英语写作教学方法推荐四篇 作文怎么写(推荐20篇)

在写作活动中，作者对于客观事物的反映总是能动的、积极的。一篇文章的思想内容和艺术特色，不仅是作者某种写作意图和写作能力的直接体现，也是他整个人的思想、感情、阅历、个性特征、文化水平和个人风格的折光。所以人们常用“文如其人”来说明作者和文章写作的关系。加强作者自身的修养，全面地锻炼自己正是学好写作的根本条件。

首先，要锻炼思想，陶冶感情。鲁迅先生早在20年代就指出：“我以为根本问题是在作者可是一个’革命人’，倘是的，则无论写的是什么事件，用的是什么材料，即都是’革命文学’。从喷泉里出来的都是水，从血管里流出的都是血。”这就是说，作者的理想、情操和审美眼光，对文章的特色和价值是起决定作用的。对我们初学者来说，首先应该认真学习马克思列宁主义、思想和理论，树立科学的世界观和崇高的人生理想，积极自觉地参加各种有益于国家、集体或他人的实践活动，在广阔的社会生活中锻炼思想，陶冶感情，更好地增强自己的写作激情以及发现新事物、看出新问题的能力。

其次要积累生活，拓展知识。文章是客观事物的反映，生活是文章写作的源泉。文章的内容及其表达，和作者的生活知识储备有着密切的关系。生活阅历浅，知识贫乏，很难写出好文章。丰富的生活经验和广博的知识，不仅给作者提供了大量的写作信息，而且可以激发作者的写作欲望，充分调动作者的创造力和想象力，使文章写得更充实，更准确，更生动，更优美。我们要积极地投身生活，在生活的感知中积累经验，拓展知识，不断更新自己的知识结构，充实自己的头脑，为灵感的触发和文思的活跃提供更多的水源或燃料。

再次，要训练思维，提高智能。文章是客观事物的反映，但要根据客观事物制作成文章，还需要有多方面的智能。比如在认识和摄取客观事物时，作者需要有观察能力，发现能力，采集能力;在构思过程中，需要有综合、分析能力，筛选加工能力，想象能力和创造能力;在表达时，需要有结构能力，语言运用能力和修改能力。写作还需要有一定的技巧，技巧也是能力的体现。整个写作，要靠诸种智能和技巧的综合运用。在运用各种智能和技能的过程中，思维贯串于始终。写作正是以思维为核心组织各种能力和技巧的一种综合性智力活动。没有积极而富有创造性的思维，诸种智能和技巧难以发挥，写作对象也主很难如意地转化成理想的文章形式。为此，培养和发展思维品质，提高思维能力，正是发展智能、开拓思路、写好文章的重要一环，也是作者全面修养的一个重要组成方面。

多读、多写、多改，“在游泳中学会游泳”。

1、 博览，精读

写作和阅读不可分割。读写结合，从范文中借鉴，极有助于提高写作能力。古人说：“读书破万卷，下笔如有神”，“熟读唐诗三百首，不会吟诗也会吟”，“劳于读书，逸于作文”，这些经验之谈，是有道理的。

阅读对于写作的作用是多方面的。首先，博览群书，可以开阔思维，活跃文思。陆机说：“伫中区以玄览，颐情志于典坟。”他认为观察事物可激发文思，研读古籍也可以丰富文思。有些人写文章如行云流水，笔到之处，文意丰富，言辞自然，这和他读书多有极大关系。其次，阅读还可以吸取和丰富写作材料。从根本上说，写作中的材料都是取自社会生活，但一个人的阅历有限，不可能对宇宙间过去和现在的所有事物都去直接观察和感受。广泛阅读，则可以帮助我们了解自己不可能亲自去接触、认知的生活和知识，从而丰富自己的写作材料。第三，阅读又是掌握写作规律、学习写作方法的有效途径。别人的好文章读得多了，耳濡目染，便会懂得文章作法。鲁迅先生也特别提倡这一点。他说：“凡是已有定评的大作家，他的作品，全部就说明着‘应该怎样写’。”他称这为“实物教授法”。熟读名篇佳作，往往会从写法上加以效仿。读多了，效仿的次数多了，慢慢主会变成自己的方法，并能有所改进和创造。第四，阅读又可以丰富我们的词汇，提高运用语言的能力。一切古今中外名著，都是语言巨匠用提炼加工而成成的规范化的语言写成的，阅读名作，可以帮助我们更好地丰富语汇，了解更多的句式和修辞手法掌握运用评议的基本规律，提高运用评议的技巧。

2、 多写多练

写作方法和技巧的掌握，最主要的途径还是要靠自己的实践。凡是有成就的作者在谈写作经验时，没有一个不强调“做”字。清人唐彪对此有一段精辟的论述，他说：“学人只喜多读文章，不喜多做文章;不知多读乃藉人之功夫，多做乃切实求已功夫，其曾益相去远也。人之不乐多做者，大抵因艰难费力之故;不知艰难费力者，由于手笔不熟也。若荒蔬之后作文艰难，每日即一篇半篇无不可;渐演至熟，自然易矣。”他在另一段话里又说：“谚云，’读十篇不如作一篇’。盖常做则机关熟，题虽甚难，为之亦易;不常做，则理路生，题虽易，为之则难。沈虹野云：’文章硬涩由于不熟，不熟由于不做。’”这些话讲得都是极为中肯的。

练习写作，要端正态度，防止和克服一些不正确的思想。首先要有信心。初学写作，可能写不好，如同小孩子学走路，开始时总是要摔跤的，但走着走着，也就学会了。写作也是一样，开始写不好是正常的，关键是不要因此失掉信心。只要持之以恒，慢慢就会上路。一些写作上很有成就的文章家、作家，他们的文化程度原来并不高，开始时也写不好。但他们不怕失败，不怕别人讥笑，能从实践中总结经验教训，不断摸索，终而取得成功。

练习写作，要防止自卑或自负心理。有些人开始时劲头很大，但写一段之后就停下来，不是由于失败而自卑，就是由于自满而止步。这些都是提高写作能力的大障碍。鲁迅先生就：“一个作者，’自卑’固然不好，’自负’也不好;容易停滞。我想，顶好是不要自馁，总是干，但也不可自满，仍旧总是用功。”写作是一种相当复杂的精神劳动，想要一蹴而就，一下子就写出好文章是不可能的。“自卑”和“自负”都容易停滞、倒退，只有总是“用功”，不停的“干”，才能有所长进。

初学写作往往还有一种急躁情绪，一下子就想写长篇大作，而不注重基本功的训练。殊不知做任何事情都要注意打基础和练基本功。基础不牢，功底不厚，事情就很难办好，只有脚踏实地，由小到大，由简至繁，由粗到精，才能逐步掌握写作要领，真正有所成就。

3、 多听意见

文章是客观事物的反映。客观事物是复杂的，人们对客观事物的认识也要有个过程。只有深入思考，反复加工，才能正确、恰当地反映客观实际，表达好自己的思想感情。

修改是写作中的一个重要环节，是保证文章质量、提高写作水平的重要途径。有些人信奉所谓“一挥而就，文不加点”，写完后自己不看，不改，也不请教别人，这样就很难发现问题，更谈不到精益求精。有人是为了怕麻烦，写完了事，至于写得如何，他就不管了，这是一种不负责任的表现。它们都是提高写作水平的拦路虎、绊脚石。

修改文章，还要虚心求教，多听别人的意见。因为一个人的认识和能力总是有限的，只有躬身求教，博采众长，文章方能长进。古今中外许多大作家，不但善于向作家学习，还能向师友以及一般读者求教。相传唐代大诗人白居易“每作诗，令老妪解之，问曰：’解否?’妪曰：’解’，则录之，’不解’，则又复易之。”法国大作家莫里哀常把自己的作品读给女仆吃后悔药，每读完一部新作，女仆都称赞说写得好，莫里哀以为她文化低，是有意讨好主人。有一次，莫里哀故意把写失败了的剧本念给她听，结果女仆瞪大眼睛说：“这不是先生写的。”莫里哀听后非常震惊。可见文化低的人同样也能够鉴别文章的好坏。这里的关键是虚心，要有群众观点，放得下架子，才能得到有益的帮助。

重视写作基础理论知识的学习，提高以理论指导写作的自觉性，减少盲目性。

前面说过，写作是文章作者创造性的精神活动，也是社会性的文化现象。一篇文章的得失好坏，不仅决定于作者自身的个性、禀赋或努力程度，也和他对这一精神活动的客观规律以及与此相应的规范性要求的理解、把握程度有关。所谓写作理论，主要就是对于这些规律规范的概括和阐释。

有的同志轻视写作理念知识对于写作实践的指导作用，认为不学理念也可以写出文章，其根据是有的作家没有学习写作理念知识，也写出了很好的作品。这个看法是片面的。事实上，所有会写文章的人，都是自觉或不自觉地通过不同途径，在写作的规律性知识方面积累了较高理论素养或丰富的经验性体会的。有些人由于种种原因未能系统地学习写作理论知识，但他在练习写作的过程中，一定也阅读过许多范文，在这些范文中，就蕴含某些写作原理和规律，所以他也等于是在学习借鉴前人的写作实践中掌握了他们。同志在《实践论》中说过：“感觉到了的东西，我们不能立刻理解它，只有理解了的东西才更深广地感觉它。”系统的理论学习和具体的经验积累之较高的理论修养，自己在实践中就能自学地扬长避短，阅读别人作品也能更好地分辨精华、糟粕，对于写作能力的提高自然会有更大的帮助。

学习知识和理论，目的是指导实践，要在能力的转化上多下功夫。即使是对知识、理论掌握程度的考核，也就在把重点话如何运用知识、理念来分析问题、说明问题上面，而不以单纯地复述、背诵要领或条条为满足。再说，知识和理论的作用，主要在于说明写作活动自身的矛盾运动及其变化规律，帮助习作者端正学习态度，改进学习方法，而不可能提供什么一试就灵的仙丹妙药或是照搬不误的万能模式。

正因为如此，我们在重视学习科学的理论知识与前人成功经验的同时，还须与发挥自己独立的创造精神有机地结合起来。古人云：“文有大法无定法。观前人之法而自为之，而自立其法……不死，文自新而法无穷矣。”又说：“所谓法者，行所不得不行，止所不得不止……自神明变化于其中。若泥定此处应如何，彼处应如何，不以意运法，转以意从法，刚死法也。”今天我们同样需要有这样的学习态度和写作态度。

导语：高考英语作文是高考英语中比较重要的一部分，下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理了优秀英语作文，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

1) 主语+ cannot emphasize the importance of … too much.(再怎么强调……的重要性也不为过。)例如：We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

2)There is no need for sb to do sth. for sth.(某人没有必要做……)，例如：There is no need for you to bring more food. 不需你拿来更多的食物了。

3)By +doing…，主语can …. (借着……，……能够……)，例如：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy. 借着做运动，我们能够始终保持健康。

4) … enable + sb.+ to + do…. (……使……能够……)，例如：Listening to music enables us to feel relaxed. 听音乐使我们能够感觉轻松。

5) On no account can we + do…. (我们绝对不能……)，例如：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge.我们绝对不能忽略知识的价值。

6) What will happen to sb.? (某人将会怎样?), 例如：What will happen to the orphan? 那个孤儿将会怎样?

7)For the past + 时间，主语 + 现在完成式…. (过去……年来，……一直……)例如：

For the past two years，I have been busy preparing for the examination. 过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。

8)It pays to + do….(……是值得的。)例如：It pays to help others. 帮助别人是值得的。

9)主语+ be based on….(以……为基础)，例如：The progress of thee society is based on harmony.社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。

10)主语 + do one’s best to do….(尽全力去……)，例如：We should do our best to achieve our goal in life.我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标

注意：“尽全力”在英语中有不同表达，例如：We should spare no effort/make every effort to beautify our environment.我们应该不遗余力的美化我们的环境。

11)主语+ be closely related to …. (与……息息相关)， 例如：Taking exercise is closely related to health.做运动与健康息息相关。

12) 主语+ get into the habit of + V-ing = make it a rule to + V (养成……的习惯)，例如：We should get into the habit of keeping good hours.我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。

Owing to/Thanks to sth… (因为……)，例如：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream.因为他的鼓励，我终于实现我的梦想。

13)What a + 形容词 + 名词 + 主语 + be!= How +形容词+ a +名词+ be!(多么……!)，例如： What an important thing it is to keep our promise!= How important a thing it is to keep our promise!遵守诺言是多么重要的事!

14)主语 + do good/ harm to sth.. (对……有益/有害)，例如：Reading does good to our mind.读书对心灵有益。Overwork does harm to health.工作过度对健康有害。

15)主语 + have a great influence on sth. (对……有很大的影响)，例如：Smoking has a great influence on our health.抽烟对我们的健康有很大的影响。

16) nothing can prevent us from doing…. (没有事情能够阻挡我们做……), 例如：All this shows that nothing can prevent us from reaching our aims.这显示了没有事情能够阻挡我们实现目标。

17) Upon / On doing…, …. (一……就…….) ，例如：Upon / On hearing of the unexpected news, he was so surprised that he couldn’t say a word. 一听到这个出乎意料的消息，他惊讶到说不出话来。

注意：此句型一般可以改为如下复合句句型，例如：As soon as he heard of the unexpected news, he was so surprised that he ….

Hardly had he arrived when she started complaining. 他刚来，她就开始抱怨。

No sooner had he arrived than it began to rain. 他刚来，就下雨了。

18) would rather do…than do…(宁愿……而不……), 例如：I would rather walk home than take a crowded bus. 我宁愿步行回家也不愿做拥挤的公交车。

注意：此句型可以改为prefer to do…rather than do…句型，例如：

I prefer to stay at home rather than see the awful film with him. 我宁愿呆在家也不愿意和他去看那部恐怖电影。

19) only + 状语， 主句部分倒装 例如：Only then could the work of reconstruction begin. 直到那时，重建工作才开始。

20) be worth doing (值得做)，例如：The book is worth reading. 这本书值得读。

21)Owing to/Thanks to sth, …. (因为……)，例如：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream.因为他的鼓励，我终于实现我的梦想。

以下为复合句高级句型：

22)主语+ is + the +形容词最高级+名词+(that)+主语+ have ever + seen(known / heard / had / read,etc)例如：Liu Yifei is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen in my life. 刘亦菲是我所看过最美丽的女孩。Mr. Liu is the kindest teacher that I have ever had. 刘老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。

注意，比较级也可以用来表达最高级的意思， 例如：I have never seen a more beautiful girl than Liu Yifei in my life. 在我生活中我从来没见过比刘亦菲更美的女孩。Nothing is more important than to receive education. 没有比接受教育更重要的事。

23)There is no denying that + S + V….(不可否认的……)，例如：There is no denying that the qualities of our living have gone from bad to worse.不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。There is no denying the fact that the new management method has greatly increased the production. 不可否认的事实是，新的管理方法已经极大提高了产量。

24)It is universally acknowledged that +从句(全世界都知道……)，例如：It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable to us.全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。

注意，全世界都知道还可以改为以下句型：As is known to us/As we all know, …. (众所周知，……)。例如：As is known to us/As we all know, knowledge is power.众所周知，知识就是力量。

25)There is no doubt that +从句(毫无疑问的……)，例如：There is no doubt that he came late. 毫无疑问，他来晚了。There is no doubt that our educational system leaves something to be desired.毫无疑问的我们的教育制度令人不满意。 There is no doubt that you will be helped by others if you have any difficulties.毫无疑问，你有困难时，会得到别人的帮助。

26)(It is) No wonder that.... (难怪……)，例如：No wonder that he fell asleep in class. 难怪他在课堂上睡着了。

27)So + 形容词 + be + 主词 + that + 从句 (如此……以致于……)，例如：So precious is time that we can’t afford to waste it.时间是如此珍贵，我们经不起浪费它。

28)形容词+ as +主语+ be，主语+ 谓语(虽然……)，例如：Rich as our country is, the qualities of our living are by no means satisfactory.虽然我们的国家富有，我们的生活品质绝对令人不满意。

29)The + 比较级 +主语+谓语， the +比较级+主语+谓语(愈……愈……)，例如：The harder you work, the more progress you make. 你愈努力，你愈进步。The more books we read, the more learned we become.我们书读愈多，我们愈有学问。The more, the better. 越多越好。

30)It is time + 主语 + 过去式 (该是……的时候了)例如：It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems.该是有关当局采取适当的措施来解决交通问题的时候了。

注意：此句型可以转化为简单句句型：It is time for sth./for sb to do….例如：

It is time for lunch. 该吃午饭了。

It is time they were taught a lesson. 他们该接受教训了

31)To be frank/ To tell the truth, …. (老实说, ……) , 例如: To be frank/ To tell the truth, whether you like it or not, you have no other choice.老实说，不论你喜不喜欢，你别无选择。

32)it took him a year to do….( 他用了1年的时间来做……), 例如：As far as we know, it took him more than a year to write the book.到目前为止我们所知道的是，他用了1年的时间来写这本书。It took them a long time to realize they had made a mistake. 过了很久，他们才意识到犯错了。

33)spent as much time as he could doing sth.(花尽可能的时间做某事)，例如：He spent as much time as he could remembering new words. 他花了尽可能多时间记新单词。

34)Since + 主语 + 过去式，主语 + 现在完成式，例如：Since he went to senior high school， he has worked very hard.自从他上高中，他一直很用功。

35)An advantage of… is that + 句子 (……的优点是……)，例如：An advantage of using the solar energy is that it won’t create (produce) any pollution. 使用太阳能的优点是它不会制造任何污染。

36) It was not until recently that….( 直到最近, ……) ，例如：It was not until recently that the problem was solved. 直到最近这个问题才被解决。

37) We will be successful as long as we…. (只要我们……，我们就会成功的) ，例如：We will be successful as long as we insist on working hard.只要我们坚持努力工作，我们会成功的。

38) No matter + wh-从句，…, 例如：No matter how difficult English may be, you should do your best to learn it.不管英语有多么难，你都应该尽你最大的努力来学它。No matter what he asks you to do, please refuse him. 不管他让你做什么，请拒绝他。注意：此句型一般可以改为疑问词+ever引导的从句，+主句，例如：Whatever he asks you to do, please refuse him.

39)It’s useless/ no good / no use doing sth. (做……是没有用的) , 例如：It’s no use crying over spilt milk. 覆水难收。

40)It’s + a shame / nice/ kind + to do (做.....真惭愧/好)，例如：It’s a shame to lose the match. 输了比赛，真惭愧!It’s nice of you to tell me the truth. 你太好了，告诉我真相。It’s your turn to look after the young trees. 该你照顾这些小树了。

41)It is obvious/clear that + 从句 (…是明显的)，例如：It is obvious that knowledge plays an important role in our life.可想而知，知识在我们的一生中扮演一个重要的角色。

注意：此句型中it是形式主语，其后谓语可以有不同变化。例如：

It’s certain that he will win the election. 他肯定会赢得选举。

It is true that we must make our greater efforts; otherwise we cannot catch up with the developed countries.是真的，我们要作出更大的努力，不然/否则，我们不能赶上发达国家。

It is hard to imagine how Edison managed to work twenty hours each day.很难想象爱迪生每天是怎样工作20小时的。

It’s hard to say whether the plan is practical.这个计划是否实际很难说。

It is a common saying that where there is a will ,there is a way.俗话说，有志者，事竟成。

It must be pointed out that it is one of our basic State policies to control population growth while raising the quality of the population. 一定要指出的是国家基本政策之一是在提高人口质量的同时控制人口增长。

It must be kept in mind that there is no secret of success but hard work. 一定要记住的是成功的秘密是努力的工作。

It can be seen from this that there is no difficulty in the world we cannot overcome.从这里可看出，世上没有克服不了的困难。

It has been proved that his theory is right.已经证明，他的理论是对的。

42)It is/ was ….that… (强调句型), 例如：It was on the desk that you put your book. 你把书放桌子上了。It was the doctor that inquired what had happened. 医生询问了发生的事情。

43)I don’t think / feel/ suppose that… (否定前移)，例如：

I don’t think that we shall finish it on time. 我认为我们不能按时完成(工作)。

44)The reason why + 从句 is that + 从句 (……的原因是……)，例如：

The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air.

The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can supply fresh air for us.我们必须种树的原因是它们能供应我们新鲜的空气。

The reason why the river is polluted is that the factory has poured much waste into it.这条河受污染的原因是那家工厂向里倾到了很多垃圾。

注意：表示原因还可用以下句型。请比较：That is the reason why …. (那就是……的原因)，例如：Summer is very hot. That is the reason why I don’t like it.夏天很热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。

45)It will (not) + 时间段 + before…(……需要很长时间), 例如：It will be a long time before everything returns to normal. 一切恢复正常需要很长时间。

46) I think / feel/ find it + important/ our duty + to do… (我发觉做……重要/是我的责任),例如：I feel it our duty to help the old. 我觉得帮助老人是我们的职责。

47)Those who…. (……的人……)，例如：Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished.违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。

注意：此句型还可以转化为one/a person who…, 例如：

As the saying goes, nothing in the world is difficult for one who sets his mind to it.俗话说，世上无难事，只怕有心人。In a certain sense, a successful scientist is a person who is never satisfied with what he has achieved.在某种情况下，一个成功的科学家就是一个绝不满足于自己已取得的成就的人。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

一、结合课堂教学实际，引导学生观察生活，做生活的有心人。

车尔尼雪夫斯基说过：“美是生活”。他的意思是，生活是美好的，生活中处处有美的闪光点，要善于观察、发现、捕捉，才能充实头脑，美化心灵，从而写出好的文章来．如夏衍经过两个多月的时间，每天半夜三点多钟起身，走十几里路，去观察包身工上班的情景，终于搜集到关于包身工日常生活的第一手材料，写出脍炙人口的《包身工》。又如刘白羽的《长江三峡》，朱自清的《荷塘月色》，《绿》，叶圣陶的《景泰蓝的制作》等等都是观察生活后写出的名篇。

因此，在课堂教学中，我结合课文内容，引导学生注意观察生活，做生活的有心人，从高一开始写日记，写周记，内容包括校园、家庭、社会，要求学生注意观察各种景物，观察各种人和事并细心体会个人的感受．结果不少同学写出了好文章。如97级黎青云的《春夏秋冬话九中》因观察生活，写出个人的真情实感，所以以高一级学生的身份参加学校校庆征文比赛，仍获校庆征文一等奖，并发表在《南海报》上。

二·、提倡学生关心时事，多听新闻．多阅报刊，以便有感而发。

学生要写好议论文，没有素材是不行的，故而我要求学生多听新闻．在家里，早、午、晚饭时间都要求学生注意收听新闻，关心时事。同时，我还提倡学生多阅报刊，增长见识，开阔视野．班里订的《羊城晚报》、《中国青年报》，学生个人订的《参考消息》、《文摘报》、《文萃》、《作文报》、《语文世界》等，同学们都争相阅读，作读书笔记，积累不少的典型素材，在此基础上，我又要求学生把报纸上他们感兴趣的、有感受的文章剪下来，写读后感，写评论文章等。结果学生的剪报作文比教师的命题作文还要写得好，因为他们是有兴趣而写，有感而发。

三、精选作文体裁和题目，作文训练力求系列化、系统化。

四、加强审题训练，多审题精写作。

五、借鉴名家名篇，提倡学以致用。

画家齐白石说过：“学我者生，似我者死。”搞艺术离不开一个借鉴模仿的过程，但不能生吞活剥、生搬硬套，作文也是如此。学习了课文中的名家名篇，让学生也去尝试一下，用刚学到的方法去仿写文章，也是我进行写作训练的一种方法。如学习了李健吾的《雨中登泰山》后，要求同学们用“移步换景法”去写《登奇山》、《游西樵山》等；学了李乐薇的《我的空中楼阁》，让学生用“定景换点法”写《校园之春》，提倡学生学以致用。当然这种仿写不是呆板的照搬照套，而是让学生借鉴，学习名家的写作方法。

六、尝试写作辩论式作文，突破常规思维。

1991的高考作文题是“近墨者黑／近墨者未必黑”，要求考生任选其一写作，这其实便是一种辩论式作文题型。我借鉴这种作法，以“名师出高徒／名师未必出高徒”，“有志者事竟成／有志者未必事竟成”等为题，让学生进行作文辩论，让他们持其中一个观点去驳另一与之对立的观点，要求既要观点鲜明，又要注意论证的辩证法，不失之于片面偏激、写作时要求学生按观点分成两组，写出文章后各派四个代表出阵参与辩论。结果不少学生能突破常规思维，拓阔写作思路，写出了言之成理，不落俗套的好文章，辩论场面也十分热烈，学生兴趣盎然。

七、教师评改作文与学生互改、自改相结合，教师重在讲评、鼓励。

为了发挥同学们的积极性，激发他们作文的兴趣，培养他们批改作文的能力，从而提高作文水平，我在作文评改方面，除了教师本人评改外，还采用学生互评或自评的形式。具体做法是：课前教师浏览了学生作文，找出作文中的优缺点，课堂上进行审题分析，指出此次作文的优缺点，示范评讲两三篇文章，列出批改的标准，然后让学生批改，可互评，可自评，先找优点，再指出缺点，重在鼓励，然后教师收上来再阅，贴出优秀习作。这样，学生亲自参与了文章批改，所以对本类作文的写法要求理解得更为深刻。

以上这些做法都是我在教学中的一些尝试，其中对写日记、周记、剪报作文、作文系列化训练和文章互改等方面有所侧重，收到较好的效果，98学年在学校征文比赛中，我所教班的几位同学的征文，均获校二等奖，2000学年，我任教班的几位同学，在学校征文比赛成绩不俗，其中邓佩琪是高一、高二两个年级中唯一的一个一等奖。另外，每个学期都有同学的作文刊登在校刊《红棉报》上。

“漫画作文的写作”这堂课的教学我以学生喜欢的漫画为话题，先让学生明白什么是漫画，接着欣赏几幅漫画，再介绍如何写漫画作文，欣赏几篇漫画作文，最后让学生动笔练习。本节课学生练习的漫画主题与家庭生活息息相关，如：“宝宝快跳”，“如此孝心”，“相依为命”。

教学中有描写祖父辈对孩子的亲情和欣赏有描写传承意义，以及长辈培养孩子的角度和方法的，以漫画形式表现诙谐幽默的生活乐趣的，总体来说整个课堂教学强调了家庭生活的亲情、责任、理解和孝心。使学生在自主学习的过程中，感悟家庭生活的缤纷世界，激起学生的想象和联想，表达对家庭生活的热爱。

六年级学生已有一定的生活感受和生活阅历。家庭生活是贴近学生生活实际的，所以在教学实践中，学生有话可说，有情可抒，在活泼的气氛中积累、感悟、探究。平时，学生对家庭生活的感受是经验型的，是零碎的片段。通过《漫画作文的写作》的学习，可以使学生对家庭生活的认识有一个从感性到理性的飞跃，领悟到家庭生活的本质。

在教学中要充分发挥学生的自主能动性，通过观察、思考、讨论、对话、写作几个方面让学生主动参与到课堂实践中来，感受到漫画的魅力、语言文字的魅力，进一步走向课外阅读，走向开放的大语文教学的境界，让学生在学习，生活的过程中有所思，有所悟。

暑假结束；额，孩子们都去了哪些好玩的地方？经历了哪些有趣的故事呢？快点拿起笔来，描绘出属于你的精彩吧！小编特意分享几个关于游记类的写作方法，快来看一看吧！

一、按游览的顺序描写景物。

写作时，要在认真观察和记忆游览的景物的基础上，按照见到景物的次序，来写所看到的景物。这样才能做到条理清楚、自然、明白，不致于杂乱。

观察景物，通常有两种方法：

一种就是定点观察。

如站在公园某一角，对公园进行由远及近的观察。又如我们登上塔顶，从东南西北四个方向对塔下景物进行观察。

二就是移动观察，它又叫移步换位法。

就是随着脚步的移动变换位置，一处一处地进行观察。选好了观察点，就是确定好了写作的顺序。

二、抓住游览重点，详写过程。

一次参观游览活动，看到的景物很多，我们不能记流水帐。要把看到的景物中印象较深的写下来，其余地可以写得简略些。

我们要一边参观游览，一边要抓住景物的特点，进行仔细观察。

比如说，我们要写游览看到的景物为主的记叙文，写作的重点就是把看到的景物重点写下来。

对于我们看到的特别好的景物，我们要进行具体地描写，突出重点。

对于重点的景物，要注意详细描写出它们的位置、大小、动态、静态、颜色等。如我们写菊花，颜色就有红的如枫叶、白的如冰霜、黄的如麦穗等等，菊花的形状就有像小姑娘的卷发，毛茸茸的小鸡，绣球等等。

我们要把过程写详细、具体，做到主次分明，详略得当，写出来的文章才能突出重点，清楚明白，才能写出游览的意义，才有教育意义。

三、略写前后，情、理、景相结合。

我们在写游记时，应把开头和结尾写得简略些，开头要交待清楚时间、地点和人物。

如《游善卷洞》的开头我的故乡江苏宜兴有一处著名的游览胜地——善卷洞。结尾应用议论或抒情的方式写下自己的感受。

如《天然动物园漫游记》的结尾写道‘哈哈……’我们在欢笑声中结束了这次愉快的野游。朱库米天然动物园行的乐趣是无穷的，无怪乎世界各地前去游览的人络绎不绝。

这样，写的文章有头有尾，读起来给人一个完整的印象。我们要把感情融化于景物中，写出真意。

写作时，我们要倾注自己的思想感情。还有，我们在写景的同时，或探索人生真谛，或谈论思想问题，治学精神，使读者在领略自然风景的同时，受到启迪和教育。

切忌：

一、游记作文不要写成旅游路线图;

二、针对你游览的某一地留下深刻印象的景点来作文;

三、必须考虑游记的顺序，空间，时间，角度(远到近);

四、描写不必面面俱到，要懂得删减枝叶;

五、选着留有深刻印象的点来做发挥，其中一定要有详略，那几个略写哪几个详写要想清楚;

六、注意历史事物和历史事件，传说的巧妙结合，更能凸显出游览的意义和文章的深度;

七、借景抒情的手法应该运用;

八、人文景观的描写中，环境烘托是必要的，选着恰当的景色进行烘托;

九、自然景观的描写中，修辞手法应该运用，但是不要落俗套，好好自己去用心感受，最好有些贴切的修辞创新。

英语语言学习的外延和生活的外延相等。平时学生怕写作文，是因为话题与生活实际联系不够紧密，而本次习作，让学生在不受空间、金钱等的限制下自由想象作文。学生根据生活实际谈自己的梦想，徐徐道来，构思奇特，颇具匠心。

写作是一个由浅入深、由易到难、由简到繁的训练过程，任何一个环节出问题都会影响学生写作能力的培养。因此，盲目的训练往往多做无用功，我们必须在平时就十分注重方法与技巧。

1、注意多种训练方法相结合。

与任务(task)相结合。目标明确， 如写“我的梦中小屋”，有目的的引导学生画画、描述、说明想要的小屋。调动学生的积极性，所以在培养学生这方面的能力时，我尽量与教学的多种任务相结合，而不是纯粹布置一篇作文。贯穿这节写作课的也是一系列的任务。

2、平时注重解题技巧的养成：

1). 准备工作 ①.仔细审题，明确要求 ②.紧扣要点，寻求思路。

2). 写作之中 ①.开门见山，紧扣主题。②.语言正确，规范地道。尽量使用学过的、最熟悉也最有把握的句型、结构，应尽量避免中国式英语。要养成正确运用标点符号的好习惯，切忌一点到底的错误方法。③.重短轻长, 就易避难。④.过渡自然，表达流畅。注意前后句、上下文尽量过渡自然，正确使用and, or, but, because, so, then, after等词，保持行文的流畅。不重复使用可置换的词，如描述“我的梦中小屋”时，可以用firstly, secondly, then, after that等表示先后的序列词。

3).成文之后

鼓励学生学会批改自己的习作。

①.一般语法项目的检查——英语中的人称、时态、单复数、习惯用法等都是非常重要的，即使在朗读中好像全理解，但在动笔的实践中就往往出错。如我们这篇作文多用一般现在时，第一人称。

②.注意语序——英语中的疑问句、感叹句和宾语从句都是通过语序的变化来构成和体现的，不注意会出现错误和意义上混淆。本篇作文要注意感叹句的语序。

④.书写规范，卷面整洁。卷面不整洁，使人无法看清你写的究竟是什么，那么就可能按错处理。所以在写时，我让学生一定要先打草稿。

班主任工作计划是每一名班主任教师在每一个学期开始之前都要完成的工作，班主任工作计划也是教学大纲中要求班主任必须要做好的功课。不过班主任工作计划分为不同形式，并不是要求写的意义，班主任教师也可以根据自己的实际情况写出不同格式的工作计划。不过在我总结了很多的情况后，班主任工作计划，一般分学期具体工作计划和工作计划两种。

1、具体工作计划的写法

制订具体工作计划不必像制订学期工作计划那样详尽。其基本结构有如下几个层次：

第一层次：标题

第二层次：内容，即计划的正文

具体计划的正文，不必像制订学期工作计划正文那样详尽，一般地包括以下几个部分：

（1）教育活动内容。可用一句话表述。

（2）教育目的

（3）时间安排

（4）活动准备和要求。涉及较多人参加准备时，应列出负责人姓名。

第三层次：计划制订人姓名与制订日期

具体工作计划要简明扼要，可以提纲挈领地写。具体工作计划，既可用文字表达，也可以列表表述。列表形式内容：活动内容、教育目的、时间安排、活动准备与要求、完成情况、备注。

2、学期工作计划的写法：

学期工作计划没有严格，固定的格式，一般地可分为以下几个层次：

第一层次：标题 即计划的名称

标题要写在第一行正中，标题中要把班级的名称、计划的主要内容、计划的时限准确地概括进去。如：《xx年xx班200x－200x学年度x学期班级工作计划》。

第二层次：内容 即计划的正文。

计划的正文，一般包括以下几个部分：

（1）前言

简述计划制订的依据，交代上级教育行政部门及学校本学期教育计划要求，概括、准确地提出制订本班工作计划的指导思想。前言的文字要简明、扼要。

（2）本班的基本情况与分析

本班的基本情况包括：本班学生德、智、体、美等方面的基本情况；本班学生的特点及倾向性问题；学生家长情况及社会影响情况等。

本班情况分析主要包括：抓住全班带有倾向性的问题正反两方面，对反面的主要倾向问题存在的主要原因的分析。做好分析工作的关键在于：深入地调查研究，运用辩证的思维方法，善于透过现象抓本质，分清主观因素与客观因素。情况分析要求准确、简明。

（3）本学期工作目标

目标的提出，以准确的基本情况分析为依据，针对本班目前带有共性的、倾向性问题及发展要求提出目标。

工作目标要突出重点。一学期要抓的工作很多，不能件件平均使用力量，要抓主要矛盾，抓主要问题，以求举纲带目。

（4）主要措施

措施，即实现目标的具体活动安排。措施要具体；要符合学生的年龄特征和心理特点，要生动活泼、形式多样，为学生所喜闻乐见；要注重教育效果，不搞形式主义，不做表面文章。措施定了就要执行，不能执行的就不要写进计划。

（5）时间安排

为保证计划的切实落实，对具体的活动要安排具体时间，标明周次及起止月日，时间安排要注意与学校教育活动协调，相互配合、相互衔接。时间安排要注意科学性，一周内不能活动太多，要考虑学生的负担。时间要有预见性，如要在五月开运动会，班级前两周安排相应的活动为校运动会做准备。时间安排既可用文字表达，也可以列表表述。表内容包括：周次、起止日期、教育活动内容、具体准备工作、完成情况、备注。

第三层次：计划制订人姓名与制订日期。依次分行写在正文下方。

制订计划要留有余地。因为事物是不断变化的，工作计划也不是一成不变的。但调整、变更工作计划要经学校领导批准。

工作计划完成后，应一式两份抄清，一份交学校领导做检查、督促、指导工作用，一份留自己实施。

班主任工作计划对班主任教师来说，写出来只是一种形式，一种可以让人看的形式主义。班主任要做好的事情，就是按照工作计划中所写，认真努力的工作，帮助学生尽快的走出阴霾，让整个班级充满了学习上进的最好气氛，让所有学生都能够在知识的海洋吸取更多的知识，这是最起码的，相信这样可以做的更好！

写说明文要根据说明对象的特点及写作目的，选用最佳方法。下面是小编整理的说明文写作常用的方法，欢迎阅读。

(1)举例子。举出实际事例来说明事物，使所要说明的事物具体化，以便读者理解，这种说明方法叫举例法。 运用举事例的说明方法说明事物或事理，一要注意例子的代表性，二要注意例子的适量性。

(2)引资料。为了使说明的内容更充实具体，可以引资料说明。引资料的范围很广，可以是经典著作，名家名言，公式定律，典故谚语等。

(3)作比较。说明某些抽象的或者是人们比较陌生的事物，可以用具体的或者大家已经熟悉的事物和它比较，使读者通过比较得到具体而鲜明的印象。事物的特征也往往在比较中显现出来。 在作比较的时候，可以是同类相比，也可以是异类相比，可以对事物进行“横比”，也可以对事物进行“纵比”。

(4)列数据。为了使所要说明的事物具体化，还可以采用列数据的方法，以便读者理解。需要注意的是，引用的数字，一定要准确无误，不准确的数字绝对不能用，即使是估计的数字，也要有可靠的根据，并力求近似。

(5)分类别。将被说明的对象，按照一定的标准划分成不同的类别，一类一类地加以说明，这种说明方法，叫分类别。 分类别是将复杂的事物说清楚的重要方法。

(6)打比方。利用两种不同事物之间的相似之处作比较，以突出事物的性状特点，增强说明的形象性和生动性的说明方法叫做打比方。 说明文中的打比方的说明方法，同修辞格上的比喻是一致的。不同的是，比喻修辞有明喻、暗喻、和借喻，而说明多用明喻和暗喻，借喻则不宜使用。

(7)摹状貌。为了使被说明对象更形象、具体，可以进行状貌摹写，这种说明方法叫摹状貌。

(8)下定义。用简明的语言对某一概念的本质特征作规定性的说明叫下定义。下定义能准确揭示事物的本质，是科技说明文常用的方法。 下定义的时候，可以根据说明的目的需要，从不同的角度考虑。有的着重说明特性，如关于“人”的定义;有的着重说明作用，如关于“肥料”的定义;有的既说明特性又说明作用，如关于“统筹方法”和“应用科学”的定义。

(9)作诠释。从一个侧面，就事物的某一个特点做些解释，这种方法叫诠释法。 定义法和诠释法常采用“某某是什么”的语言形式。形式相同，如何区分呢?一般来说，“是”字两边的话能够互换，就是定义;如果不能互换，就是诠释。 例如，“人是能制造工具并使用工具进行劳动的高级动物”这句话，改成“能制造工具并使用工具进行劳动的高级动物是人”，意思不变。“雪是在云中形成的一种固态降水物”这句话，如果改为“云中形成的固态降水物是雪”就不成。由此可以辨别，前一句是定义说明，后一句是诠释说明。

(10)画图表。为了把复杂的事物说清楚，还可以采用图表法，来弥补单用文字表达的缺欠，对有些事物解说更直接、更具体。 一篇说明文单用一种说明方法很少，往往综合运用多种说明方法。采用什么说明方法，一方面服从内容的需要，另一方面作者有选择的自由。是采用一种说明方法，还是采用多种说明方法，是采用这种说明方法，还是那种说明方法，可以灵活，不是一成不变的。

摘要：小学生的作文毫无新意没有任何新颖的内容和亮点，出现套用多年前的事例来写作。本文分析作文教学现状，根据实际教学中出现的各种问题，提出一些作文教学的创新策略。

关键词：小学语文;作文教学;方法;创新

小学作文教学工作开展并不理想，教学效率低下，许多人认为小学作文训练不是一项简单的工作，小学生没有写作的动力，他们也没有养成良好的积累习惯，没有具体的写作材料可以组织，导致他们在写作时出现流水账式的叙述，没有明确的中心意思表达，语句表意重复繁琐，更谈不上层次清楚和详略得当。大多小学生的作文都存在着言辞干煸、或过于堆积华丽词汇、或语句不通畅不流畅、或脱离实际、天马行空等情况。长久以来，人们只关注教师应该用何种方式去教学生，却没有设身处地换位思考过，如果我是学生，我会不会接受这种方式，这种方式对我是否有用，这是不是我喜欢的方式。小学生处于的特殊的身心发展阶段，写作能力比较弱，需要教师的悉心指导和创新教学方式，需要让小学生的作文更加贴近现实生活，让学生能够把今天或以往发生过的什么有趣的事情叙述清楚。老师要引导学生在日常学习和生活中做个有心人，收集和整理一些写作可用的人和事，坚持写好日记和周记，让作文更真实、更具体、更有生活气息。

作文是一个令学生头疼的东西，他似乎比数学题更具威慑力，令学生“闻风丧胆”。我的同桌曾问我：“你写作有什么技巧吗？”我当时就说：“写作的方法其实可有很多种，不同的人方法不同，感悟不同，文笔也就不同。所以，我告诉你了，我的写作方法放在你身上也不一定有用。”其实，我当时那么说太过于绝对了，也可能有文笔相似的人，也可能有方法相同的人。所以，现在我就来跟大家分享一下我的写作方法与技巧。

首先，一篇文章如果要想写得好，要做到六出色，就是众所周知的题目、结构、选材、语言、立意、书写这六大方面。我写作文，也是基本按照它的要求来的。我写作文，从来不定题目叫做“我”或“难忘的一件事”，除非是命题作文，但是现在基本都是老师给一个要求，然后我们就自拟题目，再加自己写作。如果你的题目起得不好，你就已经被扣分了。我写作文，一向讲究结构严明，例如写一件事，你大可以把这篇文章分成三段，足够了。起因、经过、结果和感悟，正好三段。我写作文，选材一向是慎重的，我个人认为，选材一定要新颖，要有创造感。我一贯的做法是：阅读三遍要求再开始动笔写作，而且我一般是取材于课文，取材于教材，我一般不写古代文学家、伟人；我一般都是写当代的作家、散文家，如鲁迅、巴金、朱自清、冰心等等。我觉得一个人的文笔，从他的作文语言就可以看出。我认为，一篇文章中，至少要出现两三句名言，它们读起来朗朗上口，你为什么不试着写下来呢？这样会让老师们感到很欣慰。最后，我认为立意也是很重要的，还是那句话，就是要与众不同，别人写“刘邦起兵反对秦朝”，你偏写“再识秦始皇”、“千古大帝”，这不行吗？老师看了，也会产生好奇感，自然就高分了。

以上就是我个人的写作方法，你觉得怎么样？

一、优化词汇输入教学，丰富词汇知识积累

词汇是一篇文章最基本的组 成要素。头脑中如果没有一定数量的、且处于鲜活状态的词汇，就无法写出好文章。要写出好的文章，就必须善于从众多的词语中选择和运用最恰当的词语。因此， 加强词汇教学、扩大和丰富学生的词汇量是提高学生写作能力的基础工作。克拉申的“语言输入假说模式”认为：正确和恰当的语言输入将会使语言学习的效果更 佳。

最佳语言输入的两个必要条件：

1)密切相关的

2)大量的。因此，将密切相关的常用词汇、习惯搭配适当集中教学，反复归纳、不断循环和强化是较好的词 汇输入方法，同时也保证了常用词汇在头脑中的鲜活状态，为写作输出提供可靠保障。

二、加强基础写作训练，活化基础知识积累

在学生写作过程中，我们 常常会发现许多学生的词汇量与运用能力不成正比的现象，写作中经常出现词汇贫乏和用词不当等问题。这种问题的出现实际上是学生获得的知识没有有效的活化。 配合词汇和句型教学，教师可以经常以所教学词汇为关键词拟定一些与时事或生活相关的话题，让学生用词、句做翻译练习，一段时间(4-5天)之后，再让学生 用这些词、句进行写作，多写多练以达到活化知识的目的。

三、广泛阅读，拓展知识积累

“熟读唐诗三百首，不会作 诗也会吟”。在大量的阅读过程中，可使学生开拓视野，拓展知识，增加语感，为写作提供必要的语言材料。写作和阅读是互相促进、相辅相成的。有些词汇和句 型，学生只是似曾相识，通过广泛的阅读能促使学生把这些东西运用得更熟练，表达得更准确。反过来，这也会有效地提高学生的阅读理解能力。

一、从图中场面及人物加以推测

看图写话要求中常常会问图上是什么时间，小朋友在观察图画时就要从图中现有的一些场面来推测。例如呈现一幅图，公园里人们在锻炼身体，有的在跑步，有的在打太极拳，还有的在打羽毛球。从哪里能看出时间呢?小朋友就要仔细观察人们身上穿了什么，如果人们都穿了短袖、还有女士穿裙子，就可以推测是夏天。如果人们穿着厚厚的衣服，还有人戴手套、戴帽子，就可以推测是冬天。

再看场地是在公园，人们都在锻炼身体，显然人们是在公园里晨练，从而知道图上画的是早晨。因此理清图意，仔细观察、认真思考以及合理推测很重要。

二、仔细推敲写话要求找出要素

看图写话，通常都会配有这样一段文字。“图上画的是什么时候，在什么地方?有哪些人在干什么?想一想他们会说什么?请用几句话把图上的意思连起来写一写。”这段文字很重要，小朋友千万不可一看而过，要细细推敲，这段文字就是对写话的要求，也提示我们如何写话。

写话要求通常提示我们观察图画要关注时间、地点、人物、事情，还要发挥想象他们会说什么。因此在写话的时候你就要写上这幅图所告诉你的时间、地点、人物、事情，还要发挥想象他们会说什么。只有这些要素都具备了，才是合格的写话。

三、对比前后图画的不同之处

理清图意需要小朋友们仔细观察、认真思考。例如给你两幅图，第一幅图呈现了一条小鱼在鱼缸里、一个猫站在鱼缸边上正朝着鱼缸看，第二幅图呈现了一个鱼缸和一只舔着嘴巴笑眯眯的猫。你在观察时，就要对比两幅图的不一样，细心的你会发现第二幅图中鱼缸里的鱼不见了，而猫正在舔着嘴巴。经过你的认真思考，你会想到鱼被猫吃了。图中省去了猫吃鱼的过程，就需要小朋友们仔细观察、认真思考，理清图的意思。

请看这篇佳作：“有一只小花猫看到一个鱼缸里面有一条金鱼，她想来想去：怎么能吃到这条金鱼呢?

小花猫伸出猫爪在鱼缸里抓鱼，小金鱼游得非常快，就像一道红色的闪电。小花猫怎么也抓不到它，急得满头大汗。小花猫抓抓脑袋想出了一个办法。她对小金鱼说：“你游泳的技术真棒，可是你会跳吗?”小鱼得意地说：“我当然会跳啦!”“那你跳几下给我看看，我就不吃你了。”小花猫刚说完，小金鱼就跳了起来，水花溅了一地。小花猫看准时机在空中抓住了小鱼塞进了嘴里。

小花猫闭上眼睛，舔着嘴巴，得意洋洋地走开了。”

四、发挥合理想象丰富语言

很多同学在写话的时候既表达了图意，也能够有条理地描写，但是语言很简单，仅仅是就图说图，缺乏合理的想象。其实想象可以使你的写话充满灵气和活力。

例如一幅图上呈现四个小朋友，他们有的扛着小树苗、有的提着水壶、有的拿着铁锹，很显然小朋友们是准备植树了。在小朋友的头顶上还有两只小鸟在飞。如果在写话的时候只是写你观察到的两只小鸟在小朋友的头顶上飞翔，就显得简单无趣。这时你就要展开合理的想象：小鸟可能在给小朋友们唱歌，小鸟可能在说：“太好了，我们又有新家啦!”这样的想象就比写小鸟在飞要生动有趣的多。

想象可以给你的作文添彩，但如果不根据图画进行合理想象，就会使你的作文变成“胡编乱造”。如果你想象图中的小鸟要去南方过冬、图中的小鸟正在觅食，就与四个小朋友去植树没有关联，背离了图意。

五、按顺序观察才能表达有序

看图写话训练的一个重点就是按顺序观察，只有按顺序观察了才能使你的表达有序，而不是杂乱无章。

按顺序观察常常出现在场面描写中，例如出示一幅图是小朋友们三两成群地在雪地里玩耍，有的打雪仗，有的堆雪人，有的滚雪球。小朋友在观察的时候可以按照从前到后、从后到前、从左到右或者从右到左的顺序观察，并按照这样的顺序进行描写，这样你的表达就显得条理清晰。

按顺序观察是前提，能详略得当地描写可以使你的作文更显张力。这就要求我们在观察的时候还要有所侧重。你可以重点观察小朋友是如何堆雪人的，雪人的眼睛、鼻子、嘴巴、手都是什么做成的。也可以重点观察小朋友是如何打雪仗的，他们的动作和表情怎样。重点观察后再写出来，那你的写话就更出彩了。

通常由标题、称谓及正文三部分组成。

1、标题通常有三种写法：一是用会议名称作标题;二是前边再加上领导人姓名;三是用提示内容中心或主旨的标题，在后面通常加上副标题。

2、称谓一般写在标题下行顶格，称呼通常用“同志们”、“朋友们”、“各位代表”等。

3、正文一般包括开头、主体和结尾。开头写宣布开幕之类的话。主体部分一般包括以下内容：会议的筹备和出席会议人员情况;会议召开的背景和意义;会议的性质、目的及主要任务;会议的主要议程及要求;会议的奋斗目标及深远影响等等。但写作中一定要把握会议的性质，郑重阐述会议的特点、意义、要求和希望，对于会议本身的情况如议程等，要概括说明，点到为止;行文则要明快、流畅，评议要坚定有力，充满热情，富于鼓舞力量。最后是结尾，一般都是“祝大会圆满成功”之类。

在我们作文中，不管是写人，记事，也常常会有景物描写。那么写景应注意什么呢?下面是小编收集的六年级写景作文的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

⒈写景要按方位顺序，由近及远，由远及近，由上而下，由下而上，由里到外，由外到里，或由中间到四周等等有次序地描写，要主次分明，详略得当。

⒉可以按景物的类别来写，如山、水、花、鸟;瀑、石、峰、洞;亭、台、楼阁等。要写出景物的光、色、味;既要写它的静态，也要写它的动态，还可以写出它的环境气氛。

⒊要仔细观察，抓住在不同季节里景物的不同特点进行描写，不要硬编乱造，凭自己的想象来写。

⒋写景中也可以具体地写些人和事，若让人、景、事三者交融一体来写，可以使作文更为感人。

⒌写景物时不要忘掉自己与景物之间的关系，要有意识地把自己的感情、感受写进去，这样使人读了会产生一种身临其境之感。叶圣陶老爷爷写的《记金华的双龙洞》不是具有这样的特点吗?

⒍适当地、正确地引用前人描写景物的诗词歌赋，也可以为作文增色。这就需要你平时多加阅读和积累，别等用时再去找。

写景作文写作要点

景物描写在记叙文写作中往往是必不可少的。可是许多同学在写作中不懂得景物描写的特点，有的描写模糊不清，有的分不清主次，有的缺乏情感，出现了许多不应有的败笔。那么，在记叙文的写作中应该怎样去描写自然景色呢?具体来说，景物描写应注意以下三个问题：

1、写景要有顺序。人们观赏景物都有一定的规律：或定点环顾，或边走边看。描写时也应该“顺其自然”。例如老舍先生的《济南的冬天》一文，描写济南城周围的环境时写道：“小山把济南整个儿围个圈儿，只有北边缺点口儿。这一圈小山在冬天特别可爱，好像把济南放在一个小摇篮里。”景物描写与作者的定点鸟瞰相吻合，自然清晰，形象准确。又如凡妮的《野景偶拾》一文，按照沿途所见，依次描写绕村的溪流，山梁的小路、盆地的高粱、山坡的谷穗、旷野的幽静、落日的霞光、宛如绸带的河流和公路、华美如贝雕的田野和山林。移步换形，有如移舟前进，时过景迁，景观随之改换，给人一种身临其境之感。

2、写景要有选择。写景时应要有所取有所弃，抓住最能代表彼时彼地特征的景物加以描写，其它的景色则略写或不写。老舍先生的《在烈日和暴雨下》，为了突出天气变化的过程，就着力描写了杨柳的动态：“一点风也没有时——枝条一动懒得动;有一点凉风时——枝条微微动了两下;风大起来时——柳条横着飞。”通过杨柳的动态。显示了风的从无到有、由小到大，而对暴风雨降临时其它景象的变化，作者作了简略处理。这样，抓住特征，既形象地表现了天气变化的过程，又避免了描写的呆板重复，使得文字准确而精练。

3、写景要有情致。人们观赏景物总是要带有某种感情的。因此，描写时也应该将这种感情一起表达出来，做到寓情于景，情景相映。鲁迅先生的《故乡》一文，反映旧中国农村衰败萧条，日趋破产的悲惨景象时，笔下的景色是“苍黄的天空下，远近横着几个萧索的荒村，没有一些活气。”而脑海中闪现出少年闰土的美好形象时，则为“深蓝的天空中挂着一轮金黄的圆月。”景物描写之中渗透着作者爱憎分明的思想感情。以景促情，情景交融，有力地深化了文章的主题。

我们知道申论考试中大作文写作是必考题型，但有些申论试卷中除了有大作文写作，还有小作文写作，如演讲稿、工作汇报、倡议书等，字数一般在400-500字之间。

为提高考生的申论水平，国家将陆续给出材料及答案解析，供广大考生练笔。

【给定资料】

某考察团一行实地察看了A村级道路、村民房屋、绿化等公共设施设备建设的优秀成果。随后还参观了A村新希畜牧有限公司花猪原生态养殖园、当地某农业大学创业园等项目。据了解，A村共有17个村民小组，1045户，总人口4000人。八年来，支村两委一班人，先后引进了8个特色项目落户南洲村；吸引50多名大学毕业生、转业军人、归国华侨相继来村创业就业。2014年，A村人均年收入突破2万元。

【作答要求】

假如你是B市政府秘书，也参加了这次考察，请总结出A村建设的经验成果对本市新型乡村建设有哪些意义与启示。

要求：阅读材料，联系实际，调理清晰，不超过450字。

【参考答案】

A村通过合理布局，科学发展，取得喜人成果，对我市新型乡村建设的意义与启示有以下几点：

一、坚持规划引导。八年来，A村支村两委一班人结合地方实际情况，科学规划引导，建成村级道路、村民房屋、绿化等公共设施设备，并结合当地特色，发展农产品，建立完善产业链，提升地方竞争力。

二、注重体制创新。多年来，A村发展重视创新突破，把科技变成脱贫致富的源动力，不断运用先进科技和传统农业相结合，做“绿色文章”，发展花猪原生态养殖园 。

三、重视人才扶持。A村在改善环境、发展经济的同时重视人才扶持，吸引大量优秀人才来村创业就业，形成了经济发展吸引人才，人才聚集促进经济增长的优势局面。

四、产业发展规模化。A村经济发展“麻雀虽小，五脏俱全”，在经济发展的同时注重统一规划，合理布局，完成一批有市场竞争力的产业项目，如，生态养殖园、大学创业园。

在今后我市的新型乡村建设中，我们可以结合自身特点，吸收A村发展中的有益经验，力争把我市乡村建成新型美丽乡村。

【作答要点】

申论小作文写作难度仅次于大作文写作，考生备考时一定要重视起来。

首先在格式上要符合题意，有些小作文写作有其固定的格式，如倡议书写作就要有标题、称呼、正文、结尾、落款。考生在下笔前一定要考虑好字数，除了正文还要为其他部分写作留出空间。而发言稿、演讲稿就没有固定的格式要求。

其次，在内容上要与题目呼应，如汇报类小作文写作要求有些是汇报工作经验，有些是总结归纳问题情况。

最后，在语言上要严谨准确简练。

[申论考试作文写作教学

在英语教学中，培养学生听、说、读、写的能力是相辅相成的。经常练习写作，可以巩固和发展听说能力 ，还可以促进阅读能力的提高。写作能促使学生勤复习、多思考。通过对一词一句反复推敲，有助于提高使用 语言的准确性。学习用英语写作是培养英语思维能力的重要途径之一，有了一定的英语思维能力，英语学习就 能产生一个相应的飞跃。因此，在高中阶段指导、培养学生写英语作文是不容等闲视之的。

用英语解释生词，为学生打好写作基础。教师应创造语言环境，通过耳濡目染、潜移默化，培养用英语思 维的习惯。在教每课的单词和词组时，要尽量用学生学过的单词、词组进行解释。刚开始时，可由教师用英语 解释生词，后来可让学生根据汉语释意，用自己学过的单词、词组解释。这样，经过一段时间的训练，学生的 英语思维能力就会有所提高，为英语写作打下较好的基础。在作文时，如果不知道某个东西的英语表达方式而 又无词典可查，这时学生就会用其释义来代替，如用“a person who nakes clothes”来代替“atailor”， 这虽不完全符合英语语言习惯，但对初学写作的高中生来说还是值得鼓励的。

通过缩写和改写课文，培养学生的英语概括能力。缩写课文会激励学生去认真钻研课文内容，有助于加深 学生对课文的理解，提高学生归纳总结和进行简要表达的能力。缩写课文允许改动原意，不允许删去主要内容 。缩写课文一般应该用自己的话来写，不能只停留在拼凑原文的词句上，也不要逐句、逐段照原文去改写。这 些均通过示例让学生明白和掌握，并在实践中让他们仔细加以体会。改写课文可以培养学生举一反三的语言表 达能力，熟练掌握英语表达方法，促使学生去钻研、去思考，调动学习的积极性，学生把学过的知识运用到实 际中去，这对于提高英语水平大有裨益。改写，除了我们通常所说的句子、段落的释义之外，还包括用其他体 裁改写整篇课文。如高中英语第一册第三课短剧“The Lost Necklace”可改写为记叙文。有的课文，如高中英 语第一册“The Blind Men And The Elephant”和第十课“At A Tailors Shop”等，就可以让学生改写成短 剧，并让他们在班上表演。有的课文故事是第三人称叙述的，如“The Footprint”，就可以让学生用第一人称 加以改写，使他们身临其境，自由发挥。这样可创造情景，促使他们“下笔如有神”。

以多题材、多形式的自由作文训练，加强意念功能的培养。经过一段时间的缩写和改写的笔头训练之后， 学生对写作有了一定的基础和兴趣，就可以放手让他们进行多种题材的自由作文训练，使学生在自由表达思想 和内心感受中，加强意念功能培养。(1) 练习写周记日记是培养学生英语自由写作能力的第一步。写周记日记 ，学生不受内容和经验的限制，可就熟悉的题材，充分发挥自己的想象力，自由表达。(2) 看图作文新颖活泼 ，能激发学生英语写作的积极性。可以用流传较广的传说、故事作图，让学生写记叙文。比如画几幅老鼠商议 给猫挂铃铛的图，让学生以“The cat and the bell”作文。也可画一幅漫画，让学生写简易议论文。如画一 幅之人向三个方向划一条小船，让学生写出情景加以评论，并命题。(3) 作文可由教师统一命题，也可由学生 自由命题。命题作文要注意先易后难，开始让学生写一些自己熟悉、易于表达的题材。如：“Our School”、 “My Family”、“A Letter To Somebody”、“ARepectable Teacher”、“Life In Summer Vacation”等。 在此基础上，提高一步，写一些较难的题目。如:My Idea, Money And Happiness等。刚开始练习命题作文写作 时，可让学生课外完成，规定交作文日期即可。经过一段时间后，可要求他们在课堂上完成，借以培养他们的 思考能力，提高快速写作的能力。

通过讲评帮助学生逐步掌握写作要领。作文批阅应与课堂讲评相结合，一方面在班上朗诵优秀作文，说明 其好在哪里。另一方面要分析各种典型错误，尤其是汉式英语，务必通过讲译，使学生进一步了解错误产生的 原因，以及如何纠正。为了加深印象，避免讲评中烦琐指点，最好对各种错误进行分类整理，教师应注意分类 的合理性和系统性。

任何一门课程的教学目标都不是唯一的，但是，任何课程都有一个基本目标。那么小学英语教育的基本目标是什么?(英语课程标准(实验稿))对此作了一个明确的回答，这就是“学生的发展是英语课程的出发点和归宿”。这里，“学生的发展”的内涵是丰富的，但是决不能被泛化而失去其最基本的学科特征。它应当主要地是指学生英语语言能力的发展。在一个以英语作为外语教育的国度里，学生英语语言能力发展的主要途径还是靠课堂。这就给我们的小学英语教师提出了一个问题，即如何通过课堂教学来促进学生的英语语言能力的发展。对于这个问题，许多小学英语教师一直在实践中艰苦探索，努力在实践中做出了一些改进，也或多或少取得了一些成效。但是，从总体来看，这个问题并没有得到令人满意的解决。

一个重要原因是，我们的教学研究只是试图不断调整我们那些不恰当的教学行为，而并没有真正触及英语课堂教学改革的灵魂，即没有真正解决制约英语教育发展的理论与理念的问题。在新一轮基础教育课程改革的进程中，建构主义教学思想犹如一缕春风，向我们扑面而来。源于西方哲学思想又被认知心理学所广泛应用的建构主义，其基本原理一经应用于课堂教学。就产生了奇迹般的效果，建构主义教学思想也因此应运而生。与西方以往外语教学法各种流派不同的是，建构主义教学思想不仅突出强调了“以人为本”和“促进人的发展”的思想——这与我们的新课程改革在本质上是完全一致的——更重要的是，它是有其坚实的哲学基础的。辩证唯物论认为，世界是普遍联系的；建构主义教学思想则认为。任何学科知识都是具有联系性的，真正的语言能力是综合运用语言的能力，而不是孤立的、机械的、僵死的应答操练。

离开具体情境的语句是没有任何确定性意义的，辨证唯物论认为，物质世界的发展总是有条件的；建构主义教学思想则认为，语言知识的建构不仅需要激发学生已有的语言知识储备和经验积累，而且需要创设、呈现新的语言现象的具体情境。让学生在真实的或模拟的情境中去体悟新的语言现象及其语义和用法。辩证唯物论认为，物质运动总是在原有的基础上，从低级向高级不断发展的：建构主义教学思想则认为，学生的语言知识和语言能力的建构和发展过程是必须循序渐进的。辩证唯物论认为，人对世界的认识是需要发挥主观能动作用的；建构主义教学思想则认为，学生的知识与能力的获得过程是需要学生这个学习主体去主动探究和亲历体验的，而不能是被动接受的。世界上没有包治百病的灵丹妙药。

建构主义教学思想对于促进学生英语语言能力的发展也不可能是万能的。然而，在我们研究了(英语课程标准(实验稿))所倡导的六大理念时，竞发现这六大理念无不与建构主义教学思想相关联!这决不是一个巧合!如此说来，在我们苦思冥想如何通过改善课堂教学来促进学生的英语语言能力的发展这个问题时，我们是否应该从建构主义教学思想中得到一些启示呢?

抒情，就是对主观感情的抒发和表达。抒情文则是以情感的抒写作为主要写作目的的文章。抒情是一种重要的写作手法，抒情文也是重要的散文形式之一。下面和小编一起来看看抒情和抒情文的写作方法。希望对大家有所帮助。

我们每一个人实际上从一出生就会抒情。小孩子见到妈妈时会兴奋地发出“咿咿呀呀”的简单的音节，饥饿时会“哇哇”地大哭，这都是在抒情。等到长大了，逐渐掌握了更多、更复杂的语言，逐渐学会了书写，将这些语言组织起来，以描述自己的主观感情，并形成书面文字，这就是抒情文。

抒情贵在真实。初写抒情文，一定要抒写自己真实的思想情感，切忌矫揉造作、感情虚假。我国宋代的着名词人辛弃疾有过这么一句词：为赋新词强说愁。它的意思是说，一个人本没有愁，或者说并不真正懂得愁，但是为了写出一首好词，却故意在那里说自己怎么怎么地愁。对于作家、诗人来说，这是写作的需要，但对我们初学写作的人，这就是无病呻吟，是作文中的大忌。我们在写作抒情文章时，一定要想写什么就写什么，心中有什么就写什么，只有这样，文章中表达的情感才会可亲、可信，真实、感人。

从情感的表达方式上讲，抒情有直接抒情和间接抒情之分。“我爱你，中国!我爱你，中国?”这是直接抒情。直接抒情比较直白、热烈，多用带有浓重感情色彩的判断句、陈述句等，同时经常会在句中使用感叹词，如“好美啊”、“真想你呀”。间接抒情则比较含蓄。它往往借助于叙述、描写和议论等手法来抒发感情。如“蓝蓝的天空白云飘，白云下面马儿跑……”用对草原上蓝天、白云、奔腾的骏马来表达心中的喜悦之情。

间接抒情方法很多。有的借助于人或物，通过对人物行为的描写来表达。如一位同学在作文中写到：“妈妈欣慰地笑了。她的眼睛亮晶晶地、盯着我看了很久很久。”通过对妈妈笑了、眼睛亮晶晶地、盯着我看等行为描写，来表现妈妈因“我”的进步而高兴、“我”因自己的行为使妈妈欣慰而自豪的情感。这是“借人抒情”。有的借助于物，在对事物状态的描摩中抒发感情。如：“在这个长满红锈的鱼钩上，闪烁着灿烂的金色的光芒!”(引自《金色的鱼钩》)有的“借事抒情”，将主观感情隐藏在对事件的记叙之中。有的是“借景抒情”，融情于景，通过描写景物来达到抒情的目的。有的是通过议论抒情，把自己真实的思想情感寄托在几句点睛式的议论之中，如“这就是我们新中国的总理。我看见了他一夜的工作。他是多么劳苦，多么简朴!”(引自《一夜的工作》)。

抒情时，应该灵活运用各种表达技巧，如拟人、比喻、对比、象征、衬托、联想、夸张等等。如《美丽的小兴安岭》一文的结尾?;小兴安岭是一座巨大的宝库，也是一座美丽的大花园。“运用比喻手法，将小兴安岭的美丽和作者对它的喜爱之情恰到好处地表达了出来。

直接抒情和间接抒情在抒情文中的运用又是如何呢?一般来说，直接抒情多与写人、记事、写景、状物结合使用，在这些写作的基础上，画龙点睛或是点明题意。直接抒情还经常用于作者感受最深刻、感情最强烈的地方，以精练的语言表达浓郁的感情和强烈的感染力。间接抒情因其表现手法的多样和含蓄，运用和也比直接抒情要广泛。但在大多情况下，两者是结合使用的，在间接抒情的基础上，以直接抒情点题或是升华情感，效果往往不错。

听课记录的类型及记录要求

听课记录是听课者为评估或听取他人上课所作的记录。这种己录区别于学生的课堂笔记。一般来说，学生听课笔记主要是详细、清楚记录讲课内容。而评估者听课除了记录讲课者讲课的内外，还要记录听课时产生的对讲课的评价等。

听课记录可分为以下几种类型：

1、照相型

这种记录方式主要是记录讲课者的活动，注重直观感受。听课者如出于借鉴、仿效他人的教学，常用这种方式。细分起来，这种记录方式又包含了三个层次：最初，记录知识内容多，保留着学生做课堂笔记的痕迹；接着，注意记录教师的教法；最后，还注意观察学生的情绪和反映。这三个层次的侧重点不一样，但

这类听课记录还是以学为主要目的。

2、能动型

随着自身教学经验的丰富和听课次数的增加，脑子里多了一些参照系数，于是就从“看热闹"进入到“看门道”的阶段。这时候的听课记录，能辨得出好在哪里，差在何处。这是一种由表及里的记录，是一种感性把握上升到理性分析和评判的记录

3、评课型

评课型分为两种，一种是日常的常规性的，一种是重点评课。常规性的听课记录是按学校规定教师之间互相听课的记录，一般都有印制好了的听课记录卡供填写，主要项目包括：教学内容和形式(包括教材、章节、课题和课型)，教学过程及要点，体会和建议等。这种记录方式内容精炼，不必面面俱到。重点评

屎式的听课记录，主要是体现听课者对讲课的全面评价，通常从教学内容、教学方法、教学基本功等方面入手，列出若干条指标，分项记分作定量评估。如“教学方法"方面，指标通常为：是否运用启发式?双边活动、教学过程是否合理?是否重视基础知识和能力训练?能否完成教学计划?等等。

下面就是小编为大家带来的大学生数学论文写作方法，希望对你们有帮助。

很多从事数学教育工作人士认为数学教育论文难写,事实上他们还没有掌握撰写数学论文的规律。

数学论文分两种,一种称为纯数学论文,另一种为数学教学论文。很多从事数学教育工作者很难拥有大量时间从事纯数学研究,而职称聘任制又需要公开发表论文,这样一来很多人将自己工作经验加以总结转而写一些数学教研论文。 数学教研论文是对课程论,教学法,教育思想,教材及教育对象心理加以研究。但无论哪一种数学论文都要遵从论文格式及写作规律。

1 撰写数学论文应具有原则

1.1 创新性

作为发表研究结果的一种文体,应反映作者本人所提供的新的事实,新的方法,新的见解。论文选题不新颖,实验没有值的报道的成果,即使有高超写作技巧,也不可能妙笔生花,硬写出新东西来。基础性研究最忌低水平重复,如受试对象,处理因素,观测指标,结果与前人雷同,毫无新意,这样论文不值得发表。

1.2 科学性

科技论文的生命在于它的科学性。没有科学性论文毫无价值,而且可能把别人引入歧途,造成有害结果。撰写论文应具备:(1)反映事实的真实性;(2)选题材料的客观性;(3)分析判定的合理性;(4)语言表达的准确性。

1.3 规范性

规范性是论文在表现形式上的重要特点。科技论文已形成一种相对固定的论文格式,大体上由文题,一般不超过20字;摘要(应用的方法,得到的结果,具有意义等);索引关键词;引言;研究方法,讨论,结果等部分组成。这种规范化的程序是无数科学家经验总结。它的优越性在于:(1)符合认识规律;(2)简洁明快,较少篇幅容纳较多信息;(3)方便读者阅读。

2 撰写数学论文忌讳

2.1 大题小作

论文不是书,如论文题目选的过大,那么泛论,浅论就在所难免。数学教育论文基本特征:有数学内容,讲数学教育问题,具有论文形态,不贪大,不求空,具有新见解。这样作者应将课题选的小一些,写出特色。

2.2 关门写稿

一本学术杂志中的论文,单独拿出来看自然是独立完整的。就杂志的整个体系来看就会有一些联系,它们或是构成一个小专题或是使讨论不断深入。这样作者就要对你准备投稿刊物有所了解,以免无的放矢。不能缺乏事实凭空捏造,夸大结论。首先应该知道别人做了些什么,写了些什么,避免在自己的 论文中重复。同时可以借鉴别人成果,在他人研究成果基础上进一步研究,避免做无用功。

2.3 形式思维混乱

科学发展到今天,科技论文的基本格式在世界范围内已趋向统一。论文要求规范化,标准化。有的论文东拼西抄,前后矛盾,这样的论文很难教人读懂。所以撰写论文应遵守形式逻辑基本规律,正确使用逻辑推理方法尤为重要。

3 关于数学论文选题

数学论文选题是找“热门”还是“冷门”?“热门”课题从事研究的人员众多,发展迅速。如果作者所在单位基础雄厚,在这个领域占有相当地位,当然要从这一领域深入研究或向相关领域扩展。如果自己在这方面基础差,起步晚又没有找到新的突破,就不宜跟在别人后面搞低水平重复。选择“冷门”,知识的空白处及学科交叉点为研究目标为较好的选择。无论选“冷门”还是“热门”,选题应遵循以下原则:

(1)需要性 选题应从社会需要和科学发展的需要出发。

(2)创新性 选题应是国内外还没有人研究过或是没有充分研究过的问题。

(3)科学性 选题应有最基本的科学事实作依据。

(4)可行性 选题应充分考虑从事研究的主客观条件,研究方案切实可行。

4 关于数学论文文风

4.1 语言表达确切

从选词,造句,段落,篇章,标点符号都应正确无误。

4.2 语言表达清晰简洁

语句通顺,脉络清楚,行文流畅,语言简洁。

4.3 语言朴实

语言朴实无华是科技论文本色。对于科学问题阐述无须华丽词藻也不必夸张修饰。总之撰写论文应有感而写,有为而写,有目的而写。借鉴他人成果,博采众长,涉足实践,提炼新意,在你的论文中拿出你的真实感受,不简单重复别人的观点,这样的论文才可能发表,并为广大读者接受。参考文献(略)(摘自《长春大学学报》2007.1，原文：“谈数学论文写作”，作者：王晓阳 长春大学学报编辑部)