一样，因此根据具体情况，联系自己的实际，有的放矢，才能借助于景色描写，抒发出自己的真实感来。

下面的故事对我们很有启发：

从前，有一个秀才与县官、财主一起饮酒。这时外面正下着大雪，秀才 提议吟诗助兴，谁如果接不上，就罚酒三杯。秀才先吟第一句：“大雪纷纷落地。”县官想自己的转：一切都是皇上给的，感激之情油然而生，便接口吟道：“一片皇家瑞气。”财主想显示一下自己的财富，接下去吟了第三句：“再下三年何妨？”正在此时，一个又冻又饿的农民正好从屋前走过，听到这话心想，下三年岂不要把我饿死？就气愤地说：“真是吃饱放屁！”话虽粗俗，但却在理。

面对同一雪景，四个人由于经历、处境不同，抒发的感情也就截然不同，但是他们抒发的感情却是十分真实可信的，都符合各自的身份。

对联对仗工整，平仄协调，是一字一音的中华语言独特的艺术形式。对联相传起于五代后蜀主孟昶。对联是中国传统文化瑰宝。小编收集了对联的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

对联是一种讲究格律的文学形式，要欣赏与写作对联，必须了解其最基本的格律要求。所谓对联格律(简称联律)，指对联中有关平仄、词性、语法修辞，以及书写张贴等方面的格式与规律，其核心是对仗。对联的基本格律可概括成以下几点:

1.字数相等,内容相关。

从字数来看，原则上，只要上下联字数相等，不论多少字数均可。如上下联各四个字,则称四言联, 等等。但在实践中, 多为四字以上,因汉字一般需要四字以上才能组成句子。从内容上看，一副对联的上下联之间,内容应当相关,也就是意思要相互衬托或相互衔接，以起到相反相成或相辅相成的效果。大多数对联上下联之间的内容

属于互相衬托的关系。这种衬托或者是从相同的角度互相映衬、互相补充(即所谓"正对"),或者是从相反的角度互相反衬、互相对照(即所谓"反对"),"正对"如:

心莲清净

性海圆融(注:所引对联未注明作者或出处的,均出自本书,下同。)

"反对"如:

心平积福

欲重招殃

有少数对联上下联之间的内容属于互相衔接的关系(即所谓"串对",或称"流水对"),也就是上下联两个分句共同构成一个复句,上下联存在一种连贯、递进、选择、转折、因果、假设、条件、目的等复合关系。当然,这种互相衔接同时也是互相衬托的。如:

若无前世心中毒

哪有今生意外灾

又如:

除了香甜苦辣咸酸涩

无非柴米油盐酱醋茶

如果上下联内容毫不相关,会使人觉得非常生硬与滑稽,则起不到对联应有的文学效果。

除非是一种特殊的对联形式, 即所谓"无情对"。它指的是上下联形式上(字面上)对仗工整,而内容上(意义上)却并不相关,从而造成一种特殊的效果。如:

三星白兰地

五月黄梅天(常用联)

庭前花始放

阁下李先生(常用联)

公门桃李争荣日

法国荷兰比利时(常用联)

树已半枯休纵斧

果然一点不相干(常用联)

2.词性相当、概念相当、结构相称、节奏相称。

所谓词性相当,指上下联相对的词语性质(从严格意义上说，是每个字的词性)应当尽可能相同或相近。如名词对名词、动词对动词、形容词对形容词，以及连词对连词、副词对副词，等等。如：

大行绝俗忘荣辱

至道无情空是非

如果从每个字来看,"大"与"至"、 "荣"与"是"、"辱"与"非"是形容词,"行"与"道"、" 俗"与"情"是名词,"绝"与"无"、"忘"与"空"是动词。 但在实践中,对虚词的要求比较宽松,一般能够虚词对虚词即可。对实词的要求较为严格,词性不同一般不能相对。但那些词性比较接近的、或者词性能够兼通的实词,也还是允许相对的,如名词和代词、某些动词和形容词之间。当然,词性相同属工对，词性相近或相通属宽对。

更严格一点说，不但词性要相当，而且词语所代表的概念也要相当，也即要尽可能相类似或相对衬。这也涉及到对联的宽工问题。若上下联两个词语共同所属概念的范畴越小,对仗就越工,反之则越宽。如:"中国"对"雄鸡",其共同范畴是事物;"晓日"对"雄鸡",就缩小为自然物;"小草"对"雄鸡",就缩小为生物;"骏马"对"雄鸡",就缩小为动物;"老鸭"对"雄鸡",就缩小为鸟纲以至家禽。再者,若上下联两个词语之间,概念关系越互相矛盾(即所谓"矛盾概念"),对仗就越工,"有"对"无"、"真"对"假"、"生" 对"死"、"物质"对"精神"、"自然"对"社会"等,就属于工对。

所谓结构相称，指上下联语句的语法结构应当相同或相似，也即主谓结构对主谓结构、动宾结构对动宾结构、偏正结构对偏正结构、并列结构对并列结构,等等。如:

胜行严佛土

正法利人间

上下联皆为主谓宾结构。其中，”胜行”对”正法”、”佛土”对”人间”，又皆为偏正结构。再如：

软首妙光，威名显赫

雄狮利剑，宝相庄严

"软首妙光"对"雄狮利剑",皆为并列结构;"威名显赫"对"宝相庄严",皆为主谓结构;"软首"对"雄狮"、"妙光"与"利剑"、"威名"对"宝相",又皆为偏正结构。

另外，上下联之间还应当节奏相称。对联行文多以二字(有时也以一字或三字)为 一节奏。节奏相称，就是应当尽可能同步。如：

漏尽-飞身-去

心空-及第-归

又如：

以-神通力-护持-正法

设-孟兰盆-超度-慈亲

总之，上下联的用词造句，在词性、语法结构和节奏上,应尽量相当或相称,以保持形式上的协调与工整。但这些要求在实践中还是允许适当放宽的。个别情况下，还可以有所变通。如：

五十三参，遍访良师求正智

百城烟水，广行悲愿践初心

其中,”五十三参”对"百城烟水”,是以同一个典故的两个常用语相对。 单从词性、结构等形式方面来看,严格说是不合联律,但从内容来看,则属于"义对",是允许的。

3.平仄协调。

平仄协调，狭义地说,就是指对联在音调上的两大要求:平仄相对与平仄交替。广义地说，也包含句脚安排等其他一些平仄问题。要弄清这些问题，首先必须区分什么是平声、什么是仄声。这又有两种划分标准。在对联创作中，一般是运用”古四声", 即古汉语将音调分为平、上、去、入四声,除平声外,上声、去声、入声皆为仄声。现在，也有少数人运用”新四声”,即现代汉语将音调分为阴平、阳平、上声、去声四声。其中，阴平、阳平为平声，上声、去声为仄声。两种声韵的不同，关键在于入声字。入声字的掌握和识别，大体上还是有规律可循，在此恕不赘述。对初学者来说，

最简单易行的办法是先在运用时借助工具书。据作者个人的经验，在运用中比较容易熟悉入声字。不过，要注意的是，虽然上述两种用法可并行不悖，但在同一副对联中,不能同时混用。

现在再回过头来谈平仄协调的问题。所谓平仄相对, 就是上下联的音步要平声对仄声、仄声对平声。反之,如果平声对平声,仄声对仄声,就叫平仄失对,又叫同声相对。音步与节奏大体上是同一概念,一般来说,一个节奏即是一个音步。由于对联脱胎于格律诗,因此,在平仄方面，对联与格律诗中的对仗句基本相同。而且，对音步的安排也有”一三五不论,二四六分明”之说。因为在实际上,并不一定要求整个音步平仄相对，而只是要求在音步位上平仄相对。所谓音步位，就是每个音步的末位字，这是决定整个音步性质的重点声。由于汉字的绝大多数音步为二字音步,因此,音步位一般指的就是每句的第二、四、六等字数。所以便有了"一三五不论，二四六分明"。如：

悲欣交集

事理双行(注:平声用" "表示,仄声用" "表示,下同。)

又如:

火移薪尽业犹在

身坏神迷行不亡

其中,一三五不一定平仄相对,二四六皆平仄相对,即属工对。不过,并非所有的音步位都在二四六位置上,主要是由于,对联行文的格式除了以律诗中的对仗句式为主以外,还有词曲文赋等格式以及领字的存在。如：

厌娑婆苦域

弘净土法门

观美女华瓶盛粪

叹凡夫甘愿投泥

直心乃万行之本

贪欲为诸苦之源

深心勤习真言***义

全力弘扬大手印法门

讲到平仄相对,必须提一下对联的句脚。一副对联不管长短如何,也不管倒数第二个字是平声还是仄声,都要求上联仄声收尾,即最后一个字(句脚)应当是仄声;下联则要求平声收尾。一般不能上联平声收尾,下联仄声收尾;更不能同声收尾。另外,由多个短句组成的长联,还要注意每个短句的句脚不能全都是仄声或全都是平声,而应当有所错落,

至于这种错落具体如何安排,则尚无定论。不过,运用"马蹄韵"撰长联是一种比较好的句脚安排方式。

所谓平仄交替,它与平仄相对实际上是同一个问题的两个方面,指的是一个句子自身的音步之间,平仄应交替使用,否则就是平仄失替。只有每句的最后一个字(句脚),可以不考虑交替问题。如:

佛身远过世间望

妙法不堪小智听

又如:

无所从来何有相

得成于忍不生心

在平仄问题上还有一些禁忌,如忌"三平尾"或"三仄尾",忌"孤平"或"孤仄"等,留待下面再谈。

总的来看,对联在平仄协调方面是有讲究的,写作对联不能不讲平仄。如果说,字数相等、词性与概念相当、语法结构与节奏相称,赋予了对联整齐美、严谨美、对衬美、结构美、节奏美等审美特征的话, 那么,平仄协调则赋予了对联音韵美这个重要审美特征。当然,有时为了不以辞害意,个别地方出现平仄失对或平仄失替,亦可通融。

4.几个禁忌。

除了以上三个基本要求外,对联在格律上还有几个禁忌,即几种应尽量避免的情况:

"三平尾"或"三仄尾";"孤平"或"孤仄";"同位重字"和"异位重字";"同义相对";等等。

"三平尾"或"三仄尾",指的是在一个句子的最末三个字,都是平声或都是仄声。如 "依法修行能入道",若将"能"改为"可"就变成了三仄尾。又如"缘深因厚坐莲台",若将"坐"改为"登",就变成了三平尾。

"孤平"或"孤仄",指的是在五个字以上的句子中, 只有一个平声字,或只有一个仄声字。如"无言乃入门",若改为"无言而入门",就是"孤仄";又如"大日心光遍照",若改为"大日智光遍照",就是"孤平"(全平格或全仄格例外)。

对联中允许出现叠字或重字, 如"世事纷纷"对"红尘滚滚"、 "惟觉者能听能会"对 "叹醉人不醒不知"。但对联中应尽量避免"同位重字"和"异位重字"。所谓"同位重字", 就是以同一个字在同一个位置相对,如"法界"对"世界"、"成道"对"成魔"。不过,有些虚词("之乎者也"之类)的同位重字是允许的,如:

漏网之鱼,世间时有

脱天之鸟,宇内尚无

诸佛洞观实相而无住

众生游戏虚空而不知

所谓"异位重字",就是同一个字出现在上下联不同的位置。如:

见诸法空虚,此身去直超彼岸

念众生平等,三人行必有我师

若将上联的"直超彼岸"改为"已无后有",就与下联"必有我师"的"有"异位重字。又如:

......若陶匠抟泥,掌中视果

......胜樵夫观弈,梦里入槐

若将上联的"掌中视果"改为"掌中观果",就与下联"樵夫观弈"的"观"异位重字。当然, 有一种比较特殊的"异位互重"格式是允许的,如:

万法一心,空不异色

一心万法,色即是空

联中的"一"与"万"、"心"与"法"、"空"与"色",便是"异位互重"格式。

所谓"同义相对",通常又称为"合掌",指上下联相对的语句意思完全雷同,如"赤县" 对"神州"、"旭日"对"朝阳"、"史册"对"汗青"。

5.其它。

对联的写作与欣赏,还有一些相对次要的格律和比较独特的修辞方法,如借对、自对、嵌字、回文、集句,以及对联的横批、对联书写和张贴的格式,等等。下面对以上提到的问题逐一做个简单的介绍。

应试作文的评分标准尽管描述语言不同，但都可以分为内容、组织和语言三个方面，如果是应用文，还要看语域和格式。新四级作文的评分标准也不能脱离以上三大方面：内容按照题目提纲扩展即可；组织除了要注意段与段之间的连贯与衔接之外，还要特别注意考生最容易忽略的句与句之间的逻辑性；最难提高的是语言，即用词的丰富性和句子的复杂性。要拿到新四级写作高分，就必须在语言上有所起色，语言是绕不过去的一个心结，那么语言突破之路，到底在何方呢？答曰：简单句。

这是从广大考生的实际出发给出的回答。因为学了很多年的英语，大部分考生还是能够写出一些东西的，最起码能够写出一些英语的简单句吧。简单句包括S+V，S+V+O， S+V+O+O，S+V+O+C， S+V+C，复杂一些的句子无不是由这些简单句演变而来的。

用简单句写复杂思想

学了这么多年英语，为什么还不能写出好的句子？原因在于想得太复杂了。我们可以将要表达的汉语思想，全部说成简单的句子，而简单句，在写作时是考生可以掌控的。之后再将简单句加以润色、组合，使之登堂入室，夺取高分。

例如写这句话：大学生刚刚毕业就想立刻找到高薪的工作是不可能的。看到这样的汉语句子，一般我们的反应是要用It is impossible for sb. to do sth.. 这样的句型，然后想着往里填词：在sb. 的位置填上刚刚毕业的大学生，在不定式的位置填上找到高薪的工作，如下所示：

作文

开头的方法很多，常见有：

1．开门见山法。

这种方法是文章一开头，就直入正题，把文章所要叙述的主要内容直截了当地交代出来，让读者一看就知道这篇文章描写的是什么人、什么事、什么活动。这种开头一下子就能吸引读者的注意力，而且还不会跑题。例如《课间十分钟》一文开头：

下课铃响了，同学们快步走出教室，到操场上参加自己喜欢的课间活动，校园里顿时沸腾起来。这个开头就点明了时间——“下课”，地点——“操场上”，人物——“同学们”，事情——“课间活动”。非常直截了当。

2．提示中心法。

这种方法是一开头就点明全文的中心，使读者对文章的中心思想有一个明确的了解，我们看看下面的开头。

“生活在集体中间是幸福的，两年前，我深深地体会到这一点。”

这是《生活在温暖的集体里》一文的开头，

3．描写引入法。

描写人物和景物来开头，这种方法就是描写引入法。描写人物就是在文章的开头，对人物的肖像、服饰、神态、等进行描写，以达到人物在读者面前树立一个鲜明形象的效果，描写引入法中还有一种是以描写景物来开头，也就是在文章的开头对故事情节所处的自然环境或社会环境必要的描写，以起到交代背景、渲染气氛突出中心的作用。

4．设置悬念法。

在写事的文章中，我们常常把事情的结果或文中的某个片段放在开头来写，以引起读者的疑问，然后再记叙事情的起因和经过，这种开头的方法叫设置悬念法。这种方法可以激发读者强烈的兴趣，如《智斗奸商》一文的开头写到的：放暑假的第二天旱上，我和表姐一块儿去买菜。走到菜场的北口，我就看前面很多人。我和表姐紧走几步，也围了过去……

5．对比法。

在文章的开头，把不同的人和事物或同一个人和事物的不同时间，不同方面的情况作对比介绍。运用对比法可以使描绘的形象更为突出，增强文章的表达效果，给人留下深刻的印象。

6．回忆联想法。

由人、事、景、物、等引起回忆，联想、引出下文，展开情节，这种方法就叫回忆联想法。运用回联想法开头，给人一种亲切，自然的感受。

7．对话开头法。

以人物的对话开头。这种开头起笔自然，往往给人以新鲜的感觉。采用对话的形式开头，一定要把对话写得精彩有意义，紧扣中心。

下面是由语文迷网小编精心为大家整理的英语写作高分技巧，供大家阅读参考。

一、要善于模仿

一些同学的办法往往是背一堆范文，然后再到考场上进行一个“剪切”、“粘贴”的工作，真正的模仿重点永远要放在一定的句式结构上，而非个别的词汇。有一个句式说：“…for the simple reason that…”表示某种现象的原因是什么，用在高考(课程)写作中，我们就可以拿来解释为什么自行车在中国如此的流行：“The bicycle is very popular in China for the simple reason that…”。然而，很多同学一谈到原因仍然是“…because…”。如果要表示“总是能够”的概念，很多同学提笔就会写can always，但理想的句子应该是用双重否定表示强烈的肯定，用never fail to。

二、要灵活变通

在批改过上万份同学们英语(课程)作文中，经常能发现一些将中文生硬地翻译成英文的表达法。有一句话叫做“立志如山，行道如水”，写英文作文，一定要有决心把它写好，有信心把意思表达清楚，这是“立志如山”;但关键是遇到问题时要有个灵活的态度，能像流水一样变通解决问题。有个翻译界的故事说：在某大型国际会议的招待会上，一道菜是用鸡蛋做的。与会的客人问翻译：“What is it made of”本来是非常简单的一个问题，结果翻译太紧张，忘了“egg”这个词，但是他急中生智，回答：“It is made of Miss Hen’s son.”这里，就是一个灵活变通的范例。绕道表达，是写作中应该常常运用的一种方法。

三、要细心观察

注意英语中一些表达上的习惯。比如在正式文体的写作中，很少用 “it isn’t”这样的略缩形式，而往往是一板一眼地写作 “it is not”。同理，在正式文体中的日期一般不缩写，阿拉伯数字一般会用英文表达(特别长的数字除外)。

许多同学在写作文时，习惯于把 “since” “because” “for”这样的词放在句首引导原因状语从句。事实上，在我们见到的英语报刊杂志文章中，这样的从句一般都是放在主句之后的。另外, “and”也常常被误放在一句话的开头，表示两个句子之间的并列或递进关系。其实，经常留心地道的英语文章能发现，如果是并列关系，完全可以不用连词;如果是递进关系，用 “furthermore” “what is more”更为普遍。

四、要心有全局

英文写作如果结构意识良好，应试写作就简化成为一个填空的过程了，适当地填入观点、素材，文章就自然而然立起来了。

比你成绩差的人未必处处比你差，他们之中也有你学习的地方，你必须分清什么样的是造成他们不如你的原因，就不要学。而提炼出来他们身上的精华。你可以找一本笔记本，把自己所有的写作练习都写在上面，你可以时不时翻看前面的写作练习，看看自己比之前有了哪些进步，也可以反省一下自己是否在同一个失误上跌倒多次。当然，如果你更喜欢用电脑打字的话，你可以把写作练习传到博客或者，尤其是后者，可以帮助你利用网站日历跟踪写作进度。上海初二学生找好的作文补习班|好的初中作文家教推荐思：指有的时候要想，做到低头看书，抬头思考，手在写题，脑在思考。做：在看的过程中，需要动手做的准备工作以及对课本后的练习题要进行尝试性的做一做。问答题答一答。

以上是关于学习方法的一般性的建议，它们对于各门功课都是适用的。但是，具体到不同的人、不同的课程，还应该结合实际情况摸索适宜的学习方法。比如，应该根据同的学科选择合适的学习方法。文科、理科的学习方法会不一样；同是文科，英语和历史、地理的学习方法也应该有所差异。上海初二学生找好的作文补习班|好的初中作文家教推荐亲自推导公式数学课程中有大量的公式，有的课本上有推导过程；有的课本上没有推导过程，只是把公式的-初形式写出来，然后说一句，“经推导可得”，就把结果式子写出来了。搞好了务学与求道的关系，是使自己永远更新知识，丰富自己的头脑的必要条件，也是不断保持-新、-适用于自己的学习方法的要点。坚持思考与学习同步发展代表着先进的学习方法的发展要求，代表着先进学习理论的前进方向，代表了掌握-广大知识的能力水平。务学与求道必须协调发展，二者要同步实施，同步发展。我建议高中同学们买一本牛津字典或朗文字典。一是查阅不懂的词，不光是看音标、注释，还要看例子；二是看英文注释，用英语解释英语，要比用汉语解释得更明确。如果你拿不准over和above的区别，看一下英文注释就很明白了，不信去试一下。有些学生虽能预习，但看起书来似走马观花，不动脑、不分析。这种预习一点也达不到效果。 发现自己知识上的薄弱环节，在上课前补上这部分的知识，不使它成为听课时的“拌脚石”。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

四级的考试路数越来越向雅思靠拢了，万一考到十年间只出现过两次的图表类作文该怎么办？没关系，现在小编就教你搞定四级图表作文的方法。

一、柱状图写作技巧

1. 柱状图写作注重比较和对比，也就是说需要横向总结所有柱状图表的共性特征，也要分别描写各个柱子的个性特征。

2. 有两种写作方式：其一是对不同时间段内的数据进行比较，适合于数据代表的物体较少且时间界限明确的情况。另外是对单独数据的全程描述，适合于描述数据对象很多且时间划定不清晰的情况。

柱状图数据描述句型举例：

1) the bar chart shows the changes in the numberofover the period fromto

该柱状图描述了在年之年间数量的变化。

2) the bar chart provides some interesting dataregarding

该柱状图为我们提供了有关有趣数据。

3) this is a bar chart which describes the trend of

该柱状图描述了的趋势。

4) As can be seen from the diagram，great changes have takenplace in

从柱状图中可以看出，发生了巨大变化。

二、曲线图写作技巧

1. 曲线图是动态图，解题的切入点在于描述趋势；

2. 在开头部分对整个曲线进行一个阶段式的总分类；

3. 趋势说明。即，对曲线的连续变化进行说明，如上升、下降、波动、持平。以时间为比较基础的应抓住“变化”：上升、下降、或是波动；

4. 极点说明。即对图表中最高的、最低的点单独进行说明。不以时间为比较基础的应注意对极点的描述。

曲线图数据描述句型举例：

1) The line chart depicts the changes in the number of……over the period from 2010 to 2013．

该曲线图描述了从2010年到2013年……数量的变化。

2) The chart provides some data regarding thefluctuations of…… from 2000 to 2004．

该曲线图描述了从2000年到2004年……的变动。

3) The graph，presented in the curve diagram，shows the general trend in…….

该图以曲线图的形式描述了……总的趋势。

三、表格图写作技巧

1. 表格与饼图一样，都是静态图。切入点在描述分配；

2. 表格题考查列举数字的能力和方法。通过举一些有代表性的数据来说明问题；

3. 横向比较。介绍横向各个数据的区别、变化和趋势；

4. 纵向比较。介绍纵向各个数据的区别、变化和趋势；

5. 不需要将每一个数据分别说明，突出强调数据最大值和最小值；

6. 对比时要总结出数据对比最悬殊的和最小的。

表格图数据描述句型举例

1) This is a table which illustrates……

这个表格向我们展示了……

2) this table shows the changing proportion of a & b from……to……

该表格描述了……年到……年间a与b的比例关系。

3) the table shows the general trend in……

该表格以描述了……总的趋势。

4) this is a table showing……

这是个表格，描述了……

在记叙文我们一定要理清思绪，下面是小编整理的叙事文具体写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、要交代清楚事情发生的地点、时间;要把事情的经过、因果写明白。一件事，总离不开时间、地点、人物、事件、原因、结果等六个方面的内容，因此，只有把这些方面写清楚了，才能使别人明白你写了一件什么事。

然而，交代这六个方面内容不应该呆板，要根据文章的需要灵活掌握。时间、地点也并不是非要直接点明不可的，有时候可以通过描述自然景物的特征及其变化，将它们间接表示出来。

如“鸡喔喔叫了起来”，就是指天将亮了;“西边的太阳就要落山了”，指的是傍晚，等等。

二、要把事情经过写具体，并做到重点突出。在记叙文六个方面的内容中，起因、经过和结果，是构成事情最主要的环节。为了把事情写得清楚、明白，在记叙中一定要写好事情的起因、经过和结果，特别要把事情的经过写具体，给人留下完整而深刻的印象。

三、记叙的条理要清晰。一件事都有发生、发展和结果的过程，按照事情发展的顺序记叙，文章的条理就会清楚明白。

确定记叙的顺序以后，还要安排好段落层次。适当地分段，可以使文章眉目清楚。要做到记叙的条理分明，必须在动笔之前，仔细地想一想，文章应该先写什么，再写什么，然后写什么，把记叙的轮廓整理出来。

在写记叙文的时候，我们要有条理性，先要想好先写什么，后写什么，安排好记叙的顺序，不然就会头绪杂乱，条理不清。那么我们要怎么写才能让文章条理清楚呢

一、运用顺叙。

顺叙，是按照事物发生、发展的先后次序进行叙述。这样写，可以将事物的发展过程，有头有尾地叙述出来，来龙去脉，十分清楚。运用顺叙写成的文章，它的层次、段落和事物发生、发展的过程是基本一致的。

顺叙有以时间为顺序的，有以事物发展规律为顺序的，也有以空间变换为顺序的。在叙事性的文章中，大多是以时间为顺序和以事物发展规律为顺序的。

按时间顺序进行叙述时，必须严格地安排好顺序，写清楚叙述的时间。现实生活中任何事情都不会突然发生，它总有一个发生、发展的过程。因此，作者常常要根据事情发生、发展、高潮、结局这一事情发展的规律来进行叙述，文章的层次也是清楚、明了的。

当然，有的文章事情比较简单，因而不一定非要写出事情过程的四个层次(发生、发展、高潮、结局)。

二、运用倒叙。

倒叙，就是把事件的结局或某个最突出的片断提在前面叙述，然后再从事件的开头进行叙述。

需要指出的是，运用倒叙的写法，必须注意交代清楚倒叙的起讫点，顺叙和倒叙的转换处要有明显的界限、必要的文字过渡。这些地方处理不好，会使文章脉络不清，头绪不明，影响内容的表达。

三、运用插叙。

插叙是指在叙述中心事件的过程中，由于某种需要暂时中断叙述的线索而插入的关于另一件事情的叙述。

需要指出的是，在运用插叙时不能打乱原来的叙述线索，要注意与上下文的衔接。这样，文章的结构不仅富有变化，而且叙述事情的条理非常清楚。

护士是医院重要的一个岗位，但是因为工作量大、待遇低，因此会有护士考虑离职，另谋发展。护士在书写辞职信时，一般要注意一下几个方面：

一、在职期间的工作经历；（可简要描写）。

二、离职的理由；（最好找一个合理的离职理由）。

三、离职前的祝福或感谢语。（一两句话简单带过即可）。

上面三个方面是护士辞职信的主要组成部分，下面小编为大家提供护士辞职报告的优秀范文，供网友的参考：

尊敬的领导：

在递交这份辞职申请时，我的心情十分沉重。现在医院的发展需要大家竭尽全力，现在由于我的一些个人原因的影响，无法为公司做出相应的贡献。因此请求允许离开。当前医院正处于繁忙的阶段，同事都是斗志昂扬，壮志满怀，而我在这时候却因个人原因无法为医院分忧，实在是深感歉意。

我希望医院领导在百忙之中抽出时间商量一下工作交接问题。本人在XX年x月xx日申请离职，希望能得到医院领导的准许！

感谢诸位在我在医院期间给予我的信任和支持，并祝所有同事和朋友们在工作和活动中取得更大的成绩和收益！

此致

敬礼

申请人：xxx

导语：写作中难免会遇到说明文这类写作，小编为大家整理了有关说明文的写作方法。

常见的说明方法

常见的说明方法有举事例、分类别、列数据、作比较、画图表、下定义、作诠释、打比方、摹状貌、引资料等10种.写说明文要根据说明对象的特点及写作目的,选用最佳方法.下面分别加以说明.

(1)举例子.举出实际事例来说明事物,使所要说明的事物具体化,以便读者理解,这种说明方法叫举例法.如：

一般人总以为,年龄稍大,记忆能力就一定要差,其实不然,请看实验结果：国际语言学会曾对9至18岁的青年与35岁以上的成年人学习世界语作过一个比较,发现前者就不如后者的记忆力好.这是因为成年人的知识、经验比较丰富,容易在已有的知识基础上,建立广泛的联系.这种联系,心理学上称为“联想”.人的记忆就是以联想为基础的,知识经验越丰富,越容易建立联想,记忆力就会相应提高.马克思五十多岁时开始学俄文,六个月后,他就能津津有味地阅读著名诗人与作家普希金、果戈里和谢德林等人的原文著作了.这是由于语言知识丰富,能够通晓很多现代和古代的语言的缘故.

这段文章要说明的是：年龄稍大,记忆力不一定就差.为了说明这一点,作者先提供了实验结果,又分析了原因.到此为止,未尝不可,但不够具体,也缺乏说服力,于是,又举出了一个实例：马克思在五十多岁的时候,只用六个月时间便精通了俄语.这样一来,内容具体了,说服力增强了.

说明文中的举事例的说明方法和议论文中的例证法,都可以起到使内容具体、加强说服力的作用.但二者又有区别.议论文中的事例,是用来证明观点的,说明文的事例,是用来介绍知识的.

运用举事例的说明方法说明事物或事理,一要注意例子的代表性,二要注意例子的适量性.

(2)分类别.将被说明的对象,按照一定的标准划分成不同的类别,一类一类地加以说明,这种说明方法,叫分类别.

分类别是将复杂的事物说清楚的重要方法.

运用分类别方法要注意分类的标准,一次分类只能用同一个标准,以免产生重叠交叉的现象.例如：“图书馆的藏书有中国的、古典的、外国的、科技的、文学的、现代的以及政治经济方面的等.”这里用了不只一个标准,所以表达不清.正确的说法应该是：

图书馆的藏书,按国别分,有中国的、外国的;按时代分,有古典的、现代的;按性质分,有科技的、文学的以及政治经济方面的等.

这样,每次分类只用一个标准,就眉目清楚了.

有的事物的特征、本质需要分成几点或几个方面来说,也属于分类别.

注意,运用分类别方法,所列举的种类不能有遗漏.

(3)列数据.为了使所要说明的事物具体化,还可以采用列数据的方法,以便读者理解.需要注意的是,引用的数字,一定要准确无误,不准确的数字绝对不能用,即使是估计的数字,也要有可靠的根据,并力求近似.

(4)作比较.说明某些抽象的或者是人们比较陌生的事物,可以用具体的或者大家已经熟悉的事物和它比较,使读者通过比较得到具体而鲜明的印象.事物的特征也往往在比较中显现出来.

在作比较的时候,可以是同类相比,也可以是异类相比,可以对事物进行“横比”,也可以对事物进行“纵比”.

(5)画图表.为了把复杂的事物说清楚,还可以采用图表法,来弥补单用文字表达的缺欠,对有些事物解说更直接、更具体.

(6)下定义.用简明的语言对某一概念的本质特征作规定性的说明叫下定义.下定义能准确揭示事物的本质,是科技说明文常用的方法.

(7)作诠释.从一个侧面,就事物的某一个特点做些解释,这种方法叫诠释法.定义法和诠释法常采用“某某是什么”的语言形式.形式相同,如何区分呢?一般来说,“是”字两边的话能够互换,就是定义;如果不能互换,就是诠释.

(8)打比方.利用两种不同事物之间的相似之处作比较,以突出事物的性状特点,增强说明的形象性和生动性的说明方法叫做打比方.

说明文中的打比方的说明方法,同修辞格上的比喻是一致的.不同的是,比喻修辞有明喻、暗喻、和借喻,而说明多用明喻和暗喻,借喻则不宜使用.

(9)摹状貌.为了使被说明对象更形象、具体,可以进行状貌摹写,这种说明方法叫摹状貌.

(10)引资料.为了使说明的内容更充实具体,可以引资料说明.引资料的范围很广,可以是经典著作,名家名言,公式定律,典故谚语等.

一篇说明文单用一种说明方法很少,往往综合运用多种说明方法.采用什么说明方法,一方面服从内容的需要,另一方面作者有选择的自由.是采用一种说明方法,还是采用多种说明方法,是采用这种说明方法,还是那种说明方法,可以灵活,不是一成不变的.

《英语教学方法与策略》读后感

为了提高自身的英语教学质量和效率,我从学校图书馆借来《英语教学方法与策略》一书,利用业余时间认真地进行了研读,获得了不少教益。

这本书由鲁子问和康淑敏两位专家编写,由华东师范大学出版社出版,可以作为英语教学设计方向研究生教材,也可以作为中小学英语教师设计培训教材使用。我认为在英语学科骨干教师研修班接受培训期间读读这样一本书是再合适不过的。这本书介绍了教学方法与教学策略的相同与差异,提出了教学方法与策略的选择与整合的方法,介绍了英语教学方法的实践操作方法,包括情景教学法、交际教学法、任务教学法和自主学习教学,然后分析了英语教学过程的策略及实践操作方法,并从英语知识教学的策略及实践操作方法、英语技能教学的策略及时间操作方法两方面对英语教学方法与策略的行动研究提供了系统的指导。

编者用六章分别讲了教学方法与教学策略、英语教学方法的实践操作、英语教学过程的策略及实践操作、英语知识教学的策略及实践操作、英语技能教学的策略及实践操作和英语教学方法与策略的行动研究。

该书对相关理论进行了系统、简要的讲解,主要的内容是对英语教学实践的指导与分析。每一节都采用“准备-学习-实践”三部式结构,不仅讲解理论,而且注重教学实践。在每一节的理论讲解之后,都设计了“实践分析”专栏,以强化理论与实践的直接联系。在看每一节的时候,我都是跟着该书的编排形式在不断地调整自己的思维。在准备环节,编者会给出一个案例,让读者思考,遇到此类教学问题该如何解决,此时,我的大脑就会回忆我在教学中有没有遇到过,我又是如何解决的,然后思考怎样才能解决得更好;在学习环节,编者给我们提供了最系统的理论知识,此时我就很认真地研读每一条理论,认真理解每一个概念,为今后的教学活动积累必要的理论知识;在实践部分,我仔细地看了每个实践活动,对于一些比较有价值的活动自己在教学中也尝试着使用。

本书的优点是:1)语言浅显易懂。不像平常的教育着作,带着很多专业术语。2)内容很实用。书中不但简要地介绍教育理论,还举出大量的课堂活动例子,很适合各个层次的外语教师参考。3)描述很细致。书中谈到英语教学中很多细节的东西。4)编排符合读者习惯,发人深思。书中每一章节都会在适当的位置上安排一个文本框,给出一些名词解释或让读者讨论或思考一个问题。如:请讨论,您如何看待Practice makes perfect.它与数量原则有什么关系?训练中如何把握训练的量?

这本书让我羞愧于自己在教学理论和策略方面知识的匮乏,更让我明白英语教学的成功应体现在“培养学习者在真实的情景中有效使用英语的能力”我是一个率性而为的人,很多时候只是随心而教学,不会严格遵循某一教学模式。所以一直以来,教学成绩都没有取得重大突破,而我本人也一直为此烦恼,这本书教会我许多有理论支持的教学方法。如:语法翻译法、直接教学法、认知法、自然法、社团教学法、沉默教学法、全身反应法、暗示教学法。从书中我悟到了想成为一名优秀的教师必须充分认识到“教必有法”的原则性和“教务定法”的灵活性特点之间的统一关系。教师不应拘于一法一策,囿于一方一圆,而是要因地制宜,因材施教,将各类方法加以组合和调配,在吸收、借鉴已有教学方法的基础上,创造性地发挥,逐步形成富有教师个人特色的教学风格。在教学实践中,我根据教学环境、教学目标、教学内容、学生的需求和自身的教学风格适丰富了一下教学方法和策略,收到了一定的效果。

我最受启发的是书中的如下观点:呈现学习任务时,应当向学习者描述任务中的问题发生的物理背景、组织和社会文化背景。并且,问题的呈现必然是有趣的或吸引人的,目的是引导学习者的积极参与。让学习者体现到伸手可及的成功;教学活动的设置应考虑学习者的兴趣,需要和情感;老师可以和学习者商量课堂活动的内容并建议学习者把他们感兴趣的学习材料带回班上。让我陷入长久的沉思的是这个观点:“personalities and relationships are important for motivation”即:教师的性格及其与学习者之间的良好关系在调动学习者学习方面很重要。文中提到“即使我们不能完全改变自己去满足不同学习者的需要,但我们可以主动了解学习者感兴趣的话题,如:流行音乐,年轻人喜欢的电影,新车,科技的发展等。看到这里,对于学生为什么没有积极参与我自以为精心准备的课堂活动,我似乎找到了答案:设计活动时,我只是从教材内容和个人兴趣出发。当学生冷淡对待活动时,我只会埋怨大的学习环境不好,埋怨学生不配合,极少去思考是否学生对内容感兴趣,是否活动的难度适合学生,课堂指令是否清晰等因素。文中还指出:即使学生会使用老师准备好的语言结构,也明确活动的目的,但如果他们缺乏信心,也不会积极参与…所以,对学生及时得体的鼓励相当重要,借用李阳老师的话就是鼓励学生 “Enjoy losing face. Enjoy making mistakes ”总之,要踏上英语教学的成功之路,进行方方面面的准备工作是必要的,

对于以后的教学,我将努力改变陈旧的教学理念,尝试新的教学模式,自始至终把学生放在中心位置:把激发学生的学习热情放在首位,发挥交际教学的优势。是时候改变沉闷的课堂气氛,还学生一个愉快的学习环境了!是时候彻底解放学生,还学生一个可以自主学习的空间了!

其实,单纯阅读只是一个浅层理解词句的过程,我们可能在阅读中很感动,很受启发,但是,几个星期或几个月后,可能我们的思维又回复原状;若把我们的所思所想写下来,联系我们的教学或生活实际加以变通,可能会更长久地影响我们;而如果把我们学到的经验及时应用在教学中或生活中,我们的学生或我们自己则会终身受益,这才是阅读的目的。“热爱阅读、高效阅读、创新阅读”让我们互勉!

[英语教学方法与策略的读后感

Study is the necessary process that everyone need to experience. And then exam will follow. To obtain a good score, review is inevitable. Almost everyone wants to find the best review method. But there is no best review method, but there is the most suitable way. Different people will find different methods for them to do review. For example, some students should study in group, while some should study alone. When recite things, some need to write it down, some need to speak loudly, and some just need to read it. Different methods just depend on different people. Don’t compare with others; just find the most suitable one for yourself.

学习是每个人都必须要经历的过程。然后考试就随之而来了。为了获得好成绩，复习是必须的。几乎每个人都想找到最好的复习方法。但是，没有最好的只有最适合的复习方法。不同的人会找到不同的复习方法。例如，一些学生适合集体学习，而一些则应该独自学习。在背诵东西的时候，有些需要写下来，有些需要大声说出来，而有些则只需要看看。不同的人依赖于不同的方法。不要与他人相比较;找到最适合自己的。

导语：读后感不仅仅是我们写作的一种题材，更是我们自己对书籍，电影思考整理的一种表达方式。接下来小编就说说怎么写好读后感。

一、先要重视感

感要多读要少，要善于灵活掌握。比如，“简述原文”一般在“亮明观点”前，但二者先后次序互换也是可以的。再者，如果在第三个步骤摆事实讲道理时所摆的事实就是社会现象或个人经历，就不必再写第四个部分了。

二、要重视“读”

在“读”与“感”的关系中，“读”是“感”的前提，基础;“感”是“读”的延伸或者说结果。必须先“读”而后“感”，不“读”则无“感”。因此，要写读后感首先要读懂原文，要准确把握原文的基本内容，正确理解原文的中心思想和关键语句的含义，深入体会作者的写作目的和文中表达的思想感情。

三、读完一本书或一篇文章

会有许多感想和体会;对同样一本书或一篇文章，不同的人从不同的角度思考问题，更是会产生不同的看法，受到不同的启迪。以大家熟知的“滥竽充数”成语故事为例，从讽刺南郭先生的角度去思考，可以领悟到没有真本领蒙混过日子的人早晚要“露馅”，认识到掌握真才实学的重要性，若是考虑在齐宣王时南郭先生能混下去的原因，就可以想到领导者要有实事求是的领导作风，不能搞华而不实，否则会给混水摸鱼的人留下空子可钻;再要从管理体制的角度去思考，就可进一步认识到齐宣王的“大锅饭”缺少必要的考评机制，为南郭先生一类的人提供了饱食终日混日子的客观条件，从而联想到改革开放以来，打破"铁饭碗"，废除大锅饭的必要性。

四、叙述作品不能用大量篇幅复述原文

一篇读后感，不能写出诸多的感想或体会，这就要加以选择。作为初学者，就要选择自己感受最深又觉得有话可说的一点来写。要注意把握分析问题的角度，注意联系自己的实际情况，从众多的头绪中选择最恰当的感受点，作为全文议论的中心。

初中作文课中，除了写“读后感”外，老师还会要求同学们在看完一部电影，电视片或参完某一展览后写“观后感”，观后感的写法与读后感是一样的，只需在第一部分简述所观的内容，然后引出观点，展开论述就可以了。

五、写景、物的读后感应该怎样写

(1)简述原文有关内容。

如所读书、文的篇名、作者、写作年代，以及原书或原文的内容概要。写这部分内容是为了交代感想从何而来，并为后文的议论作好铺垫。这部分一定要突出一个“简”字，决不能大段大段地叙述所读书、文的具体内容，而是要简述与感想有直接关系的部分，略去与感想无关的东西。

(2)亮明基本观点。

选择感受最深的一点，用一个简洁的句子明确表述出来。这样的句子可称为“观点句”。这个观点句表述的，就是这篇文章的中心论点。“观点句”在文中的位置是可以灵活的，可以在篇首，也可以在篇末或篇中。初学写作的同学，最好采用开门见山的方法，把观点写在篇首。

(3)围绕基本观点摆事实讲道理。

这部分就是议论文的本论部分，是对基本观点(即中心论点)的阐述，通过摆事实讲道理证明观点的正确性，使论点更加突出、更有说服力。这个过程应注意的是，所摆事实、所讲道理都必须紧紧围绕基本观点，为基本观点服务。

(4)围绕基本观点联系实际。

一篇好的读后感应当有时代气息，有真情实感。要做到这一点，必须善于联系实际。这“实际”可以是个人的思想、言行、经历，也可以是某种社会现象。联系实际时也应当注意紧紧围绕基本观点，为观点服务，而不能盲目联系、前后脱节。以上四点是写读后感的基本思路，但是这思路不是一成不变的。

(5)简要地说明原文有关内容，重写有感，不要重点介绍，偏离主题。

写作步骤：

(1)引——围绕感点 引述材料。简述原文有关内容。

(2)概——概括本文的主要内容，要简练，而且要把重点写出来。

(3)议——分析材料，提练感点。

亮明基本观点。在引出“读”的内容后，要对“读”进行一番评析。既可就事论事对所“引”的内容作一番分析;也可以由现象到本质，由个别到一般的作一番挖掘;对寓意深的材料更要作一番分析，然后水到渠成地“亮”出自己的感点。要选择感受最深的一点，用一个简洁的句子明确表述出来。这样的句子可称为“观点句”。这个观点句表述的，就是这篇文章的中心论点。“观点句”在文中的位置是可以灵活的，可以在篇首，也可以在篇末或篇中。初学写作的同学，最好采用开门见山的方法，把观点写在篇首。

(4) 联——联系实际，纵横拓展。

围绕基本观点摆事实讲道理。写读后感最忌的是就事论事和泛泛而谈。就事论事撒不开，感不能深入，文章就过于肤浅。泛泛而谈，往往使读后感缺乏针对性，不能给人以震撼。联，就是要紧密联系实际，既可以由此及彼地联系现实生活中相类似的现象，也可以由古及今联系现实生活中的相反的种种问题。既可以从大处着眼，也可以从小处入手。当然在联系实际分析论证时，还要注意时时回扣或呼应“引”部，使“联”与“引””藕”断而“丝”连这部分就是议论文的本论部分，是对基本观点(即中心论点)的阐述，通过摆事实讲道理证明观点的正确性，使论点更加突出，更有说服力。这个过程应注意的是，所摆事实，所讲道理都必须紧紧围绕基本观点，为基本观点服务。

(5)结——总结全文，升华感点。“读”的内容不放松。

以上五点是写读后感的基本思路，但是这思路不是一成不变的，要善于灵活掌握。比如，“简述原文”一般在“亮明观点”前，但二者先后次序互换也是可以的。再者，如果在第三个步骤摆事实讲道理时所摆的事实就是社会现象或个人经历，就不必再写第四个部分了。

说明文是阐述事物的特征、本质、性能、结构、用途或科学原理的一种文体。其说明的对象可以是具体的，如：自然环境，仪表设备等；也可以是抽象的，如概念定律等。以下是小编整理的初中英语说明文写作要点，欢迎阅读！

说明文的写作相对于论说文来说，有一定的套路可循，因此不是十分复杂。说明科技方面的内容常用定义法、比较对比法、分类法、因果法等；说明自然环境方面的内容常用时间次序法、分类法等。当然，随着对象的不同，具体应该采用的方法也会有所不同。

说明文的写作应该注意的事项有下面几点：

1.语言简明扼要，通俗易懂，避免夸张华丽的辞藻，要把真实的一面展现在读者面前。

2.说明时一定要把握一个中心主题。说明文中细枝末节较多，但不能喧宾夺主。

3.说明的次序非常重要。合理的次序会使文章条理清楚，脉络明晰。因此，练习时可以尝试不同的次序进行写作，找出最合理的一种。

4.由于说明文写实性较强，有时难免会让人感到没有生气。因此，可以适当使用一些比喻、拟人等修辞手段，来增加文章的色彩。

下面是一篇说明一所医院布局的文章。文章虽短，但需要说明的内容却达11处之多。平均一句话就要描写一处，如果组织得不好，便会给人凌乱的感觉。

为了避免这一点，文章把整个布局图分三部分来写：

贯彻医院的是main road，第一部分以大门为参照物，介绍了靠大门且通过main road东西相对的急诊楼和门诊楼。

第二部分以湖为参照物，中心线还是main road，介绍其他分诊楼、实验室、放射室等。

第三部分写main road尽头的建筑物。

这样，繁多的细节显得井井有条。因此，选择好主线及参照物是决定文章成功的关键。

Directions：For this part，you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition about“THE LAYOUT OF A HOSPITAL”. Locate some important departments in the hospital based on the information given below.Your composition should be no less than 120 words.

（1）the Emergency Department

（2）the Out-patient Department

（3）the Surgery Department

（4）the Dispensary

（5）the Physician Department

（6）the Eye，Ear，and Throat Department

（7）the Dental Department

（8）the Laboratory

（9）the X-ray Department

（10）the Administrative Building

（11）the Ward

例文：

The Layout of a Hospital Near the gate，on the westside of the road is the Emergency Department. Opposite the Emergency Department across the Main Road is the Out-patient Department. The building to the southwest of the lake is the Dispensary，which face the Surgery Department lying on the other side of the road.Along the west wall，from south to north，stand three buildings：the Physician Department，the Eye，Ear，and Throat Department，and the Dental Department.

The Laboratory is to the northwest of the round about，and beside the Laboratory，the X-ray Department is located on the same side of the road. A winding road by the lake leads to the Ward.

Near the end of the Main Road，the Administrative Building is situated on the east side.The hospital is nicely and conveniently laid out.

Winter solstice is the earliest Chinese festival, call it yesterday, as early as the han dynasty had formed when we are familiar with todays twenty-four solar terms. Twenty-four solar terms, every 15 days for a throttle, a throttle is divided into three. As the winter solstice is divided into "hou earthworms knot; 2 hou elk horn, three HouShuiQuan move." Are the ancients from traditional agricultural production routine. Fade as the farming civilization, modern agriculture is affected by season is not very big, such as the vegetables all the year round in the greenhouses, traditional throttle effect on guidance and restriction of agricultural farming is also a little bit fade.

People now pay more attention to the throttle keeping in good health, in winter it was the season of supplements. After spring, summer, autumn three season, the body organs need to enter a state of rest during the winter, physical consumption in winter supplements in the past. Left the teacher said, so also have "winter signings, dozen tiger next year" the proverb.

冬至是中国最早的节日，称之为冬节，早在汉代时候已经形成了我们今天熟悉的二十四节气。二十四节气，每十五天为一个节气，一个节气分为三候。如冬至分为“一候蚯蚓结;二候麋角解，三候水泉动。”都是以古人从传统农业生产生活规律中总结出来的。随着农耕文明逐渐消退，现代农业受季节的影响不是很大，比如大棚里的菜一年四季都可以吃到，传统节气对农业种田的辅导和制约作用也在一点点消退。

现在的人们更多关注的是节气养生，冬季也是进补的季节。经历春夏秋三季后，身体各个器官在冬季需要进入休息的状态，过去身体上的消耗在冬天进补。左老师说，因此也有“冬季进补，来年打虎”的俗语。

文献综述的特点，致使它的写作既不同于“读书笔记”“读书报告”，也不同于一般的科研论文。小编收集了关于文献综述的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

①通过搜集文献资料过程，可进一步熟悉科学文献的查找方法和资料的积累方法;在查找的过程中同时也扩大了知识面;

②查找文献资料、写文献综述是科研选题及进行科研的第一步，因此学习文献综述的撰写也是为今后科研活动打基础的过程;

③通过综述的写作过程，能提高归纳、分析、综合能力，有利于独立工作能力和科研能力的提高;

④文献综述选题范围广，题目可大可小，可难可易。对于毕业设计的课题综述，则要结合课题的性质进行书写。

文献综述与“读书报告”、“文献复习”、“研究进展”等有相似的地方，它们都是从某一方面的专题研究论文或报告中归纳出来的。但是，文献综述既不象“读书报告”、“文献复习”那样，单纯把一级文献客观地归纳报告，也不象“研究进展”那样只讲科学进程，其特点是“综”，“综”是要求对文献资料进行综合分析、归纳整理，使材料更精练明确、更有逻辑层次;“述”就是要求对综合整理后的文献进行比较专门的、全面的、深入的、系统的论述。总之，文献综述是作者对某一方面问题的历史背景、前人工作、争论焦点、研究现状和发展前景等内容进行评论的科学性论文。

写文献综述一般经过以下几个阶段：即选题，搜集阅读文献资料、拟定提纲(包括归纳、整理、分析)和成文。

一、选题和搜集阅读文献

撰写文献综述通常出于某种需要，如为某学术会议的专题、从事某项科研、为某方面积累文献资料等等，所以，文献综述的选题，作者一般是明确的，不象科研课题选题那么困难。文献综述选题范围广，题目可大可小，大到一个领域、一个学科，小到一种算法、一个方法、一个理论，可根据自己的需要而定。

选定题目后，则要围绕题目进行搜集与文题有关的文献。关于搜集文献的有关方法，可以如看专著、年鉴法、浏览法、滚雪球法、检索法等等，在此不述。搜集文献要求越全越好，因而最常用的方法是用检索法。搜集好与文题有关的参考文献后，就要对这些参考文献进行阅读、归纳、整理，如何从这些文献中选出具有代表性、科学性和可靠性大的单篇研究文献十分重要，从某种意义上讲，所阅读和选择的文献的质量高低，直接影响文献综述的水平。因此在阅读文献时，要写好“读书笔记”、“读书心得”和做好“文献摘录卡片”。有自己的语言写下阅读时得到的启示、体会和想法，将文献的精髓摘录下来，不仅为撰写综述时提供有用的资料，而且对于训练自己的表达能力，阅读水平都有好处，特别是将文献整理成文献摘录卡片，对撰写综述极为有利。

二、格式与写法

文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果，特别是阳性结果，而文献综述要求向读者介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。因此文献综述的格式相对多样，但总的来说，一般都包含以下四部分：即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲，再根据提纲进行撰写。

前言部分，主要是说明写作的目的，介绍有关的概念及定义以及综述的范围，扼要说明有关主题的现状或争论焦点，使读者对全文要叙述的问题有一个初步的轮廓。主题部分，是综述的主体，其写法多样，没有固定的格式。可按年代顺序综述，也可按不同的问题进行综述，还可按不同的观点进行比较综述，不管用那一种格式综述，都要将所搜集到的文献资料归纳、整理及分析比较，阐明有关主题的历史背景、现状和发展方向，以及对这些问题的评述，主题部分应特别注意代表性强、具有科学性和创造性的文献引用和评述。

总结部分，与研究性论文的小结有些类似，将全文主题进行扼要总结，对所综述的主题有研究的作者，最好能提出自己的见解。

参考文献虽然放在文末，但却是文献综述的重要组成部分。因为它不仅表示对被引用文献作者的尊重及引用文献的依据，而且为读者深入探讨有关问题提供了文献查找线索。因此，应认真对待。参考文献的编排应条目清楚，查找方便，内容准确无误。

三、注意事项

由于文献综述的特点，致使它的写作既不同于“读书笔记”“读书报告”，也不同于一般的科研论文。因此，在撰写文献综述时应注意以下几个问题：

⒈搜集文献应尽量全。掌握全面、大量的文献资料是写好综述的前提，否则，随便搜集一点资料就动手撰写是不可能写出好多综述的，甚至写出的文章根本不成为综述。

⒉注意引用文献的代表性、可靠性和科学性。在搜集到的文献中可能出现观点雷同，有的文献在可靠性及科学性方面存在着差异，因此在引用文献时应注意选用代表性、可靠性和

科学性较好的文献。

⒊引用文献要忠实文献内容。由于文献综述有作者自己的评论分析，因此在撰写时应分清作者的观点和文献的内容，不能篡改文献的内容。

⒋参考文献不能省略。有的科研论文可以将参考文献省略，但文献综述绝对不能省略，而且应是文中引用过的，能反映主题全貌的并且是作者直接阅读过的文献资料。

总之，一篇好的文献综述，应有较完整的文献资料，有评论分析，并能准确地反映主题内容。

实际上，大作文的第一段是情景铺垫，建议考生在这一段要点明这篇文章要讨论/解决什么问题及问题的背景。作文的首段通常包含以下几个方面：

1)场景或背景信息，即题目中出现的phenomenon。

2)一些人的观点，这部分在改写文章首段时可要可不要，考生可按照自己的情况来安排。

3)个人观点，这一部分在有些文章的开首段中也可以不要。

大作文要求字数至少达到250字，在写作中考虑到字数的合理安排，第一段最好写3-5句话，大约40字左右，并且切忌在第一段就掏心掏肺把什么话都说完。因此专家总结出大作文开首方式通常有以下几种情况：

1)题目中包含了背景信息，有时也出现一些人的观点，并且题目中字数较多。这种情况下最保险的办法是将题目中的背景信息及一些人的观点重新表达，可以做：

●主动语态被动语态

●主谓宾主系表

●某些近义词互换

Example:

At present, it is hard for college students to find jobs. Many people claim that college teachers should give priority to practical courses like computer science and business over such traditional ones as history and geography. To what extent do you agree?

标题的意思为“标明文章、作品等内容的简短语句。” 常言道：看书先看皮，看报先看题。小编收集了微笑文章标题的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一篇点击量高的微信文章往往取胜在于标题上，标题是给人的第一印象，第一印象好了自然有人点击，其次就是看内容是否够吸引，就会有人转发，下面我们来了解下微信文章标题的写作方法。

无论是哪一种形式的广告，读者的第一印象──也就是他们看到的第一个影像、读到的第一句话，或听到的第一个声音，可能就是决定这则广告成功或失败的关键。

假如第一印象是无趣或跟自己没有相关性，那么，这则广告就不可能吸引销售对象;但如果这则广告提供了新信息或有用的信息，或承诺看完这则广告会带来好处，那么这份第一印象就可望赢得注意力──这是说服读者购买商品的第一步。

但具体来说，到底什么是“第一印象”呢?

对于平面广告，第一印象取决于标题和视觉设计。

对于宣传手册，第一印象取决于封面。

对于电台或电视广告，第一印象取决于播出的前几秒钟。

对于直效邮件，第一印象取决于封面文案，或销售信的前面几句话。

对于公关新闻稿，第一印象取决于第一段文字。

对于商品目录，第一印象取决于封面。

对于产品说明会，第一印象取决于前几页幻灯片或活动挂图。

对于公司网站，第一印象取决于首页设计。

对于电子邮件广告，第一印象取决于寄件人和主旨栏。

无论你的内文文案多有说服力，或者产品有多杰出，如果无法吸引消费者的注意力，广告就无法成功。大部分的广告专家会同意，能够赢得注意力的标题才是广告成功的关键要素。

建议你准备一个资料夹用来搜集一些精选范例，以便你在构思自己的营销素材时用作参考。假如你一时想不出广告标题该怎么写，这些范例会是最有帮助的灵感来源。

以下是几个标题范例的例子，当然，我的精选范例不只有这些。我会将这些范例加以分类，参考的时候比较一目了然。

1、在标题里提出疑问

日本主管有哪些美国主管没有的优点?

2、结合时事

和玛莎·史都华一样掌握市场先机，且不必像她那样做内线非法交易。

3、创造新名词

“强化隔离润滑油”在金属表面形成保护膜，让你的机械工具寿命延长六倍。

4、传递新消息，并且运用“新推出”、“引进”或“宣布”这类词汇

国防部已宣布一项轻松降低预算计划。

5、给读者建议，告诉读者应该采取哪些行动

点火烧烧看这张防火材质优惠券。

6、利用数字与数据

前所未闻，一棵树开出一万七千朵花?

7、承诺会提供对读者有用的信息

如何避免在建造或购买房屋时犯下大错。

8、强调你能提供的服务

即日起，我们的最佳新书提供预购，就如同订杂志一样简单。

9、讲故事，描述一段过程

我坐在钢琴前时，他们还在笑;然而当我开始弹奏……

10、提出推荐性的意见

现在就必须买进的五档科技股。

11、说明好处

管理UNIX系统数据库，已经从困难变容易。

12、做比较

只需要文氏洗涤塔一半的用电量，就能够解决贵公司的空气污染防治问题。

13、使用能够让读者脑中浮现画面的词汇

为什么有些食物会在你的肚子里“爆炸”?

14、引述见证

超过50万英里的飞行记录证明，我们的凸轮轴在保证期限内运作优良。

15、提供免费的特别报告、目录或宣传册

我们的免费报告揭露鲜为人知的秘密，告诉你百万富翁如何守财、并且善用政府提供的资源。

16、直接点出服务内容

手术台修复服务，修复期间免费租借替代手术台。

17、勾起读者的好奇心

你必须买进的唯一科技股，不是你想的那一支!

18、承诺要公开秘密

揭露华尔街的潜规则。

19、具体说明

在时速60英里的驰骋下，新劳斯莱斯的最大噪音来自电子钟。

20、锁定特定类型读者

征求童书作者。

21、加入时间元素

不必久候，快速办理公司登记。

22、强调省钱、折扣或价值

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23、给读者好消息

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24、提供能够取代竞争对手产品及服务的其他选择

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25、提出一项挑战

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26、强调有保证

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27、明列价格

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28、做出看似矛盾的说法

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30、指出读者关心的事

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34、运用“为什么”、“原因”、“理由”来写标题

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35、回答关于商品或服务的重要问题

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37、协助读者达成目标

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38、做出看似矛盾的说法或承诺

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标题是广告的一部分，功能在于引起注意，而引起注意是说服读者购买产品的第一步。

耍噱头、卖弄文句或夸张吹捧，都不是构成出色标题的要件。一则设计精妙的标题，当它的精妙之处能强化销售信息、加深读者印象时，才算真正具备价值。可惜许多文案写手为了创意而创意，导致精心的设计反而模糊了销售信息。

微信文章的标题是一篇微信文章成功的关键，第一印象一定要把握好，上述小编为大家介绍了38条写一个成功标题的条件，希望对大家有帮助。

读后感一直是学生写作常用到的体裁，以下是小编搜索整理一篇如何写好读后感作文方法，欢迎大家阅读!

所谓“感”，可以是从书中领悟出来的道理或精湛的思想，可以是受书中的内容启发而引起的思考与联想，可以是因读书而激发的决心和理想，也可以是因读书而引起的对社会上某些丑恶现象的抨击。读后感的表达方式灵活多样，基本属于议论范畴，但写法不同于一般议论文，因为它必须是在读后的基础上发感想。要写好有体验、有见解、有感情、有新意的读后感，必须注意以下几点：

首先，要读好原文。“

读后感”的“感”是因“读”而引起的。“读”是“感”的基础。走马观花地读，可能连原作讲的什么都没有掌握，哪能有“感”?读得肤浅，当然也感得不深。只有读得认真，才能有所感，并感得深刻。如果要读的是议论文，要弄清它的论点(见解和主张)，或者批判了什么错误观点，想一想你受到哪些启发，还要弄清论据和结论是什么。如果是记叙文，就要弄清它的主要情节，有几个人物，他们之间是什么关系，以及故事发生在哪年哪月。作品涉及的社会背景，还要弄清楚作品通过记人叙事，揭示了人物什么样的精神品质，反映了什么样的社会现象，表达了作者什么思想感情，作品的哪些章节使人受感动，为什么这样感动等等。

其次，排好感点。

只要认真读好原作，一篇文章可以写成读后感的方面很多。如对原文中心感受得深可以写成读后感，对原作其他内容感受得深也可以写成读后感，对个别句子有感受也可以写成读后感。总之，只要是原作品的内容，只要你对它有感受，都可以写成读后感。

第三，选准感点。

一篇文章，可以排出许多感点，但在一篇读后感里只能论述一个中心，切不可面面俱到，所以紧接着便是对这些众多的感点进行筛选比较，找出自己感受最深、角度最新，现实针对性最强、自己写来又觉得顺畅的一个感点，作为读后感的中心，然后加以论证成文。

第四，叙述要简。既然读后感是由读产生感，那么在文章里就要叙述引起“感”的那些事实，有时还要叙述自己联想到的一些事例。一句话，读后感中少不了“叙”。但是它不同于记叙文中“叙”的要求。记叙文中的“叙”讲究具体、形象、生动，而读后感中的“叙”却讲究简单扼要，它不要求“感人”，只要求能引出事理。初学写读后感引述原文，一般毛病是叙述不简要，实际上变成复述了。这主要是因为作者还不能把握所要引述部分的精神、要点，所以才简明不了。简明，不是文字越少越好，简还要明。

俗话说“千里之行始于足下”。英语书面表达能力的形成不是一日之功，必须从平时的课堂学习一点一滴抓起，持之以恒。

一篇优秀的英语作文在内容和语言两方面应是一个统一体，任何一方面的欠缺都会直接影响到作文的质量。然而，很多考生在写作中或者由于粗心大意，或者由于基本功不扎实而经常出现名词不变复数、第三人称单数不加s，前后不一致，以及时态语态、句子完整性等方面的错误。

1. 审题不清

如2004年中考作文要求写一项最喜欢的课外活动，有些考生将作文的主题定位为“我最喜欢的活动”，偏离了“一项、课外活动”这一主题。依据作文的评分原则，若文章内容不切题，则不管语言如何规范、用词如何准确，都会被判为零分。

2.拼写错误

拼写是考生应该具备的最起码的基本功，但在考生的作文中却经常能发现很多拼写错误。有拼写错误的作文肯定会被酌情扣分，而且有大量拼写错误存在的作文不仅体现出语言基本功差，同时也直接影响内容的表达，通常会降低作文的档次。

3.名词单复数问题

误 my father and my mother is all teacher。

正 my father and my mother are both teachers。

[中考英语作文写作常见的三个错误