0写作需要的知识【精选20篇】
在成长过程中，我们总会遇到许多挫折与失败。这时，我们就需要一些鼓励的阳光，去照亮我们沮丧的心情。接下来是小编带来的成长需要鼓励小学生作文，希望对你有所帮助~
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148写作基础知识：命题和半命题作文
全文共 1509 字
+ 加入清单命题作文一般是指出题者给出一个既定的题目，要求应试者根据这个给定题目进行写作。半命题作文就是指作文题目只出现一半或一部分，另外一半或一部分由考生自己去补充的一种作文。下面是小编为你带来的写作基础知识：命题和半命题作文，希望对你有帮助。
一、命题作文概说：
1、命题作文类型：
全命题作文与半命题作文
2、全命题作文特点：
题目写作要求明确完整，利于考生通过审题----立意----构思----选材的步骤，迅速构思行文。但是，审题要求较高，要求审清题目里隐含的内容。只有审清题意才能根据写作特长或者生活积累，明确文体，确定写作重点。
3、半命题作文特点：
给予学生在选材、立意、构思上更强的自主性，开拓学生视野，减少学生审题失误，易于学生自由发挥。在半命题作文中，提示语是关键，提示语能从选材的内容、范围、角度给予学生于启示。
二、命题作文类型：
(一)全命题作文：
①直接式命题
②含蓄式命题
③设想式命题
④观点型命题
⑤散文型命题
(二)半命题作文结构形式：
①命前半题
②命后半题
③命首尾题
三、命题作文的提示语：
1、设计提示语，创设写作情境(作用)
①多方列举内容，启发学生从多方面选材构思，表达自己对生活的看法。
②尽力拓展文题外延。
③提供想象空间。
2、半命题作文设置备选项，拓展写作空间。
四、补题遵循原则：
①补自己最熟悉的。
②补自己最有把握的。
③补自己最记忆犹新的。
④补自己最能写出新意的。
五、命题内容范围：
1、表达自己对社会、自然、人生的独特感受和真切体验。
2、发现生活的丰富多彩，捕捉事物的特征。
3、运用联想与想象，表达丰富的思想情感内容。
六、命题作文审题方法：
审题要做到“不漏、不改、不误”，“不漏”指全面审题，不遗漏任何要求;“不改”指准确审题，不随意改变试题要求;“不误”指正确审题，不误解题目要求。
审题具体做法：
①审清作文题目中的限制语。限制内容主要有：时间、地点、对象、内容、数量、性质、程度、范围。
②审清作文题目中的关键词语。抓住关键词语，确立文章的写作表意重心，确定写作方向。
③审清提示语提示语对题目或作解释说明，或作补充介绍，或作扩展延伸，具有方向性与暗示性，帮助学生理解题目，打开思路，写出切合题意的作文。
七、半命题作文补题技巧：
快速补题技巧补题时，要审清题意：
半命题形式主要有：“半命题+要求”式、“导语+半命题+要求”式。审清导语主要是激发情思，界定选材范围。审清半命题，主要是注意半命题结构形式以及限制语，从而分析重点词语，明确题目限制的写作范围。作文必须围绕题目展开写作，切不可文不切题。
①具体事物补题法
②特定情景补题法
③修辞手法补题法
④特殊符号补题法
补题遵循原则：
1、熟悉性原则：指题目所表现的内容必须是自己比较熟悉的，平时积累的素材比较多的。
2、贴切性原则：指标题范围尽量缩小，要从自己确立的角度出发，不要太宽泛，将大题化小。
3、新颖性原则：指题目所表现的内容，角度应当是与众不同的、新鲜的。
4、正确深刻性原则：指题目表现的内容能够揭示出正确深刻的主题。
八、命题作文的“凤头”：
技巧一：开门见山，迅速入题
技巧二：文采斐然，引人入胜
技巧三：巧用修辞，文采增色
技巧四：巧妙发问，诱人深思
技巧五：首尾呼应，彰显主旨
技巧六：引用经典，形象寓理
九、命题作文的“豹尾”：
技巧一：自然收束法
技巧二：首尾照应法
技巧三：卒章显志法
技巧四：抒发情感法
技巧五：呼唤号召法
技巧六：巧发疑问法
技巧七：景物烘托法
技巧八：耐人寻味法
十、写作误区：
1、不注意审题，盲目乱写。
尤其是针对抽象的作文题或者具有象征意义、比喻意义的作文题的推敲，随兴而写造成偏题、离题。
2、不注重文体各自特点。
3、半命题作文补题随意，导致作文题与作文写作内容产生偏离。
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篇1：2024高考作文：写作需要三种支撑
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+ 加入清单一、作文需要人文精神的支撑
作文一味追求语言华美、结构精巧、技巧娴熟，而轻视传统文化的积淀，忽略人文精神的关怀，这种技巧训练作出的文章无疑都缺乏丰厚的底蕴和隽永的思想，单薄而又贫瘠。
如何提高自己的人文素养呢?首先，要关注世界政治、科技、社会动态，让自己的生活中有不竭的源泉。
其次，了解和学习世界各民族的优秀文化，从而使我们的文章既具有中国特色，又具有鲜明的时代特色。
二、作文需要个性思想的支撑
作文要有个性，要表达自己对自然、社会、人生的独特感受和真切体验，要体现创新精神。个性的背后离不开思想，思想是在具体的事件和情境中，明得的理、获得的悟、取得的思考。只有有了思想，作文才能是人生的史记，才会富有生命的质感。作文不能用几条规范标准代替自己丰富的思想活动，应该使自己思想的触角伸向生活的每个角落。只有拥有了自己个性的思想，“文”才能载“道”，这个“道”，才能被人接受。
三、作文需要主体意识的支撑
目前我们写作往往处于一种模仿和被动接受的状态，不是“情郁于中而必发乎外”，而是具有很强的应对性。其原因有二：一是命题中的“无我”现象——很多老师布置的作文题学生十分反感，最后不是“我不愿写”就是“我写的不是我”;其二是受“文以载道”的影响，过分强调作文要带有强烈的社会责任感，把“利他”放在第一位，使得文章“无我”，个性得不到张扬，自我得不到宣泄。
树立作文的主体意识，要把写作当成是人生体验，是一种独立、积极、自主、自由的创造性活动，而不应该在某些方面进行条条框框的限制。
篇2：2024年四级英语考试写作基础知识
全文共 1427 字
+ 加入清单1.用形容词"very"，"single"等表示强调
eg.You are the very person Im looking for.
你就是我要找的那个人。
Red Army fought a battle on this very spot.
红军就在此地打过一仗。
Not a single person has been in the office this afternoon.
今天下午竟然没有一个人来过办公室。
2.用反身代词表示强调
e.g.I myself will see her off at the station.
我将亲自到车站为她送行。
You can do it well yourself.
你自己能做好这件事情。
3.用助词"do/does/did+动词原形"表示强调
e.g.The baby is generally healthy，but every now and then she does catch a cold.
那孩子的健康状况尚好，但就是偶尔患感冒。
Do be quiet.I told you I had a headache.
务必安静，我告诉过你，我头疼。
4.用"...and that"，"...and those"，等结构表示强调
e.g.They fulfilled the task，and that in a few days.
他们在几天内完成的就是那项任务。
I gave her some presents，and those the day before yesterday.
前天我送给她的就是那些礼物。
5.用双重否定结构表示强调
e.g.There is no reason why this new immigrant should not have the same success.
完全有理由相信这些新移民应该拥有相同的成功。
A man can never have too many ties.
一个男人有再多的领带也不为过。
I cant thank you too much.
我无论怎样感谢你都不过份。
A mother can never be patient enough with her child.
I am not unfaithful to you.我对你无比忠诚。
6.用短语"in every way"，"in no way"，"by all means"，"by no means"，"only too"，"all too"，"but too"，"in heaven"，"in the world"，"in hell"，"on earth"，"under the sun"等表示强调
e.g.His behaviour was in every way perfect.
他的举止确实无可挑剔。
The news was only too true.
这消息确实是事实。
Where in heaven were you then?
当时你到底在哪里?
7.用倒装句表示强调
8.用强调句型表示强调
It is that或 It is who
e.g.It was the headmaster who opened the door for me.
正是校长为我开的门。
It was yesterday that we carried out that experiment.
就是在昨天我们做了那个实验。
篇3：小升初作文写作需要注意事项
全文共 543 字
+ 加入清单根据提供书面材料作文时，要注意三点：一、认真审题，明确要求。二、紧扣主题，决定取舍。三、活跃思路，发挥想象。小编收集了小升初作文写作注意事项，欢迎阅读。
(一)缩写注意：①不能改变原文的中心思想和体裁，甚至连人称也不能变。②不能改变原文的记叙顺序和主要内容，保留主干。③概括复杂的内容要全面，语言要简明扼要。④改后的短文要衔接过渡自然，首尾连贯。⑤合理安排各部分之间的大致比例。
(二)扩写注意：①不能改变原文的中心思想、体裁、人称、叙事方法和顺序。②不能改变原文中的主要人物和事件。③扩充的内容只能根据原文情节合理地发展，不能任意增加。
(三)改写改写，就是改变原文的体裁与人称、结构及语言等，写出与原文形式不同的文章。一是改变体裁。把原文从一种体裁改写成另一种体裁。二是改变人称。常见的是把第一人称改为第三人称，或把第三人称改变第一人称，内容不作变动。
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2017公共基础知识写作技巧
一、从写作内容角度上看。
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二、从文章标题角度来看。
标题即论点，刚才我们谈到作文阅卷先定档，因此，如果能标题就是论点的话能够大幅度减轻阅卷人的压力，使得自己更容易获得高分。对于标题给大家简单提醒一下，通常情况下标题不建议大家使用标点符号。
三、从文章结构上来看。
一定要保证文章结构的完整性，在阅卷规则当中，有重要一条就是逻辑完整，因此适当运用逻辑结构词就显得特别重要。这里提示广大考生，我们的逻辑词经历过四个阶段，第一个阶段是第一、第二、第三、第N个，这种结构因为第多少个没有上限，因此不建议采用，第二个阶段是首先、其次、再次、最后，第三个阶段是一方面、另一方面、与此同时、此外、加之等。这里推荐大家使用第二第三个阶段，逻辑结构比较完整，第四个阶段是运用过渡句过渡段，这种逻辑不推荐大家使用。
四、公基作文一定要写对策。
考查公基作文的目的就是考查考生进入单位之后分析与解决问题的能力，因此，考生必须在文章中必须有所体现。从文章写作对策段落来说，建议大家在对策段落里面运用“结论+原因+措施”的写作结构，这种结构简单理解就是是什么、为什么、怎么办逻辑，比如说某地的某个行业出现一定的发展问题，那么对于这个行业的发展政府起主要作用，那么我们应该先说政府大概应该如何去做，如政府应该多渠道扶持，此即结论，接下来就应该叙述政府为什么要去扶持，也即原因部分，最后要写明政府如何扶持也即具体措施，如运用宏观调控、减免税收、提供政策支持等。
五、从结尾段落来说，结尾要做到与首段呼应。
浑然一体的结尾与开头要相呼应，写出既呼应开头，又不简单重复的语句，这种结尾方式是各类文章极常见的收束方法。这种收束方法能唤起读者心理上的美感，产生一种首尾圆合，浑然一体的感觉。
公共基础知识写作点拨
第一：理解、分析、研究文体。事业单位写作其实就是议论文写作，因为只有议论文这种文种才能够承载对一个事物的确定观点和论述。所以对议论文来说，要把握一点，就是议论文是围绕一个观点进行展开，这对议论文来说是最重要的，也就是要有确实的观点，即总论点，目前来看事业单位考试的总论点一般都是已经确定的。
第二：确定了总论点之后，再去议论观点。例如：上海是个好地方，那么整个文章展开的核心就是证明观点，也就是为什么说上海是个好地方，再比如：要勤奋，整个文章展开的核心就是论述为什么要勤奋。
近几年来公职类考试的写作命题有了新的变化。首先，会有给定材料，材料围绕着一个主题展开，主题通常是社会问题或者施政要点。例如：要推进民生改革;要提高政府公信力;要推进服务型政府建设;要勇于探路等。其次，针对这样主题的变化，论述的方向也随之有所变化。例如：要提高政府公信力。基于这样的总论点，文章展开的逻辑就是为什么要提高公信力、如何提高政府公信力。再比如：要勇于探路，那么文章展开的逻辑就是为什么要勇于探路、如何探路。通过以上事例，小伙伴们能基本理清两个最重要的内容：议论文就是围绕一个确定的观点展开，整个文章的核心要求就是把观点论述清楚。解决了这两个问题后，接下来就是填充内容了，在此根据情况来说明。
第一：如果平时比较关注新闻、热点时事，自然有内容可写，而且能够做到内容充实、立意高远、理解透彻。如果是这样的情况，就摸索出适合自己表达的语言风格即可。
第二：如果是平时看书比较多，有自己对事物的思考。这样的基础能让写作体现出比较好的人文素养和知识储备，如果是这样的情况，就把看书多的优点发挥出即可。
第三：如果是既不看新闻、也不看书、学习马马虎虎或者工作后没有时间复习，这样的情况比较普遍，如果是这样的情况，就需要找一些捷径了，比如选择培训班等等。
篇5：关于书信写作的基础知识
全文共 766 字
+ 加入清单书信是日常生活中广泛应用的一种文体。它是一种特殊的实用文体。长期以来，它形成了自己独有的固定的书写格式：一般包括称呼、正文、结尾、署名、日期五部分。所以，如果你想要写好书信，那么，必须要掌握以下有关书信写作的基础知识。
称呼：第一行顶格写收信人的名字和称呼(或只写称呼)，有时还要加上“敬爱的、亲爱的”等词，表示对收信人的亲热和尊敬;接着加个冒号，表示下面的话是对他说的。
正文：另起一行空两格开始写正文，也就是书信的内容。正文部分通常先写问候的话。问候是一种礼节，问候语很多，有节日的问候，如“新年好”“春节快乐”等;有季节性的问候，如“夏安”“冬安”等。也有开头问候身体健康，工作和学习情况的，如“近来身体可好”“近来的学习好吗?”等等。问候语可以独立成为一个段落。
正文是书信的主体部分，是写信的目的之所在，写信人要说的话，要办的事都写在这里。正文的内容在问候语下一行空两格写起，转行时要顶格写起。如果要说的话，要办的事多，应该分段写，每段写一件事，写完一件事，再写另外一件事。每段开头都要空两格写起。
结尾：正文写完后，要写上表示祝愿、尊敬或勉励的话，也叫致敬语。致敬语要根据对象不同而不同。如果写给长辈，可以写“敬祝健康”等;如果写给平辈，可以写“祝学习进步!”等。而“此致敬礼”是比较通用的，适合一般人的结束语。结尾的“此致”“祝”等可以紧接正文写，也可以独占一行，空两格写。“敬礼”“健康”等祝愿之情，要另起一行顶格写。
署名：写在正文结尾后的右下方。可以根据信纸剩下的多少，决定署名与致敬语的距离。署名时根据与收信人关系的亲疏，可带姓，可不带姓。习惯上，还按与收信人的关系，在名字前面加上“孙”、“弟”“老朋友”等称谓写在名字的左上角，字体小一点。
日期：一般写在署名的下边。日期最好是把年月日都写出来，便于收信人了解写信时间。
篇6：2024事业单位论文写作基础知识
全文共 1212 字
+ 加入清单事业单位考试大纲中明确指出，需要考察考查应试人员对学术论文相关知识的了解与实际运用能力。在以往的事业单位考试中，更多的是考察公文写作的相关知识，论文写作考察的很少，且相关的资料也比较少见。小编在此为各位考生简要分析论文写作的相关考点，帮助各位考生更好的复习备考。
首先，论文具有几下几项特征：
①科学性，即选题科学，研究方案合理;数据准确无误;结果与讨论的数据依据充分，具说服力，不出现无数据和现象支持的主观臆断的结果和结论。
②创新性即新颖性;即有别于他人(它文)的本质特征;刻意阐明创新点;应用研究着重实验设备、测试分析技术、工艺方法等方面的更新或改进;基础研究着重理论上的新见解，计算方法的另辟新径;
③学术性，即透过对所研究的客体外象的观测，分析探讨其内在本质，将感性认识进行理论上的深化;切忌将一连串现象无分析归纳的无序堆砌，而将论文写成实验报告或工作总结。
④真实性，即错误、虚假、失实将导致论文科学性和学术性的丧失，甚至可能涉嫌有剽窃行为;不凭主观臆断和好恶随意舍取数据和素材 ，引证他人成果必须给出出处，但只提取与文章密切相关的重要信息用以引证。
⑤标准化和规范化，即书写格式的标准化和规范化，是要按规定的格式书写，即符合信息传递与交流、科技文献管理、以及电子化、数字化等方面的要求。
论文写作的相关依据主要来自国家标准局的文件《科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式》。按照该格式，论文主要分为主体部分和前置部分。
1.前置部分。主要包括①封面——报告、论文的外表面，提供应有的信息，并起保护作用;②封二——可标注送发方式，包括免费赠送或价购，以及送发单位和个人;版权规定;其他应注明事项;③题名页——对报告、论文进行著录的依据;④分类号——中图分类号是按照《中国图书馆分类法》;⑤题目(可加副标题)——以最恰当、最简明的词语反映报告、论文中最重要的特定内容的逻辑组合;⑥署名——姓名、工作单位;⑦摘要——报告、论文的内容不加注释和评论的简短陈述，是独立的短文，概括文章主要信息。⑧关键词——为了文献标引工作从报告、论文中选取出来用以表示全文主题内容信息款目的单词或术语。⑨目次页——长篇报告、论文可以有目次页，短文无需目次页;⑩插图和附表清单——报告、论文中如图表较多，可以分别列出清单置于目次页之后。
2.主体部分。主要包括①引言——(绪论/导论/引论)简短介绍研究的目的、意义、方法、范围、背景等;②正文——实事求是、合乎逻辑、结构严谨、层次分明、论证充分、表达规范、行文流畅;③结论——文章的研究成果，准确、完整、明确、精炼;④致谢——可以在正文后对进行方面致谢;⑤引文——所引用的他人的研究成果(观点、理论、数据等);⑥注释——注明引文的出处;⑦参考文献——写作中所参考、借鉴的重要文章和著作(作者、文章标题，期刊/著作名、出版社、年份、页码等详细情况);⑧附录——作为报告、论文主体的补充项日，并不是必需的。
篇7：应用文写作的基础知识
全文共 1732 字
+ 加入清单如何把应用文写好一直困扰着很多学生，下面小编整理了应用文写作的基础知识，希望对大家有帮助!
一、结构的含义和作用
1.掌握结构的含义应用文的结构，是运用材料以表现主题的有序安排，是客观事物条理性在文章中的反映，为文章的组织形式和内部构造。文章的结构具有两重含义：一是宏观结构，即文章的总体构思、大体框架;二是微观结构，即对文章的层次、段落、开头、结尾、过渡、照应和主次的具体设计。
2.了解结构的作用结构好比文章的骨架，是安排文章的具体形式，是将材料化为文章的手段之二。结构是表现主题的手段，是准确表达主题的必由之路，也是引导读者领会文章思想内容的向导。写文章只有找到恰当完美的结构形式，才能把主题和材料组合在一起，形成一个完美有机的整体。其作用具体表现在：
(1)使文章言之有体。应用文大多有较固定的结构形态，它是人们在长期写作实践中经过选择，逐步找到的最适合表现某种内容的最佳形式，也称之为“程式”。如简报、书信和行政公文类文书，具有相当固定的惯用格式。
(2)使文章言之有序。合理安排文章结构，就是根据一定的思路，将零散的材料组织起来，使之眉目清楚地成为一个有机的整体。
(3)使文章言之有文。精心安排文章结构，可以增加文章的文采，从而增强其可读性。
二、安排结构的条件
1.了解思路的含义及思路与结构的关系
在文章结构的两重含义中，总体构思是具体设计的前提和基础。总体构思也就是人们常说的“言有序”，是指对材料的安排要有次序，这体现了作者的思路。思路是安排结构的条件。
1、思路的含义
思路是作者思维活动的路线，是作者在头脑中梳理、组织内容材料的过程和结果。它是作者对客观事物自身条理性的观察、理解。
作者思路清晰，结构必然有条不紊;作者思路不清晰，结构必然紊乱。经过选择的材料，只有经过合理的组织安排，使之条理化、系统化，组成一个有机的整体，才能准确鲜明地表现既定的主题。
2、思路与结构的关系
在写作构思阶段，作者的思维活动异常活跃。确立主题，选择好材料，并进而考虑如何表达主题和如何安排材料，由此逐渐形成一条清晰、连贯、独到的思维活动路线——思路。此时，文章的大体框架已在作者的头脑中“闪现”出来。等到作者用书面语言把思路表达出来时，文章的结构也就具体安排好了。因此，作者思路与文章结构的关系极为密切。具体表现为以下三点：
(1)思路是形成结构的基础和内核。结构是文章最主要的表现形式。要使结构完整、严谨、匀称，动笔前，就需要作者匠心独运，形成清晰、连贯并具独创性的思路，进而“外化”成纲目清晰、严谨周密的结构。但是，文章反映客观事物，决不是对其原始形态的简单搬抄和复制，而是在符合客观事物发展规律基础上的主观创造。因此，不同的作者。不同的文体有不同的思路。思路开阔而有创见，文章的结构就新颖独特;思路狭窄而落俗，会使文章的结构板滞僵死;思路紊乱，文章的条理就必然不清;思路松散，文章的结构就不可能严密紧凑。
(2)结构是思路的体现和反映。结构是思路的外显形式和文字载体。思路严密清晰，文章结构才能完整、严谨、清晰，主题才能得以准确地表达;思路紊乱、疏漏和闭塞，文章则会逻辑混乱、言而无序、首尾不能圆合
了解锻炼思路的基本要求及锻炼思路的方法
(1)注意思路的条理性和逻辑性，使之清晰、周密、连贯。清晰，指展开思路要有顺序、有层次，同时对材料要加以区分和归类。周密，指思路要周到、严密，没有疏漏和缺损，不要顾此失彼，自相矛盾。连贯，指思维活动过程及其表达不仅要注意外在的次序，而且要处理好各个意思之间存在的衔接、并列、转折、因果、总分等内在联系，做到气脉贯通、流畅。
(2)注意思路的灵活性、独创性，使之活跃、开阔、敏捷。活跃与开阔，是指思路的开展要打破思维定势，进行多向探索，使之灵活、新颖而富有个性。敏捷是指思路的展开、梳理直至成型这一过程应该灵敏、迅速，使文章结构紧凑、气势流转而顺畅。
(3)养成良好的思维习惯。一是养成有序思考问题的习惯，由浅入深、由表及里、由此及彼。二是加强逻辑思维能力的训练。应用写作主要靠逻辑思维，要遵循“提出问题——分析问题——解决问题”这一认识规律。
(4)写作前要通盘思考，立足于写作意图、目的和所用文体特点，确定如何起笔，主体分几个部分展开，怎样收尾。
篇8：英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分
全文共 45713 字
+ 加入清单下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。
对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。
因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！
1.?????? Proverbs
1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.
2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.
3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.
4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.
5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.
6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.
7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.
8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.
9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.
10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.
11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.
12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.
2. Damaging Research
A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.
3. Education and Citizenship
An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.
Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.
Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.
Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.
4. The Teacher’s Role
Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.
Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.
5. Education Philosophy
For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.
Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.
In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.
This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.
6. Student Life
To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.
Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.
Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)
What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.
Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.
7. Adult Education
After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”
So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.
8. Moral Relativism in American
Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.
Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.
In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”
Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.
In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”
The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.
The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.
At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.
The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.
But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.
There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.
9. Schools Should Teach Values
People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”
There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.
As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”
This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.
We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.
What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.
These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.
After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.
10. College Pressures
Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.
What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.
My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.
I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.
“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”
Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.
It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.
The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.
Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.
Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.
Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.
I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.
“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.
“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”
“Then why are you going?”
“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”
Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”
But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.
I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.
Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.
“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”
The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”
Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.
Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.
“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”
Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.
To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.
If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.
Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.
“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”
“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”
I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.
Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.
This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.
They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.
If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.
I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.
I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.
11. To Err Is Wrong
In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?
Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.
Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:
Right over 90% of the time = “A”
Right over 80% of the time = “B~”
Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.
From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.
Playing It Safe
With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.
I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.
Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.
Different Logic
From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.
Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.
Errors as Stepping Stones
Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.
The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.
Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.
Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.
[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分
篇9：高中散文写作基础知识
全文共 3186 字
+ 加入清单所谓散文，从广义说，是与诗歌、小说、戏剧相并列的一种文体；从狭义说，是一种自由、灵活，短小精悍，表现真人真事真实感情的文体。感情充沛没有感情就不称其为散文。散文对作者主观感情的要求是所有文体中仅次于诗歌的。散文一般的写作规律是：对事物、人生、景物突然有了感悟，感悟深入升华，敷衍成文。这感悟就是散文的意味之本，是散文的中心立意。可是要表现这样的中心立意，就是抒情。所以好的散文，记叙、议论都带有强烈的感情，字里行间都渗透着感情。以下是高中散文写作基础知识，欢迎阅读。
一、精于立意
散文的立意其实就是散文的感悟，有感悟才有散文的写作。散文的立意要求独特，就是说作者的感悟是体现作者的独特情志、独特感受、独特体验的感悟，是他人所不能产生的精神产生。依靠对生活的深入观察、感受、理解。散文立意只要从生活实际出发，凭着鲜明的感受，敏锐的观察能力，同人民同时代共同跳动的脉搏，深厚的感情，丰富的想象，深沉的思索，就会感到我们生活中洋溢着的是诗意。这诗意，是使我们心灵受到触动的东西，使我们眼睛豁然开朗的东西，思想突然升华的东西，感情更为纯洁的东西，它就是诗的灵感。我们要为自己的散文立意去努力捕捉这各心灵的颤动，思想的闪光点。
二、善于构思
构思是写作者对生活素材进行去粗取精、去伪存真、由此及彼、由表及里的加工、提炼的过程。如何寻找线索：散文的材料是很散的，每一个材料都是一颗珍珠，但这些珍珠互相之间有内在联系，我们要寻找一根线，用笔作针，将这些散落的珍珠穿起来，成为一串光彩夺目的珠圈、项链。
哪些东西可以作为线索：（六种常用的线索）一是感情线索。我们的感情在生活中发生变化，如由厌恶到喜爱，或从厌恶到喜欢，就可以用这条感情的线索把一些似乎没有关联的材料联结起来。如杨朔的荔枝蜜。二是事物线索。把发生在不同地点、不同时间、不同情况下的事件组合在一起。许多托物咏志的散文就是以物为线索的。三是人物线索。如写某一个人物在不同时间、不同地点的活动，可以用这个人物作为线索串连起来，也可以用另一个人物把不同时间、不同地点、不同人物、不同内容的事物串连起来。这个人物还可以是写作者本人我。四是思绪线索。如面对某一事物、景物沉思暇想，通过联想和想象，把有关的材料组织在一起，表达原定的主题思想。五是景物线索。通过景物描写，在写景中融进写作者的思想感情。六是行动线索。如游记以游程行踪为线索。
三、创造意境
散文的意境是情与景的交融，是意与境的统一，是作者浸透了时代精神的主观感情、意志与自然环境和社会环境的统一。散文的这种意境，应是诗的意境，即所谓诗情画意。散文应该创造出一种淡雅、闲静、情景交融的意境。巧于布局：不少散文的布局都要巧设文眼，开头往往似谈家常，结尾则加以深化，画龙点睛，并且首尾呼应，通体一贯，有机结合。明于断续：散文要散得起来，除了选材要有技巧之外，就是在叙写上要注意断续的技巧。是于断续，才能使散文的行文上挥洒自如。
四、感情具体
散文以感悟为灵魂，但感情是什么，得在文章中说明白。有些散文含蓄，不明说感，但文章中的景致、人物、事件均可以指向感悟。感悟的清楚明白如同记叙文的主题一样，要明白畅晓，让人觉得可喜，引人思考，同时要清楚的出现在文章中。散文和记叙文的最大区别：散文中所写的人生、自然、事件、景物等，都从自身感悟出发，是作者对事物特殊意义和美的发现。这种发现是知觉、思维、感觉的综合思维结果，体现了作者的深思妙悟，是散文的情、理、意、味。而记叙文是记录生活中的人和事，并不从作者的感悟出发。
散文的取材十分广泛，人间万像、宇宙万物、各色人等、宏观微观无不涉及，而这些材料一旦出现在文章中，就立即刻上了作者的主观感悟，代表着作者的人生经验、观点感受。所以，同样的材料，不同的作者所看到的内涵是不同的。这里，我们把散文的取材叫形，把作者的感悟叫神。
散文的文体特点就是：形散神聚。即所有的材料经过作者巧妙的构思联想，这些看似无关联或关联不紧密的材料（形散），但它们都指向同一主旨。这就是散文形散神聚的好处，可以让文章活泼灵动，变化多端散文的写法较其他文体更活泼自由，不拘一格。常见的方式是抒情，即使是记叙，也是带有强烈感***彩的。散文常把记叙、抒情、议论等融为一体，夹叙夹议。散文的结构追求自然而然的境界。在材料选取上，一般运用联想手法。
总体来看，抒情的散文有时气势磅礴，有时低吟轻唱；记叙的散文如诗如画，曲径通幽；议论的散文情真意切，精彩纷呈......但是不管作者怎样安排文字，怎样组织材料，归根结底还是为了表达他对人生或自然的特殊感悟。入笔细微，以小见大。一般的散文写作，我们可以从细小的方面入笔，做到以少胜多，以小见大。实际上，生活中的一件小事，一涕一笑；事物中的一枚叶片、一粒沙土......都可以体现出大的主题。对于一个有心人来说，这些小的事物同样可以写出好的文章。夹叙夹议，感情真实。不论何种感情，都要真实的表现出作者的状况。散文因为有对生活和事物的感悟，就得有夹叙夹议的的表达方式。
散文具有记叙、议论、抒情三种功能，与此相应，散文可分为记叙性散文、抒情性散文和议论性散文三种。
⒈记叙散文
以记叙人物、事件、景物为主的散文，称为记叙散文。
记叙散文叙事较完整，写人人物形象鲜明，描写景物倾注作者的情感。这类散文与短篇小说相似，但又有明显的区别。就叙事而言，散文所述的事件不要求情节完整，更不追求曲折变化，而小说对叙事的要求要较散文高得多；另外，散文在叙事的时候需要饱蘸情感，小说的情感则主要由人物体现出来，不须作者明确抒发。就写人而言，小说要求努力塑造典型人物形象，典型人物是作者虚构出来的。而散文中的人物则是在真人真事的基础上，进行某些剪裁加工，注重对人物进行写意式的描绘。
根据该类散文内容的侧重点不同，又可将它区分为记事散文和写人散文。
偏重于记事的散文以事件发展为线索，偏重对事件的叙述。它可以是一个有头有尾的故事，如许地山的落花生，也可以是几个片断的剪辑，如鲁迅的从百草园到三味书屋。在叙事中倾注作者真挚的感情，这是与小说叙事最显著的区别。
偏重于记人的散文，全篇以人物为中心。它往往抓住人物的性格特征作粗线条勾勒，偏重表现人物的基本气质、性格和精神面貌，如鲁迅藤野先生。人物形象是否真实是它与小说的区别。
另外，这类散文中还有一种偏重于描写景物的一类，这种散文描写一地的景物，除一些风土志以外，主要是游记性散文。它的内容十分广泛，山川景色、风俗民情、名胜古迹都属记游范围。游记散文最主要的特点是：作品所描写的景物必须完全真实，不允许夸饰和虚构；但又不是照相似的实录，而是作者融情于物，达到情景交融。
⒉抒情性散文
主要用以抒发作者主观情感的散文叫抒情散文。
富有情感是所有散文的共同特征，但与其他散文相比，抒情散文情感更强想象更丰富，语言更具有诗意
抒情散文主要用象征、比兴、拟人等方法，通过对外在形象的描绘来传达作者的情思，因此借景抒情和托物言志是这类散文最常用的手法。而直抒胸臆的方法，在文章中可以出现，但通篇用此一法者并不多见。
托物言志式散文，即象征性散文，作者将情感融于某个具有象征意义的具体事物，借助象形联想或意蕴联想把主观情感表现出来。如杨朔的多数散文，矛盾的白杨礼赞等。
借景抒情的散文，将感情寓于景物之中，赋景物以生命，明写景，暗写情，做到情景交融，情景相生。如朱自清的荷塘月色、刘白羽的日出等。
⒊议论性散文
以发表议论为主的散文称为议论散文。
它与抒情散文一样注重情感的抒发，不同的是议论散文重于理智，抒情散文重于感情。
它又不同于一般的议论文，用事实和逻辑来说理，而主要用文学形象来说话，是一种文艺性的议论文。
它既有生动的形象，又有严密的逻辑；既要以情动人，又要以理服人；融形、情、理于一炉，合政论与文艺于一体。鲁迅先生的杂文、陶铸的松树的风格等都是典型的议论散文。
篇10：新闻基础写作知识
全文共 517 字
+ 加入清单新闻是一种纪实类的文体，要求真实性、时效性，以下是小编整理的新闻基础写作知识，欢迎参考阅读！
一、版面术语
报头、报眼、报脚、报眉、头版头条（二版头条、三版头条等）、偏头条、
倒头条、通栏标题、套红、中缝（一四中缝、二三中缝等）
二、报纸的文体
主要有三种：消息、通讯和言论
新闻的分类：
广义：消息、通讯、言论（评论）、图片
狭义：消息（新闻就是消息，消息就是新闻）
消息字数一般要求：重大消息不超过800字，一般消息不超过500字。
三、什么是新闻（消息）？
（1）定义：消息就是用最简要和最迅速的手段报道最新发生的事情的一种宣
传文体。
新闻（消息）就是告诉人们发生了什么，报道最新发生的事实。
消息来源格式：本报讯（记者、特约记者、通讯员），新华社消息、路透社、塔斯社等等
（2）特点：
采写发稿迅速、及时，叙事直截了当，语言简洁明快，篇幅较小。
内容包括：何时、何地、何人、何事、何故，另加“如何”
（3）消息的结构：消息=标题+导语+主体（背景）+结尾
写法：金字塔结构、倒金字塔结构
四、消息的种类（按写作特点分）
（1）简讯（新闻短波）（2）动态消息 （3）经验消息 （4）综合消息 （5
）评述性消息 （6）新闻特写（素描、特写） （7）人物消息 （8）公报式
篇11：写作基础知识
全文共 327 字
+ 加入清单主题是文章的统帅和纲领，是文章的核心;主题源于材料，主题不能先行，必须从实际出发，从材料中引出主题。实用文体主题的表现表式主要有：①直接阐述;②单一集中;③以意役法;④片言居要;⑤善用标题。
新疆华图指出文章结构安排的环节主要包括：选择角度;设置线索;安排层次;划分段落;设计开头与结尾;处理过渡和照应等。文章的结构应达到严谨(严密精细，无懈可击)、自然(顺理成章，开阖自如)、完整(匀称饱满，首尾圆合)、统一(和谐一致，通篇一贯，决不相互抵触，自相矛盾)文章常用的表达方法有叙述、描写、议论、说明，其中议论的方法又可具体分为：①例证法;②喻证法;③类比法;④对比法;⑤反驳法;⑥归谬法。
语言运用的基本要求：合体、得体，准确、顺达，简洁、明快，生动、有力。
篇12：写作知识
全文共 239 字
+ 加入清单写人的拟题方法
1. 点明与“我”的关系。如：我的***(家人、朋友、邻居)
2. 点明“品质、特点”。如：一个诚实的人;妈妈的话多;乒乓球迷爸爸;
3. 点明人物身份。如：黑色的送煤老汉。我敬佩的看车人(清洁工)
4. 点出人物别称。如：挑山工 “万人迷”老师 、汽车上的“活雷锋”。
5. 以赞美人物，抒发情感为题。如：叔叔，谢谢你;妈妈真好。
6. 以人物特殊形象特征为题。 如：爸爸的笑;妈妈的背;他，总是昂着头
7. 以比喻为题。如：引路人;我心中的星;小精灵
写人作文常用的开头方法
篇13：通报基础知识及写作要点
全文共 732 字
+ 加入清单通报是用来表彰先进，批评错误，传达重要指标精神或情况时使用的公务文书。下面是小编为你带来的通报基础知识及写作要点，欢迎阅读。
一、通报的概念
通报适用于表彰先进、批评错误、传达重要精神或者情况。通报属下行公文。
二、通报的种类
表彰性通报。主要用来表彰先进，介绍单位或个人成功的经验、做法，以学习先进，见贤思齐，改进与推动工作。
批评性通报。用来批评后进，纠正错误，打击歪风，指出有关单位或个人存在的错误事实，提出解决办法或处理意见。
传达性通报。用于传达上级重要精神与重要情况;引起人们的警觉与注意，对当前的工作起指导作用。
三、通报的格式和写作要求
通报由标题、主送单位、正文、发文机关和日期组成。
标题 由发文机关、事由、文种或事由、文种构成。如《国务院关于一份国务院文件周转情况的通报》、《关于人大建议、政协提案办理情况的通报》等。
正文 表彰性通报和批评性通报一般分为三部分：(一)主要事实。表彰性通报要突出主要先进事迹，批评性通报要抓住主要错误事实;(二)分析指出事例的教育意义。表彰性通报，有在阐述先进事迹的基础上，提炼出主要经验、意义和值得学习与发扬的精神。批评性通报要分析错误的性质、危害，产生的根源和责任，指出应吸取的主要教训等;(三)决定要求。表彰性和批评性的通报，应写明组织结论与予以表彰或处理的决定，同时提出对表彰或批评对象与读者的希望、要求。为了防范和杜绝类似错误发生，批评性通报的结尾处，通常要有针对性地提出防范的措施或规定。传达性通报一般不写决定要求。(四)生效标识。在正文右下方标明发文机关名称，加盖印章，写明发文日期。
情况通报有两种形式：一种只对有关事实作客观叙述;另一种还对有关情况加以分析说明，有时还针对具体问题提出应采取何种对策的指导性意见。
篇14：散文写作基础知识
全文共 502 字
+ 加入清单散文与记叙文的最大区别在于，散文中所写的人生、自然、事件、景物等，都是从自身感悟出发，是作者对事物特殊意义和美的发现。这种发现，是知觉、思维、感觉的综合思维结果，体现着作者的深思妙悟，是散文的情、理、意、味。而记叙文是记录生活中的人和事，并不从作者的感悟出发。
散文的取材十分广泛，不间万象、宇宙万物、各色人等、宏观微观无不涉及，而这些材料一旦出现在文章中，就立即刻上了作者的主观感悟，代表着作者的人生经验、观点感受。所以，同样的材料，不同的作者看到的内涵是不同的。这里，我们把散文的取材叫“形”，把作者的感悟叫“神”。散文的文体特点就是：形散神聚。
散文的写法较其他文体更活泼自由，不拘一格。常见的方式是抒情，即使是记叙，也是带有强烈感情色彩的。散文常把记叙、抒情、议论等融为一体，夹叙夹议。表现手法上能出奇制胜，让读者产生新鲜独特的阅读感受。散文的结构追求自然而然的境界。在材料选取上，般运用联想手法。
总体来看，抒情的散文有时气势磅礴，有时低吟浅唱;记叙的散文如诗如画，曲径通幽;议论的散文情真意切，精彩纷呈……但是，不管作者怎么样安排文字，怎样组织材料，归根结蒂还是为了表达他对人生或自然的特殊感受悟。
篇15：记叙文的写作基础知识
全文共 1062 字
+ 加入清单一、常见叙事线索
1、人物线索：人物的见闻感受或者事迹
2、物品线索：某一有特殊意义的物品。
3、感情线索：作者或作品中主要人物的思想感情变化。
4、事件线索：中心事件5、时间线索6、地点变换线索
找线索：①文章的标题②各段反复出现的事物③文中议论抒情的语句
④作者的思想感情（变化）⑤某一人物的见闻感受
作用：文章内容井然有序地组合在一起，人物的思想性格，事情的来龙去脉。
二、记叙顺序
1．顺叙：即按照事情的发生、发展和结局的顺序写（时间先后）。
作用：使文章脉络清楚，有头有尾，给人鲜明的印象。
2．倒叙：把后发生的事情写在前面，然后再按顺序进行叙述。
作用：避免平铺直叙，增强文章的生动性，使文章引人入胜。
3.插叙：在叙述过程中，由于内容的需要，中断原来情节的叙述，插入有关的情节或事件，然后再继续原来的叙述。（比如：回忆往事）
作用：补充、衬托出文章的中心内容（人物或事件），丰富了情节，深化了主题。
三、人物的描写方法
1、肖像（外貌）描写[包括神态描写]（描写人物容貌、衣着、神情、姿态等）：交代了人物的××身份、××地位、××处境、经历以及××心理状态、××思想性格等情况。
2、语言（对话）描写3、行动（动作）描写：形象生动地表现出人物的××心理（心情），并反映了人物的××性格特征或××精神品质。有时还推动了情节的发展。
3、心理描写：形象生动地反映出人物的××思想，揭示了人物的××性格或者××品质。
四、环境描写：自然环境描写和社会环境描写
自然环境（描写自然景观如天气、季节、山川、湖海等自然景物）：渲染××环境气氛、烘托人物的××情感、预示人物的××命运、推动故事情节的发展。
社会环境（描写社会状况或者人物活动的场景和周围（室内）的布局、陈设）：交代故事发生的××时代背景，渲染××环境气氛。
五、记叙文的词语或句子的含义辨析
1．结合特定语境（即具体的句、段、篇、上下文），分析含义。
2．要注意词语的感情色彩（褒义、贬义、中性），明了词的本义、引申义、比喻义、一词多义等。
3．注意语气或语调。
4．着眼于词句之间的搭配。
5、着眼于词义范围的大小、轻重程度。
6．注意言外之意（如：挖掘比喻句中的本体或者事物的象征意义，用平实的语言表达）。
六、记叙文开头句子的作用
1、开篇点××题；
2、总领全文；
3、引起下文，为下文××作铺垫。
4、设置悬念，引起读者的兴趣或思考。
5、为下文××埋下伏笔
七、记叙文中间句子的作用
1、承上启下的过渡作用；
2、段末起总结作用；（总结上文；引出下文）
3、为下文××埋下伏笔
4、为下文××情节作铺垫
5、推动了情节的发展
篇16：应用文写作基础知识
全文共 2722 字
+ 加入清单应用文是人类在长期的社会实践活动中形成的一种文体，是人们传递信息、处理事务、交流感情的工具，有的应用文还用来作为凭证和依据。随着社会的发展，人们在工作和生活中的交往越来越频繁，事情也越来越复杂，因此应用文的功能也就越来越多了。 所谓应用文是人们在生活、学习、工作中为处理实际事物而写作，有着实用性特点，并形成惯用格式的文章。下面小编给大家介绍应用文的写作基础知识。
一、应掌握的应用文写作基础知识
(一)公文格式
1、行政公文的格式的概念
2、行政公文的格式的内容
(1)眉首
(2)主体：是文件的主要部分，包括标题、主送机关、正文、附件说明、成文日期、印章、附注、附件八个部分。
(3)版记：版记也称文尾，位于公文末页最下部，包括主题词、抄送机关、印发机关和印发日期三个要素。版记的最后一个要素置于最后一行。
(二)行政公文的行文规则
一个机关的文件，按照行文关系、文件的去向，可以分为上行文、平行文、下行文和泛行文。
基本行文规则：
(1)根据机关隶属关系和职责范围行文的原则。
(2)公文不直接报领导者个人的原则。
(3)非特殊情况不越级行文原则。
(4)同级机关可以联合行文的原则。
(5)部门会签未经协调一致不得各自单独行文的原则。
受双重领导的机关向上级机关行文，应当写明主送机关和抄送机关。上级机关向受双重领导的下级机关行文，必要时应当抄送其另一上级机关。
以下两种情况不宜用抄送：
1.请示不得在主送上级机关的同时向其下级机关抄送;
2.凡与办理公文无关的机关一律不予抄送。
二、12种应用文体的写作
(一)计划与方案
(二)总结
个人总结行文结构一般由标题、正文、落款三部分组成。
标题：单位名称+期限+内容+文种
正文：1、前言：交代与中心内容有关的情况;
2、全面总结一般包括成绩收获、经验体会、问题教训三个部分;
3、总结经验教训，提出努力方向。
落款：写作者姓名、日期
(三)简报
简报是反映所在单位或系统完成工作任务的情况和经验，实际工作中出现的新情况、新问题及值得注意的新思路，或某项调查研究的成果和有价值的统计数字的内容简要的内部资料，起着上情下达、下情上达、左右沟通、交流经验的作用。
工作简报的版式由版头、正文、版尾等要素组成。
简报的写作要求：
1、新：反映新情况、新问题、新经验;
2、准：材料真实确切、问题切中要害、政策把握准确;
3、简：篇幅短小精悍，语言简洁明了;
4、快：迅速及时，快编快发;
5、全：要素齐全，格式规范。
(四)调查报告
调查报告是为了工作需要和特定目的，对某一事物、问题或事件进行调查研究后，通过分析、加工，利用调查材料和研究结论整理撰写出来的书面报告。
调查报告也称为考察报告。其主要特点
一、是针对性强—针对人们普遍关心的事情或者亟待解决的问题而写;
二、是用事实说话—报告的内容真实准确，建立在深入细致的调查研究基础之上;
三、是揭示规律性—通过对事实的分析研究，得出规律性的认识。调查报告按照调查范围和内容，可分为综合调查报告、专题调查报告;按照作用，则可分为基本情况的调查报告、典型经验的调查报告、新生事物的调查报告、揭露问题的调查报告、澄清事实真相的调查报告等五类。
调查报告一般由标题、正文、落款等三部分构成。
(五)汇报提纲
汇报提纲是下级机关向上级机关汇报工作时所撰写的汇报内容提要。按照汇报内容分为综合工作汇报提纲和 专题工作汇报提纲。汇报提纲在内容上具有特定的针对性，结构上具有逻辑条理性，语言上要求朴实简练。
汇报提纲一般分为标题、正文、落款三个部分。
(六)会议记录
会议记录是在开会过程中，由专门人员把会议的组织情况和具体内容如实记录下来的文字材料。
会议记录一般由记录头、记录主体、审阅签名三部分组成。
(七)会议纪要
会议纪要是一种常用公文，是在会议记录的基础上整理加工而成的、记载传达会议决定事项和主要精神，要求与会单位共同遵守、执行的，具有纪实性和指导性的公文。
会议纪要一般分为办公会议纪要和专题会议纪要。
会议纪要一般分为标题、日期、签发人、正文、落款五个部分。
(八)通知
通知适用于批转下级机关公文、转发上级机关和不相隶属机关的公文、发布规范性公文、传达事项、任免人员等。
通知是公文中使用频率最高、适用范围最广的一个文种，是上级向下级传达、告知事项的一种下行文。通知具有使用范围的广泛性、受文单位的专指性和较强的时间性，同时还具有行文简便、写法灵活、种类多样的特点。
通知一般可分为批示性(批转性)通知、指示性通知、事务性通知、知照性通知等。如：国务院批转财政部、国家计委关于进一步加强外国政府贷款管理若干意见的通知(批示性)、国务院关于进一步精简会议和文件的通知(指示性)、国务院关于发布《国家行政机关公文处理办法》的通知(发布性)、通辽市地方税务局关于作好五一长假期间值班值宿的通知(事务性)
通知一般由标题、主送机关、正文、落款和日期几部分组成。
(九)报告
适用于向上级机关汇报工作，反映情况，答复上级机关的询问。
报告是下级机关向上级机关汇报工作、反映情况、提出意见或者建议、答复询问与要求、报送资料使用的一种陈述性公文，是典型的上行文。
报告按内容可分为工作报告、情况报告、答复报告等。
报告中不得夹带请示事项或要求上级机关答复的事项。报告一般有标题、主送机关、正文、成文日期组成。
(十)请示
适用于向上级机关请求指示、批准。请示具有隶属性，只有本部门和本系统的下级机关方可向上级机关请示。请示按其内容分有税政业务请示和行政事务请示两类。
下级机关向上级机关请示必须做到：凡属职权范围内的一般问题不随意请示;请示必须一文一事，且主送机关只有一个;请示必须在事前;上级机关收到请示后应认真研究，及时予以批复。请示属上行文，文末必须有请示语。
(十一)批复
批复是上级机关用来答复下级机关请示事项的下行公文。批复具有上级机关答复下级机关请示事项的专指性，下级有请示，上级才有批复。而且针对性极强，下级机关请示什么上级机关就答复什么。
批复由标题、主送机关、正文、成文日期组成。
标题：一般由“发文机关名称+事由+文种”构成。
主送机关：发出请示的下级机关。
正文：一般由批复依据、批复事项、执行要求三部分组成。
成文日期：
(十二)函
函适用于不相隶属机关之间商洽工作，询问和答复问题，请求批准和答复审批事项。内容上可分为申请函、商洽函、询问函、答复函、告知函。从行文方向上，“函”有来函和复函之分。函作为公文中唯一的一种平行文种，其适用的范围相当广泛。在行文方向上比较灵活，不仅可以在平行机关、不相隶属的机关之间行文，而且还可以向上级机关或者下级机关之间行文。有隶属关系的上下级机关之间不得使用函，上级机关的内设机构可以向下级机关的相关业务部门行便函，便函属于非正式文。
篇17：语文写作基础知识
全文共 1135 字
+ 加入清单写作是很重要的一道题目，那么我们要掌握写作的哪些基础知识呢？下面小编为大家整理了语文写作基础知识，希望能帮到大家！
(一)作文基础知识
1、审清题意：“五审”
(1)审清体裁(记叙文、应用文、说明文)
(2)审清题材(人、物、事、景)
(3)审清范围(时间、地点、人称、事件、对象具体限制)
(4)审清主题(中心思想)
(5)审清其他要求(附加要求)
2、确定主题：“四要”
(1)主题要正确(反应生活实际)
(2)主题要集中(一个文章不能多个主题)
(3)主题要鲜明(明确表达自己对事物的态度和立场)
(4)主题要深刻(深挖内涵思想)
3、选择材料：“四要”
(1)围绕主题选择材料(多写与主题相关的内容)
(2)选择真实的材料(真实可信，具有代表性和典型性)
(3)选择新颖的材料(新人新事)
(4)选择独有的材料(具有创新性)
4、编写提纲“五点”：
(1)拟好题目
(2)确定主题
(3)段落安排
(4)每段的主要意思
(5)重点段落的层次安排和内容
5、修改文章“五看”：
(1)是否切题
(2)主题、思想是否明确、突出
(3)看材料是否符合主题、内容是否具体、完整
(4)看语言是否通顺、用词是否准确，有无错别字
(5)看标点是否正确。
(二)看图作文 “一看二写，四要两注意”
“一看二写”：先看图，再写作文
“四要”：仔细观察图画;展开合理想象;突出主题、抓住重点;分清主次，具体描写。
“两注意”：看清全画面内容;分清图上内容主次和表达的中心。
(三)记叙文·记事
(1)写清楚事件发生的时间、地点以及事情的发生、发展和结果。
(2)事件经过写具体
(3)按事件的发展顺序来写
(4)注意表达真情实感
(四)记叙文·写人
(1)确定写作对象
(2)确定人物的思想品质
(3)选择典型的具体事例
(4)抓住最能表现人物思想品质的外貌、语言、动作、心理、环境进行描写。
(5)注意表达自己的真实感情
(五)记叙文·状物——“五要三注意”
“五要”：
(1)抓住物的特征
(2)按一定顺序写
(3)既写静态又写动态
(4)展开想象，运用拟人等手法把内容写具体
(5)托物言志，借物抒情
“三注意”：
(1)仔细观察、抓住特征
(2)明确中心，展开想象
(3)根据内容，安排顺序。
(六)记叙文·写景
注意六点：
(1)抓住景物特征
(2)注意时间、地点、气候等因素的影响
(3)景物特点安排恰当的顺序
(4)采用多种手法表现景物特点及变化
(5)写出自己的感受
(6)借景抒情
(七)应用文
1、应用文大多以记叙文为基础，但是还要特别注意的是各种应用文的格式
2、常见应用文类型：书信、读后感、通知、留言条、表扬信、建议书和日记。
3、具体格式：
(1)标题居中。(除了书信、留言条和日记没有标题，其他皆有)
(2)正文：另起一行空两格。
(3)署名和日期：先写署名，另起一行写清“*年*月*日”。
篇18：简单实用的小学生写作基础知识大全
全文共 1755 字
+ 加入清单小学生学写作，打好写作基础，练好写句子的基本功，要从把句子写完整、具体、通顺、连贯这几方面做起。
一、把句子写完整
怎样的句子才算是完整的呢?读读下面的句子：
1.我们劳动。(谁，干什么)
2.小蚂蚁运送食物。(什么，干什么)
3.哥哥是一名少先队员。(谁，是什么)
不难看出：在一般情况下，句子是由两部分组成的，前半部分交代“谁”或“什么”，后半部分交代“做什么”“怎么样”或者“是什么”。前后两部分说全了，句子才算是一句完整的话。需要强调说明的是：知道什么是完整句，怎样的句子才算完整，这只是一个知识性的问题;落实在行动上，即平日在说每一句话，在写每一句话时，都要认真思考，反复斟酌，提高“完整”意识，不写残缺不全的句子，这才是最重要的。
二、把句子写具体
句子要完整，这是首要的。但在许多时候，句子只做到“完整”是不能准确表达意思的，还要做到“具体”。怎样的句子才算是具体的呢?读读下面这几组句子，体会一下：
第一组：
1、爸爸做工。
2.爸爸在工厂里做工。
分析：第二句写清了爸爸在哪儿做工。
第二组：
1、小蜜蜂飞来。
2、夏日，一只金色的小蜜蜂从远处嗡嗡地飞来。
分析：第二句写清什么时候，有多少，什么样，从哪儿，怎么样。
由上面这两组句子可以看出：在句子主要成分的前面或后面，写清什么时候(时间)、有多少(数量)、在什么地方或从哪儿(地点)、什么样(形状或颜色)、怎么样(态势)、达到什么程度(情境)等，就写清了事物外形特点、活动特点，就把自己要准确表达的意思写出来了，这就叫做把句子写具体。这样的句子就算是完整、具体的句子。
学习把句子写具体，这是一项极为重要的技能，需要同学们抓住人物或事物的特点，准确运用词语，进行持久练习。
三、把句子写通顺
句子通顺，就是句意明白，读得顺口。具体来说，句子通顺包括以下几个方面：
1.用词要准确，经得起推敲。例如：我们把门口的泥土消除掉了。句中，“泥土”不能“消除”，只能“清除”掉。
2.句中词语排列的顺序要合理。例如：正在花上，有几只漂亮的蝴蝶翩翩起舞。这句话改成“有几只漂亮的蝴蝶，正在花上翩翩起舞”,句子就通顺了。
3.词语使用搭配要得当。例如：公园里生长着各种树木和五颜六色的鲜花。句中“生长”和“鲜花”两词搭配不当，应改为“公园里生长着各种树木，盛开着五颜六色的鲜花”。
4.句中各词语的意思不能自相矛盾。例如：我断定他大概是王小刚的哥哥。句中“断定”与“大概”矛盾，应删掉“大概”。
5.关联词语的使用恰到好处。例如：只有天下雨，地才会湿。“下雨”不是“地湿”的唯一条件，因此，第一句应改为：只要天下雨，地就会湿。
6.句意明白，合乎实际，符合情理。例如：博物馆里展出了五千多年前新出土的文物。说“五千多年前新出土的文物”不合实际，应改为：博物馆里展出了新出土的五千多年前的文物。
四、把句子写连贯
连贯，即句子之间连接贯通。显然，把句子写连贯，这是指写几句话(又叫“句群”)来说的。翻开某些同学的作文本，段落中上下句不连贯的现象比比皆是，主要表现在：句子之间无顺序，承接不紧密，跨度大;上下句之间，被描述的对象(即“主语”)重复出现，不会运用“他(她)”或者“它”这些人称代词。怎样才能做到把句子写连贯呢?
1.合理安排顺序，使句子连贯。
有顺序，这是写几句意思连贯的话的最基本的要求。这就要求我们，在写几句话时，一定不能东一句、西一句，想到哪儿就写到哪儿;总要围绕既定的中心意思，按照一定的顺序，把相关的句子组织在一起，使句子前后连贯。
2.学会运用“他(她)”或“它”这些人称代词，使句子连贯。
读读下面这段话，想一想，有什么毛病，怎样说才好：
妈妈的衣袖破了。妈妈赶忙从抽屉里拿出一个小布包。妈妈先从布包里拿出一根针，一根青线，用牙咬了咬线头，把线头穿过针眼。妈妈又从布包里找出一小块布，贴在破了的地方，然后一针一线地缝起来。
读后，大家一定会发现：这几句话写的对象是妈妈，主要写的是妈妈缝补衣服时所作的准备工作，是按事情经过的先后顺序排列的。只是由于这四句话的开头重复出现“妈妈”一词，因此读起来显得很拗口。如果把后面三句开头中的“妈妈”改成“她”字，这几句话就连贯多了。这就告诉我们：在几个句子里，如果写的是同一个人物(或事物)，后面再指这个人物(或事物)时，就可以用“他(她)”或“它”来代替。
篇19：2024应用文写作基础知识----应用文的表达
全文共 1922 字
+ 加入清单关于应用文的概念， 1979 年上海辞书出版社出版的《辞海》的解释是：应用文是人们在日常生活、工作和学习中所应用的简易通俗文字，包括书信、公文、契约、启事、条据等。定义很简单，但没能概括出应用文的本质特征，仅仅指出应用文的“简易通俗”，这才只是应用文的一些方面，而不是全部特征。
根据国务院办公厅颁布的《国家行政机关公文处理办法》中对公文的定义，推广开来，应用文的定义应为：应用文是机关团体、企事业单位以及人民群众在日常工作、生产和生活中办理公务以及个人事务时，交流情况、沟通信息，具有直接实用价值和惯用格式的一种书面交际工具。这个定义规定了应用文的本质特征，使它明显区别于其他文体，又涵盖了应用文的基本特性。
应用文的起源至迟可以追溯到殷商社会晚期，也就是距今 3000 多年前，可以说我国有初步定型文字的最初年代也就伴随着有了应用文的使用。殷墟出土的甲骨卜辞，商周时期的钟鼎文，《周易》中的卦、爻辞等，都是应用文的原始形态。所以，如果说，神话是中国文学的“祖先”，那么甲骨文则是应用文的“祖先”了。
1. 叙述
叙述，指的是把人物的活动、经历和事件发展变化过程交代出来一种表达方式。在应用文写作中是最基本、最常用的表达方式。
应用文写作中叙述的人称，有第一人称(“我”、“我们”)和第三人称(“他”、“他们”)。使用第一人称“我”、“我们”系指作者本人，或作者所代表的群体、单位，如书信、请示、报告、总结等文体的写作，多用第一人称。有时，为简要起见，常使用无主句。有的应用文体，如新闻报道、简介、调查报告、会议纪要，为表明作者立场客观、公正，传播的信息真实、可信，常采用第三人称写作。
应用文中的叙述方式有顺叙、倒叙、插叙、分叙等。应用文中记叙事件的发展过程，介绍单位的基本情况，一般都是按顺叙，即时间先后为序来叙述。其原因在于，应用文重在实用，不求委婉、曲折，故多采用直接的笔法叙事、说理。倒叙、插叙、分叙等用得较少，只在通讯、消息、调查报告的写作中才用得上。
应用文中的叙述要力求真实、准确，不带主观感情色彩;线索清晰，表述完整;以概述为主，尽可能用概括的语言说出其前因后果、来龙去脉，使读者了解其梗概。
2. 说明
说明，就是用简明扼要的文字对事物、事理及人物进行解说的表达方式。目的是使读者对事物的形态、构造、成因、性质、种类、功能，对事理的概念、特点、来源、演变、关系等有一个鲜明的了解和认识。
说明在应用文中使用广泛，如解说词、广告词、说明书、简介等文体，主要是用说明的方法来写的。其他文体如经济文书、科技文书、诉讼文书、行政公文等，也常常借助说明的方法解释事理，剖析事理。
说明的方法多种多样，在使用过程中应注意：定义说明要求“被定义者”和“定义者”外延相等，用语简明准确，具有科学性，不能用否定形式，避免“同义反复”;解释说明要求抓住要领，言简意明;分类说明注意根据写作意图选择恰当的分类角度，再次分类只能依据一个标准，各类的总和要等于被分类的事物;比较说明运用时要求用来作比的事物与被比物要相似，有明确的相比点，尽量用人们熟悉的事物作比;举例说明要求事例典型能给人以深刻的印象，举例应扼要，只需概述介绍，不必具体铺叙;引用说明要求引文要有针对性，要贴切，所引资料要认真核实，使之准确可靠;比喻说明应力求准确贴切;数字说明要求数字准确无误，每个数据都要有来源;图表说明要求选择图表要有代表性和针对性，表格的设计要合理，使人一目了然。
3. 议论
议论，即议事论理，是运用事实材料和理论材料进行逻辑推理阐明观点的一种表达方式。它主要特点是证明性，即通过摆事实、讲道理，或证明自己观点的正确，或驳斥对方观点的错误。
在应用文写作中，议论经常使用。调查报告、总结、通报等文体，经常在叙述事实、说明情况的基础上，表明对人物、事件、问题的评价。指示、决议、会议纪要等公文，也常用议论来阐明党和国家的方针、政策，让下级机关和群众理解和执行。
应用文写作中的议论，与一般议论文中的议论有明显的区别。一般议论文中，议论是最主要的表现方法，贯穿全文始终，论点、论据、论证三要素齐备。而在应用文写作中，最主要的表达方式是叙述和说明，议论居于从属的地位，一般只是在叙述、说明的基础上进行。另外，应用文的议论，一般也不需要作长篇大论，不需作复杂的多层次的逻辑推理，也不一定具备论点、论据、论证这样一个完整的议论过程，而只是在需要分析论证的地方，采取夹叙夹议的方法，或采取三言两语的方式，点到即止，不作深入论证。
运用议论要注意，一要庄重，对任何事物的评价要实事求是，以理示人，以理服人。二要明快，要直截了当的阐明观点，不拐弯抹角，不回避矛盾。
篇20：公共基础知识怎么写作
全文共 2400 字
+ 加入清单一、扣政策
我们写工作总结，往往要对前一段工作进行全面、审慎的回顾，即对前一段工作在贯彻执行党和国家的方针政策、依法行政和实施领导的情况进行审视。所谓扣政策，具体地讲，一是有无违法、违背中央指示精神、违背客观规律、侵犯群众利益的行政行为被作为经验在总结;二是理论上的提法是否符合党报党刊中的舆论子向和跟新提法;三是引用的政策法规是否得当。如果政策使用不当，或有错误，那么，总结出来的经验也是不正确的;如果推广，则是有害无益的，甚至会造成恶劣影响。
二、抓特色
所谓“特色”，是指事物所表现的独特色彩和风格。就一份总结而言，一是指内容上的独特风格。有的秘书写总结，喜欢套用老模式，平铺直叙，记“流水账”，连重点也不突出，就更谈不止有什么特色了。单位或部门的工作总结，要突出“你无我有，你有我优，你优我神”的工作成绩，写作的重心应当是反映当地工作中有独特性和创造性的东西。要写出自己“这一个”的特色，要唱好“地方戏”和“拿手戏”。而对于那些照抄照转一般化的工作情况，年年可套、家家可用的“常规性武器”，各级各地乃至全国都适用的“普通话”，就没有必要写人总结之中。那样的材料即使报上去也不会有多大用处。在当今“快餐化”的时代，生活、工作节奏已不断加快，阅文者总是希望在最短的时间内阅读尽量多的文字，获取尽可能多的信息。因此，只有突出文章的特色，尽量缩短文章的篇幅，才能达到阅文者的要求。二是指在形式上要突出特色。工作总结的标题要突出全面工作总的特色，文章各个部分要紧扣主旨突出各个方面的特色，每一段的开头也要概括本段要旨。目前流行一种将具体事实与数据用黑体标出作为小标题，让阅文者在一两分钟内就能读完一份经验材料主干的做法，值得借鉴。
三、找典型
典型的作用巨大，效果明显，一个好的典型就是一面鲜明的旗帜，对于广大群众是一种非常现实、直观的教育和引导，比一般的说教更具说服力和感召力。一份总结是否有用，同其所反映的内容与事迹的典型程度有很大的关系。有的单位或部门的工作总结，东拼西凑找材料，方方面面有成绩，就是通篇难找一个有一定分量的典型，这样的总结对工作又有何益呢?领导的总结性讲话离不开一条条活生生的典型经验，办公室主任最感兴趣的是下级总结中的典型材料，而秘书则往往为得到一个典型事例.更是打烂了电话，甚至“踏破铁鞋”。那么，怎样才能寻找到典型呢?除了平时在工作中要注意培养典型外，还可以从效果、做法、认识等三个方面去发现典型。首先是从效果上找典型。某项工作产生了最佳效果，取得了显著成绩，才能引起人们的关注和领导的重视。对于本地区本单位实践中创造出来的、能够解决人们最关心的问题而又优于别处的最佳处置方案及工作经验，应当敏锐地抓住并及时地撰写。模范集体和先进个人都有科学的经验值得推广。其次是从做法上找典型。某方面工作能取得实效，自然离不开科学的管理和先进的做法。但如果某项工作略见成效或效果暂时不明显，也可总结比以前有所改过、比别人先进，特别是有创意的典型做法。再次是从认识上找典型。思想是行动的先导，认识的深化、观点的亮化和主题的升华，写进总结中，仍然不乏深刻的典型意义。
四、清材料
材料是文章的基本要件，无论理论材料还是事实材料，都要做到真实、新颖、贴切、有力，所引政策法规、名人名言、领导讲话、群众评价等都必须准确无误，不能断章取义、拼凑曲解，更不能“想当然”。总结中常见的一些所谓的“群众评价”，不像群众的口吻，倒像秘书的杜撰;所引政策法规条文有些已经过时或不够贴切。事实材料就更有讲究。要真实，就不能虚构杜撰，。同时，材料一定要新，要选择最新的事实和统计数据，今年的材料可谓新，去年的材料还算新，前年的材料也许就是“陈芝麻”了。要贴切，就要用一根红线贯串所有的材料，即围绕中心来精心选择材料。在修改和审核时，对于那些虚假的、过时的、“外围”的材料，要毫不吝惜、坚决摈弃。
五、理思路
写得好的总结，思路往往是很清晰的，犹如一位出色的导游，预先设计好路线，将你有顺序地引到一个个游览景点一样，看完所有的景点而行程丝毫不乱。我们写工作总结，一般是按照“基本情况——主要做法——成绩及经验——存在问题及教训——下一步打算”的思路来结构文章;还是采用“横式结构"，分别按照各个方面的工作来写，边写做法、成绩、经验，边写存在的问题及教训和打算。具体总结某一方面的工作时，是先写做了什么工作，谈重要性，次写做法与效果，后用典型集体和个人的事例来予以说明，按照“做了什么——怎样做的(情况与做法)——做得怎样(成绩和经验)”来构思;还是只写“做了什么”与“做得怎样”，而略去“怎样做的”这一部分呢?即使在一段话中，上下旬之间也存在一个思路途接的问题。
六、删冗文
梁实秋先生说：“文学作品无不崇尚简练，简练乃一切古典艺术之美的极则。”这同样也是我们写总结所追求的最佳境界。简练就是简要而又精练，就是“少而精”。总结要简练，就要讲究立意精辟，结构精巧，材料精确，叙议精当，文笔精悍。看来要写出高质量的总结，还真须下一番功夫不可。当然，“简洁”是相对而言，不是越短越好，也不是一切总结皆作短文。言之有物，短文长看;言之无物，长文短看。有的同志热衷于“做文章”，可谓“妙笔生花”，观点精心提炼，内容苦心剪裁，文字刻意润色。既有“四六旬”，也有百分比;既有面上概括，也有典型事例。念起来朗朗上口，听起来热热闹闹，内容却是空空荡荡。你去审视它的每句话，会惊奇地发现，有用的句子寥寥无几，整个文章除了耽误听众(读者)的时间以外，毫无实际意义。要使文章精练，—个行之有效的方法就是要提高文章的含金量，删去一切冗文，争取在尽量少的文字中含有最大的信息量。一份工作总结能够在最短的篇幅内传达最大的信息量，往往给人以单位领导作风干练、办公室办事果断、信息来源广泛、秘书知识丰富的良好印象;既能对工作作出客观的评价，又能使人在愉快之中受到启迪。