英语写作教学方法推荐四篇 作文怎么写(最新20篇)

散文，是一种自由、灵活的抒写见闻感受的文体。以下是小编给大家整理的散文写作方法的内容，欢迎大家查看。

散文，是一种自由、灵活的抒写见闻感受的文体。能够让我们通过一个十分精粹、亲切的形式，读到作者对于人生或自然的感悟。阅读和欣赏散文，既要细心领会作者对于人生或自然的感悟，又要认真分析作者用以表达这种感悟的形式。

一、散文的特点

内容上：是作者把自己对生活的感悟或至深的生活经验，通过状物、记人、写景等方式表达出来。所谓自我感悟，也就是对事物的特殊意义和美质的发现、认识。

形式上：(1)以个人抒情为主，把抒情、叙述、议论熔为一炉;(2)从细处落笔，小中见大;(3)从侧面暗示，发挥读者的想象力;(4)行文自由，结构灵活。

综合以上两点：散文的特点是“形散神不散”。阅读散文时，要透过“形”抓住“神”，体会作者所要表达的思想情感，要抓住文章的结构和线索(文脉)，要注意欣赏优美的语言。

二、散文分类

记叙散文：以记人、叙事、状物、写景为主的散文。这类散文，还有的侧重是记写一定的风物、场景。作者对它们不是纯客观的描述，而是将外物与内情融合起来，以表达一定的思想、抒发一定的感情。

抒情散文：以抒发感情为主的散文，它主要是抒发作者对现实生活的感受、激情和意愿。抒情散文抒发的是怎样的感情，如何抒发，都与文章揭示的思想意义是否深广有极大的关系。

议论散文：以议论为主的散文。它说理，往往借助于事例的简述，形象的描绘和感情的抒发来进行，文学色彩很浓。它同一般议论文一样，要求观点鲜明、概念准确、说理充分、层次明晰、以理服人。但是，它不需要逻辑推理，严密论证。常见的文学性很强的随笔、杂感等短小精悍的文章，皆属此类;作者常常借助于对古今故事、花鸟草虫等具体事物的描叙来说理，显得妙趣横生并富于感情。

三、 散文的线索

散文构思的线索，一般常见的有：以情为线索;以理为线索;以物为线索;以空间为线索;以行为为线索;以文眼为线索。有的文章不但有明线，还有暗线，线索的特征有：在结构上贯穿全文，时隐时现，有明显的标志(或是标题本身，或在文中反复出现)。

四、散文的语言

散文的语言感情色彩浓厚，委婉含蓄，声调和谐，表现力强。在分析时，要特别注意它在语言环境中的特定含义，要结合上下文，结合作者的思想感情，结合文章的语言风格，甚至修辞，才能既理解词语的表层意义，又理解其深层含义。

五、 散文的意境

意境是客观生活、景物与主观思想、情感相熔铸的产物，具有含蓄深邃的美。优美的散文可谓“无韵之诗”，其意境可以与诗相媲美。阅读散文时，就要善于通过自身的感受，进入散文所描绘的意境中去。不能忽略了语言的揣摩，要调动丰富的想象，结合自己已有的知识、情感，获得主观体验，才能达到思想的共鸣与升华。

六、散文的表现手法

常见的表现手法有：象征、托物言志、对比烘托、欲扬先抑、寓情于景、借物喻人、联想想象、设置悬念、借景抒情、渲染、修辞等。

(1)象征

散文往往运用象征的写法，象征就是托物喻义，即通过一定的具体形象来表现一种深远的意义。这里的“具体形象”——“物”就是本体，与之相对应的事物就是象征体，“深远的意义”就是象征意义。

(2)托物言志

就是借物喻人，是散文中写景状物的重要方法。也就是把所写的景物或景象拟人化，赋予它人的思想情感和志向，

(3)对比烘托

在散文中，为了突出作者所写的对象，作者往往运用对比烘托的写法。

(4)欲扬先抑

文似看山不喜平，散文更讲究波澜，要赞美某种事物，先表达对它没有好感;想歌颂某个人物，先说他的不足等等，然后根据情节的发展，达到歌颂与赞美的目的，而且使这种歌颂与赞美得到强调。

七. 散文的思想内容

散文中深刻的意蕴是依附于含有一定象征意味的具体事物。写人的散文，可以分析人物与环境之间的关系，结合作者对人物的态度、感情来理解作品的思想内容;叙事散文，可以分析人物在事件中的表现、场面细节把握作品内容;写景状物抒情，要分析行文线索、写法、象征意义，从而了解作品的思想内容。

八、散文的写法

散文是一种最随意的文体，谁爱怎么写就怎么写，从来没有一定之规。而且在同一位作家的笔下，这一篇往往绝不同于另一篇。再者，散文从来都是论“篇”的，一篇一个主题，一篇一个立意，一篇一种结构。最后出集子时，往往也是把近年所写的一批都拿来，仔细比较一下，同时也筛选一下，从中梳理成几大组，最后拟定一个书名——也就定稿和出版了。——不错，上述就多是以往的做法。读者阅读时也同样随意，可以从头读起，也可以从中间任何一篇开始阅读。

近年又出现了一种姑且可以称之为“大散文”的文体。首先取材要大，其次开掘要深，篇幅当然也就比较长了。一本这样的大散文集，通常有十来(几)篇大散文也就“撑”得很“满”。但大散文却不那么好写，因为写作前的准备要艰苦，要调查和研究有关的历史资料，写作中也要引经据典，煽情或辩理更要洋洋洒洒……写好了固然赢得大效果，一旦写不好，读者就会说作者是无病呻吟。

科幻的定义众说纷云，莫衷一是，尺度差异极大。比较接近的是：用幻想艺术的形式，表现科学技术远景或者社会发展对人类影响。以下是科幻类作文写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、文章的本质就是虚构

从广义上讲，古今中外的文章，就算写的是真实事件，都存在着不同程度的虚构。历史真实无法还原，任何对历史的陈述，都是不准确的，都带着作者的主观意愿、想象和改造，无法得到所有历史参与者的认同。这就是为什么同样一件事，如果由不同人写出来，总会有或大或小的出入与争议。既然虚构是一种无法改变的事实，我们就没有必要反对学生在写作文时存在虚构。

二、写作文是一种想象的训练

我个人认为，在中小学教学中要求学生写作文，是因为写作文本身就是一种非常重要的想象训练，写作文的这一功能，恐怕比培养学生的文字功底和语言陈述能力更加重要。一般来说，人的年龄越小，对世界的认知越模糊，想象力就越发达。对于小学生来说，如果写作时虚构的成份越多，对于保存和培养孩子的想象力效果就越好。所以，我认为老师们在教学时，应当鼓励学生们无拘想象、大胆虚构。

三、真实的生活是有限度的生活

任何人的生活，都是狭碍的、有限度的生活——即便是走遍世界的旅行家，他所接受的信息量和产生的生活体验也许比普通人丰富，但是，他的生活同样是受局限的，不可能做到对世间万物全知全觉。小学生的生活阅历比成人少得多，他们可写的生活素材因此受到极大限制。如果不允许他们在写作文时进行虚构，就容易导致无事无物可写的现象出现。而虚构，可以开拓他们的创作视野，和作家创作一样，进入他们也许并未亲身体验过的生活。

四、虚构可以锻炼学生的写作技巧

没有什么事情可以比虚构更加锻炼写作者的写作技巧的。如果我们要求学生在写作文时，只许将曾经真的看到了的或者听到了的原原本本地写下来，不许有一点虚构，那么，他的写作就会受到极大的局限，叙述事件时会捉襟见肘。而如果我们允许他们去虚构人物在事件发生时的心理活动、动作细节、对话表情等等，那么，他写起来就会有各种各样的素材和佐料，行文时就能做到下笔如有神。

写科幻作文，同学们要做好以下三个“点”：

一、确定角色，这是科幻作文的基础环节

所谓角色，就是科幻作文中所涉及的人或物，他们是这个故事的扮演者，也是缔造者。

二、设定情节，这是科幻作文的重要环节

情节是指事情的开端、发展、高潮和结局，它贯穿科幻作文的始终，是故事的生命线。它和角色相辅相成，缺一不可。选好材料后就可以设定情节了：

1.开端。可采用开门见山、点明题意的方法，也可以用表示声音的词或几个奇怪的问题、现象来设置悬念，引人入胜。

2.发展。

1.要有想象力，丰富的想象力!

2.要了解一定的知识，不能胡编乱造嘛!

3.写的事情要有根据，让人觉得你写的这个事情是有必要的。

4.建议读一些科幻小说，对写作应该有好处。

导语：在会写记叙文之前我们首先要学会怎么去记叙好一件简单的事情，下面我们来看看叙事文的写作方法。

一、要交代清楚事情发生的地点、时间;要把事情的经过、因果写明白。

一件事，总离不开时间、地点、人物、事件、原因、结果等六个方面的内容，因此，只有把这些方面写清楚了，才能使别人明白你写了一件什么事。

然而，交代这六个方面内容不应该呆板，要根据文章的需要灵活掌握。时间、地点也并不是非要直接点明不可的，有时候可以通过描述自然景物的特征及其变化，将它们间接表示出来。

如“鸡喔喔叫了起来”，就是指天将亮了;“西边的太阳就要落山了”，指的是傍晚，等等。

二、要把事情经过写具体，并做到重点突出。

在记叙文六个方面的内容中，起因、经过和结果，是构成事情最主要的环节。为了把事情写得清楚、明白，在记叙中一定要写好事情的起因、经过和结果，特别要把事情的经过写具体，给人留下完整而深刻的印象。

三、记叙的条理要清晰。一件事都有发生、发展和结果的过程，按照事情发展的顺序记叙，文章的条理就会清楚明白。

确定记叙的顺序以后，还要安排好段落层次。适当地分段，可以使文章眉目清楚。要做到记叙的条理分明，必须在动笔之前，仔细地想一想，文章应该先写什么，再写什么，然后写什么，把记叙的轮廓整理出来。

在写记叙文的时候，我们要有条理性，先要想好先写什么，后写什么，安排好记叙的顺序，不然就会头绪杂乱，条理不清。那么我们要怎么写才能让文章条理清楚呢

一、运用顺叙。

顺叙，是按照事物发生、发展的先后次序进行叙述。这样写，可以将事物的发展过程，有头有尾地叙述出来，来龙去脉，十分清楚。运用顺叙写成的文章，它的层次、段落和事物发生、发展的过程是基本一致的。

顺叙有以时间为顺序的，有以事物发展规律为顺序的，也有以空间变换为顺序的。在叙事性的文章中，大多是以时间为顺序和以事物发展规律为顺序的。

按时间顺序进行叙述时，必须严格地安排好顺序，写清楚叙述的时间。现实生活中任何事情都不会突然发生，它总有一个发生、发展的过程。因此，作者常常要根据事情发生、发展、高潮、结局这一事情发展的规律来进行叙述，文章的层次也是清楚、明了的。

当然，有的文章事情比较简单，因而不一定非要写出事情过程的四个层次(发生、发展、高潮、结局)。

二、运用倒叙。

倒叙，就是把事件的结局或某个最突出的片断提在前面叙述，然后再从事件的开头进行叙述。

需要指出的是，运用倒叙的写法，必须注意交代清楚倒叙的起讫点，顺叙和倒叙的转换处要有明显的界限、必要的文字过渡。这些地方处理不好，会使文章脉络不清，头绪不明，影响内容的表达。

三、运用插叙。

插叙是指在叙述中心事件的过程中，由于某种需要暂时中断叙述的线索而插入的关于另一件事情的叙述。

需要指出的是，在运用插叙时不能打乱原来的叙述线索，要注意与上下文的衔接。这样，文章的结构不仅富有变化，而且叙述事情的条理非常清楚。

微写作虽然微，但也有文章的体式。其文章的起承转合也需要交代清楚。从外在来说，请假、启事等要符合文体的要求;从内在来说，讲一件事情要讲清楚，要用自己的语言表达自己的思想，且把想表达的内容、情感很好地表达出来。那么，平时的训练就要包括两个方面：一是认识能力和思维水平，二是语言文字的表达能力。

建议高三老师要开展分层教学，因为每个学生的升学需求是不一样的。对于要考一流名校的学生，老师要提出明确要求，比如要创新、要夺人眼球，写得四平八稳就不行。此外，对于其他层次的学生，要根据学生的实际情况提出相应的要求。

老师在指导学生复习时，自己先要学会辨题。凡是符合今年高考指导思想的微写作题目可以多练，不太合适的题目要加以改造，因为微写作总体来说强调与生活结合、与现实结合，是要让学生写作时有话可说。他特别强调，微写作的开放性很强，显性的限制一般只有字数要求，其余大多隐含在情境中，指导学生时要特别注意。

教学中可分解突破描述、议论和抒情等各个能力点，将学生需要掌握的各类应用文体格式以及描述、议论、抒情的各种方法化解落实在每天的微写作练习中，如每日一句话新闻每日百字时评每日百字班级叙事等，同时着重从简明、连贯、得体的角度，训练应用文体的表达。

语文是一门博大精深的学科，要想学好语文，学习兴趣、良好的学习习惯等都是很重要的。有人感到学习语文很吃力，主要是由于没有掌握正确的方法，其次我们需要学会分析各种类型题目的做题技巧，当然这些都是建立在一定知识的积累之上。

虽然说语文的学习死记硬背较多，但是对于文言文，古诗词的学习，我们还是需要一些技巧的，对于文言文和古诗词，一些常用的词语或者常用句式需要我们特别记忆，这样即便是我们遇到一篇没有学过的诗词或者文言文，这些语句也是通用的，可谓是一理通百理明。

更重要的是我们要培养语文学习的兴趣。这个培养过程，古人分为三个阶段：知之、好之、乐之。先说“知之”：走进语文，不抵触，不反感，不因对以前的老师、教材和考试的印象而迁怒语文;能如此，方可初尝语文的甘霖。再说“好之”：日日操习，用心投入，不懈怠，不放弃，不因外界干扰、其他学科和考试分数而离开语文;能如此，方可欣赏语文的漫天红霞。后说“乐之”：处处留心，养成习惯，言谈举止，一笑一颦，莫非语文;能如此，方可进入语文的神仙洞天!

I woke up early this morning. I went out to play with my neighbor. We watched cartoon at his home. After I went home about 4 Oclock in the afternoon, I helped my mother to do some house work. She is very happy so I am happy too.

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

一、注意审题

小作文的审题(即审读材料)很重要，决定着文章的成败。因为一个小作文的材料中，往往隐含了若干个写作要求，如不细心审读，抓不到这些隐含的要求，就很容易出现错误。例如：

一个孩子乘母亲不在，将家里的小闹钟拆了，母亲见后……

要求;根据上面的材料，展开想象，如果你是母亲，如何处置这个事情。请写出一个200字左右的处置过程。

这个小作文便隐含四个要求：(1)〝母亲见后〞，时间上必须要从母亲看见闹钟被拆之后写起;(2)〝如果你是母亲〞，行文中写作者必须是小孩的 母亲，必须以小孩子母亲的身份出现，不能这样写：〝如果我是这位母亲，我会这样处置……〞;(3)〝200字左右〞，字数限定在200字左右;(4)〝处 置过程〞，内容只能写处置的过程，而不能写结果和其他。

二、注意语言的简洁

这一点体现在两方面。其一，小作文字数一般是100┄300字，受篇幅限制，语言要求简洁明了。其二，如果是写应用文，则语言也一定要简洁，因为语言简洁是应用文写作的最基本要求。

三、力求结构完整

小作文是片断性作文，而非篇章。虽如此，但不能一味忽略结构的完整性。一篇小作文如果能够做到结构完整，则效果会更好。例如：

在你的身边有许多可亲可爱的事物，请你任选其中一种，以《我眼里的___________》为题写一篇200字左右的短文。

有位学生在叙写完一只小猫的伶俐乖巧后，篇末一句〝我非常喜爱我家的小猫〞独句成段，这样，既抒发了情感，又收束了全文，使短文结构完整，比那些一味描写小猫的文章要好得多了。

要做到结构完整，可运用以下的结构方式：前后照应式、篇末点题式、总分总式(包括总分式和分总式)等。

四、注意表达方式的运用

受文体的制约，一篇文章总以某种表达方式为主，同时兼用其他表达方式为主。小作文也应注意这一点。如江西省2002年中考语文小作文题为二选 一，(1)通过某一情景或场面，描写你最喜欢的色彩。(2)就你最喜欢的色彩，发表议论。无论选哪一题，或描写、或议论，总得以一种表达方式为主。但如果 能兼用其他表达方式，如兼用议论和抒情，表达自己对某种色彩的某中看法和喜爱之情，则能使短文大为增色。

1、作者用小说的笔法去描写散文中的人物，个个生动形象，形神毕肖，对母亲的描写尤其出色。作者笔下的母亲是一位相当典型的贤妻良母，充满了“母心、佛心”。母亲没有文化、俭朴勤劳、灵性很强。她善良大度、充满美德、性格坚强。母亲的谆谆教诲、关爱呵护、劳心劳力以及一言一行，都是琦君写作的题材。有时，简单的几笔，人物就立起来了。例如：“到了喝春酒时，就开出来请大家尝尝。‘补气、健脾、明目的哟!’母亲总是得意地说。她又转向我说：‘但是你呀，就只能舔一指甲缝，小孩子喝多了会流鼻血，太补了。’其实我没等她说完，早已偷偷把手指头伸在杯子里好几回，已经不知舔了多少个指甲缝的八宝酒了。”在这里，母亲的慈爱温柔，孩子的活泼调皮，真是历历如在眼前。

2、琦君的散文不雕琢，不粉饰，文笔如行云流水，舒放自然，典雅隽永。她驾驭文字得心应手，善于营造隽永温馨的氛围。琦君的文字是经过千锤百炼之后成就出的精粹与平和，她写人物、抒情怀，就有了鲜明的宽厚从容和温柔蕴藉。

3、琦君认为：好的文章必须语语动人，字字珠玑。而要做到这一步，必须做到：

⑴ 平易;

⑵ 净化;

⑶ 蕴藉;

⑷ 真挚。

我们在《春酒》一文中即可以看到这些特征。琦君善于使用抒情与叙事并用的方式，在娓娓叙事的过程中让自己的感情自然流淌;琦君描绘人物鲜明细腻，亲友、长工、母亲都在她的笔下栩栩如生。尤其是母亲的宽容、善良、勤俭，在琦君温婉流畅款款细叙的笔下，得到了极为传神的刻画。

琦君就是用这样一种洗净铅华的笔调，絮絮地说着自己对童年、对故乡的无限眷恋。

一、文献综述不应是对已有文献的重复、罗列和一般性介绍，而应是对以往研究的优点、不足和贡献的批判性分析与评论。因此，文献综述应包括综合提炼和分析评论双重含义。

文献综述范文1：“问题——探索——交流”小学数学教学模式的研究

... ...我们在网上浏览了数百种教学模式，下载了二百余篇有关教学模式的文章，研读了五十余篇。概括起来，我国的课堂教学模式可分三类：

(1) 传统教学模式——“教师中心论”。这类教学模式的主要理论根据是行为主义学习理论，是我国长期以来学校教学的主流模式。它的优点是... ...，它的缺陷是... ...

(2) 现代教学模式——“学生中心论”。这类教学模式的主要理论依据是建构主义学习理论，主张从教学思想、教学设计、教学方法以及教学管理等方面均以学生为中心，20世纪 90年代以来，随着信息技术在教学中的应用，得到迅速发展。它的优点是... ...，它的缺陷是... ...

(3) 优势互补教学模式——“主导——主体论”。这类教学模式是以教师为主导，以学生为主体，兼取行为主义和建构主义学习理论之长并弃其之短，是对“教师中心论”和“学生中心论”的扬弃。“主导——主体论”教学模式体现了辩证唯物主义认识论，但在教学实践中还没有行之有效的可以操作的教学方法和模式。

以教师为中心的传统小学数学教学模式可表述为“复习导入——传授新知——总结归纳——巩固练习——布置作业”。这种教学模式无疑束缚了学生学习主体作用的发挥。当今较为先进的小学数学教学模式可表述为“创设情境，提出问题——讨论问题，提出方案——交流方案，解决问题——模拟练习，运用问题——归纳总结，完善认识”。这种教学模式力求重视教师的主导作用和学生的主体作用，为广大教师所接受，并在教学实践中加以运用。但这种教学模式将学生的学习局限于课堂，学习方式是为数学而数学，没有把数学和生活结合起来，没有把学生学习数学置于广阔的生活时空中去，学生多角度多途径运用数学知识解决问题的能力受到限制，尤其是学生运用数学知识创造性地解决生活中的数学问题的能力发展受到限制，不利于培养学生的创新精神和实践能力。为此，我们提出“‘问题——探索——交流 ’小学数学教学模式研究”课题。

文献综述范文1中，研究者对有关研究领域的情况有一个全面、系统的认识和了解，对相关文献作了批判性的分析与评论。对于正在从事某一项课题的研究者来说，查阅文献资料有助于他们从整体上把握自己研究领域的发展历史与现状、已取得的主要研究成果、存在争议的地方、研究的最新方向和趋势、被研究者忽视的领域、对进一步研究工作的建议等。

文献综述范文2： 农村中学学生自学方法研究

1.国外的研究现状

国外的自学方法很多。美国心理学家斯金纳提出程序学习法... ...，程序学习使学习变得相对容易，有利于学生自学。美国心理学家桑代克所创设的试误学习法... ...，它主要解决学习中的问题。还有超级学习法，查、问、读、记、复习法、暗示法等。

2.国内的研究状况

我国古代就非常重视自学方法的研究，有“温故而知新”，“学而时习之”... ...，我国现代教育家叶圣陶先生主张培养学生的自学能力... ...，中国科学院心理研究所卢仲衡同志首先提出“自学辅导教学法”... ...,这种方法的主要优点在于... ...,魏书生的语文教学主张通过提高学生学习的自觉性来提高学习效率... ...

以上国内外的研究经验为我们的课题研究提供了宝贵的经验。

从文献综述范文2看，该课题综述列举了国内外有代表性的专家、学者关于自学方法方面的论述和做法，并对部分内容的优点进行了概述。在选好了大的研究方向后，在确定具体的研究课题之前，通过查阅大量文献资料，了解有关研究情况，有助于研究者通过比较、分析，根据研究的可行性、研究者的兴趣和能力等方面限定研究内容，确定课题的研究范围，更好地驾驭和把握课题。但是，文献综述对每位专家、学者所持理论和做法的优点与不足所进行的批判性分析与评论不够，特别是缺少对国内外研究现状的综合提炼与分析。

二、文献综述要文字简洁，尽量避免大量引用原文，要用自己的语言把作者的观点说清楚，从原始文献中得出一般性结论。

文献综述的目的是通过深入分析过去和现在的研究成果，指出目前的研究状态、应该进一步解决的问题和未来的发展方向，并依据有关科学理论、结合具体的研究条件和实际需要，对各种研究成果进行评论，提出自己的观点、意见和建议。应当指出的是，文献综述不是对以往研究成果的简单介绍与罗列，而是经过作者精心阅读后，系统总结某一研究领域在某一阶段的进展情况，并结合本国本地区的具体情况和实际需要提出自己见解的一种科研工作。

三、文献综述不是资料库，要紧紧围绕课题研究的“问题”，确保所述的已有研究成果与本课题研究直接相关，其内容是围绕课题紧密组织在一起，既能系统全面地反映研究对象的历史、现状和趋势，又能反映研究内容的各个方面。

文献综述范文3：农村中小学心理健康教育途径与方法的实验研究

本课题国内外研究现状述评：... ...1998年国际心理卫生协会强调“健康的定义... ...”

心理健康运动的发起人是美国的C.比尔斯。... ...马斯洛的人本主义强调“自我实现”;费勒姆提出了“新人型理论”;奥尔特提出了“成熟者的理论”... ...

美国是最早开设心理辅导的国家，... ...将“心理辅导”定为学校教育的一部分... ...，前苏联教育部1984年颁布“苏联普通学校心理辅导条例”;日本也积极从美国引进心理辅导... ...

我国心理健康教育起步较晚，20世纪80年代在个别地区、个别学校起步了... ...，中小学真正起步是在90年代初到90年代中期。中国青少年研究中心、中国青少年发展基金会在全国进行大规模的调查，并于1997年 6 月 7 日公布了结果，引起了国人特别是教育界的震动... ...

1988年中共中央发布了“关于改革和加强中小学德育工作的通知”。1989年12月20日联合国大会通过了《儿童权益公约》，... ... 1993年全国教育工作会议明确提出“通过多种方式对不同年龄层次的学生进行心理健康教育指导... ...”1997年10月国家教委关于《积极推进中小学实施素质教育的若干意见》的通知中再一次强调了对中小学生进行“心理健康教育”。应该说自20世纪90年代初期到中期，上海中小学的心理健康教育走在了全国前列，1994年上海教委出台了关于在中小学开展心理健康教育的有关文件，并出版了有关教材。但他们把绝大部分精力放在了城市学生身上。与此同时北京市西城区成了“心育中心”丁榕老师一马当先做了许多工作，但仍是把精力放在了城市学生身上。农村学生与城市学生在生活、学习等条件上都存在着较大差异，在心理健康水平上也存在着较大不同，但至今没有人提出农村中小学心理教育的途径与方法的成型经验。因此农村中小学心理教育的途径与方法是值得研究的问题。

从文献综述范文3中可以看出，课题组成员翻阅了大量资料。但是，就“心理健康教育途径和方法”的综述不多;农村学生与城市学生心理健康差异的分析也不多。“农村”的特点不清，“方法途径”不知道新不新。这样会给后面的研究方向和设计带来麻烦。

四、文献综述的综述要全面、准确、客观，用于评论的观点、论据最好来自一次文献，尽量避免使用别人对原始文献的解释或综述。

(摘自 ：《教育科学研究》2004.6，原文：“撰写文献综述的基本要求”，作者：王俊芳 )

我们都知道，想在小升初英语写作拿高分，就要摸透老师的喜好，引起“读者”的注意。而在写作中句子偏长恰恰会适得其反，很容易让人漏听一、两个单词，影响对整个句子的理解，所以我们要教大家一些化繁为简的技巧——

1、巧用单个词：即用一个单词代替一组意义相同的单词。比如：

用forget(忘记)代替do not remember(没有记住)

用ignore(忽视)代替do not pay attention to(不注意)

用now(现在)代替at this point in time(此时此刻)

用because(由于)代替due to the fact that(鉴于下列事实)

2、省略同义词或近义词。比如在下面例句中，形容词important(重要的)和significant(有重要意义的)，就是两个同义词(也可以说是近义词)，我们可以省略important，只保留significant。

The government project is important and significant.(这项政府计划是重要的，有重要意义。)

The government project is significant.(这项政府计划有重要意义。)

3、在不改变句子含义的前提下，省略所有可以省略的单词。比如在下面例句中，the cover of the book(书的封面)可以省略成the book cover，is red in color(是红色的)可以省略成is red。

The cover of the book is red in color.(书的封面是红色的)

The book cover is red.(书的封面是红色的)

现在我们把这三种方法结合起来，将一个冗长、绕嘴的句子，改写成一个简短、易懂的句子。

University malls must be accessible and free from congestion in order that students, faculty and employees may have unobstructed passage through those areas of the campus.(校内道路必须是便于通行的，不拥堵的，以便让学生、教师和职员能够无阻碍地通过，到达校园的各处。)

University malls must be free enough from congestion to allow people to walk through easily.(校内道路不应当拥堵，以便人们顺利通行。)

4、用介词短语替代从句。比如：

原句：While they were playing tennis, she started an argument that lasted all morning.

修改后：During tennis she started an argument that lasted all morning.

原句：When you come to the second traffic light, turn right.

修改后：At the second traffic light turn left.

5、删除诸如"who is”或"that is"之类的关系代词，变从句为短语。比如：

原句：The novel, which is written in three parts, told a story that took place in the Middle Ages.

修改后：The three-part novel told a story set in the Middle Ages.

注：把句中的"three parts"改用形容词来表达，节省了四个不必要的单词"which is written in"。我们经常可以将关系代词如"that"去掉，这只会引起最少的变动。

二年级的作文难么？叙事作文怎么写？写作方法是什么？小编给大家提供二年级叙事作文写作方法，欢迎参考！

一、交代清楚事件发生的时间、地点、人物、起因、经过和结果，即六要素。一件事总离不开这六要素，把这方面写清楚了，才能使读者了解事件的来龙去脉。

二、要围绕作文的中心选择事件，要选择最能表现作文中心思想的事件做为材料，生活中有不少新鲜有趣和激动人心的事。因此，我们平日要多观察，多想生活中遇到的事。选材要新颖，在别人的作文中常出现的事要少写或不写，这样写出来的作文才有吸引力，有新鲜感。

三、事件的主要部分要写具体。每件事都有起因、经过和结果这样一个过程，只有把这个过程写清楚，给读者的印象才能完整而深刻。在事件中要进行有效的肖像、语言、心理、动作、细节描写，这一点很重要，这样写出来的作文才生动。要突出中心，详略得当，与主题无关的事不写。

注意事项：作文过程中，必须坚持始终要与所写这些事情的态度和看法相联系。

[二年级叙事作文写作方法

下面是语文迷小编整理提供的100个英语写作句式，欢迎大家阅读参考。

1. According to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.

依照最近的一项调查，每年有4，000，000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.

最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.

没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

4. People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.

人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。

5. An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.

越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。

6. When it comes to education, the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.

说到教育，大部分人认为其是一个终生的学习。

7. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.

许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

8. Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful

effects of international tourism.

应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量，努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。

9. An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However, this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents, who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.

越来越多的专家相信移民对城市的建设起到积极作用。然而，越来越多的城市居民却怀疑这种说法，他们抱怨民工给城市带来了许多严重的问题，像犯罪和卖淫。

10. Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus, which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.

许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少，以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车，而车上可能已满载乘客。

11. There is no denying the fact that air pollution is an extremely serious problem: the city authorities should take strong measures to deal with it.

无可否认，空气污染是一个极其严重的问题：城市当局应该采取有力措施来解决它。

12. An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward retirement.

一项调查显示妇女欢迎退休。

13. A proper part-time job does not occupy students too much time. In fact, it is unhealthy for them to spend all of time on their study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

一份适当的业余工作并不会占用学生太多的时间，事实上，把全部的时间都用到学习上并不健康，正如那句老话：只工作，不玩耍，聪明的孩子会变傻。

14. Any government, which is blind to this point, may pay a heavy price.

任何政府忽视这一点都将付出巨大的代价。

15.Nowadays, many students always go into raptures at the mere mention of the coming life of high school or college they will begin. Unfortunately, for most young people, it is not pleasant experience on their first day on campus.

当前，一提到即将开始的学校生活，许多学生都会兴高采烈。然而，对多数年轻人来说，校园刚开始的日子并不是什么愉快的经历。

16. In view of the seriousness of this problem, effective measures should be taken before things get worse.

考虑到问题的严重性，在事态进一步恶化之前，必须采取有效的措施。

17. The majority of students believe that part-time job will provide them with more opportunities to develop their interpersonal skills, which may put them in a favorable position in the future job markets.

大部分学生相信业余工作会使他们有更多机会发展人际交往能力，而这对他们未来找工作是非常有好处的。

18. It is indisputable that there are millions of people who still have a miserable life and have to face the dangers of starvation and exposure.

无可争辩，现在有成千上万的人仍过着挨饿受冻的痛苦生活。

19. Although this view is wildly held, this is little evidence that education can be obtained at any age and at any place.

尽管这一观点被广泛接受，很少有证据表明教育能够在任何地点、任何年龄进行。

20. No one can deny the fact that a persons education is the most important aspect of his life.

没有人能否认：教育是人生最重要的一方面。

21. People equate success in life with the ability of operating computer.

人们把会使用计算机与人生成功相提并论。

22. In the last decades, advances in medical technology have made it possible for people to live longer than in the past.

在过去的几十年，先进的医疗技术已经使得人们比过去活的时间更长成为可能。

23. In fact, we have to admit the fact that the quality of life is as important as life itself.

事实上，我们必须承认生命的质量和生命本身一样重要。

24. We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。

25. People believe that computer skills will enhance their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

人们相信拥有计算机技术可以获得更多工作或提升的机会。

26. The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that this knowledge may be less useful than most people think.

从这几年我搜集的信息来看，这些知识并没有人们想象的那么有用。

27. Now, it is generally accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduation.

现在，人们普遍认为没有一所大学能够在毕业时候教给学生所有的知识。

28. This is a matter of life and death--a matter no country can afford to ignore.

这是一个关系到生死的问题，任何国家都不能忽视。

29. For my part, I agree with the latter opinion for the following reasons:

我同意后者，有如下理由：

30. Before giving my opinion, I think it is important to look at the arguments on both sides.

在给出我的观点之前，我想看看双方的观点是重要的。

31. This view is now being questioned by more and more people.

这一观点正受到越来越多人的质疑。

32. Although many people claim that, along with the rapidly economic development, the number of people who use bicycle are decreasing and bicycle is bound to die out. The information Ive collected over the recent years leads me to believe that bicycle will continue to play extremely important roles in modern society.

尽管许多人认为随着经济的高速发展，用自行车的人数会减少，自行车可能会消亡， 然而，这几年我收集的一些信息让我相信自行车仍然会继续在现代社会发挥极其重要的作用。

33. Environmental experts point out that increasing pollution not only causes serious problems such as global warming but also could threaten to end human life on our planet.

环境学家指出：持续增加的污染不仅会导致像全球变暖这样严重的问题，而且还将威胁到人类在这个星球的生存。

34. In view of such serious situation, environmental tools of transportation like bicycle are more important than any time before.

考虑到这些严重的状况，我们比以往任何时候更需要像自行车这样的环保型交通工具。

35. Using bicycle contributes greatly to peoples physical fitness as well as easing traffic jams.

使用自行车有助于人们的身体健康，并极大地缓解了交通阻塞。

36. Despite many obvious advantages of bicycle, it is not without its problem.

尽管自行车有许多明显的优点，但是它也存在它的问题。

37. Bicycle cant be compared with other means of transportation like car and train for speed and comfort.

在速度和舒适度方面，自行车是无法和汽车、火车这样的交通工具相比的。

38. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that advantages of bicycle far outweigh its disadvantages and it will still play essential roles in modern society.

通过以上讨论，我们可以得出结论：自行车的优点远大于缺点，并且在现代社会它仍将发挥重要作用。

39. There is a general discussion these days over education in many colleges and institutes. One of the questions under debate is whether education is a lifetime study.

当前在高校和研究机构对教育存在着大量争论，其中一个问题就是教育是否是个终身学习的过程。

40. This issue has caused wide public concern.

这个问题已经引起了广泛关注。

41. It must be noted that learning must be done by a person himself.

必须指出学习只能靠自己。

42. A large number of people tend to live under the illusion that they had completed their education when they finished their schooling. Obviously, they seem to fail to take into account the basic fact that a persons education is a most important aspect of his life.

许多人存在这样的误解，认为离开学校就意味着结束了他们的教育。显然，他们忽视了教育是人生重要部分这一基本事实。

43. As for me, Im in favor of the opinion that education is not complete with graduation, for the following reasons:

就我而言，我同意教育不应该随着毕业而结束的观点，有以下原因：

44. It is commonly accepted that no college or university can educate its students by the time they graduate.

人们普遍认为高校是不可能在毕业的时候教会他们的学生所有知识的。

45. Even the best possible graduate needs to continue learning before she or he becomes an educated person.

即使最优秀的毕业生，要想成为一个博学的人也要不断地学习。

46. It is commonly thought that our society had dramatically changed by modern science and technology, and human had made extraordinary progress in knowledge and technology over the recent decades.

人们普遍认为我们的现代科技使我们的社会发生了巨大的变化，近几十年人类在科技方面取得了惊人的进步。

47. Now people in growing numbers are beginning to believe that learning new skills and knowledge contributes directly to enhancing their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

现在越来越多的人开始相信学习新的技术和知识能直接帮助他们获得工作就会或提升的机会。

48. An investigation shows that many older people express a strong desire to continue studying in university or college.

一项调查显示许多老人都有到大学继续学习的愿望。

49. For the majority of people, reading or learning a new skill has become the focus of their lives and the source of their happiness and contentment after their retirement.

对大多数人来讲，退休以后，阅读或学习一项新技术已成为他们生活的中心和快乐的来源。

50. For people who want to adopt a healthy and meaningful life style, it is important to find time to learn certain new knowledge. Just as an old saying goes: it is never too late to learn.

对于那些想过上健康而有意义的生活的人们来说，找时间学习一些新知识是很重要的，正如那句老话：活到老，学到老。

51. There is a general debate on the campus today over the phenomenon of college or high school students doing a part-time job.

对于大学或高中生打工这一现象，校园里进行着广泛的争论。

52. By taking a major-related part-job, students can not only improve their academic studies, but gain much experience, experience they will never be able to get from the textbooks.

通过做一份和专业相关的工作，学生不仅能够提高他们的专业能力，而且能获得从课本上得不到的经验。

53. Although peoples lives have been dramatically changed over the last decades, it must be admitted that, shortage of funds is still the one of the biggest questions that students nowadays have to face because that tuition fees and prices of books are soaring by the day

近几十年，尽管人们的生活有了惊人的改变，但必须承认，由于学费和书费日益飞涨，资金短缺仍然是学生们面临的最大问题之一。

54. Consequently, the extra money obtained from part-time job will strongly support students to continue to their study life.

因此，业余工作挣来的钱将强有力地支持学生们继续他们的求学生活。

55. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw a conclusion that part-time job can produce a far-reaching impact on students and they should be encouraged to take part-time job, which will benefit students and their family, even the society as a whole.

通过上面的讨论，我们不难得出结论：业余工作对学生们会产生深远的影响，我们应鼓励学生从事业余工作，这将有利于学生和他们的家庭，甚至整个社会。

56. These days, people in growing numbers are beginning to complain that work is more stressful and less leisurely than in past. Many experts point out that, along with the development of modern society, it is an inevitable result and there is no way to avoid it.

现在，越来越多的人们开始抱怨工作比以前更有压力。许多专家指出这是现代社会发展必然的结果，无法避免。

57. It is widely acknowledged that computer and other machines have become an indispensable part of our society, which make our life and work more comfortable and less laborious.

人们普遍认为计算机和其他机器已经成为我们社会必不可少的一部分。 它们使我们的生活更舒适，减少了大量劳动。

58. At the same time, along with the benefits of such machines, employees must study knowledge involved in such machines so that they are able to control them.

同时，随着这些机器带给我们的好处，员工们也必须要学习与之相关的知识以便使用它们。

59. No one can deny the basic fact that it is impossible for average workers to master those high-technology skills easily.

没有人能否认这一基本事实：对于一般工人来讲，轻松掌握这些技术是不可能的。

60. In the second place, there seem to be too many people without job and not enough job position.

第二方面，失业的人似乎太多而又没有足够的工作岗位。

61. Millions of people have to spend more time and energy on studying new skills and technology so that they can keep a favorable position in job market.

成千上万的人们不得不花费更多的精力和时间学习新的技术和知识，使得他们在就业市场能保持优势。

62. According to a recent survey, a growing number of people express a strong desire to take another job or spend more time on their job in order to get more money to support their family.

根据最近的一项调查，越来越多的人表达了想从事另外的工作或加班以赚取更多的钱来补贴家用的强烈愿望。

63. From what has been discussed above, I am fully convinced that the leisure life-style is undergoing a decline with the progress of modern society, it is not necessary a bad thing.

通过以上讨论，我完全相信，随着现代社会的进步，幽闲的生活方式正在消失并不是件坏事。

64. The problem of international tourism has caused wide public concern over the recent years.

近些年，国际旅游的问题引起了广泛关注。

65. Many people believe that international tourism produce positive effects on economic growth and local government should be encouraged to promote international tourism.

许多人认为国际旅游对经济发展有积极作用，应鼓励地方政府发展国际旅游。

66. But what these people fail to see is that international tourism may bring about a disastrous impact on our environment and local history.

但是这些人忽视了国际旅游可能会给当地环境和历史造成的灾难性的影响。

67. As for me, Im firmly convinced that the number of foreign tourists should be limited, for the following reasons:

就我而言，我坚定地认为国外旅游者的数量应得到限制，理由如下：

68. In addition, in order to attract tourists, a lot of artificial facilities have been built, which have certain unfavorable effects on the environment.

另外，为了吸引旅游者，大量人工设施被修建，这对环境是不利的。

69. For lack of distinct culture, some places will not attract tourists any more. Consequently, the fast rise in number of foreign tourists may eventually lead to the decline of local tourism.

由于缺乏独特的文化，一些地方不再吸引旅游者。因此，国外旅游者数量的快速增加可能最终会导致当地旅游业的衰败。

70. There is a growing tendency for parents to ask their children to accept extra educational programs over the recent years.

近些年，父母要求他们的孩子接受额外的教育呈增长的势头。

71. This phenomenon has caused wide public concern in many places of world.

这一现象在全世界许多地方已引起了广泛关注。

72. Many parents believe that additional educational activities enjoy obvious advantage. By extra studies, they maintain, their children are able to obtain many kinds of practical skills and useful knowledge, which will put them in a beneficial position in the future job markets when they grow up.

许多家长相信额外的教育活动有许多优点，通过学习，他们的孩子可以获得很多实践技能和有用的知识，当他们长大后，这些对他们就业是大有好处的。

73. In the first place, extra studies bring about unhealthy impacts on physical growth of children. Educational experts point out that, it is equally important to take some sport activities instead of extra studies when children have spent the whole day in a boring classroom.

首先，额外的学习对孩子们的身体发育是不利的。教育专家指出，孩子们在枯燥的教室里呆了一整天后，从事一些体育活动，而不是额外的学习，是非常重要的。

74. Children are undergoing fast physical development; lack of physical exercise may produce disastrous influence on their later life.

孩子们正处于身体快速发育时期，缺乏体育锻炼可能会对他们未来的生活造成严重的影响。

75. In the second place, from psychological aspect, the majority of children seem to tend to have an unfavorable attitude toward additional educational activities.

第二，从心理上讲，大部分孩子似乎对额外的学习没有什么好感。

76. It is hard to imagine a student focusing their energy on textbook while other children are playing.

当别的孩子在玩耍的时候，很难想象一个学生能集中精力在课本上。

77. Moreover, children will have less time to play and communicate with their peers due to extra studies, consequently, it is difficult to develop and cultivate their character and interpersonal skills. They may become more solitary and even suffer from certain mental illness.

而且，由于要额外地学习，孩子们没有多少时间和同龄的孩子玩耍和交流，很难培养他们的个性和交际能力。他们可能变得孤僻甚至产生某些心理疾病。

78. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that, although extra studies indeed enjoy many obvious advantages, its disadvantages shouldnt be ignored and far outweigh its advantages. It is absurd to force children to take extra studies after school.

通过以上讨论，我们可以得出结论：尽管额外学习的确有很多优点，但它的缺点不可忽视，且远大于它的优点。因此，放学后强迫孩子额外学习是不明智的。

79. Any parents should place considerable emphasis on their children to keep the balance between play and study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

任何家长都应非常重视保持孩子在学习与玩耍的平衡，正如那句老话：只工作，不玩耍，聪明的孩子会变傻。

80. There is a growing tendency for parent these days to stay at home to look after their children instead of returning to work earlier.

现在，父亲或母亲留在家里照顾他们的孩子而不愿过早返回工作岗位正成为增加的趋势。

81. Parents are firmly convinced that, to send their child to kindergartens or nursery schools will have an unfavorable influence on the growth of children.

父母们坚定地相信把孩子送到幼儿园对他们的成长不利。

82. However, this idea is now being questioned by more and more experts, who point out that it is unhealthy for children who always stay with their parents at home.

然而，这一想法正遭受越来越多的专家的质疑，他们指出，孩子总是呆在家里，和父母在一起，是不健康的。

83. Although parent would be able to devote much more time and energy to their children, it must be admitted that, parent has less experience and knowledge about how to educate and supervise children, when compared with professional teachers working in kindergartens or nursery schools.

尽管父母能在他们孩子身上投入更多时间和精力，但是必须承认，与工作在幼儿园的专职教师相比，他们在如何管理教育孩子方面缺乏知识和经验。

84. From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw a conclusion that, although the parents desire to look after children by themselves is understandable, its disadvantages far outweigh the advantages.

通过以上讨论，我们可以得出如下结论：尽管家长想亲自照看孩子的愿望是可以理解的，但是这样做的缺点远大于优点。

85. Parents should be encouraged to send their children to nursery schools, which will bring about profound impacts on children and families, and even the society as a whole.

应该鼓励父母将他们的孩子送到幼儿园，这将对孩子，家庭，甚至整个社会产生深远的影响。

86. Many leaders of government always go into raptures at the mere mention of artistic and cultural projects. They are forever talking about the nice parks, the smart sculptures in central city and the art galleries with various valuable rarities. Nothing, they maintain, is more essential than such projects in the economic growth.

只要一提起艺术和文化项目，一些政府领导就会兴奋不已，他们滔滔不绝地说着美丽的公园，城市中心漂亮的雕塑，还有满是稀世珍宝的艺术展览馆。他们认为在经济发展中，没有什么比这些艺术项目更重要了。

87. But is it really the case? The information Ive collected over last few years leads me to believe that artistic and cultural projects may be less useful than many governments think. In fact, basic infrastructure projects are playing extremely important role and should be given priority.

这是真的吗?这些年我收集的信息让我相信这些文化、艺术项目并没有许多政府想象的那么重要。事实上，基础设施建设非常重要，应该放在首位。

88. Those who are in favor of artistic and cultural projects advocate that cultural environment will attract more tourists, which will bring huge profits to local residents. Some people even equate the build of such projects with the improving of economic construction.

那些赞成建设文化艺术项目的人认为文化环境会吸引更多的游客，这将给当地居民带来巨大的利益。一些人甚至把建设文化艺术项目与发展经济建设等同起来。

89. Unfortunately, there is very few evidence that big companies are willing to invest a huge sums of money in a place without sufficient basic projects, such as supplies of electricity and water.

然而，很少有证据表明大公司愿意把巨额的资金投到一个连水电这些基础设施都不完善的地方去。

90. From what has been discussed above, it would be reasonable to believe that basic projects play far more important role than artistic and cultural projects in peoples life and economic growth.

通过以上讨论，我们有理由相信在人们的生活和经济发展方面，基础建设比艺术文化项目发挥更大的作用。

91. Those urban planners who are blind to this point will pay a heavy price, which they cannot afford it.

那些城市的规划者们如果忽视这一点，将会付出他们无法承受的代价。

92. There is a growing tendency these days for many people who live in rural areas to come into and work in city. This problem has caused wide public concern in most cities all over the world.

农民进城打工正成为增长的趋势，这一问题在世界上大部分城市已引起普遍关注。

93. An investigation shows that many emigrants think that working at city provide them with not only a higher salary but also the opportunity of learning new skills.

一项调查显示许多民工认为在城市打工不仅有较高的收入，而且能学到一些新技术。

94. It must be noted that improvement in agriculture seems to not be able to catch up with the increase in population of rural areas and there are millions of peasants who still live a miserable life and have to face the dangers of exposure and starvation.

必须指出，农业的发展似乎赶不上农村人口的增加，并且仍有成千上万的农民过着缺衣挨饿的贫寒生活。

95. Although rural emigrants contribute greatly to the economic growth of the cities, they may inevitably bring about many negative impacts.

尽管民工对城市的经济发展做出了巨大贡献，然而他们也不可避免的带来了一些负面影响。

96. Many sociologists point out that rural emigrants are putting pressure on population control and social order; that they are threatening to take already scarce city jobs; and that they have worsened traffic and public health problems.

许多社会学家指出民工正给人口控制和社会治安带来压力。他们正在威胁着本已萧条的工作市场，他们恶化了交通和公共卫生状况。

97. It is suggested that governments ought to make efforts to reduce the increasing gap between cities and countryside. They ought to set aside an appropriate fund for improvement of the standard of peasants lives. They ought to invite some experts in agriculture to share their experiences, information and knowledge with peasants, which will contribute directly to the economic growth of rural areas.

建议政府应该努力减少正在拉大的城乡差距。应该划拨适当的资金提高农民的生活水平;应该邀请农业专家向农民介绍他们的经验，知识和信息，这些将有助于发展农村经济。

98. In conclusion, we must take into account this problem rationally and place more emphases on peasants lives. Any government that is blind to this point will pay a heavy price.

总之，我们应理智考虑这一问题，重视农民的生活。任何政府忽视这一点都将付出巨大的代价。

99. Although many experts from universities and institutes consistently maintain that it is an inevitable part of an independent life, parents in growing numbers are starting to realize that people, including teachers and experts in education, should pay considerable attention to this problem.

尽管来自高校和研究院的许多专家坚持认为这是独立生活不可避免的一部分，然而越来越多的家长开始意识到包括教师和教育专家在内的人们应该认真对待这一问题。

100. As for me, it is essential to know, at first, what kind of problems young students possible would encounter on campus.

我认为，首先应看看学生们在校园可能遇到哪些问题。

英语四级考试目的是推动大学英语教学大纲的贯彻执行，对大学生的英语能力进行客观、准确的测量，为提高我国大学英语课程的教学质量服务。下面是小编为大家带来的基础薄弱如何进行英语四级写作训练的知识，欢迎阅读。

英语四级写作备考可分为四大步骤：

一、 背诵：

首先认真研究历年四级写作真题，重点研究2001年6月—2005年12月的11次真题，分析近年来四级写作的出题规律和考试重点，从语言、结构、 内容三大层面，认真研读经典写作真题范文：语言方面学习范文中的精彩词汇、词组、句型；结构方面学习范文的框架结构、内在逻辑、关联词、同义替换和代词替换；内容方面学习范文的论点、论据和论证。同时背诵精彩写作范文，要求滚瓜烂熟、脱口而出、多多益善，扎扎实实提高自己的写作实力。历年英语四级六级真题 >>

二、默写：

背诵熟练之后默写下来，仔细对照原文，会发现你默写的文章与原文有一些语法、拼写、标点的区别，这些区别就是你的写作弱点，学习关键在于针锋突破，不要全面出击。这些弱点正是你在考试中扣分的原因所在，把这些弱点意义克服，分数自然就会提高。

三、 中译英：

首先将写作真题范文译为中文，或参考范文的正确译文，然后进行中译英的工作，根据自己的理解把中文译为英文，最后对照英文原文，你会发现你的译文与原文存在较大的差别，这些差别正是你写作低分的症结所在。同样的一个中文句子，仔细对比一下你使用了哪些词汇、词组和句型，原文使用了哪些，这样你的写作水平才会逐渐提高。

四、 写作：

进行完上述工作之后，在考前必须进行写作的工作，只有动笔写作，才会发现自己的问题。可以写5—10篇真题或模拟题，模仿自己曾经背诵过的精彩词汇、词组、句型、框架和范文，写出一篇新的文章。最初不要求速度，但考前一定要进行模考，半小时写出一篇120－150词的文章。写完之后仔细修改其中的语言错误，将其改的更加精彩。

英语写作基础不太好的四级考生，必须按照上述步骤严格进行；基础较好的考生学习顺序正好相反，首先写作，直接写作英语四级真题；其次中译英，在研读原文之前，进行中译英的工作，译完对比，找出差距；然后背诵；最后默写。同时可以准备自己的写作框架，应用文和论说文分别形成固定的写法，积累精彩句型。

叶圣陶先生曾就作文修改说，修改，无非就是向学生说几句提示性的话，引导他们自己去思考该怎样想、该怎样写才好。这里所谓提示性的话，即评语。作文评语是作文评改的关键，然而很多语文老师在评改学生作文时，总是几句千篇一律的套话，不注意启发学生的创造性思维，缺乏个别性和针对性，因而无法发挥作文评语应用的指导作用。作为语文教师，如何使用正确的评语来激发学生的写作兴趣，提高学生的写作水平呢？

一、激励为主，注重调动学生的作文兴趣

在作文教学中给予学生的反馈信息有两种功能：一是调节功能，让学生通过获得反馈信息来调节自己的行为，达到既定的学习目标；二是通过肯定与否定的评价来影响学生以后的学习积极性。学生们总是希望自己辛勤的劳动能得到实事求是的评价，因此，在作文评改中，老师应多用一些激励性语言，少用斥责性的评语。任何一篇学生作文，应该来说，总有其可取之处，或中心，或语言，或思路，或题材，或选材，甚至书写总有一两处值得肯定的地方。要注意发现学生作文中的闪光点，哪怕是一些小小的优点、长处，都应予以充分肯定，以光环效应来激发学生作文的兴趣，这在老师的作文评语中更显得重要。作为语文教师，必须在评语中敢于鼓励、善于鼓励。茅盾上小学时，老师在他的《宋太祖杯酒释兵权论》的文末，写下这样的评语：好笔力，好见地，读史有眼，立论有识，小于可造，其竭力用功勉成大器。读着这样的文字，可以想象少年茅盾是如何受其感发和激励。因此老师激励性的评语，如一腔真情皆在篇首涌现，耐读！……此外，刻画十分传神，令人拍案惊奇！文章写得很有灵气！你的立意让我耳目一新……等等，必定会使学生在作文中找到自己的价值，坚定写好作文的信心，为继续提高作文水平注入活力。而诸如习作能力太差、简直不动脑筋等训斥式的评语，只会让学生积极性下降，兴趣索然，写作信心消失。教师不必吝惜激励之辞，不必担心你的激励会捧杀学生，在评语中贯彻了鼓励性原则，少批评责备，学生就会从你的评语中看到自己的劳动和努力，从而带来精神上的满足，引发强烈的作文兴趣。当然，老师激励性的语言要符合实际，少而精，诚恳而有真情，否则将适得其反。

二、引而不发，尽力开启学生的创造思维

对学生的某篇作文出现的一些偏差，或某个方面需要探求更完美、更理想的表现形式时，评改者万万不能越俎代庖，将更加的途径和解决的办法统统指出来，评语应少用不应……应该……的字样，以免将学生的思维机械地引导到评改者的思路上，扼杀了学生的创造性思维。宜多采用启发性的提示或暗示，用商量的方式，使用可否……？等字眼，给学生留下更多的自由思考的空间，让学生自己领会、自己体味、自己感悟，自己去斟酌、去修改。

三、着眼发展，充分挖掘学生的作文潜能

作文是充满创造性的心智活动，既是各种智能的综合，又是学生心灵世界的展示和个性特点的表现。因此，教师在作文评语中一定要着眼于学生的发展，培养学生写作动机和写作兴趣，充分挖掘学生创造潜能。作文评语应指导学生多角度、多方位推导不同的结果，指导学生利用事物的内在联系，寻找媒介，多方架桥，发挥丰富的联想和想象，让思维向四周发散，从而写出一篇又一篇的好文章。

四、评语具体，耐心引领学生的二次作文

老师对学生作文所下的评语，除了要有激励作用以外，还应循循善诱，跟踪学生的思路，把握学生的得与失，具体表达出老师的意图，为学生的二次作文指明修改方向。

学生的作文，特别是课堂作文，完美的必定很少，这犹如一块未琢的玉石，须老师的雕琢方令显出光彩，对于学生来讲，他们所需要的就是老师的具体指导，任何抽象空泛的评语，诸如选材欠佳；叙事不具体、不生动；文章平淡无味等等，这些评语只令使学生茫然而无所适从。像选材欠佳一语，老师若改为选材应从母爱，这个角度写一两件母亲如何指导自己学习的事，那么，母亲的伟大表现得更具体。这样，学生就有可能知道自己的不足所在。

当然，抽象笼统的评语是易写的，而带有具体指导性的评语是费时费神的，但从提高学生写作水平这个角度来说，只有具体指导性的评语，才令使学生有的放矢，有针对性的改正。另外，作为语文老师，在给学生写具体评语时，应结合单元习作重点评析，使评语更有针对性，而不是漫无目的、千文一语。当然，学生要写好作文，必须经历一个较长的过程，我们应建立作文指导序列，从语言到立意，从立意到选材，从选材到布局，分而治之，这会使学生作文稳步提高的。

五、重视反馈，师生共同体验作文的乐趣

作文评改，过去许多老师往往一厢情愿地包打包唱，不厌其烦地给学生作巨幅评改，学生只是看一看得分或等级便束之高阁，评改效能几乎为零。我们可引导学生充分参与到作文评改活动中去，每篇作文均让学生现自评再由师评改。这样做，既督促学生认真领会老师评改作文的心理历程，又鞭策老师批阅作文不得敷衍塞责，还可让师生在求同存异的基础上获得感情的共鸣，以共同体验写作成功的乐趣。

作文评语在作文中有着不可取代的作用，作文评语若写不好，不仅会失去指导和帮助学生写作的意义，还会挫伤学生的写作积极性，每位语文老师必须重视作文评语在语文教学中的作用。

导语：高考英语作文是高考英语中比较重要的一部分，下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理了优秀英语作文，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

1) 主语+ cannot emphasize the importance of … too much.(再怎么强调……的重要性也不为过。)例如：We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

2)There is no need for sb to do sth. for sth.(某人没有必要做……)，例如：There is no need for you to bring more food. 不需你拿来更多的食物了。

3)By +doing…，主语can …. (借着……，……能够……)，例如：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy. 借着做运动，我们能够始终保持健康。

4) … enable + sb.+ to + do…. (……使……能够……)，例如：Listening to music enables us to feel relaxed. 听音乐使我们能够感觉轻松。

5) On no account can we + do…. (我们绝对不能……)，例如：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge.我们绝对不能忽略知识的价值。

6) What will happen to sb.? (某人将会怎样?), 例如：What will happen to the orphan? 那个孤儿将会怎样?

7)For the past + 时间，主语 + 现在完成式…. (过去……年来，……一直……)例如：

For the past two years，I have been busy preparing for the examination. 过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。

8)It pays to + do….(……是值得的。)例如：It pays to help others. 帮助别人是值得的。

9)主语+ be based on….(以……为基础)，例如：The progress of thee society is based on harmony.社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。

10)主语 + do one’s best to do….(尽全力去……)，例如：We should do our best to achieve our goal in life.我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标

注意：“尽全力”在英语中有不同表达，例如：We should spare no effort/make every effort to beautify our environment.我们应该不遗余力的美化我们的环境。

11)主语+ be closely related to …. (与……息息相关)， 例如：Taking exercise is closely related to health.做运动与健康息息相关。

12) 主语+ get into the habit of + V-ing = make it a rule to + V (养成……的习惯)，例如：We should get into the habit of keeping good hours.我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。

Owing to/Thanks to sth… (因为……)，例如：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream.因为他的鼓励，我终于实现我的梦想。

13)What a + 形容词 + 名词 + 主语 + be!= How +形容词+ a +名词+ be!(多么……!)，例如： What an important thing it is to keep our promise!= How important a thing it is to keep our promise!遵守诺言是多么重要的事!

14)主语 + do good/ harm to sth.. (对……有益/有害)，例如：Reading does good to our mind.读书对心灵有益。Overwork does harm to health.工作过度对健康有害。

15)主语 + have a great influence on sth. (对……有很大的影响)，例如：Smoking has a great influence on our health.抽烟对我们的健康有很大的影响。

16) nothing can prevent us from doing…. (没有事情能够阻挡我们做……), 例如：All this shows that nothing can prevent us from reaching our aims.这显示了没有事情能够阻挡我们实现目标。

17) Upon / On doing…, …. (一……就…….) ，例如：Upon / On hearing of the unexpected news, he was so surprised that he couldn’t say a word. 一听到这个出乎意料的消息，他惊讶到说不出话来。

注意：此句型一般可以改为如下复合句句型，例如：As soon as he heard of the unexpected news, he was so surprised that he ….

Hardly had he arrived when she started complaining. 他刚来，她就开始抱怨。

No sooner had he arrived than it began to rain. 他刚来，就下雨了。

18) would rather do…than do…(宁愿……而不……), 例如：I would rather walk home than take a crowded bus. 我宁愿步行回家也不愿做拥挤的公交车。

注意：此句型可以改为prefer to do…rather than do…句型，例如：

I prefer to stay at home rather than see the awful film with him. 我宁愿呆在家也不愿意和他去看那部恐怖电影。

19) only + 状语， 主句部分倒装 例如：Only then could the work of reconstruction begin. 直到那时，重建工作才开始。

20) be worth doing (值得做)，例如：The book is worth reading. 这本书值得读。

21)Owing to/Thanks to sth, …. (因为……)，例如：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream.因为他的鼓励，我终于实现我的梦想。

以下为复合句高级句型：

22)主语+ is + the +形容词最高级+名词+(that)+主语+ have ever + seen(known / heard / had / read,etc)例如：Liu Yifei is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen in my life. 刘亦菲是我所看过最美丽的女孩。Mr. Liu is the kindest teacher that I have ever had. 刘老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。

注意，比较级也可以用来表达最高级的意思， 例如：I have never seen a more beautiful girl than Liu Yifei in my life. 在我生活中我从来没见过比刘亦菲更美的女孩。Nothing is more important than to receive education. 没有比接受教育更重要的事。

23)There is no denying that + S + V….(不可否认的……)，例如：There is no denying that the qualities of our living have gone from bad to worse.不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。There is no denying the fact that the new management method has greatly increased the production. 不可否认的事实是，新的管理方法已经极大提高了产量。

24)It is universally acknowledged that +从句(全世界都知道……)，例如：It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable to us.全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。

注意，全世界都知道还可以改为以下句型：As is known to us/As we all know, …. (众所周知，……)。例如：As is known to us/As we all know, knowledge is power.众所周知，知识就是力量。

25)There is no doubt that +从句(毫无疑问的……)，例如：There is no doubt that he came late. 毫无疑问，他来晚了。There is no doubt that our educational system leaves something to be desired.毫无疑问的我们的教育制度令人不满意。 There is no doubt that you will be helped by others if you have any difficulties.毫无疑问，你有困难时，会得到别人的帮助。

26)(It is) No wonder that.... (难怪……)，例如：No wonder that he fell asleep in class. 难怪他在课堂上睡着了。

27)So + 形容词 + be + 主词 + that + 从句 (如此……以致于……)，例如：So precious is time that we can’t afford to waste it.时间是如此珍贵，我们经不起浪费它。

28)形容词+ as +主语+ be，主语+ 谓语(虽然……)，例如：Rich as our country is, the qualities of our living are by no means satisfactory.虽然我们的国家富有，我们的生活品质绝对令人不满意。

29)The + 比较级 +主语+谓语， the +比较级+主语+谓语(愈……愈……)，例如：The harder you work, the more progress you make. 你愈努力，你愈进步。The more books we read, the more learned we become.我们书读愈多，我们愈有学问。The more, the better. 越多越好。

30)It is time + 主语 + 过去式 (该是……的时候了)例如：It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems.该是有关当局采取适当的措施来解决交通问题的时候了。

注意：此句型可以转化为简单句句型：It is time for sth./for sb to do….例如：

It is time for lunch. 该吃午饭了。

It is time they were taught a lesson. 他们该接受教训了

31)To be frank/ To tell the truth, …. (老实说, ……) , 例如: To be frank/ To tell the truth, whether you like it or not, you have no other choice.老实说，不论你喜不喜欢，你别无选择。

32)it took him a year to do….( 他用了1年的时间来做……), 例如：As far as we know, it took him more than a year to write the book.到目前为止我们所知道的是，他用了1年的时间来写这本书。It took them a long time to realize they had made a mistake. 过了很久，他们才意识到犯错了。

33)spent as much time as he could doing sth.(花尽可能的时间做某事)，例如：He spent as much time as he could remembering new words. 他花了尽可能多时间记新单词。

34)Since + 主语 + 过去式，主语 + 现在完成式，例如：Since he went to senior high school， he has worked very hard.自从他上高中，他一直很用功。

35)An advantage of… is that + 句子 (……的优点是……)，例如：An advantage of using the solar energy is that it won’t create (produce) any pollution. 使用太阳能的优点是它不会制造任何污染。

36) It was not until recently that….( 直到最近, ……) ，例如：It was not until recently that the problem was solved. 直到最近这个问题才被解决。

37) We will be successful as long as we…. (只要我们……，我们就会成功的) ，例如：We will be successful as long as we insist on working hard.只要我们坚持努力工作，我们会成功的。

38) No matter + wh-从句，…, 例如：No matter how difficult English may be, you should do your best to learn it.不管英语有多么难，你都应该尽你最大的努力来学它。No matter what he asks you to do, please refuse him. 不管他让你做什么，请拒绝他。注意：此句型一般可以改为疑问词+ever引导的从句，+主句，例如：Whatever he asks you to do, please refuse him.

39)It’s useless/ no good / no use doing sth. (做……是没有用的) , 例如：It’s no use crying over spilt milk. 覆水难收。

40)It’s + a shame / nice/ kind + to do (做.....真惭愧/好)，例如：It’s a shame to lose the match. 输了比赛，真惭愧!It’s nice of you to tell me the truth. 你太好了，告诉我真相。It’s your turn to look after the young trees. 该你照顾这些小树了。

41)It is obvious/clear that + 从句 (…是明显的)，例如：It is obvious that knowledge plays an important role in our life.可想而知，知识在我们的一生中扮演一个重要的角色。

注意：此句型中it是形式主语，其后谓语可以有不同变化。例如：

It’s certain that he will win the election. 他肯定会赢得选举。

It is true that we must make our greater efforts; otherwise we cannot catch up with the developed countries.是真的，我们要作出更大的努力，不然/否则，我们不能赶上发达国家。

It is hard to imagine how Edison managed to work twenty hours each day.很难想象爱迪生每天是怎样工作20小时的。

It’s hard to say whether the plan is practical.这个计划是否实际很难说。

It is a common saying that where there is a will ,there is a way.俗话说，有志者，事竟成。

It must be pointed out that it is one of our basic State policies to control population growth while raising the quality of the population. 一定要指出的是国家基本政策之一是在提高人口质量的同时控制人口增长。

It must be kept in mind that there is no secret of success but hard work. 一定要记住的是成功的秘密是努力的工作。

It can be seen from this that there is no difficulty in the world we cannot overcome.从这里可看出，世上没有克服不了的困难。

It has been proved that his theory is right.已经证明，他的理论是对的。

42)It is/ was ….that… (强调句型), 例如：It was on the desk that you put your book. 你把书放桌子上了。It was the doctor that inquired what had happened. 医生询问了发生的事情。

43)I don’t think / feel/ suppose that… (否定前移)，例如：

I don’t think that we shall finish it on time. 我认为我们不能按时完成(工作)。

44)The reason why + 从句 is that + 从句 (……的原因是……)，例如：

The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air.

The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can supply fresh air for us.我们必须种树的原因是它们能供应我们新鲜的空气。

The reason why the river is polluted is that the factory has poured much waste into it.这条河受污染的原因是那家工厂向里倾到了很多垃圾。

注意：表示原因还可用以下句型。请比较：That is the reason why …. (那就是……的原因)，例如：Summer is very hot. That is the reason why I don’t like it.夏天很热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。

45)It will (not) + 时间段 + before…(……需要很长时间), 例如：It will be a long time before everything returns to normal. 一切恢复正常需要很长时间。

46) I think / feel/ find it + important/ our duty + to do… (我发觉做……重要/是我的责任),例如：I feel it our duty to help the old. 我觉得帮助老人是我们的职责。

47)Those who…. (……的人……)，例如：Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished.违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。

注意：此句型还可以转化为one/a person who…, 例如：

As the saying goes, nothing in the world is difficult for one who sets his mind to it.俗话说，世上无难事，只怕有心人。In a certain sense, a successful scientist is a person who is never satisfied with what he has achieved.在某种情况下，一个成功的科学家就是一个绝不满足于自己已取得的成就的人。

翻开记忆的图册，里面有许多酸、甜、苦、辣、咸的回忆。其中有一个充满阳光、洋溢着快乐的美好回忆，那边是我与张老师时相处的回忆。

张老师是我小学时最喜欢的语文老师。他长着一张俊俏的方形脸，戴着一副博士般的眼镜，整个人看上去充满了阳光，一看就是个“美男子”，真是“人中吕布，空中太阳”。他那帅气的长相尤其是他独特的教学方法让我终身难忘，给我带来重要的影响。

想知道他的独特教学方法是什么吗？其实是给一些人的作文打满分。曾有好几次，我的作文打了满分。我为此十分不解：为什么我的作文写的不是很好，却能打满分呢？带着这个问题，我去问了张老师。张老师语重心长地说道：“其实作文的好坏并不在于它的语言是否有多么优美，而在于它是否抒发你最真实的感受。一个虚假的事件，即使用最好的语言去装饰，也是在做无用功。一个真实的事件，哪怕它的语言不是那么华丽，只要抒发真情实感，就会打动老师。因此我觉得只有抒发真情实感的作文才是好作文。”他的话成为我以后写作的原则。

关上记忆的图册，那份美好的回忆仍然在我的大脑里。感谢能遇见你，与你相伴！您辛苦了，张老师！

总体来说，描写有以下一些作用：①再现自然风光。②描绘人物的外貌及内心世界。③交代人物活动的自然及社会环境。

1、五种人物的描写方法：肖像（外貌）描写、语言描写、动作描写、心理描写、神态描写。

作用：更好展现人物的内心世界、性格特征。刻画人物性格，反映人物心理活动，促进故事情节的发展。等等。具体回答的时候要说明白是什么性格、什么心理等。

2、二种环境描写：自然环境描写——具体描写自然风光，营造一种气氛，烘托人物的情感和思想。烘托人物心情，渲染气氛等。

3、社会环境描写——交代人物活动的（时代）背景，写明事件发生的时间和地点，渲染气氛，更好地表现人物。

4、正面描写、侧面描写：正面直接表现人物、事物；侧面烘托突出人物、事物。

5、细节描写：刻画人物性格，反映人物心理活动，促进故事情节的发展。也可描摹人物的语态，收到一种特殊的效果。

国家机关、公务员录用考试中，考生根据指定的材料进行分析，提出见解，并加以论证。小编收集了申诉的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

申论的写法共有三个主要部分。

一是概括所给材料的主要内容，二是给出解决方案，三是拟题论述。

下面就这三个部分的写作方法介绍如下：

一、申论中心思想的概括方法

申论依类型有三类形式，所以概括方法也有三种。

1、设问式。这一类申论所给材料一般为一到二个自然段，叙述集中。在提练这类申论的中心思想时常用的方法是，问自已两个问题，即：申论所给材料说的是什么?为什么是?答案就是申论的中心思想。这里要注意的是所得出的结论一定要同当前的形式或理论给合起来，得出的结论才准确。

2、归纳式。这一类申论所给出材料一般有若干段，每段都有一种内容。在提练这类申论的中心思想时常用的方法是，在每一段旁标出本段的几个关键词，最后比较，在各段中出现频率最多的就是它的中心思想。这里要注意的也是要把结论同当前的形式和理论结合起来。

3、混合式。即上两种的综合，这种情况一般不用，方法用上两种综合运用即可。

二、方案的写法

方案既是给出解决方法，又是下一步论述的框架和基础。因此，在拟定方案时要用整体观和综合观思考问题，要注意方法的逻辑性和条理性，措施罗列要清楚。

三、论文的写法

申论论文的写法概括起来有三个部分共九个环节，下面分述。

第一部分：

三个环节为：点出主题、概括主要内容，得出论点，一般用一小自然段，五、六十字即可。

第二部分：

这个部分是文章的主要部分，主要写法是论述，它的三个环节为：理论论述、事例论述和对比论述。

理论论述：即从理论上对给出的事例进行分析，要注意的是，理论要的系统性和针对性，要有新意，观点层次要三个以上。

事例论述：即选用事例论述说明，要注意的是申论给出的事例一定要用上，此外还要引用相关事例一到两个。

对比论述：即对论点进行正反两方面的论述，要说明是这样会如何，不这样会如何。

在第二部分可以用一到两个自然段，在对比论述结束后可以用一个小自然段进行一下简单扼要的归纳总结。

第三部分：

这部分是文章的结尾。它的三个环节为：得出结论，强化结论，发出倡议或号召。

四、要注意的几个问题

一是要考虑针对性。

二是要抓住当前的热点和焦点。

三是观点要有创新。

在语文教学中，对教师而言，最难教的是作文；对学生来讲，最难写的也是作文。因此，如何激发学生的写作兴趣，提高学生的写作水平，成为作文教学的根本任务。

一、留心生活，学会观察

所谓观察，就是用眼睛去看。要远“观”近“察”，事事留心，时时注意，并养成一种习惯。被誉为世界短篇小说之王的法国作家莫泊桑曾拜当时著名作家福楼拜为师。一天，他把自己坐在屋里编的准备写成小说的故事讲给福楼拜听。福楼拜听后，说：“我劝你不要忙于写这些虚拟的东西，你每天骑马到外面转一圈，把路上看到的一切准确地、细致地记录下来。”于是莫泊桑意识到福楼拜是教他首先学会用眼睛去观察生活，认识生活，练好观察这一基本功。从此他花了一年左右的时间，每天外出观察，终于写成了小说《点心》，并成为世界著名的小说家。后来莫泊桑在总结自己的创作经验时，说：“对你所要表现的东西，要长时间很注意地观察它，以便发现别人没有发现过和没有写过的特点。任何事物里，都有未被发现的东西……”鲁迅也曾说过：“留心各样的事情，多看看，不看到一点就写。”这是鲁迅长期创作的经验总结。由此可见，要想写好文章必须重视观察事物，提高观察能力。

不少学生作文脱离实际，生编硬套，字词不够废话凑，像挤牙膏似的想一句写一句。如何改变这种现象呢？我们先来看峻青的《海滨仲夏夜》一段中的描写：“夕阳落山不久，西方的天空，还燃烧着一片橘红色的晚霞。大海也被这霞光染成了红色……”这段文字确确实实是描写海上的晚霞，绝非别处，只有在海上。

作者抓住了海滨夏夜的特色，用“橘红色”来形容晚霞，用“染成了红色”写海水的色彩，用“燃烧”一词生动地描绘了晚霞的情态。为什么峻青能把海滨夏夜的景写得如此逼真形象呢？是因为作者以生活为写作素材，通过细致入微的观察、感受和思考，才把这一景色写活了。所以，在作文教学中，我们应鼓励学生全景式的扫描生活，用自己的眼，以自己的心去理解、感受生活，挖掘生活中最熟悉的，最能打动心灵的宝藏，写真人真事，抒真情实感。“必须寻到源头，方有清甘的水喝。”这“源头”就是我们的五彩缤纷的生活，让生活成为学生自己真正的创作源泉吧。

二、练写随笔，积累素材

茅盾说：“应当时时刻刻身边有一支铅笔和一本草簿，把你所见所闻所为所感随时记下来……”。写随笔，就是给学生以充分的自由：选材自由，命题自由，文体自由，字数自由。只管写自己最熟悉、最感兴趣、印象最深的人或事。可议论，可抒情，可记叙、随心所欲。洋洋洒洒几千字，不嫌多；点点滴滴几十字，不嫌少：有话则长，无话可短，尽兴而写，随意而止。这样不自觉地培养了学生的观察事物的兴趣和能力。他们写的内容起初比较简单，渐渐地，观察视野不断扩大，就从身边的小事写开去，写社会、写人生。内容越来越丰富：班级的生活与风波，家庭的欢乐与忧愁，社会见闻等等，真是大到宇宙，小到自我，尽入笔底。有个学生对校园常作细致观察，从景到人，从人到事，连续写了校园生活之

三、课外阅读，学会迁移

现在有不少学生在“题海战术”中苦斗以提高分数，“重理轻文”的现象较为严重，以致于有些学生“两耳不闻窗外事，一心只读理科书”，平时很少课外阅读，缺乏写作材料，对作文望而生畏。要使学生作文有话可说，有物可写，必须注意积累写作材料，提倡多阅读文章。杜甫说：“读书破万卷，下笔如有神。”“破万卷”是说书读得要多，书读得多，知识才厚实，才能博古通今，写起文章来才能左右逢源，才“如有神”助。但仅仅靠多读是不够的，“唐宋八大家”之一的韩愈说：“学以为耕，文以为获。”这是说阅读是写作的先导，没有读的“耕耘”，就没有写的“收获”。因此强调学生对所读之书还要进行熟读精思，融会贯通，积累材料，让它成为自己写作的“源头活水”，学会迁移，并运用到作文中去。作文时，吾意所欲言，无不随意所欲，内容应笔而生，如泉之涌，滔滔不竭。

1、对教师的状况

(1)在作文教学中，教师过于强调作文技巧、方法的传授，不重视对学生想象力的培养，学生作文枯燥、乏味，缺乏应有的童趣，小学生作文技法指导。

(2)教师自身的创造性不够强。只照本宣科，不注重自身想象力的发挥。

(3)教师作文教学单一的模式框死了学生，严重阻碍了学生想象力的发展。

2、对学生的状况

(1)学生不会仔细观察、善于想象、过分依赖教师。

(2)学生没有生活积淀，缺乏生动的想象力。

在上述情况中，我们不难感觉到现今作文教学的弊端：教师一味地强调了写作的结果，而忽略了写作的过程。只有善于培养学生写作综合能力,包括观察力、思维分析能力、想象力等，才能真正提高作文水平。

我们没有去过桂林，那么我们读完《桂林山水》的课文后，脑海里会出现一幅幅桂林山水的图画。漓江的水是那样的静，那样的清，那样的绿;桂林的山是那样的奇，那样的秀，那样的险，仿佛身临其境，这就是想象的作用。大科学家爱因斯坦曾说过：“想象力比知识更重要，因为知识是有限的，而想象力概括着世界的一切，推进着进步，并且是知识进步的源泉。”由此可见，培养和发展学生的想象力是何等的重要。

小学生作文，虽不是什么艺术创作，但同样需要比较丰富的想象。例如：要形象地描绘客观事物，就需要生动的比喻、拟人和夸张的手法;要完整地刻画某个人的形象，就需要对他的内心活动作某些合理的推测;要比较深刻地揭示某一事物的象征意义，就更需要展开丰富的想象。

基于对想象作文教学的浓厚兴趣，故以“小学想象作文教学”的研究为切入口，有意识地在小学阶段培养好学生的想象力，让学生“敢想象、会想象、善想象”。在全新的作文教学中体现“求新、求趣、求美”。

二、研究目标

1、本课题旨在构建想象作文教学的行之有效的方法、过程。主要是依据心理学中有关想象力的培养发展策略，以“想象手法教学”和“想象篇章练习”为着重点，分层教学，激发学生写作的兴趣，以充实文章的内容，突出文章的中心，增强文章的感染力。

2、通过想象作文的教学，有意识地培养学生的想象力，丰富学生的想象力，发展学生的想象力，并由此丰富学生写作的题材。

三、研究过程

(一) 在丰富学生的表象中发挥学生的想象力

小学生作文是一种创造性的认识活动和书面表达练习活动。在我们指导孩子写想象作文时，我们通常强调内容的独创性，鼓励学生凭借生活经验的积淀，大胆展开想象，尤其是创造性想象，来表达自己的体验和意愿，写出充分显露个人创造力的习作。可这一切并不是孩子们与生俱来的，在发挥他们的想象力，指导他们写出好的想象作文之前，必须丰富他们的表象，增加表象的贮备。为接下来的一系列写作打下基础。

1、在实践活动中发挥想象力。

(1) 创造性观看电影、电视节目。

在每周一次的观看电影、电视节目中，充分利用学校红领巾影库，播放一些生动、活泼，孩子们感兴趣的、喜闻乐见的节目，比如《猫和老鼠》、《白雪公主和七个小矮人》、《米老鼠和唐老鸭》等，在看完一遍后，选取学生最感兴趣的一个片段，消去声音后，让学生观看，据画面中一些小动物的动作、神情，想象它们的语言，并能把它比较逼真的模仿或者在创造，作文指导《小学生作文技法指导》。最后，再和原画面的声音和故事情节进行比较。

(2) 从参观、访问中寻找灵感。

每月一次的参观或访问是孩子们特别喜欢的。如何恰好地利用机会，发挥学生的想象力，最为重要。在历次的参观中，做到参观前有要求、有目的、有计划。春秋游的活动中，教师要求学生自己分组活动，明确本次活动的主要项目，要求学生写好参观笔记，把印象最深刻的详细记录下来，在班中进行交流，以备在今后的想象作文练习中积累生活实际。在访问军营基地时，鼓励学生积极参与，除了观看军队训练，更应深入军营，多看看、多摸摸、多走走，回校后能模仿解放军叔叔的队列练习，回家去试着折折被子、摆摆生活用品，在体验中激发学生写作的灵感。

(3) 在劳动、活动中进行创造。

每周一次的劳动，我们的安排颇为独具匠心，它不同于一般意义上的劳动，它要能使学生在劳动中进行创造。比如：为娃娃添眼睛——钉纽扣。在为卡纸娃娃美化的同时，学会了钉纽扣，并且使学生在劳动中，体会到了纽扣的妙用，感受到了原来可爱娃娃的眼睛像黑黑的纽扣，产生了比喻的想象。再有就是拆装玩具。学生生活中喜欢的玩具人人都有几件，他们的想象也是随着这些玩具的刺激而引发的，因此，我们让学生几人一组，分配给他们一些可搭筑的条条块块，如何有创意性地搭建，成了这次活动的评分标准。

(4) 利用十分钟队会，发挥想象，激发真情。

在队会中，能结合课题，有机地发挥学生的想象力。一次以《爱》的主题队会中，设计了这样一个场景：

情境一：你在国外工作的爸爸已有三年没回家了，如今中秋节临近，许多在外的游子都已回来。看到这些，你想到了什么,说一说。

情境二：正当你准备把写好这些话作为一封信投寄给你父亲时，他却突然出现在你的家门口。这时，父子(女)相见会是一个什么样的场景呢?请说说。

情境三：正当你们相见时，爸爸从包中掏出了你梦寐以求的笔记本电脑，这时你又是怎么想的?说说。

这种连续性的情境，用一条线索贯穿始终，步步深入地进行想象训练,在无意识中让学生体验情感，刺激想象，为今后“为情而造文”铺设道路。

2、阅读文学作品，积累素材。

文艺作品的特点是用生动的语言、典型的人物形象，具体的故事情节来反映社会生活的。它的突出特点是形象性。通过阅读文学作品，学生可以获得丰富的具体形象，同时还可以获得大量词汇，这些形象的词汇在想象中有着不可忽视的作用。鼓励学生借阅书籍，有计划地、持之以恒地学习，做好记录，切实指导学生读好书，多读书，巧读书。

简历书写的“自我评价”部分遵循以下3条原则：

实事求是简历的真实性是人事经历一致的要求。在求职者书写“自我评价”时，千万不要有虚假成分，例如夸大自己的能力、优点或工作经验等。经验丰富的HR很容易通过求职者的措辞判断求职者是否中肯而踏实。一旦语句让人感觉到浮夸，HR往往会不露声色地把求职者的简历淘汰出局。

找到真正的闪光点很多人的自我描述没有重点，或者过于大众化，难以让自己出挑。人事经理往往希望看到你是否有闪光之处，并且这些闪光之处到底和这份工作有无联系。因此，建议在写自我描述之前，仔细罗列自己的工作经历，回忆自己在以前的工作中到底积累了什么样的优势，挑选出自己与其他人的不同之处，以突出自我的优势。

以此次刊登的简历为例，该求职者应聘公关关系的职位，从人事经理的角度来看，他希望看到你是否有极强的沟通能力、项目协调能力，以及是否有创意等。但是，这位应聘者只侧重于一个方面，这就比较可惜。

同时，如果求职者积累了一定的行业资源，也可以在自我描述中提到这一点，起到画龙点睛的作用。

语言需要简练职业自我描述的语言风格也是一个值得求职者考虑的问题。

有些人喜欢用极感性的话来吸引人事经理的注意，这种做法很可能出奇制胜，但多数情况下是一种冒险。

通常来说，语言尽量不要过于口语化，在描述自己的学习能力、团队合作精神等方面用语应严谨、平实，让人事经理在阅读简历时候能够充分感觉你对这份工作的诚恳态度。