英语写作教学方法推荐四篇 作文怎么写热门20篇

一、白描

文字简练单纯，不加渲染烘托。它没有浓烈色彩的描写，不借助比喻、比拟等修辞手法，也不用或少用形容词，依然描写出事物的形象。如：

“其时进来的是一个黑瘦的先生，八字须，戴着眼镜，挟着一叠大大小小的书。”（鲁迅《藤野先生》）

寥寥数语，就活化出一位生活俭朴、治学严谨的学者形象。

二、漫画式勾勒

即以夸张的手法、揶揄的口吻，将人物勾画成奇形怪状、荒诞陆离的形象，以表达嘲笑、憎恶、同情等思想感情。如：

“他倘若低头看，断然是看不到自己的脚尖的，中间隆起的那个部位，会把视线挡住。稀稀拉拉的花白头发，整齐地朝后梳拢着，蘸了水，没有一根错乱的。白皙皙的脸上，看不见一条皱纹，像刚出锅的馒头。由于胖，鼻子、眼睛就显得特别小；由于小，就显得格外精采有神。”（王润滋《卖蟹》）

通过描写，塑造出“过滤嘴”的形象：老而胖，整洁考究，富态优裕，高人一等。在描写中渗透着作者的嘲笑。

三、浓墨重彩细描

即以生动、形象、传神的语言，多方位、多层次、多角度，细致全面地去刻画人物形象。如：

“……坐在南首的是一个瘦瘦的，五十上下的中国人；穿一件牙黄的长衫，嘴里咬着一支烟嘴，跟着那火光的一亮一亮，腾起一阵一阵烟雾。”

“他的面孔黄里带白，瘦得叫人担心，好像大病新愈的人，但是精神很好，没有一点颓唐的样子，头发约莫一寸长，显然好久没剪了，却一根一根精神抖擞地直竖着。胡须很打眼，好像浓墨写的隶体‘一’字。”

“黄里带白的脸，瘦得让人担心，头上直竖着寸把长的头发；牙黄羽纱的长衫；隶体‘一’字似的胡须；左手里捏着的一支黄色烟嘴，安烟的一头已经熏黑了。”（阿累《一面》）

这三处，作者通过全面而细致的描写，刻画出处于艰苦条件下的鲁迅的精神面貌，一位“越老越顽强”的伟大战士的形象，即赫然屹立在我们的面前。

人物描写的方法是很多的，每种方法各有千秋，同学们可以根据写作的需要，灵活地加以运用。

感要多 读要少，要善于灵活掌握。小编整理了读后感的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

通常有三种写法:一种是缩写内容提纲，一种是写阅读后的体会感想，一种是摘录好的句子和段落.今天，咱们就重点来谈谈第二种.题目可以用《×××读后感》，也可以用《读×××有感》.

首先要审清题目.在写作时，要分辨什么是主要的，什么是次要的，力求做到"读"能抓住重点，"感"能写出体会.

其次要选择材料.读是写的基础，只有读得认真仔细，才能深入理解文章内容，从而抓住重点，把握文章的思想感情，才能有所感受，有所体会;只有认真读书才能找到读感之间的联系点来，这个点就是文章的中心思想，就是文中点明中心思想的句子.对一篇作品，写体会时不能面面俱到，应写自己读后在思想上，行动上的变化，摘取其中的某一点做文章.

第三，写读后感应以所读作品的内容简介开头，然后，再写体会.原文内容往往用3~4句话概括为宜.结尾也大多再回到所读的作品上来.要把重点放在"感"字上，切记要联系自己的生活实际.

最后，写读后感的注意事项:①写读后感绝不是对原文的抄录或简单地复述，不能脱离原文任意发挥，应以写"体会"为主.②要写得有真情实感.应是发自内心深处的感受，绝非"检讨书"或"保证书".③要写出独特的新鲜感受，力求有新意的见解来吸引读者或感染读者.

例文

我要把自己炼成一块真正的钢铁

——《钢铁是怎样炼成的》读后感

《钢铁是怎样炼成的》这本书使我爱不释手，保尔 柯察金那顽强的品格多么令人钦佩!如果你读了这本书，就会明白具有钢铁品质的人是"大写"的人.

保尔一生十分坎坷，在双目失明的情况下他还坚持写书，对自己毫不顾惜.书中写道:他呕心沥血写的稿件丢失了，多么令他灰心失望啊，但他重新振作起来，用顽强的毅力完成了巨著.书中有段名言脍炙人口:"人的生命是最宝贵的.当他回首往事的时候，不应该为碌碌无为而悔恨……."保尔可谓强者的化身.

对照保尔，想想自己，感到脸上一阵阵烘热.记得今年大年初一，家家户户沉浸在节日的气氛中，我家却十分冷清.爸爸工作繁忙出差了，妈妈因病卧床不起.听着孩子们在外面的嬉闹声，我的眼泪在眼眶里直打转，片刻就"簌簌"落下眼泪来.妈妈见我落泪了，指着床头的书说:"轩轩，那本《钢铁是怎样炼成的》你看完了吗

"我再次把这本书翻阅，保尔的形象又浮现在眼前.对，我该做一个坚强的男子汉!我应该为家人分忧解难，决定下厨做饭菜.妈妈脸上露出了笑容，紧紧拉住我的手说:"你真是咱们家顶天立地的男子汉啊!"我指着《钢铁是怎样炼成的》这本书说:"是它教会我的!"

每当我遇到困难而退缩时，每当我受挫折而落泪时，我就会想起保尔那高大的身影，要把自己炼成一块真正的钢铁!

评语:这篇读后感的特点是:有感而发，情感真挚.小作者阅读了《钢铁是怎样炼成的》一书后，对保尔这一主人公产生了敬仰之情，称赞他是"强者的化身".当自己在生活中遇到困难时，用保尔这一榜样鞭策自我做生活中的男子汉.篇末紧扣文题，用"每当……就……"的句式表明了自己的抱负，是画龙点睛之笔.

写好读后感活用"四字诀"

读后感是议论文中最常见的文体之一，也是初高中学生必须掌握的一种文体.但从以往读后感训练的情况来看，效果并不尽人意.其实，写好读后感也有章可循.若活用"四字诀"，则更容易生效.

一，引--围绕感点，引述材料.读后感重在"感"，而这个"感"是由特定的"读"生发的，"引"是"感"的落脚点，所谓"引"就是围绕感点，有的放矢的引用原文:材料精短的，可全文引述;材料长的，或摘录"引"发"感"的关键词，句，或概述引发"感"的要点.不管采用哪种方式引述，"引"都要简练，准确，有针对性.

二，议--分析材料，提练感点.在引出"读"的内容后，要对"读"进行一番评析.既可就事论事对所"引"的内容作一番分析;也可以由现象到本质，由个别到一般的作一番挖掘;对寓意深的材料更要作一番分析，然后水到渠成地"亮"出自己的感点.

三，联--联系实际，纵横拓展.写读后感最忌的是就事论事和泛泛而谈.就事论事撒不开，感不能深入，文章就过于肤浅.泛泛而谈，往往使读后感缺乏针对性，不能给人以震撼.联，就是要紧密联系实际，既可以由此及彼地联系现实生活中相类似的现象，也可以由古及今联系现实生活中的相反的种种问题.既可以从大处着眼，也可以从小处入手.当然在联系实际分析论证时，还要注意时时回扣或呼应"引"部，使"联"与"引""藕"断而"丝"连.

四，结--总结全文，升华感点.总结既可以回应前文，强调感点;也可以提出希望，发出号召.不管采用哪种方式结尾，都必须与前文贯通，浑然一体.读后感始终要受"读"的约束，开头要引"读"，中间还要不时地回扣"读"的内容，结尾也要恰当回扣"读"的内容不放松.

当然要写好读后感，关键还要读透材料，抓准感点.怎样读透材料

一般说，如果是记叙文，就要抓住人物最突出的某种品质，最有价值的语言行动或事件所包含的深刻意义;如果是议论文，就要把握中心论点;如果是寓言或哲理性的散文，就要领会其深刻的寓意.当然，读一篇文章，感可能是多方面的，要在分析，思考的基础上，选择最值得发表，感受最深，见解新颖独到，最有针对性和现实感的感受来写，一篇读后感只能容纳一个感点，其他感点无论多么好，都要忍痛割爱.明智之举是抓住一点，不及其余，并围绕一个感点，联系实际，谈深谈透.

如何指导学生写读后感

学生写好读后感，历来是一件较辣手的问题.要写好读后感，指导是关键.我是如何指导学生写好读后感呢 体会是:

一，指导审题，理清题意

写好读后感，审题理清题意是关键.例如指导学生写《养花》一文的读后感.

养花

我爱花，所以也爱养花。我可还没成为养花专家，因为没有工夫去研究和试验。我只把养花当作生活中的一种乐趣，花开得大小好坏都不计较，只要开花，我就高兴。在我的小院中，到夏天，满是花草，小猫儿们只好上房去玩，地上没有它们的运动场。

花虽多，但是没有奇花异草。珍贵的花草不易养活，看着一棵好花生病要死，是件难过的事。北京的气候，对养花来说不算很好，冬天冷，春天多风，夏天不是干旱就是大雨倾盆，秋天最好，可是会忽然闹霜冻。在这种气候里，想把南方的好花养活，我还没有那么大的本事。因此，我只养些好种易活的自己会奋斗的花草。

不过，尽管花草自己会奋斗，我若是置之不理，任其自生自灭，大半还是会死的。我得天天照管它们，像好朋友似的关切它们。一来二去，我摸着一些门道：有的喜阴，就别放在太阳地里，有的喜干，就别多浇水。这是个乐趣，摸着门道，花草养活了，而且三年五载老活着，开花，多么有意思呀!不是乱吹，这就是知识呀!多得些知识决不是坏事。

我不是有腿病吗，不但不利于行，也不利于久坐。我不知道花草受我的照顾，感谢我不感谢;我可得感谢它们。我工作的时候，总是写一会儿就到院中去看看，浇浇这棵，搬搬那盆，然后回到屋中再写一会儿，然后再出去。如此循环，把脑力劳动和体力劳动得到适当的调节，有益身心，胜于吃药。要是赶上狂风暴雨或天气突变，就得全家动员，抢救花草，十分紧张。几百盆花，都要很快地抢到屋里去，使人腰酸腿疼，热汗直流。第二天，天气好转，又得把花儿都搬出去，就又一次腰酸腿疼，热汗直流。可是，这多么有意思呀!不劳动，连棵花儿也养不活，这难道不是真理吗?

送牛奶的同志进门就夸"好香"，这使我们全家都感到骄傲。赶到昙花开放的时候，约几位朋友来看看，更有秉烛夜游的味道——昙花总在夜里放蕊。花分根了，一棵分为数棵，就赠给朋友们一些;看着友人拿走自己的劳动果实，心里自然特别喜欢。

当然，也有伤心的时候，今年夏天就有这么一回。三百株菊秧还在地上(没到移入盆中的时候)，下了暴雨。邻家的墙倒了，菊秧被砸死者约三十多种，一百多棵，全家都几天没有笑容。

有喜有忧，有笑有泪，有花有果，有香有色。既须劳动，又长见识，这就是养花的乐趣。

首先让学生明白"感"是什么

"感"就是要求写自己怎样体会文章的思想感情.接着要求学生要联系自己的实际来写，可以先讲作者怎样说，怎样做，然后写自己"悟"出什么道理.

如何给文章定目呢

读后感题目多种多样，既可以直接题目，如:《养花》读后感;也可以用一句话或一个词做正题，如:学习要善于摸门道—《养花》有感.

总之，要使学生弄清题目要求，写作上要求，审题最关键.

二，抓中心，定要点

《养花》这篇文章写读后感，就是要体会文章的思想感情.所谓"文章的思想感情"即是中心思想，写体会的读后感，"感"应该围绕中心思想去开展.

第一步:先让学生回忆《养花》一文的中心思想，理清要点.第二步:我归纳习作要求，《养花》这篇文章抓住三个要点:①，养花能增长知识.②，养花能调节脑力劳动.③，养花可以创造劳动果实，发展友谊.

三，抓住要点，联系实际，理清结构

首先我让学生讨论《养花》一文几个要点，有几个方面体会较深.接着指导如何联系实际谈体会，最后介绍写读书笔记的两种方法:

1，先叙后议.方法是:先介绍什么书，讲了什么内容，反映什么中心思想，围绕中心结合自已例子说感受，最后写对自己的教育.

2，夹叙夹议.即围绕中心抓两三点，联系实际，扣紧原文发表感情，或者抓住文章的中心句去开展议论.

四，指导几种开头方法

1，开头谈总的感受.如:最近我读了老舍先生《养花》一文，觉得越读越有味道……接着再谈自己领会最深的那几点.第二段逐点谈体会，结尾小结全文，谈谈自己的打算.

2，开头提出问题.如:学习上难免有挫折，一个学生该怎样对待挫折呢

最近学习了老舍《养花》一文很受教育.然后参照上一种写法，从第二段开始，逐点谈体会.

3，开头指出某种不良现象.如:班上有些同学把读书看成是苦差事，在操场上生龙活虎，在课堂上垂头丧气，这是什么原因呢

然后引出《养花》这篇文章，逐点谈体会.

英语写作中积累很重要。下面是语文迷网为大家整理的英语四级作文精彩句式，希望对你有帮助。

一.开头句型

1.Recently the phenomenon has become a heated topic.

2.Recently the problem has been brought into focus.

3. Nowadays there is a growing concern over ... .

4. What calls for special attention is that...

5. There’s no denying the fact that...

6. what’s far more important is that...

7.It is common knowledge that honesty is the best policy.

8.It is well-known that…

9.Many nations have been faced with the problem of ...

10.According to a recent survey, ...

11. With the rapid development of ..., ...

二.结尾句型

1.From what has been discussed above, we can draw the conclusion that ...

2.In conclusion, it is imperative that ...

3.In summary, if we continue to ignore the above-mentioned issue, more problems will crop up. 4.With the efforts of all parts concerned, the problem will be solved thoroughly.

5.Taking all these into account, we ...

6. Whether it is good or not /positive or negative, one thing is certain/clear...

7.All things considered, ...

8.It may be safely said that...

9.Therefore, in my opinion, it’s more advisable...

10. It can be concluded from the discussion that...

11. From my point of view, it would be better if...

三.表原因句型

1.A number of factors are accountable for this situation.

A number of factors might contribute to (lead to )(account for ) the phenomenon(problem).

2. The answer to this problem involves many factors.

3. The phenomenon mainly stems from the fact that...

4. The factors that contribute to this situation include...

5. The change in ...largely results from the fact that...

6. Part of the explanations for it is that ...

7. One of the most common factors (causes ) is that ...

8. Another contributing factor (cause ) is ...

9. Perhaps the primary factor is that ...

10. But the fundamental cause is that ...

四.表比较句型

1.The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages.

2.The advantages of A are much greater than those of B.

3.A may be preferable to B, but A suffers from the disadvantages that...

5.For all the disadvantages, it has its compensating advantages.

6.Like anything else, it has its faults.

7.A and B has several points in common.

8.However, the same is not applicable to B.

9. A and B differ in several ways.

10. Evidently, it has both negative and positive effects.

五.表证明句型

1. No one can deny the fact that ...

2. The idea is hardly supported by facts.

3. Unfortunately, none of the available data shows ...

4. Recent studies indicate that ...

5. There is sufficient evidence to show that ...

6. According to statistics proved by ..., it can be seen that ...

六.表结果句型

1. It may give rise to a host of problems.

2. The immediate result it produces is ...

3. It will exercise a profound influence upon...

4. Its consequence can be so great that...

七.表反驳句型

1. It is true that ..., but one vital point is being left out.

2. There is a grain of truth in these statements, but they ignore a more important fact.

3. Many of us have been under the illusion that...

4. It makes no sense to argue for ...

5. Such a statement mainly rests on the assumption that ...

6. Contrary to what is widely accepted, I maintain that ...

小学阶段不同年级的作文有不同要求和写作技巧小学英语写作指导小学英语写作指导。

对于小学3年级的学生，在他们已经掌握好了如颜色(colour)、衣服(clothes)、数字(number)、星期(day of the week)、月份(month)、宠物(pet)、情感(feeling)、身体部位(body)、文具(school things)的基础上进行文章的填空，如果学生能够按照文章的要求写进相关的信息，那就已经很不错了。下面是一个自我介绍的简单例子：

Myself

Hello，my name is_____. I am_____years old.My favourite colour is_____，_____， and_____.My favourite pet is______，_____ and______. My favourite food is_____，______and______.My favourite day is______. My favourite school thing is______and______.My favourite number is and______.I am______today.

上面的这个例子，如果学生能够依次能吧自己的姓名、年龄、喜欢的颜色、喜欢的宠物、喜欢的食物、喜欢的日子、喜欢的文具、喜欢的数字和今天的心情准确无误地写出来，那么就已经能够完成了3年级阶段的作文要求。

对于4年级的学生，可以写一篇介绍自己课室或者自己卧室的文章。下面是一篇4年级学生的介绍课室范文。

My classroom

I am studying at Tongji primary school.I am in Class Two, Grade Four. (介绍自己所在的学校和所在的年级) There is a blackboard in front of the classroom. There are twenty-five desks in our classroom, they are brown. There are many books on the desk. There are fifty students, thirty boys and twenty girls. There is a picture on the wall. There are two fans on the wall. (用there+be句型把班里和摆设和班上的人数都表达出来了) It is tidy and clean.I like my classroom very much.(最后是作者的总结)

对于5年级的学生，作文的要求也提高了很多，很多学生在介绍别人或者是写自己喜欢的小动物的时候很容易忘了第三人称单数动词要加ses，如：He get up at 7 o’clock(get忘了加s)，在用到现在进行的时候动词很容易忘了加ing(如I am play the piano，play就忘记了加ing)，介词和介词短语也占了很重要的位置如介词in，on，at，of。介词短语如dream of(区分dream that)和be afraid of都是很重要的介词短语，很多学生忘记了介词后面要加动词小学英语写作指导少儿基础英语。

对于6年级的学生，作文考查的是英语的综合应用能力，而且出的题目大部分都是看图作文，这就在一定程度上增加了写作的难度，它也是综合了3年级的分类词汇，4年级的句型，方位介词，5年级的重点介词短语和时态，不过我相信只要平时多点积累单词和句型、多点动笔、多注意语法上的问题、多看作文书，那么就能写出流畅、有深度的文章。

行文中要多次扣题，要一路扣题一路歌。材料引语和话题中的相关文字至少在文中出现三次以上。开头三句话内应点题一次，结尾应回扣标题，“回眸一笑百媚生”。中间至少扣题一次。几次扣题事实上也是在不断地提醒自己不要跑题。有球场上叫暂停的效果，可以调整思路和写法。

思想要健康。“思想健康”不是说要你只说冠冕堂皇的话，不是要你刻意拔高，“健康”是针对“病态”“庸俗”而言的，它的底线是不能欣赏违背法律法规和偏离社会道德的事。恋爱题材是考场作文的禁区，无论考生写得如何缠绵悱恻，真挚动人，因其行为是中学生日常行为规范所不允许的，这类作文自然得不了高分。

观点不可太绝对，要留有余地。“义正”未必要“辞严”，“理直”未必就要“气壮”。联系现实生活时，涉及社会黑暗面时，要有分寸，不要一味指责。“质问京山大冤案”。批评家长老师和社会要与人为善，抱着协商与治病救人的态度，要提建设性意见。不可尖刻讽刺挖苦，甚至恶意地进行人身攻击。

临场写作时可以根据题意和你的表达需要想像一个或一类读者就在你的面前。如以“沟通”为话题作文，写与家长的沟通，可想像父母就在身边;写“沟通”之艰难和必要，就好像误解过你的人正在听你倾诉;写国际间通过沟通走向合作，就设想自己参与了国与国的谈判。即使所写文章没有明确的阅读对象，你也可以想像此文是写给你的语文老师的。你要知道，你的文章的惟一读者是那位跟你的语文老师非常相似的人。写记叙文，且最好将主人公设定为自己。想想阅卷老师的喜好，说他们想听的话。尽可能赢得评卷老师的同情。

写法上可以求新。要考虑，怎样表现更智慧，更艺术，更有可读性;但更要求稳。我的意见是大家一定要在一种比较稳的情况下，确有把握时才可写小小说或者是写戏剧，或者是写别的，确有把握之后才写这种文体，如果没有把握的话，就选择比较稳妥的老的文体，老的写法。

不可按上年或前几年的高考作文思路行文。求新求变是人们所追求的，高考作文也不例外。但若按上年或前几年的高考作文思路行文，甚至拿来套用，机械模仿，不懂灵活应变，就会吃力不讨好，这也是失分的点。因为阅卷者大都是相对固定的，对以前的高考作文非常熟悉。不主张写诗歌文言文。

苦于材料缺乏则可以突出自己的爱好。你如果喜欢体育，那你就像体育记者一样，叙体育议体育，只要切合题意就好。你如果喜欢听××的歌看××的书爱好上网……你就可以将自己这一方面的经历和感受与命题联系起来。那样就不愁内容贫乏文思枯竭。不要瞎编乱造。靠编故事骗取老师的眼泪从而获得高分的时代已经一去不复返了。

要美化自己，而不是丑化自己。要显现自己的高境界大抱负多知识同情心，要显现自己以天下为己任的豪情。不要出于反衬别人等考虑而故意丑化自己，如果让评卷老师以为你真就是那样，那就麻烦了，因为高考是选拔性考试。从某个角度讲，评卷老师评卷的过程就是一个选择淘汰对象的过程。

字数以字左右为宜。不能给人凑字数的感觉，但也不能拖得太长，不允许加纸条。许欢写长文的同学，开篇要注意不要放得太开，开口不要太大，能跳过去的就跳过去，要相信读者的理解能力。要注意节省篇幅，要防止高潮来了没地方写了。切忌三段文。要突出的句子(扣题的表现主旨的文眼点睛之笔抒情议论议论文的分论点等)最好单独成段。

看到题目后，可先搜索一下自己以往所写的优秀作文，看有没有可以再利用的。需要注意的是一定要不牵强。

充分发挥自己的优势。认识水平高擅长理性思维的同学可选择议论文，擅长形象思维会刻画人物的同学可选择微型小说，擅长抒情的同学可选择散文。

精写前几段，给评卷老师留下一个好印象。要精雕细刻，要出彩。比如，可开门见山，直奔主题;可制造悬念，引人入胜;可提出问题，引人注意;或巧用排比比喻拟人等修辞手法，或巧述故事，引人入胜，或巧用题记，揭示主旨，或巧用诗文显诗意。写好结尾和过渡段。阅卷老师一般是S型的扫描全文。结尾可画龙点睛，发人深思;或总结全文，照应开头;或虚笔拓展，扩大容量;或精辟议论，深化主旨。

要给自己充足的构思时间，不要急于动笔。“宁停三分，不争一秒”，因为写作是“开弓没有回头箭”的，写到一半，突然发现，呀，把题目理解错了，或没领会好命题的要求。最可怕的是文章写到一半，又想另起炉灶。时间没了，心情也坏了，干着急。建议打草稿，防止“三边工程”(边立项，边设计，边施工)。考场作文不宜见异思迁，边写边改。要贯彻一种构思。一旦构思已定，就不要轻易改变。

要力避前松后紧虎头蛇尾。有些同学构思提纲拟好后，开头反复推敲，精雕细琢，后来发现时间不够，于是草草收兵。此外，要谨慎对待修改。今年实行网上评卷，更应慎重。修改一般只着眼于字词方面的，可用米尺比好之后划两横。结构方面不能修改。要保持卷面的整洁美观，要努力做到改动少而效果好。

如果偏题或者离题，作文的主要分数就失去了。为防止跑题，可从如下几点做出努力：一是将材料引语和话题联系起来思考，不可单看话题;二是看自己确立的观点能否用话题所给材料来证明;三是想一想这则材料当初发在媒体上登载是要达到一个什么效果的。万一跑题了，要考虑逆挽，使文章形成一种欲扬先抑的结构形态。

一定要完篇。熟话说，好文章是风头猪肚豹尾。没有豹尾，老鼠尾巴也要有一个，绝不能写半头文。用半篇文章给你评分，怎么会得高分?

要重视拟题，特别要注意不能缺题。不是万不得已，不要以话题做标题。张伟民讲那是一种浪费。拟题是显示你才气的一个好的平台，不能轻易放弃。缺题影响远不止分。正好给了评卷老师扣分的理由。

文章要有一至两个亮点。如果是记叙文，应该用抓人的情节和生动的描写表现你的真情，记叙文不能没有描写。如果是议论文，就一定要有--个典型的论据，就应该有纵横捭阖，很深刻的见解。如果是微型小说一定要有巧妙的构思。这个亮点还可以是一句富有哲理的警句，也可以是一个精彩的比喻，也可以是一个超常的搭配(酽酽的歌喉)。总之，要能使评卷老师精神为之一震。

H1N1 influenza, since the claws reached into the earth and stuck it into our world caused great sensation. From Moscow, the United States, Japan, ... ... to China, have spared, showing the speed of its spread. While we use some of the medical technology we have can be prevented, you can cure, but it is still scary. The most laughable thing is that some people thus do not eat pork. However, these are not the focus of my concern, I am concerned, I am sad is:

When we state the first to be infected were found, one who returned from abroad Sichuanese, I heard mostly blame everyone, it makes me sad exception. Had returned from abroad is a good thing, is between the happy event. But because even not aware of being infected was a complete mess of things hands and become pieces of sad things. At first, I think we should sorry for him, should go to help him. However, many people said: "In the U.S., do not come back Well!" "We also are engaged in a state of panic." ... ...

So I write this, would like to call everyone together for their fuel.

Unfortunately, they are infected, and now has been isolated, they can not see their loved ones, they have lost freedom, they are very painful, very unwilling. So let us give them the courage to give them strength! Let us wish them a speedy recovery!

H1N1流感，自从这个魔爪伸进地球，伸进我们的世界就引起了极大的轰动。从莫斯科，美国，学习英语的网站，日本……到我们中国，无一幸免，可见其传播速度之快。虽然我们利用我们己有的医学技术，可以预防，可以根治，但是却还是令人恐慌。最可笑的是，有人因此而不吃猪肉。然而，这些都不是我关注的焦点，令我关注的，令我伤心的是：

当我们国家的第一个被传染者被发现时，就是那个从国外回来的四川人，我听到的大部分都是大家的苛责，这令我异常难过。原本从国外回来，是件好事，是间喜事。却因为连自己也不知道被传染的事搅的得一塌糊涂，成了件悲事。原本我想我们应该为他难过，应该去帮助他。然而，很多人却说：“在国外就不要回来嘛!”“还搞的我们人心惶惶的。”……

所以我写这篇，学英语的好网站，想呼吁大家，一起为他们加油。

他们不幸感染上了，现在被隔离，他们不能见到自己的亲人，好的英语学习网站，他们失去了自由，他们也很痛苦，很不甘。所以让我们给他们勇气，给他们力量!让我们一起祝愿他们早日康复!

健康：中药能够战胜甲流吗？

英语写作：Freedom in my Dream

实用写作遵循着一切文章共同的写作规律，但在采集——运思——行文——修改的基本写作过程中，小编收集了实用写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、需要与动机的转换

写作动机是写作行为发生的原因和动

力，写作动机分内部动机与外部动机。一般来说内部动机支持的写作是一种自主的写作，外部动机引发的写作则属于受命的写作，实用写作多数情况应视为受命写作。实用写作的外部动机虽仍为“需要”所激发，但这种写作“需要”是外力施加的，并非写作行为中写作主体自发的缺乏状态。

实用写作的外部动机主要表现为受“他人意志”支配和为“功利目的”驱使这两种形态。受他人意志支配包括接受领导布置任务、师长规定要求、朋友委托求助等等。凡出于他人意愿的写作动机下发生的写作行为都是受命写作，广义的公文就是最典型的领导或领导机关意志的产物。而奉命进行某个课题研究，最后撰写科研报告，这种写作“需要”也是外力施加的，但是由于受命者和授命者的固有关系，写作者原先的非写作的“需要”都转变成了写作动机。为功利目的驱使的写作动机也是客观存在的，这是文章被作为特殊商品或特殊评价依据(如评价学术水平的依据)后带来的客观现象。

虽然实用写作就是为了实际生活的需要，为了解决实际工作中的问题，实用写作目的的功利化实际上就是实用写作的“实用化”，但是，发起并支持主体写作行为的心理因素并不是外部动机，而是写作主体的内部动机。于是实用写作面临着一个主体动机转换的问题，即不管出于什么原因，如领导布置的、工作需要的、同事委托的等等，这些外在的原因都要转换成写作主体内在的一种需要，也就是主体内心有一个“别人要我写”到“我自己要写”的转变过程。只有真正完成了这种动机的转换，属于写作内部动机的特有心理品质才有可能在实用写作的行为过程中出现，如写作冲动、写作欲望、写作激情、写作心境乃至持久维持写作行为的写作热情等等。由此可见写作动机的转换，是实用写作心理的内在规律，是维持写作行为并为其不断增力，确保实用写作质量的需要。

二、材料的采集与验证

由于标准和角度不同，因而对写作材料的基本类型有着多种认识。从材料的来源看，有直接材料与间接材料之分;从材料的性质看，有正面材料与反面材料之别;从材料的存在空间看，有历史材料与现实材料之异;从材料的存在形态看，有个别材料与综合材料之辨。然而从实用写作对材料特征把握的需要看，事实材料、理论材料和情报资料这3类是最常见的。

“事实材料”即客观存在的具体事实，在实用写作中人名、地点、事件、数字等都是常用的事实材料。“理论材料”就是观念性材料，是人们在长期的社会实践中已经验证的观点，如科学的原理、定义、定律，生活中流传的警句、格言、俗语等等。在实用写作中最为常用的理论材料，一是相关的法律、法规、政策和规范性文件的精神;二是相关的时政动态、思想见解和学术观点。“情报资料”是有关工作人员根据事实、数据而编制的信息资料，它包括报表、统计资料、简报、文摘、索引等，这些也是实用写作不可或缺的写作材料。

获取材料的办法多种多样，实用写作采集材料的主要手段是调查，不同的调查方式与方法又是实用写作区别于文学写作聚材、选材的基本途径。调查的方式主要有：典型调查、专题调查、系列调查、追踪调查、随机调查、普遍调查、抽样调查等;调查的方法主要有：问卷调查法、访谈调查法、座谈调查法、实验调查法、实地调查法、文献调查法等。

既然材料有直接与间接、正面与反面、历史与现实、个别与综合之别，那么材料就有一个真与伪、虚与实之分。生活中的材料或者素材，是需要经过核实、鉴别等验证才能写入文章的，只有鉴别验证确认的材料，才能成为文章中证明和支撑观点的材料。

核实、鉴别材料时须验证的主要内容是：一是辨真伪，指文章使用的材料不但要准确无误，而且要贴切恰当，经得起推敲核查;二是查缺漏，指文章该使用的材料应完整，决不能遗漏，要利用一切机会弥补并完善;三是求典型，指文章应使用有代表性的材料，能体现一类事物的本质特征，力求个性与共性、特殊性与普遍性相统一，要发掘和利用材料在文章中该起到的作用，实现材料对体现写作意图的意义。

三、思维的类化与序化

实用文章写作中多数文本以条款格式为主，标序及分条分款的文章外在表现形式，其实质是文章内在逻辑关系及作者思维逻辑层次的外化。在一篇文章中，文章内在逻辑关系及作者的思维是通过材料组合排列体现的，正是从这个意义上说，材料的类化与序化是思维类化与序化的必然。

“类化”是写作主体对材料归类、归项的思维过程，它贯穿于整个写作过程。人类思维的“类化”功能使作者能够从容地面对纷繁复杂的写作材料，经过条分缕析的梳理之后，材料才分门别类出现在文章的各个部位，并按照预期的写作意图，表达观点、阐述意见、传递信息，以实现写作目的。所以“类化”是写作材料逻辑化的过程，也是作者思维条理化的过程，更是为文章化作好了充分的准备。

思维类化直接作

用于材料类化，材料类化表现在文章里就形成了章节——层次——段落等成网络状结构的各种形式。材料类化的结果，不管单元多小，其位置处于材料网络系统的末端，但它都是相对独立的逻辑单位，担负着相应的表意责任。

归类和归项是类化的两种重要形式。归类是根据事物的属性，把具象的事物从一个大类分解为若干个小类，或是将若干个小类归纳为一个大类的梳理和认识事物的方法。归项则是把抽象的事物从一个整体分解成几个不同方面，或是从几个不同方面归纳出一个整体的梳理和认识事物的方法。

归类、归项的材料类化过程必须遵循通常的逻辑规则，这就是分解或归纳都必须按照同一标准进行，不能使用双重标准。同时还要做到：各类、各项在分解之后应是自成单元的逻辑单位，相互间性质必须互不包容，内容也不能重叠交*;各类、各项在归纳后小类或分项应具有大类或整体的属性，它们与大类或整体间应具有明确的种属、种差的从属关系。

在实用文章写作中，写作主体对材料归类、归项的类化过程往往不是一次完成的，它可能是反复的、双向的、循环的，因为思维总是要在反复比较、试误中才能逐步清晰起来，直到最后定型的。思维类化的过程是复杂的，并且是在大脑的“黑箱”里进行，但其最终结果要外化为文章的表现形式，成为“可视”的精神产品。于是就牵涉到了文章的表述，即如何将思维类化的成果通过思维的序化，有条理地写出来，成为具体的文章，层次分明地展现在读者面前，这就是以下要讨论的话题。

思维的类化为实用文章写作中将写作内容作分类、分项表述提供了前提，因为惟有思路、材料梳理清晰了，大小间的关系及主次间的位置明确了，文章才能顺利布局，才能条理分明，文章各个方面的展开才能有张有弛。因此思维的序化必须建立在思维的类化基础之上，有合理的归类分类，才有恰当的编序排序。

将写作内容作分类、分项表述是实用文章写作中极为常用的方式，法规文书中“章下有条，条下有款，款下有项，项下有目”的列序及“章断条连”、“条连款不连”、“条贯到底”等等术语，正是这种表述方式的集中反映。在实用文章写作中，主要采用或基本采用条款式列序写法的文体除法规文书、契约文书以外，多数的计划类文种，如规划、方案、要点、安排、意见、设想等都采用了此法。像其他的事务文书或行政公文、经济文书、诉讼文书等，虽不一定全用条款列序形式，但根据内容的分类、分项，以大小标题统领全篇的方式，也比比皆是。

从思维的序化到材料的序化，再到文章列条列款的序化，这应该是“序化”的标准形态。在这种形态下，才有了约定俗成的对于结构层次序数的“规定”：第一级为“一、”，第二级为“(一)”，第三级为“1?郾”，第四级为“(1)”。当然在同一“级”里也常见更为简明的标序方法，如：“第一、第二、第三……”，“首先、其次、再次……”等等。

序号排列的内在机制是思维的序化功能，然而序化不仅仅是一个标序的问题，分章列条、序数排列只是文章条理化外在形式的一种。实用文章写作中，大小标题的设置，主次概念的使用，各种材料的分布，实质都包含着一个思维序化的问题。所以要使文章层次清晰、条理分明，必须让作者的思维缜密完整、合乎逻辑。要做到这一点，就要在调查研究、正确认识事物上下功夫。因为写作主体正确的思维序化是文章内在因素作用和事物内在联系的必然，所谓的文气相通、文脉相联，也正是思维序化合乎认识规律而带来的文通句顺的结果。

四、规律的抽象与概括

尽管需要陈述事实、交待背景，但实用文章写作最终指向的总是结论、意见、措施、办法、规定、要求等抽象性、根据性的思想成果。因此实用文章中有相当的文种是以归纳要点、抽象本质、概括规律为最高追求的。其中较典型的文种就有总结，总结的内容是回顾、检查以往的实践工作;总结的目的是通过对实践活动的分析、评价来找出规律性认识，以指导今后的实践。虽说总结要对已完成工作做全面系统的回顾，但并非具体详尽地回顾了过去的工作情况就是一篇好的总结。总结三分式结构内容就说明了仅仅回顾基本情况和介绍主要成绩与做法是远远不够的，总结还要对基本经验或教训作出概括，要总结出带规律性的理性认识，最后的结尾中还要写上存在的问题或今后努力的方向等。

对调研报告也有同样的写作要求。调研报告是对客观事物和现实问题进行深入调查研究后写成的、反映所获信息、情况和结论，揭示事物本质和规律的书面报告。各种类型调研报告的规范或主体内容几乎都被要求回答“结论、建议、本质、规律”等。如“反映基本情况的调研报告”中的“对策”;“提供典型经验的调研报告”中的“推广经验的建议”;“揭露问题的调研报告”中的“处理的意见和建议”;“研究问题与预测趋势的调研报告”中的“建议或设想”等等。

总结与调研报告是这般的情形，对法规文书、行政公文、诉讼文书、经济文书等也同样有这样的要求。可以说实用写作所生成的这些文书或文件，不仅仅是秩序与管理的需要，更是经验与教训的集成，是现阶段个人、单位、机关、团体、国家机器对社会、对现实的一种规律性认识。

从以上文体倾向可知，实用文章写作的表达方式看重的是分析与综合。在具体的写作中，分析就是把材料和写作对象分解为各个部分、方面、过程，并分别加以梳理和研究，使其成为提示文章主旨，表达作者观点的思维方法。

分析的方法多种多样，从纵向的角度看，就是探究事物的历史渊源和发展过程，将对象分成若干现象，逐阶段进行考察的分析方法。如渊源分析法(原因——现状);预测分析法(过去——现在——将来);进程分析法(低级——中级——高级);动态分析法(肯定——否定——否定之否定)等。从横向角度看，则是通过事物的内外联系，分析对象各个方面及它在整体中的比重，来把握事物特点的方法。如比较分析法对现象与本质、部分与整体、正面与反面、内容与形式、个别与一般、主流与支流等所作的辩证分析。

在实际的写作过程中，定性分析与定量分析则是最常用的分析方法。定性分析是一种揭示事物规定性的分析法，在奖惩类决定等行政公文和事务文书、诉讼文书中，经常涉及给事物定性，甚至文章本身就有专门的“定性”段落。定量分析是根据数据统计，把握量变与质变关系的分析方法。当下在追求“惟一性”的“科学化、标准化、数据化”的社会思维时尚下，定量分析的科学因素也越来越多地为实用文章写作所应用。

有分析必有综合，综合是在分析的基础上，把写作对象的各个部分和方面及各种因果关系结合起来，作为一个整体来进行考察的思维方法。就综合的类型或方式来说，感性认识从感觉到知觉的过程就有知觉的综合。写作中归类、归项的思维过程及对主题、概念的归纳，则属于形式逻辑的简单综合;辩证逻辑层面的综合，则表现为对事物、对写作对象的本质抽象和规律概括，而这几乎是所有实用文章写作的根本目标。

议论文是以议论为主要表达方式，通过摆事实，讲道理，直接表达作者的观点和主张的常用文体。下面是小编整理的议论文写作方法，欢迎阅读参考!

一、议论文知识

1、特点：以议论为主要表达方式，可兼用其他表达方式;以鲜明的态度表明观点或主张;以充分的材料证明其观点或主张。

2、要素：论点--对所论述的问题所持的观点态度;论据--对论点进行证明的材料依据;论证--用论据证明论点的过程和方法。

3、分类：立论，从正面阐述其观点，驳论，对反面论点进行驳斥，确立其正确的观点。

4、结构：基本结构，引论，本论，结论，论证结构，并列式，对照式，总分式，

5、方法：例证法，引证法，喻证法，类比法，对比法。引申法。

例证法：运用典型事例证明论点。

引证法：引用经典或名言、谚语等证明论点。

喻证法：借助形象的比喻来说明论点。

类比法：用另一同类事物或事例比较说明论点。

对比法：用反向例子或事理比较说明论点。

二、议论文常见模式

第一种：总分式(或称总分总式)

论说文的全文总体结构一般都是这种结构模式。论证方法一般都要在中心论点的统率下，确立几个从属于中心的，即为阐述中心论点服务的分论点，然后通过对分论点的逐一阐述，使中心论点得到深刻有力的证明。因而论说文全文结构，往往是"总--分--总"式。议论文几乎篇篇皆是这种结构模式。

第二种，并列式(又叫板块组合式)

并列式结构特点是，论证的层次作横向展开，分论点之间的关系是开列的，也就是分论点从不同角度、不同的侧面对中心论点或论述的中心问题展开论证，使文章呈现出一种多管齐下、齐头并进的格局。并列式的各个分论点，其先后次序有时可以前后互换;它们看起来是各自独立的，其实是紧密相关不可分割的一个整体。

例文：

细节的魅力

有一种颇为流行的话，看历史要看大势，看形势要看主流，看人物要看大节。这自然没错。但小事、细节也以其生动、直观、真实的特点而显得更鲜活，更有魅力，为人所喜闻乐见，津津乐道，而且也可由小见大，见微知著。

细节可定胜负。中日甲午海战前，日本间谍化装到中国军舰上侦察。当时，中国的军舰在吨位、数量、火力上都胜于日本，举国上下一片陶醉，以为中日海战，中方必胜无疑。可是中国军舰的炮塔上居然横七竖八晾着短裤、袜子，日本间谍就把这细节写在情报中，并分析道：这是一支纪律松弛，管理混乱的军队，人会有强大战斗力。果然，海战一开，中方惨败，几乎全军覆没，先进的军舰也都成了日军的战利品。

细节可知兴衰。抗日战争期间，华侨领袖陈嘉庚率团到国内访问，他先到国统区，国民x用一顿800大洋的盛宴来款待;他后到延安，毛xx则用几元钱的家常便饭为他接风。一奢一简，使他看清了国民x"前方吃紧，后方紧吃"不可挽回的腐x堕落，看清了共产党同仇敌忾、艰苦抗战的勃勃生机。从此，他认定中国的前途就寄托在中国共产党身上，于是，就坚定不移地站在中国共产党一边，成为中国共产党的朋友和中国革命胜利的见证。

细节可见精神。提到雷锋，人们会想起他那补了又补的袜子。他给敬老院送去的一块月饼;提到孔繁森，就会想起他去世后口袋中仅有的八元六角钱;提到朱德，就会想起井冈山上他的挑粮扁担;提到贺龙，就会想起长征路上的金色鱼钩……这些英雄伟人做过的大事，说过的名言，人们可能记不清了，可是，他们的一些生活细节却会让后人永远难忘，他们的伟大精神也就通过这些不起眼的细节永驻人心。

细节是华美乐章的一个音符，细节是鸿篇巨制的一个单词，细节是万顷波涛中的一朵浪花，细节是万仞高山上的一个石子。"一滴水可映出太阳光辉"，欣赏细节，把玩细节，会发现，小小细节，魅力无穷。

评：本文中间三个分论点之间的关系是并列的。它们从不同的角度、不同侧面对中心论点"细节有魅力"阐述其理由--为什么?

第三种：递进式

递进式的结构特点是分论点之间的关系不断递进。论证的层次向纵深展开，一层比一层深入地提示论题的内涵，使中心论点得到深刻的阐发，其作用是分析透彻，说理深刻。它们的先后次序一般是不可以互换的。意思是一层一层先后蝉联的。

例文

诗意地生活

07年高考湖南考生

太阳每天东升西落，行人每天匆匆而过，我们都在看似平静的生活里奋力的拼搏。若说诗意地生活，在我看来并非海明威仰望乞力马扎罗之雪时的浪漫，不是梭罗独居瓦尔登湖畔的寂寞。而是在纷繁现世之中，留一方净土种理想，然后一刻不停去奋斗，直到收获人生一片金黄麦田。

理想。是第一层境界;"独上高楼，望断天涯路。"是理想点燃星星之火，是理想洗去茫茫尘埃，是理想让我们一眼望断天涯，开始追寻之旅。泰戈尔曾说："我诗中的天堂正是我心中的理想。"正是心中有理想才会奋力去追诗意的天堂。诗意地生活，首先要有一个理想，不论它是黯淡还是光辉，也不论它是渺小还是伟大，若无理想，春天的繁花如何盛开出绚烂，夏日的星辰如何闪烁银辉，人生之路，如何扬帆起航，冲得一片诗情?

奋斗。是第二层境界："衣带渐宽终不悔，为伊消得人憔悴。"柳永在《风》中诉说对伊人的思念，生活的诗意，等待奋斗去实现理想。现出中，诗意地生活，便是拿起奋斗的斧劈开理想的石，卷起千层浪来比万丈豪情。昔秦始皇定下一统天下的理想，便每一步稳扎稳打，步步为营北击匈奴收复河套，南制百越，收为象郡。奋斗的脚步一刻都不曾停止，终于待得麾灭六国，横扫中原的壮观场面。奋斗让理想熠熠生辉，让人生之路越走越宽，承起生命不可承受之重，潇洒自由，踌躇满志，擎起人生一片艳阳天。这等人生，谁人敢说不诗意?

收获。是第三层境界："蓦然回首，那人却在灯火阑珊处。"当奋斗之泉灌理想之田，秋天，便是收获的季节。这一片金黄的麦田，折射出一段闪亮的人生之路。且不论这"麦田"是大是小，也不说这收获是否等值付出，只要是收获，便已是一种结果，成功了便收获鲜花与掌声，失败了，便收获一段经验几多教训，然后从头再来。就像国学大师季羡林曾说："活一世，就像作一首诗，你的成功与失败都是那片片诗情，点点诗意。"收获，是收获理想，收获奋斗，收获一段诗意的人生。

我们的生活虽不似李白"人生得意须尽欢，千金散尽还复来"的豪迈，但理想让它明亮，奋斗让它真实，收获让它有一片金黄的款款诗意。

用执着打破命运的锁，让生活活出诗意，种下理想，不懈奋斗，相信终会有"雁引秋心去，山衔好月来"的收获。

评：本文运用层进式。中间三级理想、奋斗、收获一层层深入，先后层次不可互换，另外，本文文采斐然，诗意盎然，"拿起奋斗的斧辟开理想的石"等比喻句用得新颖贴切。三是材料新鲜，积累丰厚，文章用到的材料，古今中外不下10处。

第四种对比式(论证结构)

对比式论证，指文章从正面和反面取材、论证，也即"应该怎样"、不应该怎样"--各层次既独立又相互支撑，全方位地对问题进行论述。

例文：

宽恕别人，就是解放自己

当一只脚踏在紫罗兰的花瓣上时，它却将余香味留在了那只脚上。这就是宽恕。

一个精神病人闯进了一位医生的家里，开枪射杀了他三个花样年华的女儿;他却仍为精神病人治好了病。这也是宽恕。

多一份宽恕，多一位朋友。多一份仇恨，多一个敌人。

宽恕别人，就是善待自己，仇视别人就是仇视自己。

宽恕别人，就是解放自己，心灵一片纯净。

评：作者没去论述宽恕的必要性，重要性等等，而是紧紧围绕着"选择"，反反复复地说出"选择宽恕"的好处，和"选择仇恨"的恶果。通过一次次的对比论证，让人接受"宽恕"的心灵选择，而抛弃"仇恨"的心态。

第五种，启感式(论证结构)

启是启示类，感是感想类。共同特点是先叙材料，后发感想。感想类还可边读边感，如文学评论。根据材料写议论文的基本写法是先叙材料后发感想。这种写法由"引""证""联""结"四步构成

例文：

可以填平鸿沟

某校高二(1)学生暑假想承包一个冰柜，既可尝到课本外的知识又可减轻家里经济负担，但良好的想法、一腔的热情得不到父母的理解，因而伤心已极，离家出走。从这件事中，我们可以清楚地看到，父母与孩子之间思想上已出现了一道鸿沟。由此我们不得不发出呼吁：两代之间应互相理解。

随着改革开放的深入，人们的观念也在不断更新。年轻的一代容易接受新事物新观念。他们的想法、做法都与上一代有着这样那样的不同，这时父母不应该一概否定他们甚至责骂他们。时代不同了，我们怎能要求孩子一成不变呢?作为父母，应与孩子多接触，多了解，不要让彼此的距离越拉越远，形成一道真正不可逾越的鸿沟。同样，作为孩子，也应设身处地地为父母着想。也许他们是有点守旧，不大能接受全新的东西，但他们是出于一片关心。记得报载一初中女学生成绩不好，常受父母责打，终因厌世而自杀。她死后，父母哭得死去活来。若她的父母真的不关心她，又怎会如此之伤心呢?因此，多与父母沟通，多告诉父母自己的想法，两代人的思想就会自然而然地融合在一起。

父母与子女之间存在思想上的差距，这已不是一个罕见的现象，为此而离家出走，弃世自杀的孩子时有所闻。唯今之计，父母所该做的是少一点严厉的批评、打骂，多一点真诚的关怀，而孩子则该多体贴父母，理解父母的心情，切不可轻易悲观厌世。

从一个中学生的离家出走，我们应该警惕，不可再让那条"沟"广大下去理解，理解与热忱，是填平它的唯一途径。鸿沟，是可以填平的，但需要两代人共同的努力。

本文为典型的"引--议--联--结"的结构形式。引材料，简明扼要;明观点，要言不烦;发议论，情理相生;联现实，有的放矢;作结论，善于照应。观点鲜明，结构严谨，标题形象，语言准确。

第六种：比喻式(论证结构)

比喻式认证，是一种用具体、生动、形象的事物作比喻来证明较抽象道理的论证方法。

例文：

象棋哲学

象棋，确实是一个富于智慧的发明。一盘棋就是一个小的规范社会，每个棋子都有自己的行为规范;车行线、马行日、象飞田、炮打隔山子，小卒子一去不复返……正因为各有各的行为规范，大家都按规矩办事，才使这个小社会有条有理，妙趣横生，使下棋的人百下不厌，其乐无穷。

下棋的人必须按棋的规矩办事，这是获得棋趣的前提，假如有人不讲究规矩，随心所欲，来邪的，要横的，这棋局就会乱了套，其中的乐趣也就烟消云散了。

规则是象棋的根本，在规则之内，下棋的人可以运用自己智慧，可以灵活地调兵遣将，一招一式都显示着自己的谋略和思考，因而在小小象棋盘中，在规则的基础上，任人想象，任人发挥，变化莫测，极为有趣。

象棋的基础是规则，规则的基础是公平。包括老将在内，都有严格的行为规范，并不折不扣地执行。

棋局中没有闲子，每个棋子都有自己明确的职责，或负责进攻，或负责守卫，或负责配合，总是各司其职，没有一个滥竽充数的。棋子一致对外，同仇敌忾，从不搞"窝里斗"不干勾心斗角，同室操戈的蠢事。为了大局的胜利，每个棋子都随时准备做出牺牲。……

这种棋局中的哲学已经超越了原始的竞技范畴，它暗示给世人的是谋生之道，为官之道。对于一个口口声声标榜热爱法制的社会，游戏规则就是平等，就是没有法外之外、权外之权，这一条适合于平民百姓，也适合于国家之首。

[议论文写作方法有哪些

一、优化词汇输入教学，丰富词汇知识积累

词汇是一篇文章最基本的组 成要素。头脑中如果没有一定数量的、且处于鲜活状态的词汇，就无法写出好文章。要写出好的文章，就必须善于从众多的词语中选择和运用最恰当的词语。因此， 加强词汇教学、扩大和丰富学生的词汇量是提高学生写作能力的基础工作。克拉申的“语言输入假说模式”认为：正确和恰当的语言输入将会使语言学习的效果更 佳。

最佳语言输入的两个必要条件：

1)密切相关的

2)大量的。因此，将密切相关的常用词汇、习惯搭配适当集中教学，反复归纳、不断循环和强化是较好的词 汇输入方法，同时也保证了常用词汇在头脑中的鲜活状态，为写作输出提供可靠保障。

二、加强基础写作训练，活化基础知识积累

在学生写作过程中，我们 常常会发现许多学生的词汇量与运用能力不成正比的现象，写作中经常出现词汇贫乏和用词不当等问题。这种问题的出现实际上是学生获得的知识没有有效的活化。 配合词汇和句型教学，教师可以经常以所教学词汇为关键词拟定一些与时事或生活相关的话题，让学生用词、句做翻译练习，一段时间(4-5天)之后，再让学生 用这些词、句进行写作，多写多练以达到活化知识的目的。

三、广泛阅读，拓展知识积累

“熟读唐诗三百首，不会作 诗也会吟”。在大量的阅读过程中，可使学生开拓视野，拓展知识，增加语感，为写作提供必要的语言材料。写作和阅读是互相促进、相辅相成的。有些词汇和句 型，学生只是似曾相识，通过广泛的阅读能促使学生把这些东西运用得更熟练，表达得更准确。反过来，这也会有效地提高学生的阅读理解能力。

导语：如何写好记叙文的开头?附加记叙文精彩开头，仅供参考!

一、开门见山，直接入题

写人为主的记叙文可以直接交代人物或通过对人物肖像对话、行动等方面的描写，直接入题;叙事为主的记叙文，一开头就可以点明事情发生的时间、地点和有关背景。如：

二、写景状物，渲染气氛

开头从写景状物入手，渲染气氛，一烘托人物，展开故事。如：

三、抒情议论，确定基调

用几句简要的议论，恰当的抒情，来作文章的开头，或感染读者，或点明主旨，领起下文。如：

四、设置悬念，引出下文

开头设置悬念，能一下子抓住读者的心，激发人们去思考，起到引人入胜的效果。

五、引用诗文，突现中心

以诗文妙语，名言警句开头，既能激发读者的想象和兴趣，也能提高文章的品位;既能揭示主要内容，也能突现人物和事件。

记叙文精彩开头

1、生活如诗，诗意有尽情难尽;生活如茶，茶香满口情悠悠;生活如歌，歌到深处情难留;生活如酒，酒将醉时笑语盈……——(无锡市《精彩一幕》)

2、生活是爱的海洋，人人都呼吸着爱，感受着爱。生活就像一片夜空，在流星的精彩瞬间，令人感受到壮丽的美;生活就像一涓细流，在穿石的精彩瞬间，令人感受到坚持的美……但人间最美的，是爱。——(无锡市《精彩瞬间》)

3、抛不完相思血泪抛红豆，开不完春柳春花满画楼，睡不稳纱窗风雨黄昏后，忘不了新愁与旧愁，展不开的眉头，捱不明的更漏，恰便似遮不住的青山隐隐，流不断的绿水幽幽……——(富阳市《心弦上痴情的景致》)

4、我爱“急湍甚箭，猛浪若奔”那种舞动的劲，带动我青春向上的心灵;

我思“小桥流水人家”那游子的乡愁，牵动我年少的思绪，拨动我心灵的思乡琴弦;,

我悟“日出江花红似火，春来江水绿如蓝”那寂静，那和祥，抚着我年轻狂妄的想法，赋予我冷静的思想。——(厦门市《岸?流水?奔放》)

5、流水清清，荡漾起声与色的韵律，飘逸出生命的华彩与灿烂。

流水柔柔，点染开情感的温和，播洒下爱的春露。

流水蓬蓬，激扬了力与美的交响，迸发出灵魂的坚韧。——(厦门市《水韵悠悠》)

6、当东坡居士在波涛翻涌的赤壁下高唱：“大江东去浪淘尽，千古风流人物……”。我们认为这是激动人心的壮美风景。当易安居士在落红之下低吟浅唱：“红了樱桃，绿了芭蕉，雨打窗棂湿绫绡。”我们认为这是宁静淡泊的风景。当青莲居士在月明星稀时，对长空高歌：“天下摧眉折腰事权贵，使我不得开心颜。”我们认为这是无奈悠远的风景。

许许多多美的风景组成了我们的泱泱大国，许许多多人文风景组成了我们灿烂丰富的历史。——(富阳市《心景和谐》)

7、夜，好静谧，柔和的月光洒了一地银白;夜，好深沉，父亲那时起时落的鼾声犹如一首动人的月光曲，回荡在夜色上空。望着熟睡中父亲的脸，我的思绪也飘向那片圣洁的夜空……——(金华市《想起了父亲苍老的脸》)

8、“对酒当歌，人生几何。譬如朝露，去日苦多……”曹丞相横槊赋诗慨叹人生苦短。列御寇御风而行，超然洒脱;庄周不畏世俗所累;李白淡薄名利留下千古佳话。而反观周兴、来俊臣之辈贪图钱财，使自己一生不得安宁;卫青曾与霍去病抵抗匈奴立下大功，却为了功名害死李广，自己也忧郁而终。生命应得到善待，但凡追名逐利而不折手段者，其生命也将暗淡无光。

虽然都欣赏“生命诚可贵，爱情价更高，若为自由故，二者皆可抛”的人生哲学，但生命乃是人们最初的珍爱。惟有生命的存在，才有可能言及其它。——(南通市《善待生命》)

9、如果说春天是一组欢快的四季曲，那么阳光便是灵动跳跃的节奏。春天，绿色的使者，希望的象征;阳光，温柔的天使，光明的象征。有了春天，无不生机盎然，繁花似锦;有了阳光，无不温暖人心，心情舒畅。——(江西《让我挺胸沐浴春天的阳光》)

10、“挺胸”是什么?是昂首自立，洁身自好，不与世俗同流合污么?是铮铮铁骨，宁死不屈，舍身而取义么?是飘逸洒脱，张扬个性，不谄媚权贵么?历史上多少名人志士，用他们的行为乃至生命，向我们一次又一次地诠释了这个词的含义……——(江西《挺胸而立》)

11、春天，撷一缕春风，放进心房，让它吹起我的快乐;夏天，捧一抹骄阳，放进心房，让它照亮我的温暖;秋天，拾一枚红叶，放进心房，让它收获我的心情;冬天，掬一捧阳光，放进心房，让它荡涤我的心灵……

12、我珍惜生命的每一寸光阴，我渴望美丽，我享受生命，所以无论何时，我都会拥有一份好心情!——(常州市《让好心情牵引我们成功》)

13、 例：(首)时间流逝，光阴飞转。十四岁的春秋，我已与父母走遍数载花开花落。从我生命的始初以同一速度不可挽回地向未来飞速冲刺。待偶尔停驻，才发现：季节轮替的十四年里，我一直与父母同行。苍老的，是岁月，是父母;而与之相反的，我长大了。

(尾)我想我们还会一直走更长的岁月，大概要有他们的一辈子那么长。我们会感叹时光荏苒，岁月如梭。以后的几十载，我与父母同行。苍老的，是岁月，是人;而不变的，是爱。(《我与父母同行》)

14、晚风吹过河面上最后一波涟漪，夕阳收起它最后一首余晖，秋霜目送去最后一只归雁。我们默默地站着，目光游离在那若即若离的记忆之门上。当许许多多都已凋尽，我们起码还可以对自己说：“别伤心，我已体验过那种感觉，虽然只是曾经拥有。”(选自安徽省中考满分文《曾经拥有》) 技巧点拨：一切景语皆情语，在记叙文、散文的写作中，环境描写是不可少的。环境描写可以渲染气氛，可以衬托人物、可以推动故事情节的发展。如果在文章的开头先进行一段简洁的环境描写，既可以为文章提供一个特定的背景，又能使文章形成一种特殊的氛围。

15、“月朦胧，鸟朦胧，帘卷海棠红。”每当我吟诵这句诗，心中便有说不出的陶醉。心也朦胧，眼也朦胧，眼前真个展现了同一幅画来。(选自吉林省中考满分文《陶醉》)

一年一度专业技术职称评审开始了，怎么样写好专业技术职称总结？是大家普遍关心的问题，也是伤脑筋的问题，为了让大家顺利通过专业技术职务评审，特请一位长期从事职称改革工作的同志，谈一谈这个问题。

专业技术工作总结，应该属于总结类的文章，与一般的总结类文章差不多。但也有独特的特点，是职称评审重要组成部分，是评委评价自己的重要依据，也是自己水平、能力、成果的展示，同时也是任职以来重要经验总结。总结写得好不好，影响到专家对你的评价，也会影响到自己能不能通过。所以写好专业技术总结很重要。

申报职称的自我评价如何写？

一是先简要介绍自己是基本情况，如现任职称、任职时间、毕业学校、政治面貌、现从事的专业技术工作。担任那些社会职务。

二是自己政治思想，工作态度，履行岗位职责情况。

三是详细地叙述自己任职以来从事的专业技术工作。即主持那些课题，课题进展，有那些创新，取得那些突破，通过那类鉴定，获得什么奖励，专家对此评价。

四是发表那些论文。

五是获得的奖励。

汪曾祺大家都知道，你看过他的散文吗？和小编一起来看看下文关于汪曾祺散文的写作方法，欢迎借鉴！

我是个不那么喜欢读书的中文系的学生，自然，也就不大喜欢主动去看一些小说、诗歌和文章。但在一次偶然的去图书馆休息的时间里，随手从书架上拿下来一本书，是一本人物传记类书籍。作者是汪曾祺的三个儿女，书名是《老头儿汪曾祺》。

从这本书里，提到了小时候，大概是三四年级左右的年纪，语文课本中有一篇文章叫做“多年父子成兄弟”，那是汪曾祺的作品。是一篇散文。之前虽有听说汪曾祺是个著名的作家，但并没有去看过他的一些作品。而此时突然提到这位作家，使我产生了一些想去看看他都写了什么东西的想法。于是，在这个初衷下，我阅读了他的一些散文，小说作品。

他是沈从文的弟子。“京派”作家的代表人物。他的散文作品，在我看来，在中国当代文坛上，独树一帜，特别具有一番与别人不同的韵味。汪曾祺散文给我印象第一深刻的就是他的语言、文字。他曾不止一次地提到他的语言风格是受到了归有光的极大影响。后来我了解到，归有光的散文最大特点，就是白描，近乎于通篇的白描写作。汪曾祺受其影响，语言中，出落的就是大大方方，平平淡淡的白话。有人评价汪曾祺的语言说是“把白话白到了家”。然而，读汪曾祺的文章又很明显地可以感受得到他在行文之中所带有的那种文人雅气。二者得到了某种平衡和协调之后，显示出了独特的艺术魅力。就像在《花园》中，他说“没当家像一个概念一样浮现于我的记忆之上，它的颜色是最深沉的”，“当然我嘴里是含着一根草了。草根的甜味和它的似有若无的水红色是一种自然的巧合”，整篇文章读下来，却使人忍俊不禁，内心平和，恬淡而又不乏感动，如最后他说“有一年夏天，我已经像个大人了，天气郁闷，心上另外又有一点小事使我睡不着，半夜到园里去。一进门，我就停住了。我看见一个火星。咳嗽一声，招我前去，原来是我的父亲。他也正因为睡不着觉在园中徘徊。他让我抽一支烟（我刚会抽烟），我搬了一张藤椅坐下，我们一直没有说话。那一次，我感觉我跟父亲靠得近极了。”

汪曾祺曾说，他所追求不是深刻，而是和谐。“我非常重视语言，也许我把语言的重要性推到了极致。我认为语言不只是形式，本身便是内容”，他的语言，平淡中出于绚烂，人人看了都能明白，都能看懂。我想。这一点，他跟他的老师沈从文真是像极了。虽然朴素，但那是一种文学修辞，文学语言，不是方言。没有在语言上的研究的本领，是写不出那样的文字的。

第二个特点，则是汪曾祺的散文中，善于从小处写起，以小见大。他似乎特别擅长于从生活中的琐碎小事中取材，寓巧于拙，表达真挚的感情，。正如小时候学过的那篇文章《多年父子成兄弟》里，“父亲是个绝顶聪明的人。他是画家，会刻图章，画写意花卉。图章初宗浙派，中年后治汉印。他会摆弄各种乐器，弹琵琶，拉胡琴，笙箫管笛，无一不通。”而在“母亲”去世后，“父亲”“亲手给她做了几箱子冥衣――我们那里有烧冥衣的风俗。按照母亲生前的喜好，选购了各种花素色纸做衣料，单夹皮棉，四时不缺。他做的皮衣能分得出小麦穗、羊羔，灰鼠、狐肷。”于是，“父亲”对“母亲”的深沉的眷恋，和感情清晰地展露在我们眼前，让人读了深深为之感动。而“父亲”在一旁给十七岁的“我”瞎出主意写情书的场景，则更是让“父亲”随和，温暖的形象深入人心。这些都是一些细琐的小事，但由汪曾祺这么一写出来，便显得感情真挚，动人。整篇文章中都是从身边小事写起。虽然平淡，却从点点滴滴中流露出对孩子们的亲近、理解、包容和友善，从父亲愿意放低身段，与儿子称兄道弟就可以看出，他是一个愿意让自己真正地走进孩子的内心，真正的融入到孩子们的世界，并不把自己的想法强加于孩子们的人。他总是用自己智慧灵巧的双手和热切呵护的爱心，为孩子们营造出神异快乐的童话世界，他给孩子们带来的永远是水晶一样灵动明净的琉璃世界。

宋代盛行的一种中国文学体裁，宋词是一种相对于古体诗的新体诗歌之一，小编收集了宋词的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

(一)什么是词

词最初称为“曲词”或“曲子词”，是配音乐的。后来逐渐和音乐分离了，成为诗的别体，所以有人把词称为“诗馀”。由于文人的词深受律诗的影响，所以词中的律句特别多。词是长短句，但是全篇的字数、句数是一定的，每句的字数、平仄也是一定的。

词大致可以分为三类：(1)小令;(2)中调;(3)长调。有人认为：58字以内为小令，59～90字为中调，91字以上为长调。这种分法未必科学，但大概情况还是如此的。

(二)词牌的来历

词牌，就是词的格式的名称。词的格式和律诗不同，律诗只有四种格式，而词则总共有两千多种格式(按钦定词谱)。词的这些格式称为词谱。

关于词牌的来源，大概有下面三种情况：

(1)本来是乐曲的名称。如《菩萨蛮》、《西江月》、《风入松》、《蝶恋花》等。这些有的来自于民间，有的来自于宫廷或官方。

(2)摘取一首词中的几个字作为词牌。

(3)本来就是词的题目。《浪淘沙》咏的是浪淘沙，《更漏子》咏夜，《抛球乐》咏抛球，等等。这是最普遍的。凡是词牌下面注明“本意”的，就是说，词牌同时是词题，不另有题目了。

但是，绝大多数的词都不是用“本意”的，因此，词牌之外还有词题。一般在词牌下面或后面注明词题。这种情况下，词题和词牌没有任何联系。一首《浪淘沙》可以完全不提到浪和沙;一首《忆江南》也可以完全不提到江南。这样，词牌只不过是词谱的代号罢了。

(三)单调、双调、三叠、四叠

词有单调、双调、三叠、四叠的分别。

1、单调的词往往就是一首小令，它很象一首诗，不过是长短句罢了。

2、双调的词可以是小令、中调或长调。双调就是把一首词分成前后(或上下)两阕。两阕的字数相等或基本相等平仄、句式相同或部分相同，也可以完全不同。字数、平仄、句式相同的就象一首曲子配着两段歌词。字数、平仄、句式不相同的，往往是开头几句不一样，叫做“换头”。

3、三叠就是三段，如《兰陵王》、《西河》等。四叠就是四段，仅《莺啼序》一调。不再详述!

二、正体和变体

(一)正体和变体，二者的区别和联系

在读宋词时，有时会遇到这样一种情况，两首词的词牌一样，但是字数、句数、句读、押韵等方面却不完全相同，这是因为词牌有正体和变体之分。如《卜算子》：

《卜算子》

四十四字 双调。别名:《缺月挂疏桐》《百尺楼》《楚天遥》《眉峰碧》等

●正体

仄仄仄平平，仄仄平平仄。仄仄平平仄仄平，仄仄平平仄。

仄仄仄平平，仄仄平平仄。仄仄平平仄仄平，仄仄平平仄。

《卜算子》宋· 苏轼

缺月挂疏桐，漏断人初静。时见幽人独往来，缥缈孤鸿影。

惊起却回头，有恨无人省。拣尽寒枝不肯栖，寂寞沙洲冷。

《卜算子 》宋·陆游

驿外断桥边，寂寞开无主。已是黄昏独自愁，更著风和雨。

无意苦争春，一任群芳妒。零落成泥碾作尘，只有香如故。

●变体(一)

下阕首句变“仄仄平平仄”，四十四字

例：《卜算子》宋·严蕊

不是爱风尘，似被前缘误。花落花开自有时，总赖东君主。

去也终须去，住也如何住!若得山花插满头，莫问奴归处。

●变体(二)首句变“平平仄仄平”，四十四字

《卜算子》宋·杨冠清

苍生喘未苏，贾笔论孤愤。文采风流今尚存，毫发无遗恨。

凄恻近长沙，地僻秋将尽。长使英雄泪满襟，天意高难问。

●变体(三)上下阕首句变“仄仄平平仄”，四十四字

《卜算子》宋·石孝友

见也如何暮，别也如何遽。别也应难见也难，后会无凭据。

去也如何去，住也如何住。住也应难去也难，此际难分付。

●变体(四)下阕末句变“仄仄仄，平平仄”，四十五字

《卜算子》李之仪

我住长江头，君住长江尾。日日思君不见君，共饮长江水。

此水几时休，此恨何时已。只愿君心似我心，定不负、相思意。

●变体(五)上阕首句变“平平仄仄平”下阕首句变“仄仄平平仄”，末句变成“平仄仄，平平仄”，四十五字。

《卜算子》宋·徐俯

天生百种愁，挂在斜阳树。绿叶阴阴自得春，草满莺啼处。

不见凌波步，空忆如簧语。柳外重重叠叠山，遮不断、愁来路。

●变体(六)上阕首句变“平平仄仄平”下阕首句变“仄仄平平仄”，上下阕末句变成“仄平仄，平平仄”。四十六字

《卜算子》宋·杜安世

尊前歌一曲，歌里千重意。才欲歌时泪已流，恨应更、多于泪。

试问缘何事?不语如痴醉。我亦情多不忍闻，怕和我、成憔悴。

●变体(七)上下阕首句变“仄仄平平仄” 上阕末句“仄仄仄，平平仄”，下阕末句“平平仄仄平平仄”，四十七字

《眉峰碧》宋·无名氏

蹙破眉峰碧，纤手还重执。镇日相看未足时，忍便使鸳鸯隻!

薄暮投村驿，风雨愁通夕。窗外芭蕉窗里人，分明叶上心头滴。

●综述：上下阕首句可以换“(仄)仄平平仄”，并入韵;或者用“平平仄仄平”。上下阕末句可以换成“(仄)(仄)仄，平平仄”。在《眉峰碧》里，下阕末句变成了“平平仄仄平平仄”。除掉《眉峰碧》以外，44～46字体总共变化组合为36种。据《唐宋词学大辞典》，《卜算子》有变体30余种。 但是众多的体，只有一种使用最多，便成了正体。 正体和变体之间，既有相同之处，使它们共有一个词牌名，又有不同之处，区别成许多变体，还生成一些别名。

(二)同调异名

同样一个词牌，可以有不同的名称，《忆江南》又名《望江南》《江南好》《春去也》《望江楼》《梦江南》《望江梅》等。《菩萨蛮》 又名《子夜歌》《重叠金》《梅花句》等。《卜算子》又名《缺月挂疏桐》《百尺楼》《楚天遥》《眉峰碧》等。

贺铸是一个比较喜欢新创别名的词人，很多词牌的多数别名都是贺铸创造的，这给读者带来不少麻烦。在写词时，除特殊需要，最好用正名，不要用别名。

(三)同名异调

还有一种情况，两首词的词牌名一样，可是格式迥然不同!这属于同名异调。例如：《如梦令》和《阮郎归》都有一个别名叫《宴桃源》;《浪淘沙》和《谢池春》都有一个别名叫《卖花声》。这样的情况还有许多。

三、填词

(一)依声填词

细分为二种：

1、词人精通音律，会自己作曲，可以直接按曲谱填词!又称“按谱填词”柳永、周邦彦、姜夔、吴文英等人属此!

2、词人不会作曲，但是能听懂曲调，按曲调填词，又称“按箫填词”。苏轼、秦观、贺铸、辛弃疾等属此!

(二)依句填词

词人不懂音律，只能按前人作品的句式、每句的平仄格式填词。陆游、刘过等人属此，南宋多数词人都如此。这种填词法填出来的作品和依声填词的作品在平仄上是看不出来的，现在按词谱填词属此。

(三)自度曲和自过腔

通晓音律的词人，自摆歌词，又能自己谱写新的曲调，这叫做自度曲，有时也叫自度腔。

宋代有不少词人，都深通音乐，他们做了词，便自己能够作曲，故词集中 常见有“自度曲”。一般说来凡是自度曲，至少都应当注明这个曲子的宫调，或者在词序中说明。

自过腔和自度曲的含义是不同的。“过腔”，仅是音律上的改变，并不影响到歌词句格。所谓“过腔”者，是从此一腔调过入另一腔调，念奴娇的腔调稍变，即可另外题一个调名曰湘月。但这仅是歌曲腔调的改动，并不影响到歌词句格。后世词家，已不懂宋词音律，只能以词调的句格同异为类别，无法从句法相同的两首词中区别其腔调之不同。念奴娇和湘月，永遇乐和消息，句法既然一样，从文学形式的角度来看，湘月即念奴娇， 消息即永遇乐。至于二者之间，腔调不同，却不能从字句中看得出来。

自过腔既然不是创调，它就和自度曲不同。但有些宋代词人还是把自过腔编到自制曲中，因此，有些时候仍把自过腔作为自度曲的。

四、词的平仄规律。

词的平仄句法是有规律的，但是又比律诗复杂许多。

(一)“句”与“豆”

词的句法里有“句”和“豆(读)”。句，大家都不难理解。豆是什么呢?它是词的特点之一。

1、一字豆

介绍词谱时，有的句子是上一下四，这第一个字就是一字豆。这种五字句相当于一字豆加上一个四字句，和律诗中的律句是不一样的。例如：辛弃疾《沁园春》“正惊湍直下”应该读成“正——惊湍直下”而不能读成“正惊——湍直下”。一字豆常用仄声，仄声中又常用去声，很少用平声。

2、三字豆

还有的句子是上三下四、上三下五、上三下六等等。例如：《满江红》“凭栏处、潇潇雨歇。”就是上三下四，前三字就是三字豆!不能读成“凭栏——处潇——潇雨歇。”三字豆常用仄平平、仄仄平、仄仄仄、仄平仄、平仄仄、平平仄，少用平仄平，禁止用平平平，切记。

(二)律句和拗句;1～11字句的规律。

介绍诗律时我们谈论过律诗的句子有律句和拗句之分，同样，词的句子也有律句和拗句之分。而且有许多相似点，此外，词的拗句还可以细分为常见拗句、少见拗句和罕见拗句。常见拗句使用频率高，接近某些律句。少见拗句频率低，一般不用，特殊情况下可以使用。罕见拗句很罕见，往往见于少见词牌(特别是长调)，而且是该词调的特征性句子。

1、一字句 律句：平 仄

一字句很罕见，《十六字令》的第一句是一字句“平。”《钗头凤》上下阕末句可以看作叠用的三个一字句“仄、仄、仄。”。

2、二字句

律句：平平、平仄。 少见拗句：仄仄。 罕见拗句：仄平

“平平”、“平仄”常用，往往要入韵。而“仄仄”很少见，“仄平”更罕见。

(1)用“平平”的例如《南乡子》上下阕第四句：

《南乡子·登京口北固亭有怀》宋·辛弃疾

何处望神州?满眼风光北固楼。千古兴亡多少事?悠悠!不尽长江滚滚流。

年少万兜鍪，坐断东南战未休。天下英雄谁敌手?曹刘!生子当如孙仲谋。

(2)用“平仄”的例如《如梦令》第五、六句，而且常用叠句：

《如梦令》 宋·李清照

昨夜雨疏风骤，浓睡不消残酒。试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧。知否?知否?应是绿肥红瘦!

(3)有些词调下阕首句是五字句或六字句，可以拆成2+3或2+4的句式。这时的二字句必须入韵。例如：

《满庭芳》下阕首句“平平平仄仄”可以变成“平平，平仄仄。”

《霜天晓角》下阕首句“(平)平平仄仄”可以变成“(平)仄、平仄仄。”“仄仄”也见于这句。

《沁园春》下阕首句可以变成“平平，(仄)仄平平。”

3、三字句

律句：平平仄、平仄仄、仄平平、仄仄平。

常见拗句：仄仄仄、仄平仄。

少见拗句：平仄平、平平平。

(1)律句如果单独使用，往往不用“仄仄平”。“平平仄”和“平仄仄”往往可以变通。

(2)拗句“仄平仄”往往可以替换“平(仄)仄”。“仄仄仄”往往可以用“仄平仄”、“平仄仄”等变通。

(3)“平仄平”、“平平平”较少见，《长相思》上下阕首句可以用。例如：

林逋《长相思》

吴山青，越山青。两岸青山相送迎。谁知离别情。

君泪盈，妾泪盈。罗带同心结未成，江头潮已平。

(4)两个三字句组合，常见的有：

平仄仄，仄平平。《捣练子》、《渔父》、《鹧鸪天》等。在小令里，这种格式非常严格，不能变通。在长调里，前句前2字往往可平可仄。切记：后句第二字不能用仄。

仄平平，平仄仄。《苏幕遮》、《祝英台近》等。

(仄)(仄)仄，(仄)平仄。《相见欢》、《满江红》等。

仄平平，仄平平。《江城子》。

仄仄平，仄仄平。《长相思》。

(5)三个、四个三字句组合。常见的有：

平仄仄，仄平平。仄平平。《诉衷情》

(仄)(平)仄，(平)(仄)仄，仄平平。《水调歌头》、《六州歌头》

一字豆领四个三字句，如《六州歌头》下阕首句：仄——平(平)仄，(平)(平)仄，(平)(平)仄，仄平平。

Learning can enrich our knowledge, let us become a pillar of the state, so that we can have a "scholar does not go out, actually know about the world". I got countless awards in my grade one or two, because I had my way of learning.

I am good at mathematics, but also the most prone to error, but I also love mental calculation, right! Do the math, see the simple formula on calculating, finally or wrong. The awards are a lot less than before, because of carelessness. I will not be here now, I will be very careful! Listen carefully in class, speak diligently in class and write carefully: do not be lazy and work hard. So dont be lazy like me. In addition, you can learn a number of Olympic Games, but I won the prize. My language is the most difficult, every time N points, harm my fart follow the disaster! Now I come to a conclusion: the first topic, dont panic, calm to grasp the main points; category and do not deviate from the direction of the center. When writing a composition, as long as the guarantee is not beside the point, the rapid design material is busy, dont start as much as early as possible, writing the first line. Straight to the most clear, the chest has a chapter heart do not panic. Body and mind focus on the mind, the most jealous of the destruction of the article. The end strives to be new and good, the first and the end is not long. A good man is a good article.

Learning to climb mountains, there are many ways, such as walking, car, feeling is different. This is my study method, if what is not suitable, please teach more!

在实际写作过程中，有的学生感到无从下笔，即使能写，也仅仅是简简单单的句子;有的学生甚至对英语写作望而生畏，消极应付;总体上学生存在严重的英语表述上的困难。写作能力不高主要表现在：母语影响、词汇量少;单词造句、搭配不当;不懂句型、语法不通;信息不全、条理紊乱;语言连贯性差，缺少锻炼;缺少整体的谋篇布局和前后呼应。因此，如何有效地改进英语写作教学，结合自己的教学心得，我认为，培养学生的写作能力可从以下三方面入手。

一、扩展语言输入，奠定写作基础

英语作为一门语言，它具有一定的工具性和人文性，它的结构应是：词—句—篇。“词”是基础，“句”是过渡，“篇”是则是目的。整个训练遵循“词不离句，句不离篇”的原则，由浅入深，循序渐进，不断提高。为了提高学生的写作能力，我在日常教学中，尝试了“词、句、篇”三步曲的写作教学。在教学中做到 “教、学、用”三者的统一。

(一)巧记单词

书面表达需要一定的词汇量，学生书面表达时容易忘记单词或把汉英词汇等同起来。因此，要求学生坚持每天听写、默写、循环记忆单词，掌握巩固词汇。还要求学生给出与单词有关的同义、近义、反义和词形相似的词，使词汇量得到最大限度的复现。

(二)用词造句、连词成句

造句是英语写作中极其重要的一环。可以说，会造句就会写作。要学会造句，需要注意以下几方面。

1、熟练记忆词汇和短语

这个环节是最基本、最重要的。记忆单词和短语时，可以从五个方面入手：词性、拼写读音、意思、用法。抓住了这一点，就像打好了万丈高楼的地基。否则，写作就无从谈起。

2、熟练记忆各种句型和结构

在牢记词汇和短语的基础上，还要记忆各种句型和结构，为造句进一步打下坚实的基础。像There be / How many / How much / be+adj / be+V-ing / make sb. do sth /plan/wish/hope/want to do sth.等句型和结构。在表达某个意思时，注意让学生尽量使用学过的结构造句，不可随心所欲地造出汉语式的英语句子。

3、掌握各种时态及语态的含义和用法

要写出一个英语句子，就要明白时态和语态。也就是说，谓语动词使用什么形式。这就要求学生对八种常用时态和两种语态非常清楚。因此，熟练地使用各种时态语态对于造句尤为重要。

4、掌握句子类型和成分

简单句的五种基本句型是句子类型中最基本的型式，每个英语句子都是以它们为模型写成的。掌握了它们，适时引导学生扩大句式，鼓励学生利用课文中的句型造句。另外还要训练学生“一句多译”的能力。有时候，拿到一个中文句子，可能不会译，这时，就要想办法，换成其他的表达方法，迂回曲折，达到目的。通过这样的训练，可以增加学生的多渠道的语言思维，提高应变能力，从而避免“中国式”的英语。

(三)连句成篇

此项训练的主要目的是培养学生把语法项目、教材内容和文章体裁有机结合起来的能力。

1.要求学生仿写。掌握在英语学习中所学到的连词。只有连词才能把句子连成语篇。

八年级所学课文都有一定的篇幅，老师在引导学生理解课文的基础上，可要求学生用所学过的短语和句型，用自己的话把课文的基本内容简要的表达出来。如在教授八年级第二单元阅读理解，说明篮球的发明者是谁?是在说明情况下发明的。在老师的帮助下，学生可以吧短文改编为对话的形式展现出来。这样既吧学生的读、说的能力和写的能力同时训练了。也大大的提高了学生的兴趣

2.列出提纲，引导学生写作。

引导学生书面表达有许多形式，教师要从学生“学”的角度来设计教学活动，使学生的学习活动具有明确目标，并构成一个有梯度的连续活动。我首先采用给出文中的关键词或短语，整理素材和文章要用到的信息和关键词。帮学生做好铺垫和理清思路，让学生的大脑里有东西，这样学生才有可能写出东西来，帮学生树立信心，克服心理恐惧，从写作中获得了成功的快乐，树立了写作的信心。

3.注重平时的词句积累

鼓励学生收集好词好句，以便于在写作时能信手拈来。

二、进行有效指导，扎实写作训练

1.巧设课堂，限时作文

训练时当场发题，促使学生瞬间接受信息，快速理解信息，迅速表达信息，提高实际应用和应试能力。这一步是关键，也是学生的难关。首先必须使学生明白书面表达题既不是汉译英，也不是作文，不可任意发挥，要求的是将所规定的材料内容经整理后，展开思维，目的在于考查学生运用所学英语知识准确地表达意思的能力。必须要求学生在写作过程中牢牢记住以下口诀：“先读提示，弄清要点与格式;时态语态要当心，前后呼应要一致;句子结构和搭配，语言习惯莫违背;文章写好细检查，点滴小错别忽视。”学生明确目的并掌握要领后，要严格在规定时间内完成作业。训练的初级阶段，每次时间可放宽一点。随着学生写作能力增强，时间相应缩短，逐步做到20分钟内完成任务，决不能养成拖拉的坏习惯。

2.优化习作批改，及时讲评

作文的批改与讲评是写作教学的最后一个环节，也是其重要的一个环节。由于班级人数多，批改的工作量很大。因此，教师可以让学生动手参与，互相评改。由于学生之间的了解更深刻，他们之间的相互交流往往能收到很好的效果。而当学生意识到教师并不是他文章的唯一读者时，他们会更认真地写好作文。因此，让学生相互传阅和批改作文不仅增加了写作时的真实感，更重要的是，能训练学生的语言意识和语境。

一、遣词方面：用词要贴切而丰富，善用短语 ,词汇是语言的建筑材料，文章的好坏，选词很关键，如果用词精湛，就会使文章“亮”起来。

1、措辞要贴切具体

试比较下面句子：

A man is walking down the street.

A man is strolling down the street.

通过比较可以看出，前一句不如后一句表达得具体、生动。一个词如果内涵越具体，那么在特定的场景中恰当地使用它，就会收到意想不到的效果。很多同学写作时常随便用一个很笼统的词来描述一个具体事物或人，如 a nice man给人感觉很笼统空泛，我们可以用很多有个性的、具体的词描绘一个人，如 generous(大方的，慷慨的)，humorous(幽默的)，smart(漂亮的，潇洒的)，kind-hearted，warm-hearted，hospitable(好客的,招待周到的)，gentle(文雅的)，optimistic(乐观的)，easy-going(随和的)，spirited(英勇的)，cultivated(有教养的)，manly(有男子气概的)，knowledgeable(知识渊博的)等等。

2、要善于运用短语

短语用得好，会给评卷员留下深刻印象。如：

When he was a child，he wanted to learn everything.( 普通)

When he was a child，he had a strong appetite(胃口) for knowledge.(高级)

3、要避免汉语思维

用词要符合英语习惯，避免汉语思维的影响，如某些名词和动词搭配已约定俗成，不能随意打乱其搭配习惯，否则会显得生硬和词不达意。如汉语中的“学到知识”，英语中就不能说“learn knowledge”，而要说acquire knowledge (获得知识) 。类似的动宾结构还有achieve success (获得成功)，gain reputation (获得声誉)，attain ones end (达到目的)等。

二、造句方面：句式要准确而多变，活用复合句

简单句用得太多，会造成文章读起来乏味。在评卷员看来，同样意思的内容，能够运用比较复杂的句式结构来表达，当然会认为其运用语言的能力要比只会用简单句来表达要强，评分自然就高。

1、巧用非谓语动词

运用非谓语动词，可使文句看起来更简洁，使语言更加丰富多彩，重点更加突出，增加文采。如：

I covered my ears，trying to keep the noise out，but failed. (2004广东卷)

2、巧用with复合结构

“with+名词/代词+现在分词/过去分词/形容词/副词/介词”结构，常作伴随状语以增加被描绘内容的生动性和情感性，使文章读起来更简洁明了。试比较：

I couldnt go on studying because there was so much noise troubling me. (普通)

I couldnt go on studying with so much noise troubling me. (高级)

3、巧用复合句

高考评分标准强调使用语法结构的数量和复杂性，鼓励考生尽量使用较复杂的结构，并且对由此产生的错误采取了宽容的态度。如果恰当运用各类从句，就会使文章出彩。

如：(定语从句) Whats more，people have easy access to the Internet，which enables them to send and receive e-mails whenever they like.

4、巧用倒装句、感叹句、强调句、虚拟语气句等

使用这些句式可使文章化平淡为生动，加强语气，使评卷老师感受作者的强烈情感。

(倒装句)Only in this way can Internet Bars be well used by people.

(感叹句)I thought，“How hard mum is working! She must be very tired.”

5、巧用排山倒海句

如能运用一个个排比句、对偶句、不定式或短语，可令文章增色不少，会给评卷员眼前一亮的感觉。如：

The purpose of the program are to make our school more beautiful，to make the air cleaner and fresher，and to turn our school into a better place for us to study and live in.

三、谋篇方面：结构要清晰而流畅，巧用过渡词

众所周知，语言的最高层次不是传统语法所说的句子，而是语篇。语篇指的是一系列连接的语段或句子构成的语言整体。一篇好的文章不但句子正确，要点齐全，更重要的是有效地使用了语句间的连接成分。因此，恰当使用好连接性的词语和句子，是使作文获得高分的一个重要因素。

下列各组表示列举或补充的短语或句式非常实用，对高考写作很有帮助：

(1)Firstly...，secondly...，thirdly...，finally...

(2)In the first place...，in the second place...，in the third place...，lastly...

(3)to begin with...，then...，furthermore...，finally...

(4)to start with...，next...，in addition...，finally...

(5)first and foremost...，besides...，last but not least...

(6)most important of all...，moreover...，finally...

如果只有两层意思，可选用下列两组中的任一组：

(1)On the one hand...，on the other hand...

(2)For one thing..., and for another thing...技巧，希望对大家有帮助

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

【文题设计】

阅读下面的材料．根据要求作文：

I．一次，爱迪生i．kVh手测量一只灯泡的体积。这位擅长数学的助手左量右测，在纸上列出了一堆繁琐的计算公式。爱迪生见此，拿过灯泡，用水灌满后l例入量杯，轻而易举便测出了灯泡的体积。、l2．《伊索寓言》讲了这样一则故事：农夫和他的I妻子有一只母鸡．每天要下一只金蛋。他们想，母鸡的肚子里一定装满了金子吧。农夫就将母鸡杀了，结果发现，这只母鸡与其他母鸡毫无不同之处。肚子里一点金子也没有。

现实生活中，确实存有一些“捷径”。帮助我们更好地解决问题，达到目的。然而，像农夫这样的思维方式，在我们的生活中也并不少见。对此，你有相关的见闻、体验、经历或认识吗？

请以“捷径”为话题，写一篇作文。所写内容必须在这个话题范围之内。

注意：

①立意自定；

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④不少于800字。

【写前指导】

所谓捷径，是指走路时的近路，常用来比喻能较快地达到目的的巧妙手段或方法。

捷径，往往是由前人通过无数次不厌其烦的实践。加上长期积累的经验．才找到的一种解决方法的简便形式。

学习的捷径就是讲究方法；引进先进的技术手段是发展生产力的捷径；强化体制是提高效率的捷径。

捷径往往被人误解，被人利用。有人把投机取巧当作捷径；有人把制似售似当作生财捷径；有人把不做实事，做表面文章，虚报成绩．送红包等当作升官的捷径……这样的捷径只能让人走上歪路，斜路，最终害了自己。

一、提高小学语文写作教学效果的有效方法

1．提升教师自身素质

在作文教学中，教师依托写下水文，提升自身写作能力，是最直接有效的方法。一方面能激发学生写作的兴趣，能避免教学中的许多误区（如最常见的命题作文，命题往往脱离学生的生活）；另一方面，“实践出真知”，老师自己动手，才会懂得评价学生的作文，如果一个题目写不出，就可以更宽容学生的作品；如果一个题目写得很好，那讲授就有了依据，学生学习也有了方向。这是教学相长的好办法。在作文教学改革中，教师勤于动笔不仅是言传身教，更重要的是通过写下水文，教师能真正体验写作规律，在教学中把写作规律和教学规律更好地结合在一起。

2．点燃学生的写作兴趣

第一，教师在设置作文题目时，应该结合学生的实际生活状况，选择学生感兴趣的话题，这样学生才会有话可说、有内容可写。第二，教师应该给予学生充分的肯定，让学生感受到成功的喜悦。第三，在写作教学中，教师应该范读优秀的文章，鼓励学生参加形式多样的作文比赛，在竞争中让学生体会到写作的快乐，从而使学生的写作兴趣得以提高。

3．培养学生的写作能力

为了让学生轻松、容易地完成写作内容，教师应该加强学生写作能力的培养，在写作教学过程中，可以根据学生的实际情况来选择写作题目，使之赋予文章趣味性和生活性，从而让学生将自己的情感流露于文字之间。引导学生感受生活的趣味，并使之把感情抒发出来，这样才能提高学生的写作技能，如教师可以组织学生开展协调性强的集体活动，如拔河比赛、足球比赛、踢毽子比赛等等，在活动结束后可要求学生描述对活动的认识，或者是对伙伴的认识，抑或是对集体的认识等等，同时教师在学生写作时要引导学生多使用修辞手法，从而使文章生动与活泼。

4．引导学生积累写作素材

课外活动的开展是对课堂教学的有效补充，课外活动不仅可以帮助学生积累切身体会到的写作素材，而且能够让学生在写作中流露真情实感、开启创新思维。如自己坐车回家，自己去看医生等，通过接触社会来开启学生对事物的思考；通过体育比赛活动激发学生的写作热情；通过开展义务劳动，积累劳动的感受和素材；通过游览名胜古迹，积累学生的游记素材等等，切身融入生活，对学生的写作水平会有很大的提高。

5．拓宽学生的写作思路

优秀的作文是具备创造性和真情实感的，小学生写不出好的作品，主要原因在于学生没有良好的创造精神、缺乏想象力、知识积累不足、生活体验不足、情感投入不丰富等。因此，教师在写作教学过程中，要积极引导学生多进行课外阅读，丰富写作教学形式，开展形式多样的语言活动，如词语接龙、讲故事比赛、小型辩论会等，这样的写作教学模式不仅可以诱导学生的学习兴趣，而且能够在愉悦的环境中丰富学生的知识。同时，教师可以采取分组讨论的形式让学生进行评论和学习，在此过程中学生可以从别人的文章中感受到写作的不同思路以及借鉴别人的优美语句，进行加工再创造并恰当地用于今后的写作中，使自己的写作思路得以扩宽、知识得以丰富，从而有效提高自己的写作水平。

二、结语

综上可知，教师要结合小学生自身的特点来完善写作教学，帮助学生树立写作的自信心，培养学生的写作兴趣，让学生在自信与兴趣的驱使下主动贴近生活、感受生活，愿意表达、善于动笔，为以后的学习和写作打下坚实的基础。

As we all know, there are three stages in studypreview, study in class and review, among whichreview is the most important. From my experience, Id like to talk about the importance andsteps of review. Firstly, make a review plan with certain contents of subjects at acertain time.Secondly, carry on the review plan regularly. Thirdly, examine what has been reviewed andmake supplement in time. One thing to remember is to keep notes all the time. I follow myreview plan strictly and have made progress in my study. It turns out to be good enough. Ofcourse, there is more than one way to review. So long as we review regularly, we can find moreways to improve our studies.

我们都知道，学习有三个环节：预习、课堂学习和复习，三者中复习是最重要的。我愿意从我的经验谈复习的重要性和步骤方法。首先，制定复习计划，确定在某段时间里复习课程的具体内容。其次，有规律地执行复习计划。第三，检测所复习的内容，及时弥补。有一件事必须记住，就是要时时记笔记。我严格遵循复习计划，在学习上取得了进步，证明复习是可取的。当然，不只有一种复习办法。只要我们有规律地复习，我们可以找到更多改善学习的方法。

[高考满分英语作文：学习方法

在多年的雅思教学中，我发现学生在实际考试中面临着不同的写作障碍，影响了考试成绩。归纳起来大致有以下几个方面:

一、真情流露，无从下笔；

有的考生在考试时见到作文题，顿感思路塞车，好像有许多话要说，但又不知究竟应从那里写起。明智的做法是“投其所好、尽情发挥。”考生不妨把作文的要求量化到每一个段落，一篇250词左右的作文一般不会超过15句话，把这15句话根据题目要求分配到各段中去，每一段大概只说那么几句话，事实上往往是说得越多错误越多。因此，每句话紧扣提纲，见好就收,这才是最稳妥的对策。

二、心里明白，难以表达；

在考场上有的考生题目看得懂，提纲也明白，就是不知道该说什么，头脑里一片空白。这是在雅思写作考试中的一种常见的现象，针对这一现象，最有效的办法就是要善于联想到一些具体的事实，具体的例证和具体的现象。事实上，雅思的作文题目一定是一个具有社会普遍型话题，其目的是让不同教育背景的考生都有话可说。因此，考生一定能就题目联想起具体细小的事情再形成观点。把看得见摸得着的事物带来的思考变成作文里的实质内容，这不失为一种很好的策略。

因此，当头脑出现空白时，应该由具体细小的、琐碎的、微不足道的事物所引发的思考形成观点，再进行论述。这种定式思维的形成需要多下功夫多练习。

三、一味追求标新立异，导致无从下笔；

考试时通常发现有的考生聚精会神的坐在那里冥思苦想，非要想出一个与众不同的观点。陷入这种境地的考生，显然犯了一个根本性的错误，参考时间为40分钟的作文，一般应在35分钟之内完成,再用几分钟的时间检查语言错误。可有的考生十几分钟一句话都写不了，就是因为他太进入角色了，这是考试中一个很大的误区。

考作文的目的纯粹是通过这一命题形式，考查考生的英语水平如何。命题人关注的是书面表达能力，而不是看一个人有没有内容，思想有没有深度，所以“一味追求标新立异”是没有必要的。

四、构思、写作不统一，落实有困难；

实事求是的讲，要求考生完全运用英语思维来写作文是不现实的。很多考生在实际写作过程中，脑子里想的是中文句子，然后再把中文句子译成英文。因此采用“得其意，忘其形”的方法，忘掉中文的语法结构，句法形式则可能要整个地打乱.，“钻进去，跳出来”。所谓“钻进去”就是要看意思是否到位了，“跳出来”就是要忘记中文的语言形式。实际上把英文译成中文，关键是要在转换中把意思表达出来。

针对构思、写作不统一，落实有困难情况。必须摒弃翻译中追求一一对应的关系，并机械地把中文译成英文的方法，应该把中文句子结构彻底地忘记，然后用比较简单的“万能”英语表达。平时不妨做一做这样的练习，通过阅读不认识词条的英文注解，然后试着把单词译成中文词，再去对照英汉词典的汉语释义，慢慢地就会开始领会用英语表达的门道了。

五、被动心态压抑新构思。

尽管雅思考试作文为规定式命题，但考生仍可积极主动地发挥。其主动性在于采取回避的策略，表达上采取迂回的方式，即运用不很复杂的语言。内容的取舍上避重就轻地写比较易于表达的内容。很多人在写作过程中从头至尾都处于被动状态，当有内容想要表达清楚的时候，却又发现种种途径都不可能表达好，只好硬着头皮把自己意识到没把握的东西勉强写上去。连自己都意识到可能是错误的东西，只会产生于己不利的负面影响。所以，当有的内容感觉一点找不着，英语实在表达不清楚的时候，就应该彻底地放弃。单词拼写错误也是雅思考试作文写作的一大问题。常用单词是不能拼错的，有的单词平时会拼写，考试时突然没把握了，不妨换一下或许还能想起另外一个难度大一点、拼写有把握的来代替。应该回避明确知道自己不会拼写的词。如果没法换一个词，将句子改换一种说法亦未尝不可。有的考生在考卷上没把握的地方标上问号，或者把两种可能都写上，让判卷老师选择，这个方法是不可取的。

总之，不能让自己陷人被动，想说什么，用什么方式说。说多少，说到什么程度。一切都应由考生主动把握，这样才会减少心理上的压力，更好地发挥出自己应有的写作水平。