2024新闻的写作基础知识：通讯的写作

篇1：写作基础知识：命题和半命题作文

全文共 1509 字

+ 加入清单

命题作文一般是指出题者给出一个既定的题目，要求应试者根据这个给定题目进行写作。半命题作文就是指作文题目只出现一半或一部分，另外一半或一部分由考生自己去补充的一种作文。下面是小编为你带来的写作基础知识：命题和半命题作文，希望对你有帮助。

一、命题作文概说：

1、命题作文类型：

全命题作文与半命题作文

2、全命题作文特点：

题目写作要求明确完整，利于考生通过审题----立意----构思----选材的步骤，迅速构思行文。但是，审题要求较高，要求审清题目里隐含的内容。只有审清题意才能根据写作特长或者生活积累，明确文体，确定写作重点。

3、半命题作文特点：

给予学生在选材、立意、构思上更强的自主性，开拓学生视野，减少学生审题失误，易于学生自由发挥。在半命题作文中，提示语是关键，提示语能从选材的内容、范围、角度给予学生于启示。

二、命题作文类型：

(一)全命题作文：

①直接式命题

②含蓄式命题

③设想式命题

④观点型命题

⑤散文型命题

(二)半命题作文结构形式：

①命前半题

②命后半题

③命首尾题

三、命题作文的提示语：

1、设计提示语，创设写作情境(作用)

①多方列举内容，启发学生从多方面选材构思，表达自己对生活的看法。

②尽力拓展文题外延。

③提供想象空间。

2、半命题作文设置备选项，拓展写作空间。

四、补题遵循原则：

①补自己最熟悉的。

②补自己最有把握的。

③补自己最记忆犹新的。

④补自己最能写出新意的。

五、命题内容范围：

1、表达自己对社会、自然、人生的独特感受和真切体验。

2、发现生活的丰富多彩，捕捉事物的特征。

3、运用联想与想象，表达丰富的思想情感内容。

六、命题作文审题方法：

审题要做到“不漏、不改、不误”，“不漏”指全面审题，不遗漏任何要求;“不改”指准确审题，不随意改变试题要求;“不误”指正确审题，不误解题目要求。

审题具体做法：

①审清作文题目中的限制语。限制内容主要有：时间、地点、对象、内容、数量、性质、程度、范围。

②审清作文题目中的关键词语。抓住关键词语，确立文章的写作表意重心，确定写作方向。

③审清提示语提示语对题目或作解释说明，或作补充介绍，或作扩展延伸，具有方向性与暗示性，帮助学生理解题目，打开思路，写出切合题意的作文。

七、半命题作文补题技巧：

快速补题技巧补题时，要审清题意：

半命题形式主要有：“半命题+要求”式、“导语+半命题+要求”式。审清导语主要是激发情思，界定选材范围。审清半命题，主要是注意半命题结构形式以及限制语，从而分析重点词语，明确题目限制的写作范围。作文必须围绕题目展开写作，切不可文不切题。

①具体事物补题法

②特定情景补题法

③修辞手法补题法

④特殊符号补题法

补题遵循原则：

1、熟悉性原则：指题目所表现的内容必须是自己比较熟悉的，平时积累的素材比较多的。

2、贴切性原则：指标题范围尽量缩小，要从自己确立的角度出发，不要太宽泛，将大题化小。

3、新颖性原则：指题目所表现的内容，角度应当是与众不同的、新鲜的。

4、正确深刻性原则：指题目表现的内容能够揭示出正确深刻的主题。

八、命题作文的“凤头”：

技巧一：开门见山，迅速入题

技巧二：文采斐然，引人入胜

技巧三：巧用修辞，文采增色

技巧四：巧妙发问，诱人深思

技巧五：首尾呼应，彰显主旨

技巧六：引用经典，形象寓理

九、命题作文的“豹尾”：

技巧一：自然收束法

技巧二：首尾照应法

技巧三：卒章显志法

技巧四：抒发情感法

技巧五：呼唤号召法

技巧六：巧发疑问法

技巧七：景物烘托法

技巧八：耐人寻味法

十、写作误区：

1、不注意审题，盲目乱写。

尤其是针对抽象的作文题或者具有象征意义、比喻意义的作文题的推敲，随兴而写造成偏题、离题。

2、不注重文体各自特点。

3、半命题作文补题随意，导致作文题与作文写作内容产生偏离。

展开阅读全文

喜欢 422 32 次下载分享收起

篇2：2024应用文写作基础知识----应用文的表达

全文共 1922 字

+ 加入清单

关于应用文的概念， 1979 年上海辞书出版社出版的《辞海》的解释是：应用文是人们在日常生活、工作和学习中所应用的简易通俗文字，包括书信、公文、契约、启事、条据等。定义很简单，但没能概括出应用文的本质特征，仅仅指出应用文的“简易通俗”，这才只是应用文的一些方面，而不是全部特征。

根据国务院办公厅颁布的《国家行政机关公文处理办法》中对公文的定义，推广开来，应用文的定义应为：应用文是机关团体、企事业单位以及人民群众在日常工作、生产和生活中办理公务以及个人事务时，交流情况、沟通信息，具有直接实用价值和惯用格式的一种书面交际工具。这个定义规定了应用文的本质特征，使它明显区别于其他文体，又涵盖了应用文的基本特性。

应用文的起源至迟可以追溯到殷商社会晚期，也就是距今 3000 多年前，可以说我国有初步定型文字的最初年代也就伴随着有了应用文的使用。殷墟出土的甲骨卜辞，商周时期的钟鼎文，《周易》中的卦、爻辞等，都是应用文的原始形态。所以，如果说，神话是中国文学的“祖先”，那么甲骨文则是应用文的“祖先”了。

应用文写作基础知识----应用文的表达

1. 叙述

叙述，指的是把人物的活动、经历和事件发展变化过程交代出来一种表达方式。在应用文写作中是最基本、最常用的表达方式。

应用文写作中叙述的人称，有第一人称(“我”、“我们”)和第三人称(“他”、“他们”)。使用第一人称“我”、“我们”系指作者本人，或作者所代表的群体、单位，如书信、请示、报告、总结等文体的写作，多用第一人称。有时，为简要起见，常使用无主句。有的应用文体，如新闻报道、简介、调查报告、会议纪要，为表明作者立场客观、公正，传播的信息真实、可信，常采用第三人称写作。

应用文中的叙述方式有顺叙、倒叙、插叙、分叙等。应用文中记叙事件的发展过程，介绍单位的基本情况，一般都是按顺叙，即时间先后为序来叙述。其原因在于，应用文重在实用，不求委婉、曲折，故多采用直接的笔法叙事、说理。倒叙、插叙、分叙等用得较少，只在通讯、消息、调查报告的写作中才用得上。

应用文中的叙述要力求真实、准确，不带主观感情色彩;线索清晰，表述完整;以概述为主，尽可能用概括的语言说出其前因后果、来龙去脉，使读者了解其梗概。

2. 说明

说明，就是用简明扼要的文字对事物、事理及人物进行解说的表达方式。目的是使读者对事物的形态、构造、成因、性质、种类、功能，对事理的概念、特点、来源、演变、关系等有一个鲜明的了解和认识。

说明在应用文中使用广泛，如解说词、广告词、说明书、简介等文体，主要是用说明的方法来写的。其他文体如经济文书、科技文书、诉讼文书、行政公文等，也常常借助说明的方法解释事理，剖析事理。

说明的方法多种多样，在使用过程中应注意：定义说明要求“被定义者”和“定义者”外延相等，用语简明准确，具有科学性，不能用否定形式，避免“同义反复”;解释说明要求抓住要领，言简意明;分类说明注意根据写作意图选择恰当的分类角度，再次分类只能依据一个标准，各类的总和要等于被分类的事物;比较说明运用时要求用来作比的事物与被比物要相似，有明确的相比点，尽量用人们熟悉的事物作比;举例说明要求事例典型能给人以深刻的印象，举例应扼要，只需概述介绍，不必具体铺叙;引用说明要求引文要有针对性，要贴切，所引资料要认真核实，使之准确可靠;比喻说明应力求准确贴切;数字说明要求数字准确无误，每个数据都要有来源;图表说明要求选择图表要有代表性和针对性，表格的设计要合理，使人一目了然。

3. 议论

议论，即议事论理，是运用事实材料和理论材料进行逻辑推理阐明观点的一种表达方式。它主要特点是证明性，即通过摆事实、讲道理，或证明自己观点的正确，或驳斥对方观点的错误。

在应用文写作中，议论经常使用。调查报告、总结、通报等文体，经常在叙述事实、说明情况的基础上，表明对人物、事件、问题的评价。指示、决议、会议纪要等公文，也常用议论来阐明党和国家的方针、政策，让下级机关和群众理解和执行。

应用文写作中的议论，与一般议论文中的议论有明显的区别。一般议论文中，议论是最主要的表现方法，贯穿全文始终，论点、论据、论证三要素齐备。而在应用文写作中，最主要的表达方式是叙述和说明，议论居于从属的地位，一般只是在叙述、说明的基础上进行。另外，应用文的议论，一般也不需要作长篇大论，不需作复杂的多层次的逻辑推理，也不一定具备论点、论据、论证这样一个完整的议论过程，而只是在需要分析论证的地方，采取夹叙夹议的方法，或采取三言两语的方式，点到即止，不作深入论证。

运用议论要注意，一要庄重，对任何事物的评价要实事求是，以理示人，以理服人。二要明快，要直截了当的阐明观点，不拐弯抹角，不回避矛盾。

展开阅读全文

喜欢 662 52 次下载分享收起

篇3：记叙文写作需要注意哪些方面

全文共 1229 字

+ 加入清单

通过记人的言行和事情的经过来表达一定的中心思想的文章就是记叙文。下面是小编为大家收集整理的记叙文写作需要注意哪些方面，欢迎大家阅读参考!

有的记叙文只简单地写一人一事，但更多的记叙文，所写的人物之间的关系比较复杂，事情的变化发展比较曲折，时间的迁移和场地的变换也比较频繁，就是比较复杂的记叙文了。

写记叙文，无论是简单的，或是复杂的都要注意下列几点:——记叙文写作指导

第一，交代清楚。

写记叙文必须交代清楚时间、地点、人物、事件、原因、结果，使读者对发生的事件有全面而清楚的了解。这就是记叙文的“六要素”。凡是记叙性体裁的文章，如通讯、特写、报告文学、记叙散文，包括小说，都要具备这六要素。

《祝福》这篇小说，其故事发生的时间，是旧中国年终祝福的时候。地点是鲁镇。故事中涉及的人物，有“我”、“鲁四老爷”、“祥林嫂”等。事情的经过是祥林嫂两次到鲁家佣工，不但受到严重剥削，而且精神上也受到摧残，最后沦为乞丐。故事发生的原因，是祥林嫂寡居之后，被迫到鲁家佣工，故事的结果是当样林嫂被鲁家撵出之后，年终祝福的时候，默默地死去了。由于小说的六要素交代得清清楚楚，所以，读者看了这篇文章之后，会对内容有清楚的理解。从而产生对祥林嫂的同情和对旧社会的僧恨。

第二，级索分明。

要把复杂的内容记叙得条理清楚，确定线索是非常重要的。它能把纷繁的材料贯穿起来，组成一个有机的整体。《结婚现场会》这篇文章涉及“我”、王拴牛、郑谷雨、武艾英等众多人物，故事情节波澜起伏，矛盾冲突尖锐复杂，但是由于作者紧紧抓住了王拴牛要不要彩礼这条线索，因此故事的情节紧凑条理，中心十分突出。一般的记叙文只有一条线索，但有的却有几条线索。《药》这篇脍炙人口的小说，就有一明一暗两条线索。随着这两条线索的连接、交织、融会，使故事的情节由开端、发展、高潮到结局，众多人物形象逐步地鲜明地出现在读者面前，主题思想也步步深化。

第三，记叙其体。

所谓具体，不是不分巨细、胡子眉毛一把抓，把文章记成“流水账”，而要用事实说话，要善于选择最能反映人物精神面貌的典型事例来表达主题。例如《汉堡港的变奏》这篇散文，在刻画吉亚特这个人物时，就用了极为精练的笔墨，勾勒了这个自视是行家，看不起中国人的小工头的。文章写道:“一号工头吉亚特是一个有几十年工龄的行家，两撇小胡子，矮小而精明，极有本事，就是看不起中国人。汉川号的大副根本指挥不动他。”容寥数语，.就把自视为行家、傲视中国人的小胡子写活了。可是，当他不按配载图执行，“卡了壳”之后，那个原来“满不在乎地拍着胸脯”，“翘着小胡子说”，“我有把握”，“我从来没被动过”的吉亚特，这时却狼狈万状，“满头大汗地来找贝汉廷”请教了。事实教育了他，使他转变了，‘小胡子吉亚特摊开双手，耸了耸肩说:‘太奇妙了，这些货简直是按你们船舱的尺码定做的!”这里刻画吉亚特，着里不多，但人物栩栩如生，呼之欲出。这不仅绘声绘色地写出这个工头对中国人的看法的转变，也从反面衬托了船长贝汉廷的才干和胆识。

展开阅读全文

喜欢 719 79 次下载分享收起

篇4：英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

全文共 45713 字

+ 加入清单

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

展开阅读全文

喜欢 783 5 次下载分享收起

篇5：写作基础知识之基本句式

全文共 3115 字

+ 加入清单

句子依据用途或语气可分为四大类即：陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句。

陈述句：说明一件事情，表示陈述语气的句子。

疑问句：提出一个问题，表示疑问语气的句子。

祈使句：要求或者希望中国人做什么或不做什么，表示祈使语气的句子。

感叹句：表示感叹语气的句子。

一、陈述句和反问句的互换：

陈述句指说明意见、叙述事实的句子。反问句是指用疑问句的形式表达确定的意思的句子。

把陈述句改成反问句有两种情况：

1 肯定语气改成反问句如：

天才来自勤奋。改为：难道天才不是来自勤奋吗?

2 否定语气改成反问句

小孩掉进河里，我们不能见死不救。

小孩掉进河里，我们能见死不救吗?

注意点：陈述句改成反问句，要把句中表示肯定的词改成表示否定的词，句末的句号改成问号，并加上“吗”、“呢”等句末的句号要改成问号。

反问句改成陈述句也有两种情况：

把反问句改成陈述句就要把“难道”和“不”等词删去，把句末的问号改成句号，并去掉“难道……吗”和“怎么……呢”语气助词。

练习：

1、既须劳动，又长见识，这就是养花的乐趣。

2、不劳动，连棵花也养不活，这难道不是真理吗?

3、难道我们播下的种子不会在自己学生的身上开花结果吗?

4、老师对我的教导，难道我会忘记吗?

二、肯定句和否定句的互换：

表达一个肯定的意思，也可以采用否定句式，例如，“人人都都遵守课堂纪律。”可以改写成“没有一个人不遵守课堂纪律。”改写后句子的肯定语气要比原来的句子更强。改写时要注意：双重否定是表示进一步的肯定，所以必须用上两个表示否定的词，也就是“否定+否定=肯定”。如果只用一个否定的词，句子意思就完全相反了

例：天下的人都知道秦国是从来不讲信用的。

天下的人没有一个不知道秦国是从来不讲信用的。

注意：

练习：

1)全班同学都参加了这次植树活动。

2)学好语文和输血，对青年人的成才才会起促进作用。

3)同学们都觉得书籍是我们的好老师。

4)记住“只拣儿童多处行”是会找到春天的。

5)上坡下的每一块地都被大水淹没了。

6)事情的来龙去脉得向你说清楚。

7)这里的情况你是清楚的。

三、直接引语与间接引语的改写：

我们在说话或写作中，有时需要直接引用别人的对话，有时需要转述。例如雨来摇摇头说：“我在屋子里什么也没有看见。”这是直接叙述的句子。如果要改成转述的句子，就可以改成“雨来摇摇头说，他在屋子里什么也没有看见。”

改写时应注意三点：一是改换人称，将对话中表示“谁”(如我、我们等)的人称代词改成“他”或“他们”。与引号前的人称一致起来。二是改变标点，将冒号改成逗号，双引号去掉。三是适当调整词语，需要时可作少量的文字改动，但不能改变句子的基本意思，使句子通顺。

例：贝多芬说：“我是来弹一首曲子给这位姑娘听的。

贝多芬说，它是来弹一首曲子给这位姑娘听的。

1)他轻轻地说：“我买不起，我的钱不够。”

2)蔺相如说：“秦王我都不怕，我会怕廉将军吗?

3)小华告诉我：“ 我的《儿童时代》先借给你看。”

4)妈妈对我说：“ 我今晚要加班，不回家吃饭了。”

5)小华对小丽说：“明天我们班要参加区文艺会演，我得早点到校排演。”

四、陈述句改成把字句和被字句

如：他碾死了小青虫。可改成

⒈“把”字句：他把小青虫碾死了。将陈述句改成把字句，就是将句中表示动作的对象移到表示动作的词前面，加上“把”即成把字句。在变换句式时必须保持原句的意思。

⒉“被”字句：小青虫被他碾死了。把陈述句改成被字句，就是将句中表示接受动作的词调到句首，换上“被”就成了被字句。

这两种句子的变换只要调换句中的某些词的位置就行了。

如上面句①中只需把“碾死了”和“小青虫”的位置调换一下，再在他的后面加个“把”字;句②则把“小青虫”与他“他”之间加个“被”字就行了。两个句子互相改换之后，它们原来的意思不能改变。

五、有些陈述句为了突出句中的某一部分，可交换下词语的位置。

如：“我去过北京。”与“北京，我去过。”前者突出“我去过”，后者突出了“北京”。改变说法，做到语言美。

在公共汽车上，看到一位老太太上车，一个小学生连忙让座，应怎么说呢?

应说：“老奶奶，请您坐这儿!”

注意点：如说“喂，老太婆，坐这儿来!”就很没有礼貌。我们在与人交往时，要学会使用“请”“打扰”“对不起”“谢谢”“没关系”，接电话时，要用“您好!请问……”等。

六、特殊句式的变换

1、词语位置的变换：如

常式句：亲人再见了!

变式句：再见了，亲人。把主谓语的位置进行互换

2、变换提示语的位置：如

(1)、我说：“爸爸，也许它不会死……” (提示语在前)

(2)、“爸爸!”，我说，“也许它不会死……”(提示语在中间)

(3)、“爸爸，也许它不会死……” 我说。 (提示语在句末)七、关联句

句子依据结构分类，可分为单句和复句。复句是能分成两个或两个以上相当于单句的分段的句子。复句内的各个单句形式，叫做分句。同一个复句里的分句，说是的是有关系的事，它们又是由关联词语连接起来的，因此也称作关联句。常见的关联句有七种类型，每类关联句有它们自己常用的关联词语。

1、因果关系：因为……所以因此既然……就

2、条件关系：只有……才只要……就无论……都不管……总

3、假设关系：如果……就要是……就哪怕……也即使……也4、递进关系：不但……而且不光……还不仅……还

5、并列关系：既……又一边……一边一方面……一方面一会儿……一会儿

6、转折关系：虽然……但是尽管……还是

7 选择关系：是……不是宁可……也不不是……就是与其……不如

运用关联词语要注意以下几点：

关联词语一般都成对出现，只有少数单独使用。(如“可是”、“而”、“因此”等)

关联词语大都有一定的搭配习惯，不能任意组合。

关联词语起连接作用，可以把两句话并为一句。

七、因果句式的改写：

因果句式，是按事物的原因和结果关系来写的。它有两种形式：一是先因后果，二是先果后因。因果句式中，原因可以是一个或几个，但结果只能是一个。改写时，可以用关联词，也可省支其中一个关联词，甚至不用。但原意一定要保持不变。

八、缩句和扩句

缩句的目的是为了更好地分析和理解句子。把句子中表示修饰或限制的词语去掉，保留原来句子的主干，缩成一个简单完整的句子。缩句不能增加和减少原句基本成分，不改变原句的意思。

缩句主要方法有以下几种：

1、分辨句式，提出问题。先看看这句话是写人还是写景物的，然后可以提出“谁是什么”、“谁干什么 ”或者“什么是什么”、“什么干什么”、“怎么样”来找出句子的主要部分。如：“这毛茸茸的在地上流动着的小绒球原来是刚孵出来的小鸡。”我们可提问：什么?--小绒球;是什么?---是小鸡。缩句后就是成 “小绒球是小鸡。”

2、进行词语比较，找出主要词语。有些句子很长，修饰的部分较多，我们就要在几个词语中选出主要的，才能正确地缩句。如“工人宿舍前的草地上开满了五颜六色的野花。”因为“野花”只能开在“草地上”。所以“草地上”是主要词，而“工人宿舍前”是修饰“草地”的。

3、如果是否定句缩句，就要把否定词一起写出来，否则就会改变句意。如“我不相信他那种骗人的鬼话。”应缩成“我不相信鬼话”，而不能缩成“我相信鬼话” 另外要提醒小朋友的是，缩句后，虽然句子十分简短，但它还是个完整的句子，所以句末必须加上原句上的标点符号。扩句恰好相反，是在句子的主干上增加一些恰当的修饰或限制性的词语，是句子的内容变得丰富、具体和生动。扩句的过程正好与缩句相反，即按一定要求给句子的主干添枝加叶，加上修饰成分，使它表达的意思更具体、形象、生动。

在具体扩句过程中，要注意以下几个方面：

1、所加的修饰词必须与主干搭配得当

2、扩句后句子的成分不变。

3、扩句后不能改变句子的结构。

展开阅读全文

喜欢 230 2 次下载分享收起

篇6：应用文写作基础知识

全文共 14109 字

+ 加入清单

“博士”寻驴

从前，有一位老先生，号称学富五车、才高八斗，方圆百十里地享有很高的声望，人称“博士”，他也因此得意洋洋、自视很高。这一天，家人来向他报告：家里一头最精壮的黑驴莫名其妙地丢失了，而眼下正是田里、家里活儿最多、最需要牲口的时候，请老爷赶紧想办法或者找回黑驴、或者重买一头新驴。当时一头正值壮年的驴也还很值几个钱，于是有好事者提醒博士说，还是先写个寻驴启事，也许还能找回来呢!博士连连点头称是。于是磨墨铺纸，提笔运腕，一张寻驴启事一气呵成，墨迹未干就赶紧让家人拿出去，张贴在闹市口了。

可是，转眼几天过去了，一点黑驴的消息也没有，博士决定亲自到街头去看一看、听一听，了解了解关于黑驴的消息。来到闹市口，自己写的启事还在，还真有不少人在围观，博士混入人群，心下得意，想听听大家的说法。只听得有好事者正摇头晃脑地给大家念着：“……，我中华古国、历史悠久，文化灿烂、民风淳朴、文明教化，……盘古开天……，唐宗……，宋祖……”“什么嘛!什么嘛!”“什么意思!瞎耽误工夫!”围观的人没等好事者念完，就已连连唾弃着地四下散去。原来，“博士”真不愧为博士，一个寻驴启事洋洋洒洒上万字下去，还没提到一个驴字，难怪他等了好几天没有任何消息呢!原来大家还没等他讲到驴就早已不耐烦读下去了!

那么，到底什么是应用文呢?

关于应用文的概念， 1979 年上海辞书出版社出版的《辞海》的解释是：应用文是人们在日常生活、工作和学习中所应用的简易通俗文字，包括书信、公文、契约、启事、条据等。定义很简单，但没能概括出应用文的本质特征，仅仅指出应用文的“简易通俗”，这才只是应用文的一些方面，而不是全部特征。

根据国务院办公厅颁布的《国家行政机关公文处理办法》中对公文的定义，推广开来，应用文的定义应为：应用文是机关团体、企事业单位以及人民群众在日常工作、生产和生活中办理公务以及个人事务时，交流情况、沟通信息，具有直接实用价值和惯用格式的一种书面交际工具。这个定义规定了应用文的本质特征，使它明显区别于其他文体，又涵盖了应用文的基本特性。

应用文的起源至迟可以追溯到殷商社会晚期，也就是距今 3000 多年前，可以说我国有初步定型文字的最初年代也就伴随着有了应用文的使用。殷墟出土的甲骨卜辞，商周时期的钟鼎文，《周易》中的卦、爻辞等，都是应用文的原始形态。所以，如果说，神话是中国文学的“祖先”，那么甲骨文则是应用文的“祖先”了。

应用文的使用非常广泛，几乎涉及各个领域、各个部门、各个阶层、每个个人。比如，科研单位的人员，需要用学术论文;政府机关指导工作，需要用公文;工商企业经营，需要用合同;打官司，需要用诉状;即使个人今天生病了、不能上课，也需要用到请假条;……。相对于其它文体来说，应用文的使用频率要高得多：许多人可以一辈子不写小说、剧本、诗歌、散文，但他在工作、生活、学习中却免不了要写应用文，小到写张请假条，大到计划、总结、论文等。正如叶圣陶先生所说的那样：“大学毕业生不一定能写小说诗歌，但是一定要能写工作和学习中实用的文章，而且非写得既通顺又扎实不可。”

可以这么说，应用文使用的广泛，已经到了无所不在的程度。今天在中国特色的社会主义市场经济条件下，应用文是任何企事业单位和个人日常工作、生活中不可缺少的一个重要工具。

应用文同别的文体比较，有共性，也有个性。共性是他们都是对客观事物的反映，都要谋篇布局、用词造句、使用标点符号，讲究条理性、逻辑性，同样使用叙述、说明、议论等表达方式，要求准确、鲜明、生动的文风。具体表现在以下几方面。

教学内容：

第一节应用文的主题

应用文写作基础知识既有与一般文体写作的共通之处，更多的是其在写作知识运用上的独特性，只有掌握其独特性，才能正确、规范地写好应用文体。

主题先行性

一、主题的特点主题单一性

主题显露性

应用文的主题就是解决问题的方法、建议。其主题是十分明确直接的，主题的确立大多不是写作者有感而发，而是应客观实际的需要，为解决实际问题而产生的，由此可以说应用文主题就是解决问题的具体方法。因此应用文的主题具有以下特点：

文学作品的主题是从生活中、从已获取的材料中提炼出来的，往往反对主题先行。而应用文主题的确立与文学作品主题的确立不同，其主题确立在全文写作之前，所谓“意在笔先”。因为应用文总是先产生了具体问题而后产生写作的需求，而解决这一问题的方法、结论往往也产生在文章写作之前;同时执笔者的写作行为往往也是被动的，是应解决问题而动笔，写作的过程更是确切地体现主题。如《国务院关于同意黑龙江省调整哈尔滨市部分行政区划的批复》一文就是为答复《调整哈尔滨市部分行政区划的请示》而写的文章，表示同意请示提出的请求事项而作，主题一定是确立在写作之前。

一般说文学作品的主题具有其复杂性，对主题的理解更呈多元化。然而应用文的主题则必须单一、明确，读者对主题的理解不允许多元，而要求理解上的同一性，这样才利于统一认识，更有利于问题的解决。如：《关于当代青年消费问题的调查报告》一文就消费观念、消费现状、消费趋势和消费结构等四个方面，展开调查，尽管涉及面广，材料较丰富，但文章紧紧围绕“当代青年消费”这一中心，内容集中，一题一议，主题单一、明确。

文学作品的主题要求含蓄、曲折，令人回味。而应用文写作就不同，要求直截了当地点明主题，表明态度，提出解决问题的措施和办法，对文章所涉及的各类问题，必须有明确的观点立场，应该怎么做，解决什么问题，达到什么目的，都要明确地表达出来。

标题显旨

二、主题的表现方法开头点旨

结尾点旨

应用文主题的表达要做到明确、显露。那么怎么才能做到主题从文章中显露出来呢?下面就给大家介绍几种表现方法：

标题显旨，就是在文章的标题中直接点明主题。如《三季度物价水平再次转降，出口增速趋于稳定》，这篇经济活动分析报告的标题就直接点明了主题，让人一看就大致明白了文章的主要内容，主题十分显露。这不失为是一种使主题显现的好方法。

这种方式是在文章的开头或每一段落的开头用简短的语句陈述主题，使主题凸现出来。如《 2001 年经济形势展望》一开头就指出： “展望 2001 年，经济回升的势头还比较微弱，促进经济的持续向好仍然需要克服许多困难。” 开宗明义，点明主题。再如《靠名牌赢得市场——关于深圳市飞亚达(集团)股份有限公司的调查》一文在 “启示：现代企业必须重视实施名牌战略” 的小标题下，分三段来阐述这一问题，在每段开头用段首句点明主旨：第一段的段首句：实施名牌战略是提高产品质量、提升企业品味的内在要求。第二段的段首句：实施名牌战略是企业参与市场竞争尤其是国际市场竞争的客观需要。第三段的段首句：实施名牌战略是增强国家经济实力的重要手段。在这三句主题句的提示下，每段的中心就十分明了。

这种方式是在文章的的结尾之处点明文章主题。如李政道的论文《基础、应用科学与生产三者关系》一文就是采用这一方法结尾。文章的结尾指出： “我再重复一下，没有基础学科就没有应用学科，没有应用学科就没有生产学科，三者是紧密结合在一起的。” 非常清晰地显示了主题。

主题决定材料的选取

三、主题的作用主题决定文种的选用

主题决定结构的安排

主题决定表达方式的选用

实训：

根据下面材料概括出主题，并用主题句表现出来。

1 .目前，全世界的年教育经费已超过 2000 亿美元，在公共资金的支出中仅次于军事经费，占第二位。世界工业化国家人口只占世界人口约三分之一，其教育经费比发展中国家多十倍以上。中国人口占世界总数超过五分之一，但教育经费仅占约三十分之一。按 1982 年的数字算，人均教育费为 11.2 元人民币，属世界 14 个人均教育经费不足 5 美元的国家之一。

2 .国外有两家鞋厂，各派一位推销员到太平洋某岛国去推销本厂的鞋子。上岛后不久，他们各发回一份电报。一位的电文是：“此岛上的人都不穿鞋，明天我就回去。”另一位的电文是：“太好了!这个岛上的人都没穿上鞋子，我打算长驻此岛。”

第二节应用文的材料

材料的真实性

一、材料的特点材料的现实和新颖性

材料的典型性

应用文写作对材料是十分依赖的，常言道“巧妇难为无米之炊”，为了表现主题我们需要收集一系列材料，或综合或舍取运用到文章的写作之中，使主题真实立体地表现出来。应用文材料的使用除了与文学作品有共通之处外，更多地体现自身特点：

应用文在材料的选用过程中不准改变材料本身性质，必须保持材料的真实性，对材料的时间、地点、数据、事实过程及结果都不能任意改动，否则就会使材料本身的价值发生变异，导致歪曲事实的真相，弄虚作假的后果，失去应用文的主题应有的价值，不仅不能解决问题，反而于事无补。应用文要求的真实是“绝对的真实”，也就是说所有材料要确凿无误、持之有据。不仅对搜集到的材料要反复核实，在材料的解释上，也要有科学的态度，实事求是。

应用文写作是为了解决现实问题而作的即时之作，其主要的材料需选取能反映现实的新颖材料。所谓现实是指，围绕文章要解决的问题所存在的事实(数据)材料而非通过联想和推论得到的材料。如在《新的消费热点：出门旅游过年》一文中，为了陈述出门旅游过年的现状，就采用了大量的事实(数据)材料： “根据国家旅游局对江苏、广东、云南、海南、北京、福建、广西、四川、黑龙江、湖南、山东、山西等 13 个省、自治区、直辖市的调查，……今年春节期间，这些地区直接由旅行社接待的国内旅游人次比往年至少有 15 %的增长……以上 13 个省、区、市的旅行社，春节期间共接待旅游者 124 万人次，旅行社营业收入 14 亿元。” 文中采用的材料都是新近现实发生的，这是大多数应用文材料的特点。所谓新颖是指，材料本身是新近产生的，如新事实、新政策、新的统计数据、新发现的问题等和用新的角度重新审视其新意。

所谓典型性是指那些最能支持主题和说明问题的材料。典型材料可以是一个具体的事例，一些有说服力的数据和一些带有普遍性的现象。如题为《“小解放”为何俏销湖北》的市场调查报告中，在说明“优质服务获得良好口碑”这一经验时，采用了这样一则事实材料： “去年 10 月的一天傍晚，河南省郑州市某单位的一辆小解放牌车在去广州途径武汉时，在武汉黄鹤楼处出现问题，求助电话打到了该销售中心，中心经理立即亲自带队迅速赶到现场，发现该车是用户对后驱动桥端面螺丝没拧紧而发生齿轮油漏尽，导致差速器锥齿烧损。当维修人员在后半夜将修好的车交给用户时，用户激动地说虽然我们不属于该省管辖，又没带保用手册，并且问题又是因我们使用不当所致，你们还这样及时周到地服务，太让我们感动了!‘小解放走到哪服务到哪，此言不虚，以后再买车，还买‘小解放。” 这一材料就是一则很能表现主题的材料，是典型的材料。直接获取

获取材料的方法

二、材料的选取间接获取

围绕主题，挖掘材料的意义

材料的使用根据主题的需要，进行详略处理

合理安排材料，注重条理

如何获取材料，哪些材料是应用文写作值得关注的?下面我们谈谈这个问题：

在实践之中积累材料。在自身及周围同事的工作实践中做个有心人，时刻关注有价值的事件及数据，如在工作中及时对做了什么工作、采用了什么方法、取得了什么效果、有哪些人参与等信息及时记录收集。

在观察中掌握材料。在观察时要做到实事求是，防止主观武断、先入为主，同时要全面、系统、动态地进行观察，以获取真实、广泛、完整的材料，并能把观察所得及时整理成文字，给写作提供基础。

在调查中拓展材料。个人的实践和视野总是有限的，观察也不可能做到深入细致，这样就需要走向实际、走向社会，向有关人士了解情况，做一些调查，以扩大自己的视野，获取材料上的补充。经济类的应用文，调查是必不可少的步骤，如市场调查报告，市场预测报告需在调查之后，才能动笔。

通过查阅文献资料获取材料。应用文写作材料常常从有关文件、正式出版物，以及会议资料中获取材料，为写入具体文章之用，因此大量查阅文献资料来获取材料，是应用文写作经常采用的方法。

获取材料是写作的第一步。总的来说，获取材料要求以多为好，以全为贵。材料多了，便于比较、鉴别，更有选择的余地;材料全面，观点才能不至于偏颇，因此，动笔之前，应当围绕主题，占有详尽而充实的材料。

其次，强调对感性材料的分析研究，不能停留在表面的认识上，要挖掘材料能凸现主题的一面，使其在文章中发挥挖掘主题的作用。如有这样一则材料：某日，某国驻广州领事馆的外交官员去珠江三角洲某市参观，市长亲自接待，但讲不好普通话请了一个翻译，本来 10 分钟就可以讲完的话，结果用了 20 分钟。此外交官用标准的普通话问：广东不是在大力推广普通话吗么? 这则材料从不同的角度可展现不同的主题，但意义深浅不一。从较粗浅的角度看，可表现“市长不重视说普通话”的主题;进一步挖掘可表现“我们的官员素质的高低，直接关乎办公的效率”。这样的材料还可以根据主题的需要进行开拓。同学可以动动脑筋来挖掘一下。

使用材料时，要分清主次。对材料的加工整理，无非是为了突出文章的主题，加强应用文的表达效果，处理材料的详略要以此为据。突出事件特征的材料要详写，一般材料可略写;处于主体地位的材料详写，处于从属地位、过渡的材料略写;读者不熟悉的材料详写，熟悉的略写;材料之间角度相异的详写，材料之间相同的略写。

根据主题的需要，按照一定的组织形式，安排材料的先后顺序，在安排顺序时要考虑材料的主次、时间的先后、材料间的逻辑顺序、人们认识事物的规律、事物发展的过程等因素。

最后，数字材料是应用文写作中十分重要的材料，数字有时比文字材料更具体、准确、更能说明问题。因此，要注意： ⑴ 真实、准确地用好数据材料。 ⑵ 运用统计数据，展开分析论证，更好地为主题服务。 ⑶ 适当地使用统计图表。 ⑷ 变抽象的数字为具体，使其形象。如有两篇介绍乐山大佛的文字，其中一篇在介绍时用了这样一些数字： “乐山大佛身高 71 米，头高 14 . 7 米，宽 10 米。” 这些数字看似具体清晰，但比较抽象，大佛的高大这一主题没有凸现出来。另一段文字这样写道： “佛像有三十多层楼高，耳朵有四人高，每只脚背上可以停五辆解放牌汽车，脚大拇指上，可以摆一桌酒席。” 这段文字也用了数字，但采用文字叙述的方法，使抽象的数字形象了，大佛的高大形象仿佛就在眼前，极好地体现了主题。

实训：

概括下列材料的主题。

1 .随着市场的进化，专业化分工的加强，未来 10 年内，以往支撑家电企业的自营渠道因为成本原因将全面撤退，而其他大量零星的代理商将通过特许经营方式加盟到大的品牌渠道中，成为品牌渠道的连锁店。

2 .据 1987 年国家审计局的公报， 1985 —— 1986 年仅对 2700 多个县以上的教育主管部门的审核，查出被挪用、占用普教经费，竟高达 5 亿多万，占审计总额的 5 %，成了违纪金额中的主要项目。被占用的钱用来建干部宿舍、招待所、办工楼、买小汽车、经商办厂。一个县教育局竟把 40 万转入银行吃利息，而置全县二万多平方米的学校危房于不顾。

第三节应用文的结构

固定性

一、应用文结构的特点条理性

文种不同结构不同

应用文是经过长期写作实践，逐渐形成较固定的写作结构，以适应实际工作需要，使写作更快速，阅读更便捷，提高办事效率。特别是公文写作，其格式更规范，结构更固定。

应用文写作要求有严密的思路，表现在结构上以求清晰有条理。在写作中要根据主题的需要安排好结构。如写事件，就应按“开端——发展——结果”的顺序安排结构;写问题就应按“发现问题——分析问题——解决问题”的顺序安排结构。

凡文种都有相对稳定的结构样式，应用文写作结构安排需适应不同文体的要求。如写合同就需要将合同的条款按标的、数量、质量、价款等内容分条列项地写清楚;写通知要按目的依据、事项、执行要求的顺序安排结构。

二、常见的应用文结构模式

(一)单段式

正文内容用一个自然段来表达。用于内容少而单一，不便分开，往往采用一段文字来表达。如写在商品外包装上的说明文;公文中的函、批复，也常用一段文字来进行写作。“玉兰油”写在外包装上的说明： “经实验证明能帮助减少细纹。四星期内，肌肤重现青春光泽。请不要涂抹在眼睛及眼睑周围。如不慎入眼，即用清水彻底洗清。如有持续眼睛刺激，请向医生咨询。如有持续皮肤刺激，请停止使用。请置于儿童接触不到的地方。” 这就是单段式。

(二)两段式

正文内容用两个自然段来表达。用于内容简单，不需每层内容都分段。这种结构模式，一般用于以下几种情况：

1 .把结语部分内容和主体内容分开写，单列一个自然段，成为两段式。即行文的缘由和行文事项为一段，希望、要求等结语为一段。

2 .写作目的缘由、行文事项各为一段。

3 .在转发、发布性公文中，将发布或转发的文件名和发文意见列为一段，执行要求另为一段。

4 .在答复性公文中，将表示收到对方文件为一段，而答复事项为另一段。

5 .没有开头、结语部分，将主体内容列为两段。

(三)三段式

这是短篇应用文比较规范的常用模式。正文把写作目的缘由、写作事项、结尾分为三段来写。

(四)多段式

它用于内容较多，篇幅较长的应用文书，总共有四个自然段以上。一般是开头概述基本情况、说明原因、目的、依据，结尾单独成段或省略结尾，主体部分内容分为若干个段，各部分不分条列项。如短文式的说明书、简单的市场预测报告等。内容多、篇幅长的应用文书，一般不宜采用多段式，宜采用将主体内容分成几部分，用小标题或总分条文式。

(五)条款式

用分条列项的形式安排结构。规章制度、计划、合同和职能部门的一些文书，较多使用这种形式。全文从头到尾都用条款组织内容，给人以眉目清楚、排列有序的印象。

(六)表格式

这是应用文不同于其他文体所特有的一种结构形式。表格式通常有以下两种形式：

1 .由职能部门或企事业管理部门或企业如银行、厂矿、公司等单位，事先印制好表格式的规范文本，将有关内容分项列出，各项之后留下空白，让使用或合作单位和个人按规定填写。表格文书一般要注明填写要求和注意事项。如申请专利、商标的文书、合同、税务征管文书、财务会计文书，大都采用这种形式。

2 .作者单位临时制作的表格式文书。根据写作目的，将有关统计数据编制成表格。

三、应用文结构的基本内容及写法

(一)标题

应用文写作的标题，要求充分体现主题，有的标题还有规范要求。这与文学作品形式多样、灵活多变的标题有着明显的不同。应用文的标题通常有三种形式：

1 .公文式标题。这类标题程式性强，表达直接而少变化，主要用于公文。

2 .新闻式标题。新闻式标题通常又称文章式标题，又可分为单标题和双标题两种形式。单标题有的直接提出文章主题，如 “小商品也要高质量” 、 “做好纪检信息工作实践与体会” ;有的概述主要内容，如 “积极财政政策仍将持续至少两到三年的时间” ;有的在标题中提出问题，如 “日本经济何时走出低谷” 。

双标题是有正题和副题的双行标题，其中正题符合单标题的要求，更多地突出文章主题，副题则对正题起补充作用，常常说明应用文的内容范围和文种，如 “靠名牌赢得市场——关于深圳市飞亚达(集团)股份有限公司的调查” 、 “繁重 · 活跃 · 稳定 · 上升—— 2002 年国内市场发展趋势” 。

3 .论文式标题。这类标题或表达文章的观点和内容或点明所论述范围。如 “核心竞争力——企业制胜的根本” 、 “双峰县农村劳动力转移的调查与思考” 。

(二)开头

应用文写作开头担负着统领全文，揭示主题或全文的作用。开头要求开门见山，直接显露，常见的开头方式有：

1 .概述式。这种方式要求用简明扼要的语言，围绕主题介绍有关情况或背景。如一篇题为《加强民族团结繁荣民族事业》的总结开头： “山东省青州市是少数民族居住比较集中的地区之一，有回、满、蒙古、朝鲜、土家等 27 个民族， 2 . 6 万余人，占全市人口的 2 .5 %。近年来，青州市积极加强民族团结，繁荣民族事业，有力地推动了全市经济和社会各项事业全面发展。” 就是用了这一开头方式。报告、会议纪要、调查报告等文种也常用此开头方式。

2 .说明依据式。开头引用上级指示精神或有关法律，常以“根据”、“按照”、“遵照”等词语领起下文。如《关于粮食政策性财务挂帐停息的意见》一文的开头： “根据中共中央、国务院关于妥善解决粮食财务挂帐问题的一系列文件精神，结合各地清理粮食财务挂帐的实际情况，经过反复研究，对粮食财务挂帐实行停息的有关政策提出如下意见”。这种方式常在通知、批复、通告、规章等文种的开头使用。

3 .陈述目的式。开头以简明的语言，直接说明写作的目的和意义，常用介词“为”、“为了”领起下文。如《国务院关于成立经济贸易办公室的通知》一文开头写道： “为适应加快改革开放和经济建设的新形势，加强宏观调控和协调日常经济工作，国务院第 100 次常务会议决定，……”。

4 . 说明原因式。开头常用“由于”、“鉴于”、“因为”等词领起下文，也可以简述发文原因，再引出写作目的。如《广州市建设用地起坟通告》的开头 “因建设的需要，经核准，市公安局天河区分局征用天河区东圃镇堂下乡(村)土地。为便利建设工程顺利进行，……”。

5 .议论式。开头用议论的表达方法，表达作者的看法，提出观点。如《现代化企业需要什么样的复合型会计人才》的开头： “随着社会主义市场经济的不断深入发展，会计工作也不断拓宽，过去那种单一的会计知识结构已远远不能适应会计管理工作的需要，会计人员作为企业经济管理的重要的专门人才，必须相应地提高自身的专业素质，改变原来那种单一的知识结构，以适应市场经济发展的需要。因此，培养造就一批复合型会计人才是当前会计工作的一项重要任务，也是企业发展向现代化迈进的关键所在。”

6 .提问式。先提出问题，然后引出下文。这种开头方式能引起读者的注意和思考。这种开头方式常见于调查报告、学术论文的写作。如《核心竞争力——企业制胜的根本》的开头： “在激烈的市场竞争中，一个企业制胜的根本是什么?为什么有的企业能长盛不衰，有的企业只能成功一时，而有的企业却连一点成功的机会都没有?笔者一直为这些问题所困惑。” 这篇论文就是采用了提问式开头。

(三)结尾

应用文的结尾讲究言尽意尽，不留“余味”，不添“蛇足，更不能草率。常用的结尾方法有：

1 .强调式。对文中提出的问题作强调说明，以引起重视。

2 .结论式。对文中的主要观点或问题，加以归纳总结或略作重申，以加深印象。

3 .说明式。对与主体内容有关但性质不同的问题或事项作补充交代、说明，以保证内容的完整性，如公文结尾交待施行日期、执行范围、传达对象、与该文规定不符的原有规定如何处置等;论文结尾处说明尚未解决而应另作讨论的问题。

4 .号召式。提出希望，发出号召，展望未来。如公文的通报、市场预测、计划等常用这种结尾形式。如《关于成都矿产综合利用研究所值班人员勇斗歹徒先进事件的通报》一文结尾就是采用这一方法。

5 .建议式。针对设定的施行目标、产生的问题提出意见和建议。

除了上述几种结尾方式，还有请求式、责令式、表态式等不一一列举，有的则没有结尾，自然收尾。

实训：

指出下列开头所使用的方式。

1 . 20 世纪 90 年代后，我国计算机市场随着信息化建设的启动和发展，进入前所未有的高速发展阶段， 1991 年至 1997 年间的平均增长速度高达 56.9 %。 1998 年由于受到亚洲金融危机的和我国经济出现通货紧缩等国内外宏观经济环境的影响，增长速度下降。此后，经过调整和转型，我国计算机产业和市场在发展速度、结构升级、市场拓展、出口贸易、企业转制等多方面均出现了飞跃性的进步。

2 .教育在社会发展中处于什么地位?它与科技、经济的关系如何?不久前，河南教委组织 17 个地区、 34 个县教育部门的同志对 100 多个村进行调查。

3 .根据《国务院关于建立职工医疗保险制度的决定》、《 ×× 省推进城镇职工基本医疗保险制度改革的意见》和《国务院办公厅转发劳动保障部财政部关于实行国家公务员医疗补助意见的通知》精神，结合我省公务员医疗保障的实际，制定本实施意见。

第四节应用文的表达方式及语言

一、表达方式

应用文写作中常用的表达方式只有叙述、说明、议论三种，而描写、抒情一般在广告、调查报告、经济新闻等文体中偶尔使用。我们现在只谈叙述、说明、议论这三种方式在应用文体中的使用。

(一)叙述

叙述这种表达方式是应用文体写作常用的一种方法。有的以叙述事实作立论的依据，如通报、经济活动分析报告、市场调查、总结等;有的以叙述事实为依据进行决策和预测;有的对事实作如实反映和记载，如会议纪要、合同、诉讼公文等。叙述在应用文写作中有如下几个特点：

1 .以记事为主

应用文写作反映现实，解决问题，与记叙文以写人为主不同，而是多以记事为主，如反映经济活动状况、市场情况、经济信息、介绍典型经验、阐述事情原委、总结工作等，采用叙述来记事。

2 .叙述客观真实

文学作品的叙述可作艺术加工，所述事件不必是客观存在的事实。但应用文不同，其所述事实，必须客观真实，不允许对事实夸大或缩小，更不能歪曲事实或主观臆造，否则就会导致决策失误，使经济活动混乱，使企业和消费者蒙受损失。如市场预测所依据的市场事实失真，那么预测结果必定出现很大的偏差，从而导致决策的失误。

3 .以概括叙述为主

文学作品需通过叙述细节来塑造人物形象，展开故事情节。而应用文写作则是通过叙述为文章得出正确结论作依据。如通报的叙述是为后面阐述事实的性质，达到对这一事件学习，鉴戒或引起注意的目的而服务的。叙述本身不是全文的核心(主题)所在，因而应用文写作的叙述大多用简明扼要的概括叙述。

4 .多用顺叙

为使应用文条理清晰，让读者掌握理解所述的客观事实，在文章中常常使用顺叙。在叙述时有的按照时间顺序，有的以事件发展的顺序，有的按人们认识事物的客观过程来叙述，这样叙述能使较复杂的事实头绪清晰，一目了然。

5 .语言较平实

应用文的语言要求平铺直叙，较少使用修饰性词语，笔法较朴实。因为应用文语言是需把握问题实质，直接表现主题，为主题服务，而不像文学作品那样文笔的曲折，主题的含蓄 , 讲究语言的修饰性、词语的色彩，常用修辞手法，应用文的实用性决定了其语言的简洁朴实。

(二)说明

说明这一表达方式在应用文中是与叙述相结合的，起到对客观事物真实介绍说明的作用，有很多文种都依赖这一表达方式。如说明书、报告、请示、经济活动分析、合同、自荐书等，都离不开说明。说明在应用文写作中表现出以下几个特征：

1 .说明客观、科学

通过说明真实客观地反映事物的真实面貌，本质特征，这就要求说明需客观、科学、严肃。

2.多用数字进行说明

说明不但要客观真实，而且要做到准确无误，用数字进行说明就能起到这样的作用。因此在应用文写作中就少不了数字进行说明，特别是需要反映量的变化时，数字的作用就尤为突出。

3.综合使用多种说明方法

在说明方法使用的过程中，常常是多种方法结合同时使用。如数字说明和比较说明、定义说明和分类说明等说明方法结合运用，这样可以把事物说得更具体、准确。

(三)议论

应用文写作常常用议论的方式进行评论、分析，探寻事物发展的规律，阐述主题。其议论有以下几个特点：

1 .重数据、重材料

与议论文的议论不同，应用文中议论不是靠言论的雄辩，而是需要无可辩驳的事实材料和数据为依据，正可谓“事实胜于雄辩”。应用文反对不切实际的议论。如在一篇《三季度物价水平》的经济活动报告中，对该季度的物价水平转降的情况分析是这样议论的：“ 三季度，居民消费价格总水平同比上涨 0.8 %，涨幅比二季度缩小 0.8 个百分比，其中 9 月份已转为下降，同比下降 0.1 %;社会商品零售价格总水平同比下降 0.9 %，已连续 4 个月处于下降之中，并且降幅在不断增大;工业品出厂价格指标同比下降 1.7 %，降幅比二季度增大 1.4 个百分点。各种物价总水平再次全面转降在很大程度上是外生性涨价因素所致，但这也清晰地表明困扰我国经济的紧缩和总需求不足问题并未真正消除，而只是被外生性涨价因素掩盖起来了。一旦政策支持力度减弱，经济就会再次下降。” 这段文字在议论时采用了大量的数据材料，材料充分，议论切合实际，得出的结论有说服力。

2 .常与说明、叙述等方式结合使用

夹叙夹议、说议结合，是应用文中的议论特点。应用文写作往往不单独进行完整的议论，议论依赖于所叙述的事实和说明的现象，是在事实和现象的基础上进行议论。如在一篇《靠名牌赢得市场》的调查报告中，文章是这样写的：“ 90 年代初，瑞士、日本各种品牌的钟表开始大规模进入中国市场。面对严峻的市场形势，公司决策层认真研究数量和质量的辩证关系，决定借鉴国外钟表工业发展的成功经验，走‘少而精的道路，即以提高‘单位面积的产出取胜，生产高技术含量、高附加值的产品，在工艺上精益求精，把人、财、物集中用到刀刃上，争取在最短的时间里后来居上。 ”这段文字采用夹叙夹议方法，材料具体，剖析深入，语言生动活泼。

二、语言运用

应用文的语言与文学创作的语言有较大的差别，其主要特点是：

(一)程式化

程式化的语言是写作实践的产物，是应用写作实践中常用的习惯用语，这种语言已经约定成俗，得到广泛的认可和共识。学习掌握这种语言的关键是表达要简明合乎规范。程式化的语言根据功用不同，可大致分为下列几方面内容：

举例

称谓语

本人、我、你、贵、该

起始用语

兹因、据核实、关于、鉴于、为了

结尾用语

为荷、为盼

表态用语

照办、可行、同意

谦敬用语

请、承蒙、惠示、惠允

时限用语

当即、立即、从速

期望用语

务希、务请、如蒙、勿误

列举概括用语

各类、多起、数事、上项、如下

特殊含义的用语

签发、核查、归口、取缔、缺口、责成、任命、复议、追加

(二)书面化

应用文的写作性质决定其语言风格表现为简明、规范、严肃，而书面语能较好达到这一语言要求，因而应用文语言大多采用书面语进行书写。如《中共中央关于接受宋庆龄同志为中国共产党正式党员的决定》中写道： “她一贯是共产党最亲密的战友，是中国各族人民包括台湾同胞和海外侨胞衷心敬爱的领袖之一，是爱国主义、民主主义、国际主义和共产主义的伟大战士，是保卫世界和平事业久经考验的前驱，是全体中国少年儿童的慈爱的祖母……。” 中的“同胞”、“战士”、“祖母”等用的都是书面语，改为口语就不合适了。

(三)常用数词

应用文写作常用数字来说明问题，因此经常大量使用数字。在分析问题、说明问题时，运用数字，可以比较明确地表达事物的状态，从而加深对该事物的认识。如一个企业管理是否先进，只有运用同行业国内外的对比数字才能说明。邓小平同志在《关于科学和教育工作的几点意见》中，讲到我国科研人员少、队伍小时用了三个数字：美国科研队伍有 120 万人;前苏联是 90 万人;我们是 20 多万人。这三个数字勾勒出三个国家科研队伍的基本状况，十分清晰地说明了我国科研人员少、队伍小的现状。应用文常用的数字有以下几种：

举例

绝对数和概数

乐山大佛身高 71 米，头高 14 ﹒ 7 米，宽 10 米。

平均数

力争五年内人口年平均增长率控制在千分之十二点五左右。

百分数

2003 年，我国粮食增长 16 %，棉花增长 66 %，糖料增长 83 %。

对比数

甲比乙多生产了两倍。

(四)运用应用文语言的要求

1 .叙述语言需简洁、概括。

在进行叙述时要用最简短的语言陈述特定时空的信息，通过概述事实的主干，而不应纠缠于耗时费事的具体情节之中。如有一篇表彰通报是这样写的： “ ××× 在科学研究上走的是一条不平凡的路，他全心扑在科研上，而忘记了个人的事。有一次孩子病了，他妻子在家里忙着护理，打电话到 ××× 单位叫他赶回家把孩子送医院治疗。 ××× 接了电话答应后，电话筒一放他又埋进了实验。他妻子在家中左等右等等不到他回家，急得像热锅上的蚂蚁，又往 ××× 单位打电话，这时 ××× 正潜心做实验，电话铃声都没听见了。他妻子又急又气只好打 120 急救中心的电话，才把孩子送往医院治疗。他的小孩高烧退后，还在问他妈妈：‘爸爸又出差了吗?或者还没下班……” 该公文将 ××× 先进事迹作为表彰决定的理由时，不懂得以最简洁的文字陈述特定时空的信息，通过快叙概述事实的主干，而仍用记叙文慢叙写话的方法表述公文事实，结果摆脱不了耗时费字的情节纠缠，公文内容冗长，不简明扼要，失去了公文的品味，违背了文约事丰的要求。

2 .语言表达要严谨、有分寸。

应用文语言表达是否严谨有分寸，关系到对问题的判断、处理是否合理、准确。如一份处理决定，其中这样写道： “李××在 1998 年 9 月间收受×××工程公司的 50 万元的巨款。案发后李××还和×××工程公司经理及会计订立攻守同盟，妄图掩盖其过错”。文中“过错”一词有失严谨，表述与事实不符，李××的行为不是过失而是严重犯罪。

3 .数据语言书写要规范、清晰、准确。

具体要做到以下几点：( 1 )在同一篇文章中序数数字的体例要统一，不能体例混杂。如 “农历初一至初 7 放假” 一句，前后数字体例书写不规范，需统一书写。同时分数与小数的体例也必须统一。如 “该县企业所得税收入完成 95.6 万元，比去年增长百分之十三 ” 也出现了混写的错误。( 2 )表示公元世纪、年代、年、月、日、时刻均需使用阿拉伯数字 , 而星期则用汉字。如” 21 世纪 ” 、“ 90 年代，“星期五”。( 3 )邻近两个数字并列表示概数时，应该用汉字书写，数字与数字之间不能用顿号将其隔开。如“ 3 、 4 天 ” 应写成”“三四天”，“七、八种”的“七”和“八”之间不能用顿号隔开。

4 .朴实、简洁。

应用文的语言要求准确无误，朴实无华，简洁有力，不像有些文学作品用华丽多彩的语言去描摹事物，呈现事物的形象，而是提倡朴素美，简洁美。如一篇公文是这样写的： “ 2000 年某天深夜，乌云密布，雷声隆隆，大雨倾盆而下，刹那间，美丽富饶的鱼米之乡被一片汪洋吞没。接连几天如注的暴雨，淹没了田野、冲毁了村庄和工厂，交通、电力、通讯一度中断。这百年不遇的特大洪涝灾害，给我乡造成了不可估量的损失。……” 这段语言就违反了应用文语言的写作要求，带有浓厚的文学色彩，不够朴实、简洁，也有失真实。

实训：

指出下面语段中语言表达的错误。

( 1 ) ××× 收受包工头的贿赂几十万元，造成国家直接或间接经济损失二千多万元。

( 2 ) ××× 自 1998 年以来用五年的时间，先后完成了省部级的科研成果十多项，多次获得国家省部级的奖励。

( 3 )国际化的经济浪潮汹涌澎湃，怀有强国之梦的国家就是以能加入 WTO 为最高梦境的。随着入关的脚步一天天逼迫，我市的乡镇企业局深入学习“三个代表”重要思想，真抓实干，使我市乡镇企业的局面生机盎然，发展蒸蒸日上，千帆竞发，波澜壮阔，入关前的我市乡镇企业的形势十分喜人……

展开阅读全文

喜欢 616 55 次下载分享收起

篇7：关于应用文的写作基础知识

全文共 4297 字

+ 加入清单

应用文的种类行政公文：如公告、通告、通知、通报通用类事务应用文：如计划、总结、会议记录，小编收集了关于应用文的写作基础知识，欢迎阅读。

一、应用文的概念

应用文是国家机关、企事业单位、社会团体以及公民在日常工作、学习和生活中办理公务或个人事务时所使用的、具有某些惯用格式的文章的总称。

二、应用文的种类行政公文：如公告、通告、通知、通报通用类事务应用文：如计划、总结、会议记录

公务文体

法律应用文：如起诉书、自诉状

经济应用文：如经济合同

专用类

礼仪应用文：如欢迎词、欢送词、开幕词、祝词

应用文涉外应用文：如涉外函电、备忘录

书信类：如证明信、推荐信、感谢信、申请书

私务文体条据类：如借条、请假条

其他

新闻文体：如新闻、消息、通讯

其他：如论文

三、应用文的作用

1、规范和准绳作用

2、宣传和教育作用

3、交流和沟通作用

4、凭证和档案作用

四、应用文的一般特点

1、实用性 2、程式性 3、时效性 4、朴实性

第二节应用文写作的基本要求

一、材料真实典型

二、观点正确鲜明

三、结构严谨

1、层次清楚、段落分明

2、过渡自然、前后照应

3、开头结尾简洁明了

四、语言得体

1、庄重得体 2、通俗易懂 3、准确规范 4、简明扼要

五、格式规范

1、广泛阅读范文

2、大量实践训练

作业：在本单元学习了应用文写作的基本要求后，你掌握了哪些新知识?有哪些感悟?

第二单元公文

一、教学目的要求：1、了解公告、通告、通知、通报、报告、请示、批复、函、会议纪要

等9种公文的概念、特点、作用和使用范围。

2、掌握通知、通报、报告、请示、函、会议纪要等6种常用公文的行

文关系及其具体的写作要求和方法。

3、学会仿照教材中的范文进行写作，做到格式规范。

二、教学重点：公文的格式和写法。

三、教学过程：

第一节公文概述

一、公文的概念

从广义上讲，公文是国家党政机关、人民团体、企事业单位在进行公务活动时所使用的体式完整、内容系统的各种书面材料。狭义的公文是指行政公文，主要是指行政机关在行政管理过程中形成的具有法定效力和规范体式的文书，是依法行政和进行公务活动的重要工具。

二、公文的特点

1、法定的权威性 2、明确的政策性 3、严格的时效性 4、程式的规范性

三、公文的作用

1、规范和指导作用

2、宣传和教育作用

3、凭证和依据作用

4、交流和沟通作用

四、公文的种类

(1) 按适用范围划分为命令、决定、公告、通告、通报、议案、报告、请示、批复、意

见、函、会议纪要，共13种。

(2) 按行文方向划分为上行文、平行文、下行文。

(3) 按缓急程度划分为特急、急件两种。

(4) 按保密级别划分为绝密、机密、秘密三级

五、公文的格式

1、眉首部分

眉首部分位于公文首页上部红色反线之上。

(1)公文的份数序号。简称份号，它是将同一文稿印制若干份时每份公文的顺序编号。《办法》规定：绝密、机密公文应当标明份号。份号标注在公文首页左上角第一行，用七位阿拉伯数码顶格标注，不足七位数用“0”补齐，如“0000006”。

(2)秘密等级和保密期限。秘密等级简称密级。《办法》规定：涉及国家秘密的公文应当标明密级和保密期限。密级顶格标注在首页右上角的第一行，密级和保密期限之间用“★”隔开。保密一年以上的，注明年数;不足一年的，注明月数。

(3)紧急程度。紧急公文均应该标明紧急程度，分特急和急件。紧急程度标注在首页右上角密级之下。

(4)发文机关标识。一般由发文机关的全称或规范化简称后加“文件”组成。若是几个机关联合行文，应将主办机关排列在前。

(5)发文字号。包括发文机关代字、年份、序号三部分，如“中青办发〔2010〕22号”发文机关代字是发文机关名称的缩略语，如“中青办”“是共青团中央办公厅”的缩略语。

(6)签发人。它是代表机关最后核查并批准公文发出的领导人姓名。签发人平列于发文字

号右侧，写“签发人”三个字，加冒号，再写签发人姓名。

2、主体部分

(1)公文标题。一般包括发文机关名称、公文主题和公文种类三部分。如《共青团中央关于加强社区共青团工作的意见》。

(2)主送机关。就是主要受理机关，是接受公文并对公文负主办或答复责任的机关。主送机关标注在标题之下，靠左顶格书写。

(3)正文。它是公文的具体内容部分。在主送机关下一行，每自然段空两格写起。数字、年份不能回行。正文有开头、主体、结尾三部分组成。

开头要求开门见山地交代发文的依据、起因、目的。常常用“为了”“为使”“根据”“按照”“由于”“鉴于”等词语开头。

主体是公文的最主要的部分。叙事要突出重点，说理要把握党和国家的方针、政策的核心。在结构上多用总分式，分条列项，做到条理清楚。

结尾常使用固定的习惯用语。一般对受文机关提出具体要求和希望。

(4)附件。公文如有附件，应在正文下空一行左侧起空两格注“附件：”然后标出附件名称，名称后不加标点符号;如不止一个附件，应用阿拉伯数字排序。

(5)发文机关。也称“落款”。发文机关是公文的法定作者，在正文右下方标注。

(6)印章。

(7)发文日期。

3、版记部分

版记包括主题词、抄送机关、印发说明。

第二节公告、通告

一、公告与通告的概念和特点

(一)公告的概念和特点

1、公告的概念

公告是政府职能部门向国内外宣布重要事项或法定事项时所使用的公文。

2、公告的特点

(1)内容公开性。 (2)形式多样性 (3)行文庄重性

(二)通告的概念和特点

1、通告的概念

通告是在一定范围内向社会公布应当遵守或周知的事项时使用的公文.

2、通告的特点

(1) 制约性。对遵守性通告而言，他带有强制性，要求人们必须遵守。

(2) 周知性。通过公告可以提示人们知晓或注意相关事项。

二、公告与通告的主要区别

1、告知范围 2、约束性 3、事项重要程度 4、发文机关级别

三、公告与通告的写作方法

1、标题

公告和通告的标题可分为完全是标题、非完全是标题两种。完全是标题是“发文机关﹢事由+文种”三要素组成的标题。如《国家教委关于维护中小学正常教学秩序的通告》。《福建省人民代表大会常务委员会关于颁布施行的公告》。非完全式标题只有三要素的一个或两个。如《中华人民共和国农业部公告》、《关于京通快速路施工期间禁止机动车通行的通告》、《公告》《通告》。

2、正文

公告的正文一般有两种写法。

第一种写法包括：

(1) 发布公告的缘由。它是发布公告的依据，因何事而发，通常用一两句话概况。

(2) 公告的具体事项，写清楚时间、地点、事件、决定等。

(3) 结束语。一般另起一行，写“特此公告”“现予公告”。

第二中写法：只写具体事项。

通告正文的写法。

(1) 发布通告的缘由。

(2) 通告的具体事项，写清楚什么范围内、告知谁、告知何事。

(3) 结束语。通告的结束语根据具体内容而定，一般写执行通告的要求，作为强调;也

可以写明执行的时间、范围和有效期;还可以用“特此通告”“此告”作结束语。

3、落款。

在正文的右下方写明发文机关的全称或规范化简称，有的直接加盖公章。联合发文时，将主办单位名称写在最前，其余分行书写。发文日期另起一行，注明年、月、日。

四、公告和通告的写作要求

1、公告的写作要求

(1)行文简要。 (2)用语得体。

2、通告的写作要求。

(1)目的明确。 (2)行文清晰。

第三节通知

一、通知的概念和作用

通知”，是“适用于批转下级机关的公文，转发上级机关和不相隶属机关的公文，批转下级机关的公文，传达要求下级机关办理和需要有关单位周知或者执行的事项，任免人员”的一种公文文体。

二、通知的特点

1、适用范围广 2、具有知照性 3、具有时效性

三、通知的种类

从性质和内容上划分，通知大体可分为以下几种：

(1)发布性通知，指国家行政机关或其他有关单位在发布(或废止)行政法规和条例、规定、办法、实施细则等规章和其他重要文件时的使用的通知。

(2)转发性通知，转发需要下属单位知晓的上级单位、同级单位或不相隶属单位的公文。

(3)指示性通知。用于直接发布行政法规和对下级某项工作的指示、要求。带有强制性、指挥性和决策性。

(4)批示性通知，又称转发性通知。领导机关用批转、转发的方式发布某些法规，要求下级贯彻执行。批转下级机关送来的工作报告、建议、计划等，以及沟通情况，指导工作。

(5)周知性通知。多用于上级机关向下级机关宣布某些应知事项，不具有强制性。

(6)会议通知。用于对上级或平级。

(7)任免通知。上级机关对任免的人员用通知的形式告知下级机关。

四、通知与通告的区别

1、适用范围不同

通知的适用范围广，通知除公布和传达某些事项外，还有多种用途，如批转通知、转发通知等;通告只用来发布应当遵守或周知的事项。

2、受文对象不同

通知有明确的受文对象，写作中标明主送机关;通告的受文对象不确定、不具体、也不标明主送对象。

六、通知的写作方法和要求

1、通知的格式和写法

通知一般由标题、正文和落款三部分组成。具体写法如下：

(1)标题。通常有三种形式，一种是由发文机关名称、事由和文种构成;一种是由事由和文种构成;一种是由文种“通知”作标题。

(2)正文。由开头、主体和结尾三部分组成。开头主要交代通知缘由、根据;主体说明通知事项;结尾提出执行要求。在写正文之前，要在标题之下、正文之上顶格写出被通知对象的名称，在名称后加冒号，或将名称以“抄送”形式写于最后一页的最下方。

(3)落款。写出发文机关名称和发文时间。如已在标题中写了机关名称和时间，这里可以省略不写。

通知是上级要求下级或个人参加某一会议或者做某件事情时使用的一种文体。通知的内容要写得明白、具体。

a、在第一行正中写“通知”二字，也可视情况写成“关于××的通知”、“紧急通知”等。

b、写被通知单位或个人的名称。

c、写通知内容。如内容较多，可分条开列。

d、结尾可写“特此通知”等字样。

e、最后写上发通知者的名称和发通知的日期。用公文形式发出的通知要加盖公章。

2、通知的写作要求

(1)注意规范使用不同种类的通知。

(2)拟好公文的标题。

(3)通知事项必须清楚明白。

第四节通报

一、通报的概念和作用

通报时适用于表彰先进、批评错误、传达重要精神或情况的下行文。无论是表彰性的、批评性的，还是情况通报，通报所反映的内容都是典型、突出的，具有一定影响力，给人们提醒与启迪，能起到楷模或警戒作用。

二、通报的特点

1、典型性 2、真实性 3、向导性

三、通报的种类

1、表彰通报。用于在一定范围内表扬好人好事。

2、批评通报。用于在一定范围内批评错误，纠正不良倾向。

3、情况通报。多用于向有关方面知照应该掌握和了解的信息、动态，以供工作参考。

四、通报和通知的区别

1、行文的作用

通报的作用是教育、启迪、提醒或交流情况，一般没有遵守、执行的要求;通知的作用

展开阅读全文

喜欢 151 64 次下载分享收起

篇8：2024年四级英语考试写作基础知识

全文共 1427 字

+ 加入清单

1.用形容词"very"，"single"等表示强调

eg.You are the very person Im looking for.

你就是我要找的那个人。

Red Army fought a battle on this very spot.

红军就在此地打过一仗。

Not a single person has been in the office this afternoon.

今天下午竟然没有一个人来过办公室。

2.用反身代词表示强调

e.g.I myself will see her off at the station.

我将亲自到车站为她送行。

You can do it well yourself.

你自己能做好这件事情。

3.用助词"do/does/did+动词原形"表示强调

e.g.The baby is generally healthy，but every now and then she does catch a cold.

那孩子的健康状况尚好，但就是偶尔患感冒。

Do be quiet.I told you I had a headache.

务必安静，我告诉过你，我头疼。

4.用"...and that"，"...and those"，等结构表示强调

e.g.They fulfilled the task，and that in a few days.

他们在几天内完成的就是那项任务。

I gave her some presents，and those the day before yesterday.

前天我送给她的就是那些礼物。

5.用双重否定结构表示强调

e.g.There is no reason why this new immigrant should not have the same success.

完全有理由相信这些新移民应该拥有相同的成功。

A man can never have too many ties.

一个男人有再多的领带也不为过。

I cant thank you too much.

我无论怎样感谢你都不过份。

A mother can never be patient enough with her child.

I am not unfaithful to you.我对你无比忠诚。

6.用短语"in every way"，"in no way"，"by all means"，"by no means"，"only too"，"all too"，"but too"，"in heaven"，"in the world"，"in hell"，"on earth"，"under the sun"等表示强调

e.g.His behaviour was in every way perfect.

他的举止确实无可挑剔。

The news was only too true.

这消息确实是事实。

Where in heaven were you then?

当时你到底在哪里?

7.用倒装句表示强调

8.用强调句型表示强调

It is that或 It is who

e.g.It was the headmaster who opened the door for me.

正是校长为我开的门。

It was yesterday that we carried out that experiment.

就是在昨天我们做了那个实验。

展开阅读全文

喜欢 263 68 次下载分享收起

篇9：影评写作基础知识

全文共 1852 字

+ 加入清单

电影，作为一种大众艺术，以真生动的直观性和逼近生活的真实感而易有广泛颀赏性。一部优秀的影片能使人得到美的享受和精神上的陶冶。许多同学在观看影片后常会有感而发，尝试写作影评，这对于提高我们的影视鉴赏能力，端正我们的审美观念有相当大的帮助。那么，影评写作基础知识有哪些呢？

影评，是文艺评论的一种，是对各种电影现象进行分析和评价的文章。它主要是对蕴藏在电影艺术中的审美价值、认识价值及其思想意义的揭示、开掘，是对电影艺术创作规律的探索，并从中找出成功的经验、失贩的教训。所以，好的影评，一方面可为电影的友展和质量的提高提供反馈信息，一方面又能帮助观众正确理解电影，培养和提高观众的艺术欣赏能力和健康的艺术情趣。

写影评，应该把握好这样几点：捕捉住感受点。一部电影涉及的方面很广，需要品评的着笔点很多。这就需要对电影反复回味思考，用心灵再度感受，把握往影片中最能动人的地方，并使之在自己的笔下得到理性的升华。如观看了《泰坦尼克号》，不能只简单地叙述这场爱情故事，而要从主人公生与死的考验中感悟到人性的光芒。

立意要新，开掘要深。写影评要有新意，要有独到的见解，抓往要点，自感而发。要做到有新意，一是要抓住影片内容，结合台社会现买；二是要准确把握住影片的精神实质，挖掘影片本身所包含的深刻内涵。例如对张艺谋电影的分析要紧扣住时代背景，但也不必要都从思想意义角度分析，如巩俐在张艺谋电影中的形象塑造，张艺谋电影中的男性形象等，都是可以开掘的领域。

要实事实是地分析评价。鲁迅先生说过：评论作品"必须坏处说坏，好处说好"，还要"知入论世"。他说"倘若论文，最好的是顾及全篇，非目顾及作者全人，以及他所处的社会状况，这有较为确凿。"对影片作实事来是的评价，要求我们用全面的观点，不是顾其一点，而是观照全片。顾及编导的意图、表演的全部以及当时的社会环境、历史背景等等，作恰如其分的分析与评价。不能强导演、演员、片中人物所难，求全责备。同的，我们在写影评时，也不能人云亦云，如评电影《花季，雨季》时，在一片叫好声中，有同学冷静地认为编导将银幕中的学生形象给拔高了，就很有思考。

要重视影片的艺术分析。电影是通过艺术手段来表现主题、塑造人物、抒发感情的，所以影评要重视对影片艺术的高下进行分析。这种分析应具体详细，由表及里，言之有物；评价则应观点鲜明，实事求是。在艺术评析中，字里行间渗透出电影意识，尽可能恰当地运用电影艺术名词术语，还需要有对电影艺术的深刻感受与理性把握。这可以通过阅读电影理论书籍和多欣赏优秀影片来解决。每年的美国奥斯卡电影大奖评选，世界各国的影展都给我们提供了这样的机会，虽不能亲临其境，但通过多种媒体一样能了解动态，捕捉到世界电影发展的最新信息。

影评写作可以有长有短，可着眼于一部影片的一个镜头，也可以着眼于一种电影现象。对于我们师范生来说，要对一部影片作出全面的评价比较困难，练习写影评，可从评论一个人物形象、一个情节、一个场面入手，可对演员演技。拍摄技巧、导演意图、影片风格、色彩、语言、音乐等进行单一的评析。随着写影评水平的提高，就可对某一人物形象，如影片中的学生、教师、军人等银幕形象发表看法，也可以从纵向谈某一阶段电影的回顾或某一体裁电影的回顾，分析其得失；或从横向谈某一风格的电影，如西部电影、贺岁片、娱乐片等，或横纵向结合，谈一个导演的风格，如谢晋模式、张艺谋现象等到。初涉影评写作不宜贪大求全，而应从一点一滴写起，思考挖掘，连缀成篇。

开始练习写作影评时还应该注意：语言要朴实，要个性化。写影评一定要讲真话，讲自己的话，不要抄袭别人的评论。唯独自己的感受和朴实的语言，才会使自己的评论富有个性和新意，也才会给读者带来清新的感受。

叙议要结合，突出评论。电影最直观可感的，影评离不开叙事。但切忌过多地叙述故事，要突出分析写评价。当然，所评所析不得脱离影片孤立地进行。

设计好影评的标题至关重要。一般来说，它由正副标题构成。正题——揭示文章的中心，必须简明扼要，而又耐人寻味，能够引起读者的阅读兴趣，同时也能给读者带来审美愉悦，它是贯穿全文的主线；副题——点明评论对象，交待片名或评论角度，它是正题必要的补充。二者相得益彰，能使文章增色不少。如：《历史和时代的搏击者——评银幕上的共产党员形象》，《悲剧在红色中渗透——评电影＜红高梁＞＝。

我们在写影评的过程中，要不断总结学习他人的写作经验，丰富自己的写作实践，在日积月累的基础上，通过影评的写作，不断促进我们知识结何的完善，提高我们的颀赏水平和审美能力。

展开阅读全文

喜欢 347 60 次下载分享收起

篇10：应用文写作基础知识精选

全文共 14172 字

+ 加入清单

能力目标：

正确理解应用文写作知识，并会具体运用写作知识进行写作实践。

教学设计：

通过具体的实例讲解应用文写作基础知识

导入：