英语写作基础考试精彩20篇

散文是指以文字为创作、审美对象的文学艺术体裁，是文学中的一种体裁形式。小编收集了散文写作基础，欢迎阅读。

一、精于立意

“凡文以意为主”。散文的“意”是存在于深厚的生活土壤和浩瀚的生活海洋中的。要获得它，必须依靠我们对生活的深入观察、感受、理解。因此，散文立意只要从生活实际出发，凭着鲜明的感受，锋锐的观察能力，同人民同时代共同跳动的脉博，深厚的感情，丰富的想象，深沉的思索，就会感到我们生活中洋溢着的诗意。这诗意，就是使我们心灵受到触动的东西，使我们眼睛豁然开朗的东西，思想突然升华的东西，感情更为纯洁的东西，它就诗的灵感。我们要为自己的散文立意就要赶紧捕捉住它。因为这里面有心灵的颤动，思想的闪光。刘白羽说：“哪怕是微弱的闪耀也比没有闪耀要好，这才不是一般的照相，这才是文 学。”(《早晨的太阳》序)

譬如，一个作家去看茶花，品种繁多，美不胜收的茶花引起了他的思索：“茶花是美啊。凡是生活中美的事物都是劳动创造的。是谁白天黑夜、积年累月，拿自己的汗水浇着花，象抚育自己儿女一样抚育着花秧，终于培养出这样绝色的好花?应该感谢那为我们美化生活的人。”这就是思想的闪耀，作家十分宝贵它，就及时把这个意思记下来。后来，他听一位花匠介绍一种茶花说：“这叫童子面，花期迟，刚打开骨朵，开起来颜色深红，倒是最好看的。” 并没有引起思索，但他是记住这种茶花的名称的。过了一会，恰巧一群小孩也来看茶花，这事引起了作家的注意，他看见孩子们一个个仰着鲜红的小脸，甜蜜蜜地笑着，唧唧喳喳叫个不休，心灵猛然一颤，不禁脱口说出：“童子面茶花开了。”而花匠听了这话省悟后说：“真的呢，再没有比这种童子面更好看的茶花了。”这话使得一个念头突然跳出他的脑海，他说：“我得到一幅画的构思。如果用最浓最艳的朱红画一大朵含露乍开的童子面茶花，岂不正可以象征着祖国的面貌?”于是，作家就把看茶花引起的感受、思索写成一篇文情并茂的散文《茶花赋》。这个作家就杨朔。而读者、评论者通过阅读就可以悟出作家写此文的立意：歌 颂如花的祖国，歌颂美化祖国的劳动人民。

二、善于构思

构思是写作者对生活素材进行去粗取精、去伪存真、由此及彼、由表及里的加工、提炼的过程。写作者要在构思中为散文的思想内容寻找尽量完美的艺术形式，使思想性与艺术性达到和谐的统一。因此，构思要解决立意、选材、创造意境、确定体裁、基本手法、布局谋篇等问题。这里着重讲讲确定体裁、寻找线索、创造意境三个问题。

第一、确定体裁。散文的体裁灵活多样。我们有了一个好的意思(思想)，并且选取了表现这一意思(思想)的材料，那么就要考虑：是写成书信体，还是写成日记体?是写成随笔，还是写成偶感?是写成游记，还是写成回忆录?是写成序或跋，还是写成读后感?确定具体体裁的原则是内容决定形式，形式为内容服务。譬如到苏州旅游之后，你感到要向父母报告一下自己的游踪和观感，你就可以写成书信;你在游玩中遇到一些使你感动的人或事，你就可以写随笔、漫录;你在游玩虎丘、狮子林、寒山寺、西园、留园等地之后，觉得寒山寺的钟特别吸引人，并引起你的遐思，你就可以写成如《社稷坛抒情》那样诗意浓郁的抒情文;你如果是旧地重游，吃到苏州某种土特产而忆起往事，则可以偏重于回忆，写成《小米的回忆》那样的回忆式的散文……总之，要根据立意内容来确定表现形式——具体的体裁。

第二、寻找线索。散文的材料应该是很“散”的，每一个材料都是一颗珍珠，但这些珍珠互相之间有内在的联系，我们写作者要寻找一根线，用笔作针，将这些散乱的珍珠穿起来，成为一串光彩夺目的珠圈、项链。那末，有哪些东西可以作为线索呢?一是感情线索。我们的感情在生活中发生变化，如由厌恶到喜爱，或从喜欢到厌恶，就可以用这条感情的线索把一些似乎没有关联的材料联结起来。如杨朔写《荔枝蜜》就是利用感情线索，才把儿时记忆、从化疗养、荔枝树林、苏轼诗词、喜尝蜂蜜、参观蜂场、赞扬蜜 蜂、农民劳动和夜晚梦蜂等事串连起来的。

二是事物线索。如曹靖华在日常生活中感受到：今天仍然需要发扬延安时期“小米加步枪”的艰苦奋斗精神，就搜罗记忆中有关小米的往事，用小米把发生在不同地点、不同时间、不同情况下的事件组合在一起。许多托物咏志的散文也是以物为线索的，如冰心的《樱花赞》。

三是人物线索。如写某一个人物在不同时间、不同地点的活动，可以用这个人物作为线索串连起来，也可以用另一个人物把不同时间、不同地点、不同人物、不同内容的事物串连起来。这个人物还可以是写作者本人——“我”。

四是思绪线索。如面对某一事物、景物沉思遐想，“鹜趋八极，心游万仞”，“观古今于须臾，抚四海于一瞬”，“笼天地于形内，挫万物于笔端”。就能通过联想与想象，把有关的材料组织在一起，表达原定的主题思想。如秦牧的《土地》、杨朔的《海市》、贾平凹的《丑 石》等。

五是景物线索。“一切景语皆情语也”。通过景物描写，在写景中融进写作者的思想感情。

如《天山景物记》、《西湖即景》。

六是行动线索。如游记以游程行踪为线索。刘白羽写《长江三日》就以游程为主线来写，当然，全文还有一条哲理性的思绪线索：“战斗——航进——穿过黑夜走向黎明”。

“文无定法”，散文的线索很多，以上六种线索是较为人们常用的。

第三、创造意境。散文的意境是情和景的交融，是意和境的统一，是作者浸透了时代精神的主观感情、意志与自然环境和社会环境的统一。意是灵魂，境是血肉。意高则境深，意低则境浅。散文的这种意境应是诗的意境，即所谓“诗情画意”。它是可以捉摸的，可以感受的，是物质的，形象的，但它又是动人心弦的，震颤魂魄的，是精神的，性灵的。如朱自清写《荷塘月色》，全篇着力于“淡淡的情趣”，顺着沿路走来、伫立凝想的线索，通过描绘使小路、荷塘、花姿、月色、树影、雾气、灯光……色彩斑烂，可见可感，而叶香、蛙鸣、蝉声，又可味可闻。更加上心情的抒写，巧妙的譬喻，创造出一种淡雅、闲静、情景交融的意境。这种优美的意境，正是散文写作者要努力追求、刻意创造的。

构思方法可以向前人借鉴，更需自己创新。过去就有一个青年作者发明出一种“散文快速构思法”，为《青春》、《采石》等刊物的编辑所重视。

三、巧于布局散文一般篇幅短小，布局有方便的地方，但要布局得好，却因篇幅短小而有其难处。这犹如一座大山上有小堆的乱石，常常无损大山的壮观。但是一个小园中有一堆乱石，就很容易破坏园林之美。因此，散文的布局——结构十分重要。参观苏州园林，从它精巧的建筑布局上，我们可以得到启示，可以借鉴它的园林建筑布局来考虑散文的布局。叶圣陶在《苏州园林》中写道，苏州园林建筑的设计者和匠师们“讲究亭台轩榭的布局，讲究假山池沼的配合，讲究花草树木的映衬，讲究近景远景的层次。总之，一切都要为构成完美的图画而存在，决不容许有欠美伤美的败笔。”作为散文的写作来说，也要这样讲究材料的布局、配合、映衬、层次。苏州园林不讲究对称，但散文布局有时则需讲究对称，或对比。叶圣陶又说：“苏州园林在每一个角度都注意图画美。”那么，散文的整体布局要讲究艺术性，它的局部的布 局不是同样要讲究艺术性吗?至于布局的具体方法是很多的，前面讲的线索问题也与布局有关。这里可以着重提一下的是：不少散文的布局都要巧设“文眼”，开头往往似谈家常，结尾则加以深化，画龙点睛， “卒章显其志”，并且首尾呼应，通体一贯，有机结合。初学散文写作，不妨学习这种布局 的方法。

四、明于断续散文要“散”得起来，除了选材要有技巧之外，就是在叙写上要注意断续的技巧。明于断续，才能使散文的行文上挥洒自如。贾平凹说：“记住：越是你知道多的地方，越要不写或者写得很少;空白，这正是你要写的地方呢。”他认为，“讲究了‘空白’处理，一是散文可以散起来，断续之，续断之，文能‘飞起’，神妙便显也。二是散文可以含蓄起来，古人也讲过：意在笔先，故得举止闲暇，看似胡乱说，骨子里却有分数。”(《怎样写好散文》)我们要多阅读古人优秀的散文作品，学习他人的断续技巧，在写作实践中多次运用之后就必然 熟能生巧。

选题是论文写作活动的第一步，也是很重要的一步。小编收集了论文写作之怎么选题，欢迎阅读。

无论是搞科学研究还是写学术论文，首先必须解决的问题是究竟要研究什么，那么，选题就是要解决这个问题。同时，论文写作是一个系统性很强的写作实践活动，是一个系统工程，选题是论文写作活动的第一步，也是很重要的一步。其重要性主要表现在：第一，论文成败的关键;第二，写作活动的起点。

有人说，论文选准了题就等于写成功了一半，这话一点不假，也足可见选题的重要。所谓选准了题，有两方面的意思：一方面是说所选课题与作者的知识结构相适应，作者有能力把它完成，并且还能够发挥作者自身的优势;另一方面是说作者所选的课题本身具有重要价值，值得研究探讨。上述两方面因素对选题来说是缺一不可的，否则，你选了很有价值的课题却没有能力完成，这样的课题只能是白选，或者所选的课题你有能力去做但其本身没有什么价值，这样的课题也等于是白选。可见，选题本身也是一门学问，也反映出一个人独立进行科学研究的能力的大小。掌握了这门学问，论文写作就会事半功倍，没有掌握选题的基本规则，论文写作就可能事倍功半甚至劳而无功。

一般来说，论文课题分为两大类，一类为开创性研究课题，一类为发展性研究课题。

所谓开创性研究，也称探索性研究，即研究前人未曾涉及或未研究过的领域或问题。这类研究课题主要包括三个方面：一是开创新领域，创建新理论;二是填补研究空白;三是研究那些随着社会发展和科技进步而不断出现的新课题。对于我们所涉猎的人文科学，特别是教育学科、艺术学科(尤其是我们这些从事实际工作的人)，研究这类课题难度很大，精力和能力都有所不及。

所谓发展性研究，也称为开发性研究，即在已有研究成果的基础上，再做进一步的研究，将现有成果加以深化、扩展和开发。发展性研究课题也主要包括三个方面：一是深化、补充已有的观点;二是批驳、修正已有的观点;三是赋予已有理论以新的意义。我们的论文写作主要选择的还是这类发展性的课题。

从总体上讲，我们在选题时至少应该考虑以下这几个方面的因素：首先，选题是否有意义，没有意义的题目不要选;其次，选题是否有学术价值，没有学术价值的题目也不要选;再次，在所选题目内自己是否能够提出独到的见解，即能否出新，没有新意的题目最好也不要选;第四，选题是否适合自己的水平，不适合自己水平的题目不能选，这包括知识结构是否适应，研究能力是否胜任，研究兴趣是否浓厚，客观条件是否具备等等。

在具体谈怎样进行选题之前，请允许我以自己的亲身体会来进一步说明选题对科学研究和论文写作的意义。

我中师毕业参加工作后，有好几年曾热衷于自学音乐理论和歌曲创作，也出了一点点成果。后来有机会进修了英语，便开始做考研究生的梦，妄想从山沟沟里爬出来，这就面临一个选择什么专业的问题，实际上也是一个课题选择的问题。普通中师没有专业之分，无论考哪个专业都得从零开始，这倒也给自己在专业选择方面提供了便利。考虑到自己所从事的是教师职业，对教育多少有些感性认识，也考虑到考教育专业可能是冷门，专业知识相对来说比别的专业要容易(这显然是在瞎猜)，于是就决定选择教育学专业，可以说，这是我所做的第一次大的选题。上研究生以后，面对教育学的许多分支学科和研究方向，我又反复权衡了自己的劣势、优势和兴趣，特别是分析了教育理论的研究现状，感到惟有选择“美育和艺术教育”这一研究方向，才是自己的唯一出路。事实证明，这一选择是正确的。我这个不被导师看好的半路出山的学生在学习期间发表了十多篇文章，正是这些文章坚定了自己考博士研究生继续学习的信心。凭心而论，并不是我的文章写得怎么好，主要是我的选题基本上都集中在美育、艺术教育领域，而这一领域正是我国整个教育理论研究的最薄弱之处，随便翻开国内的教育学术期刊，这方面的文章特别少(我是不是有投机取巧的嫌疑?的确是!)。后来的博士学位论文选题确定为中小学艺术教育，也是充分考虑了各方面的因素的，包括国内外的研究现状、自身积累、客观条件等等。现在回过头来看，可以不夸张地说，选题不仅影响了自己的学习研究状况，甚至在一定程度上影响了我的人生：不选教育学专业，就不一定能够考出来;不选美育与艺术教育方向，就肯定不能发表那些文章，也就难以获得继续学习的机会(因为博士生招生不仅看考试成绩，更要看已有的研究成果)，也难以顺利完成学业。在这里我把自己作为一个例子提出来，只是想以自己的亲身经历说明，无论是对于科学研究或是写论文，选题这一关的的确确是非常非常重要的。

上面谈了一点题外话，现在言归正传，具体谈谈究竟怎样进行选题。

选题可根据角度的不同以及个人特点来进行。一般来说，可以考虑在以下几个方面进行选题：

1.在自己的专业领域内选题。

这是最基本的，也是最一般的选题范围，像我们的选题一般都是集中在音乐教育领域，并主要是普通学校的音乐教育领域，因为我们大多从事普通音乐教育的理论研究和实际工作，在自己的研究或工作范围内选题，自然有着得天独厚的优势。比如，我是音乐教研员，那么，在教研工作方面我最有发言权;我是中小学音乐教师，那么，写有关中小学音乐教育方面的论文我掌握的材料就会比别人多;如果我是高师音乐系的老师，显然写高师音乐教育改革方面的问题别人应当比不过我。应该说，这是非常浅显的道理，但往往有的人选题时并不是扬长避短，而是有些喜新厌旧，总觉得做文章也有家花不如野花香的感觉，习惯于把兴奋点集中在别人的专业领域里。当然，一个人兴趣爱好广泛是好事，但是在广博的同时还得有专攻。因此，一般来说，我们首先最好是立足于自己的专业领域，在自己最为熟悉的方面进行选题，以后再来慢慢地拓宽。由于在自己的专业领域里可能是行家里手，知识丰富，掌握的材料很多，因而这类选题在写作时应避免材料的堆积，避免知识介绍式的毫无创建的一般性文章，同时也应避免专业知识的炫耀。实际上，无论哪类选题，都要注意这方面的问题。

2.在出现的新矛盾新问题中选题。

这种选题应注意用发展的观点、全新的观念去研究和解决新问题，找出规律，正确预测发展趋势，提出解决问题的新思路、新方案。这种选题应避免就事论事，避免片面、狭隘、绝对和极端;应避免用旧理论、旧框框去套新情况、新问题;应避免用旧观念去理解新事物，同时也要防止专赶时髦的一窝蜂现象。比如，目前，教育界都在谈论应试教育向素质教育的转轨，我们选择有关音乐教育在转轨中的作用，音乐教育在素质教育中的地位等这样的课题，这就是在新矛盾新问题中进行选题。但是，目前我们看到的关于这类选题的文章，无论在观念上还是在写作的角度上，大多千篇一律，确实有一窝蜂之感：总体上大都是谈音乐教育在转轨中、在素质教育中是处于多么重要的地位，发挥着多么重要的作用等等;在篇章结构上大多是先谈音乐教育在德育方面的作用，然后再谈音乐教育在智育方面的作用，在体育方面的作用等等。却很少有人能够来点逆向思维，反过来思考一些问题：如，目前我们的音乐教育在哪些方面不符合转轨的要求，不符合素质教育的要求，转轨和素质教育又对音乐教育提出了什么样的要求，什么样的音乐教育才是真正的素质教育，目前我们实施的音乐教育是不是就是素质教育，音乐教育本身是不是也应该转转轨等等。总之，目前的情况是，绝大部分的文章对音乐教育唱赞歌的多，反思的少。毫无疑问，如果我们把后面的几个问题作为选题，那么选题会更有价值，也更能显示出作者的水平。我曾在《儿童音乐》上写过一篇小文章，正标题为“敢问音乐教育路在何方?”副标题是“——由‘素质教育中的音乐教育’命题引发的思考”，这篇文章对上述现象做了剖析。此外，《中国音乐教育》1998年三期上刊登的“关于艺术教育功能的思考”一文，实际上也是谈的这个问题。

3.在热点焦点问题上选题。

由于这类选题所选择的热点和焦点，这本身就意味着更受人关注，因而成功的可能性也就更大。这类选题应避免现象罗列或泛泛而谈，应当用前瞻的眼光，用新的观念剖析其历史根源或现实的深层原因，应作出令人信服的理性分析，挖掘其蕴涵的意义，找出规律，指明发展趋势，或者提出对策。比如，“音乐考试”也算得上是音乐教育领域的一个热点焦点问题，尤其是当前艺术教育比以往更加受到重视的大背景下。为此，《中国音乐教育》98年在“探索与争鸣”栏目开辟专栏讨论这个问题。第一期就发表了两篇强烈呼吁音乐课要纳入升学考试科目的文章，应该说，这两篇文章确有值得推敲的地方。文章一味地认为，只要纳入了升学考试科目，音乐教育目前所存在的问题就会一了百了，迎刃而解，似乎音乐教育存在的问题完全是因为它不是升学考试科目所引起的，而究竟为什么要这样做，现阶段这样做的可能性有多大，特别是怎样去实施，文章不能心平气和地去加以论述。发这两篇文章，主要是从编辑的角度考虑，想借此引起大家的争论。也正是基于这一原因，我们还特别写了这样几句“编者按”：“音乐课程是否应该纳入毕业与升学考试范围，其考试究竟应该怎样进行才能真正体现素质教育的要求，这是我国音乐教育界长期争论和探讨的问题，也是广大音乐教师目前最为关注的问题之一。为了进一步统一思想，澄清认识，本刊拟从本期起就该问题开辟专栏进行讨论。望读者能从音乐教育的特点和当前我国音乐教育的实际出发，就此问题发表不同意见。”应该说，编者按里就已经明确提示了大家，下一步我们需要听到的是反面意见，遗憾的是，尽管也收到了许多参与讨论的稿件，但这些文章几乎都统一了口径。观点相同也不要紧，但必须有新的内容，能提出新的论据。直到第三期快要发稿的时候，我们才收到了一篇题为“音乐统考不可行”的文章，这篇文章写得不错，真正是从音乐教育的特点和当前我音乐教育的实际出发来谈问题，谈出了一定的道理，同时作者投稿的时期也赶得好，因此，文章很快就被发表了。这也提示我们，热点焦点问题大家都关注，都可能把它们作为自己的论文选题，这时候，就千万不要人云亦云，跟着别人跑。或者你要提出与别人不同的观点，或者你要在与别人不同的层面上选题，或者你要从新的角度选题。总之，要力争出新。

4.在经常深入思考的领域里或自己的兴奋点上选题。

这类选题也许和作者的专攻学科并不完全一致，但只要有所创见，再进一步进行系统地研究，就有可能写出高质量的论文。许多自学成才的专家学者，许多由一个专业转入另一个专业的理论家、科学家的事迹都证明：只要对某一领域确有创见，不论是否是原有专业，都能做出贡献，论文的选题同样如此。老师们大都是长期工作在基层学校的骨干教师，接触了各种各样的实际情况，对许多问题一定有过深入的思考(这些问题当然不一定都是音乐教学方面的问题)，这是人所不及的，特别是那些专门从事理论研究的人所望尘莫及的，这是一笔大财富，如果我们不以论文或其他的方式把它们记录下来，那么对自己和社会都将是一大损失。在经常思考的领域或自己的兴奋点上选题，如果不是自己的专业领域，那么，就应该特别注意，不要被自己认为认识较深，但实际上却远没有登堂入室的错觉所迷惑，否则，就可能出现外行指导内行、班门弄斧的尴尬场面。

5.在学科边缘或交叉点上选题。

6.在冷门盲点上选题。

冷门和盲点，或是因为远离当时的热点、焦点，或是一时被认为是无关紧要的问题，或是尚未被人意识到的问题。其实，课题的价值并不在于是否赶一时的时髦，也不取决于在某一时刻是否为人们所关注，科学课题自有其本身的价值所在。冷门和盲点一旦其价值被发现，研究出成果，便会向热门和焦点转化。这类选题不仅很少与人撞车，而且容易获得成功，同时又可拓宽研究的视野。当时我选择美育和艺术教育这一课题，应该说就是在教育学领域中冷门和盲点上的选题。这类选题，只要大家留意并用心思考，还是不难找到的。比如，目前我国的艺术教育还很落后，大家的注意力都集中在考试上，并一致认为归根到底就是由于艺术课程不是升学考试科目，结果忽视了一个更为深层的原因，那就是艺术教育的法规建设问题。为什么艺术课在很多地方形同虚设，可有可无，原因之一是艺术课教学还不规范，这又是因为它没有受到权威法规的制约。再有，目前社会上的器乐考级热一浪高过一浪，进而严重冲击了学校音乐教育的正确实施，原因之一也是没有受到法规的制约。但目前有关呼吁加强艺术教育法规建设的文章却很难看到，这应该说就是一个盲点。而实际上，《艺术教育工作条例》的制订工作已经基本完成了，不久就会由国务院颁布，很显然，现在的盲点到时就是热点焦点。条例一旦颁布，随之而来的便是艺术课程教学、课外校外艺术活动、社会艺术环境、艺术教师、艺术教育的管理与组织、艺术教育的物质条件保障等各方面都将要制订具体的规定和实施细则，因此，如何规范上述各个方面，到时无疑又是热点焦点，但现在却是冷门和盲点。像这样的选题便是有远见的选题。另外，同样的一个问题，从一个角度去写可能是热点焦点问题，而从另外一个角度去写则可能是冷门盲点问题，这样，从第一个角度写的人就多，而从第二个角度写的人就少。比如，关于音乐教育的辅德益智功能，往往是从正面谈的多，这就是热点焦点，而从反面谈的少，即反过来看看，目前我们的音乐教育能真正辅德益智吗?这就是冷门盲点。

上面我们分六个方面谈了怎样进行论文的选题，这是一种大致的分法，因为事实上，这六个方面也存在着相互交叉的关系。我想，总而言之，对于初写论文的同志，选题时最好记住这几句话：宜小不宜大，宜窄不宜宽，宜单不宜众，宜冷不宜热，宜实不宜虚。对于有较好论文写作基础的同志，则应根据自己的实际情况另当别论了。

这里我想就“宜小不宜大”多说几句。我们在选题时要注意把研究的范围缩小并加以限制，这样便于驾驭，容易把握。范围大了，不容易讲深讲透。王力先生在谈到论文写作时曾说：“应该写小题目，不要搞大题目，小题目反而能写出大文章，大题目倒容易写得很肤浅，没有价值。”他还举了一个例子说明这个问题：加拿大一位汉学家写了一篇文章，讲的是汉语唇音轻化的问题。这个问题够小的了，但他写了六七十页(约二万多汉字)，很有内容，很深入。由此可见，选小题目，专谈一个问题，谈深谈透了就是好文章。

另外，不管从哪个方面进行选题，还有一个前期工作恐怕不能忽视，那就是查看文献资料。选择课题，必须以相关的丰富知识作基础，要了解本学科过去的研究情况：已经进行了哪些研究，有了哪些经验或教训，获得了哪些成果。看看自己的设想与前人对这个问题的结论如何，自己是否有新的见解。同时还要了解本学科的研究现状：研究达到了什么水平，还有哪些问题没有解决，需要如何进一步研究。如果对这些问题不了解，就可能重复研究别人已经完成的研究课题，在研究过程中就要走弯路，就要浪费人力、时间和精力。而这些问题都必须通过查看文献资料才能解决。

关于如何选题的问题就谈到这里，有时间的话，老师们不妨再去看看本书后面的附录二——“第一、二届全国音乐教育论文评选获奖名单”，上面有近500个论文题目，对照上面所讲的，看哪些选题比较好，哪些又太一般化。

新闻是一种纪实类的文体，要求真实性、时效性，以下是小编整理的新闻基础写作知识，欢迎参考阅读！

一、版面术语

报头、报眼、报脚、报眉、头版头条（二版头条、三版头条等）、偏头条、

倒头条、通栏标题、套红、中缝（一四中缝、二三中缝等）

二、报纸的文体

主要有三种：消息、通讯和言论

新闻的分类：

广义：消息、通讯、言论（评论）、图片

狭义：消息（新闻就是消息，消息就是新闻）

消息字数一般要求：重大消息不超过800字，一般消息不超过500字。

三、什么是新闻（消息）？

（1）定义：消息就是用最简要和最迅速的手段报道最新发生的事情的一种宣

传文体。

新闻（消息）就是告诉人们发生了什么，报道最新发生的事实。

消息来源格式：本报讯（记者、特约记者、通讯员），新华社消息、路透社、塔斯社等等

（2）特点：

采写发稿迅速、及时，叙事直截了当，语言简洁明快，篇幅较小。

内容包括：何时、何地、何人、何事、何故，另加“如何”

（3）消息的结构：消息=标题+导语+主体（背景）+结尾

写法：金字塔结构、倒金字塔结构

四、消息的种类（按写作特点分）

（1）简讯（新闻短波）（2）动态消息 （3）经验消息 （4）综合消息 （5

）评述性消息 （6）新闻特写（素描、特写） （7）人物消息 （8）公报式

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

We live in a world full of competition. And the examination is one of the tools to exam whether we meet the standard or not. If we want to enter the key university, we have to get high marks on the College Entrance Exam；if we want to have a good job, we will go through a series of interviews and tests；If we want to drive a car, we have to pass the driving test. Some people complain that there are too many exams in our lives, and these exams cannot truly or fully reflect a person’s ability. Unfortunately, our fate and future are depending on these exams. We cannot avoid them.exam is very important。

It’s true that the examinations can only test what we remember instead of what we know. A student with a good memory may find it very easy to get high marks before the examinations. All he needs to do is to remember the knowledge from the textbooks. In this situation, it’s quite unfair to evaluate the students only through exams. What’s more, some unexpected accidents may happen to the students such as a high fever or a sudden headache; this will affect the final marks. Since no one can performs stable all the time.

Sometimes, luck plays a vital role in the examinations. The student may guess an answer right although he doesn’t work hard on the course. If the student has a good handwriting, he may get higher marks than others. There are many subjective factors that may affect the outcome of the exams.

In a word, it’s not enough to use exams to evaluate the students. If the schools want to assess the students, they shouldd use different ways. Only in this way, the result may be fair.

我们生活在一个充满竞争的世界。而考试，是检测我们是否符合要求的工具之一。如果我们要进入重点大学，我们就得在高考中获得高分；如果我们想要找份好工作，就得通过一系列的面试和考试；如果我们想开车，就得通过驾照考试。一些人抱怨生活中有太多的考试，而这些考试并不能真正全面的反映一个人的能力。可不幸的是，我们的命运和未来都取决于这些考试。我们不能摆脱考试。

考试能检测到的只是我们所记得的，而不是我们真正了解的知识。一个拥有好记性的学生会发现在考试之前拿高分是件很容易的事情。他所要做的就是把课本上的内容记住。在这种情况下，仅仅通过考试去评估一个学生是不公平的。更何况，一些意想不到的事情可能会发生，例如考生可能会发高烧或者是突然的头痛。这样会影响到考试的结果。毕竟没有人会一直保持稳定状态。

有时候，运气也在考试中扮演重要角色。没认真学习的学生也有可能猜对答案。如果考生写得一手好字，那他的分数也有可能会比其他的同学高。很多主观的因素也会影响最终的分数。

一句话：只用考试来检测学生远远不够。如果学校要评估学生，那就应该用不同的方式。只有这样，结果才公正。

英语写作过程中我们经常会用到一些短语，下面请看语文迷整理的高级英语短语，希望对你有帮助。

1. feel frustrated (挫折的)/ discouraged

2. a precious (宝贵的) experience

3. raise / arouse the awareness of …

4. acquire knowledge and skills学习知识和技能

5. a growing /increasing tendency

6. have a desire for sth / to do sth

7. put sth into practice

8. be closely related to…与…息息相关

9. be essential to sb 对某人来说必不可少

10. in a society with more competitions and challenges / in a competitive society

11. be keen on… 热衷于…

12. broaden one’s horizons开阔眼界

13. a large variety of / a wide range of …

14. make one’s dream come true

15. lay a solid/firm/stable foundation for/in…为…/在…方面打下坚实的基础

16. listen to teachers attentively

17. make a practical plan

18. motivate sb to do sth

19. bury oneself into study埋头学习

20. our determination and efforts

21. express my gratitude to her sincerely

22. be strict with sb in sth

23. achieve the final victory

24. encounter/face some difficulties

25. neglect the disadvantages

26. With the great efforts we’ve made, …

27. enhance/improve his ability of singing

28. be optimistic about

29. hold the strong belief that…

30. I’m confident / I’m convinced that…

31. with iron will and perseverance

32. pursue one’s dream 追逐梦想

33. arouse one’s passion for…唤起对…的热情

34. resist the temptation of good food

35. change one’s original mind

36. spare no effort to do sth 不遗余力做…

37. redouble one’s effort 加倍努力

38. leave a deep impression on sb

39. turn to sb for help / advice

40. relieve/lessen/reduce/ease one’s burden

41. with time going by=as time goes by

42. cherish/treasure/value our lives

43. vary from person to person

44. a boarding school 寄宿制学校

45. What surprised me most was that…

46. cause severe consequences(后果)

47. pay their tuition/school fees/schooling

48. physically and mentally

49. Some in favor of it think that…., while others are against it, holding the opinion that…

50. Success stems from hard work as it can help us accomplish the goal we’re striving for.

51. establish a special fund to help the poor

52. its negative aspect/impact is also obvious.

小编导语：英语作文是英语考试中的一个得分点，那么在写作过程中有什么技巧呢，下面是小编收集整理的相关资料，希望对您有所帮助。

1、首尾呼应，画龙点睛在文章的结尾，把含义较深的话放在末尾，以点明主题，深化主题，起到画龙点睛的效果。如“I Cannot Forget Her” (我忘不了她)的结尾：

After her death， I felt as if something were missing in my life. I was sad over her passing away， but I knew she would not have had any regrets at having given her life for the benefit of the people.

2、重复主题，句结尾回到文章开头阐明的中心思想或主题句上，达到强调的效果。如“I Love My Home Town”(我爱家乡)的结尾：

I love my home town， and I love its people. They too have changed. They are going all out to do more for the good of our motherland.

3、自然结尾随着文章的结束，文章自然而然地结尾。如“Fishing”(钓鱼)的结尾：

I caught as many as twenty fish in two hours， but my brother caught many more. Tired from fishing， we lay down on the river bank， bathing in the sun. We returned home very late.

4、含蓄性的结尾

用比喻或含蓄的手法不直接点明作者的看法，而是让读者自己去领会和思考。如“A Day of Harvesting”(收割的日子)的结尾：

Evening came before we realized it. We put down our sickles and looked at each other. Our clothes were wet with sweat， but on every face there was a smile.

5、用反问结尾

虽然形式是问句，但意义却是肯定的，并具有特别的强调作用，引起读者深思。如“Should We Learn to Do Housework?”(我们要不要学做家务?) 的结尾。

Everyone should learn to do housework. Dont you agree， boys and girls?

6、指明方向，激励读者结尾表示对将来的展望，或期待读者投入行动。如“Lets Go in for Sports”(让我们参加体育运动)的结尾：As we have said above， sports can be of great value. They not only make people live happily but also help people to learn virtues and do their work bettter. A sound mind is in a sound body. Lets go in for sports.

1、标题。标题就是文章的龙眼，一定要体现文章的内容。

2、正文一律采用三段式：提出问题——分析问题——解决问题。

(1)提出问题要简明扼要，开门见山，一般都选用资料中提供的事实材料和理纶材料来进行。

(2)分析问题要紧密结合材料，不能东拉西扯，要集中力量论述主要问题。论述时有详有略，重点内容详写，次要内容略写，但要兼顾好全局和局部的关系，既要看到正面情况又要注意到次要问题。分析问题还要按照由此及彼、由表象到本质、由微观到宏观、由特殊到一般的方式进行。

(3)解决问题的方案要有条理、有层次，涉及到相关部门时方案要体现备司其职、各尽所能、互相合作的精神;解决方案要紧承分析问题的步骤。最好是前后对应;解决方案既要有总体上的思路，也要列举切实可行的手段或措施。使之既照顾到全局，又照顾到特殊情况，既解决主要问题，又控制次要问题，特别是杜绝新问题滋生。

(4)在分析问题和提出解决方案时，建议采用分条列项的方式，使阅卷教师一目了然，或者使用段旨句，每一段的第一句话都概括表明本段的大意。总之，考生应当明白，无论从阅卷教师具体情况还是以机关工作作风来衡量，这种简洁快速的作文方式都是值得提倡的。

(5)在解决问题时，我们还考虑到政府对这些问题应该怎样做，法律对为些应该怎样制裁。

(6)考生要注意，清洁的文面和工整漂亮的文字能够让评卷教师赏心悦目，也便于他们清楚地阅读和理解，在保证文章内容质量的基础上以帮助考生获得较好成绩。

小升初的作文在语文试卷中占了很大的比例，大家需要认真重视，下面是小编为大家收集的关于用小升初作文写作基础，欢迎大家阅读!

一、素材的多角度立意

意大利着名画家达·芬奇的老师对达·芬奇所说的自己画蛋的体会：即使是同一只蛋，只要变换一下角度，形状便立即不同了。这告诉我们对生活中发生的事件我们可以多角度分析。文章源于生活，它的立意亦应多角度进行。

我们以一个发生在同学们身边的事件为例。

今年春天，我和爸爸来到高尔夫球场，第一次学打高尔夫球。看教练做很简单，我按照教练的要求去做，却发现和想象的不同，要么杆碰不上球，要么球出去就偏离了方向，经历了一次次失败，我终于成功了。

就这一事例，我们可从如下角度立意：

1、最大的敌人是自己，战胜自己就会走向成功;

2、一招一式，看似简单，做起来难，失之毫厘，谬以千里;

3、成功需要方法;四、运动带来快乐……

这样，一个素材，可以根据命题的不同，确定立意，设置情节，确定描写重点。但无论从哪个角度立意，打球的动作细节是不能丢的。

二、练习写好文章的细节

学生练习作文的过程中，很多孩子注意了情节的起伏，语言的流畅，但总感觉文章空泛，这是为什么呢?忽视了细节描写。

怎样写好细节，简单地说，细节描写要还原生活，去发现场景细节、服饰细节、语言细节、动作细节、心理细节等，按照生活本来的面目去描摹。一篇文章，恰到好处地运用细节描写，能起到烘托环境气氛、刻画人物性格和揭示主题思想的作用。

如何将“陌生叔叔帮我把车修好”写细，我们首先要还原生活场景，在头脑中勾勒出雪中修车图，再从这一图画中去寻找描写的细节。

这是一位同学的作文片断：“叔叔迅速地摘下手套，用右手拿着链条，左手帮着把链条搬过去，链条一点点地扣上去了，一节一节地扣住了后轮的齿轮。‘咣当’一声，链条滑了出来，这一次努力前功尽弃。我的心咯噔一下，万一叔叔告诉我修不好，我该怎么办呀!可事情并非如我想象，只见叔叔向拢起的双手呵了呵气，又蹲下了身子。他为了不让链条弹开，用右手把链条往前面齿轮上套住，然后右手拉住链条往后齿轮上移，左手护住链条不让它再滑出来。后来，他看到位置有些偏，就用左手把它移正再装，洁白的雪花落在了他冻得通红的满是油污的手上，我知道他的手一定很冷，很冷，可他的心一定很热，很热。终于，链条一节一节地和齿轮扣住了。他猛一转脚踏板，车子居然又完好地转动起来。”文章中最直观的细节是叔叔修车的动作细节，摘、拿、套、拉、护、移、转等动词的使用，写出了叔叔雪中修车的不容易，突出了人物精神。其次应当是外貌细节和心理细节的描写衬托了人物美好的心灵。

每个人观察生活的角度和经历不同，再现的生活场景也就不同，但无论采用怎样的方法，我们达到这样一种境地为最好——做到写人则如见其人，写景则如临其境。

三、整理生活中的素材

努力回忆六年来的校园生活，家庭生活中记忆尤为深刻的小事，哪怕是一次单手磕鸡蛋的经历都不要放过。因为孩子有对生活的观察、积累，有真实的体验、感受，他的表述一定会具体而生动，他所表达的情感一定是真实的。翻翻过去的作文、周记，从多个角度，搜集这样的素材，将细节完整地记录下来，进行分类整理。

有些家长大量地看作文选、杂志，想帮助孩子从上面搬些素材下来。我不大同意这样的做法，因为那不是孩子的生活，他很难像成人一样具有缜密的思维，进行合理的想象情节，他也很难描摹当时的细节，这样的作文不能打动读者。不如让作文选、杂志成为勾起孩子回忆生活的媒介，从与作者相似的经历中挖掘写作素材。如：从作文选上看奶奶为我掖被子的细节，想到冬天，妈妈买药回来，为我滴眼药时怕我嫌凉而搓手的动作，这样一来写母爱的文章就有了素材。

四、努力锤炼文章的语言

佳酿总是经过酿造才有它独特的芳醇，文章也是一样，经过锤炼的语言才是有生命力的语言，孔子说“言之无文，行而不远。”说的就是这个道理。

我们可尝试这样的几种方式，让语言焕发色彩。

在句式变换上下工夫。在表达强烈的情感时，可以将陈述句用反问、设问或感叹句的形式表达。

在准确地运用词汇上下工夫。在文章中可以用一些拟声词来丰富表达;另外，可使用叠词使描绘更加准确，而且能使语言具有节奏感，从而让语言富有音乐美。再有，四字词语和成语的使用，会使语言表达更为简练。   在恰当地运用修辞上下工夫。修辞不但使文章语言生动活泼，而且能调节音节，增强语言的音乐美，提高语言的表达效果。例如：“风追着雨，雨赶着风，风和雨联合起来追赶着天上的乌云，整个天地都处在雨水之中”一句，意思是说“大雨来了”。但是作者使用了拟人的手法，把风、雨当作正在奔跑的人，飞快地追赶天空的乌云，这样一说比“大雨来了”更能表现出雨来的之快、之急、之大。当然，修辞方法还有引用、夸张、排比、设问、反问等等，我们应根据需要采用。

英语写作说难也不难，下面是语文迷为大家整理的一些英语写作方法指导，供大家参考选择。

2014年6月的3套题的考查形式是这样的：write an essay explaining “why it is unwise to jump to conclusion upon seeing or hearing something”, “why it is unwise to put all your eggs in one basket”, “why it is unwise to judge a person by their appearance”;

2014年12月的3套题的出题形式是这样的：write an essay based on the picture below, you should start your essay with a brief description of the picture and then discuss “whether technology is indispensable in education”, “whether there is a shortcut to learning”, “what qualities an employer should look for in job applicants”;

2015年6月的3套题的出题形式是这样的：write an essay commenting on the saying “knowledge is a treasure, but practice is the key to it”, “if you can’t do great things, do small things in great way”, commenting on Albert Einstein’s remark “I have no special talents, but I am only passionately curious”。

但是，透过这些变化的考查形式，我们也可以发现不变的考查方向，不论是2014年6月的谚语或名言原因阐述型，还是2014年12月的漫画或图片描述型，亦或是2015年6月的俗语或名言评论型，在写作体裁上都是一样的，都是在要求考生写出一篇夹叙夹议，以议论为主的议论文。

六级写作方法指导

议论文写作是六级考试的重点，考生既要注意旗帜鲜明地说出自己的观点，围绕观点展开深层次的论述，更要注意综合运用一些高端词汇和句型来表达自己的观点，尽量避免套用一些常见模板，从而给阅卷老师留下耳目一新的感觉，取得高分。

具体而言，六级议论文通常都可以采用“三段式”的结构。

第一段开门见山，直接提出观点;

第二段对观点展开论述，先陈述理论，在列举事例;

最后一段再次回应论点，也可提出措施，再次强调论点。

对于谚语或名言类文章，首先，要注意充分理解和深刻挖掘其中的道理，不能仅从字面去理解，更多的是要结合实际理解其深刻的寓意，其次，要选择有典型性更有说服性的事例展开论述，把道理讲透并让人信服。谚语类题型近年来出现频率越来越高，所以，考生要注意加强日常的积累，多积累多思考，只有这样，才能在考试时不慌不忙、有理有据地写好谚语类作文。图画类作文是议论文的一种，区别在于该类作文要求考生首先要理解图画内容并在首段将其清晰的描述出来。第二、三段的写作与其他议论文是一样的。

1、观点不可太绝对，要留有余地。“义正”未必要“辞严”，“理直”未必就要“气壮”。联系现实生活时，涉及社会黑暗面时，要有分寸，不要一味指责。“质问京山大冤案”。批评家长、老师和社会要与人为善，抱着协商与治病救人的态度，要提建设性意见。不可尖刻、讽刺、挖苦，甚至恶意地进行人身攻击。

2、临场写作时可以根据题意和你的表达需要想像一个或一类读者就在你的面前。如以“沟通”为话题作文，写与家长的沟通，可想像父母就在身边;写“沟通”之艰难和必要，就好像误解过你的人正在听你倾诉;写国际间通过沟通走向合作，就设想自己参与了国与国的谈判。即使所写文章没有明确的阅读对象，你也可以想像此文是写给你的语文老师的。你要知道，你的文章的惟一读者是那位跟你的语文老师非常相似的人。写记叙文，且最好将主人公设定为自己。想想阅卷老师的喜好，说他们想听的话。尽可能赢得评卷老师的同情。

3、写法上可以求新。要考虑，怎样表现更智慧，更艺术，更有可读性;但更要求稳。我的意见是大家一定要在一种比较稳的情况下，确有把握时才可写小小说或者是写戏剧，或者是写别的，确有把握之后才写这种文体，如果没有把握的话，就选择比较稳妥的老的文体，老的写法。

4、不可按上年或前几年的高考作文思路行文。求新、求变是人们所追求的，高考作文也不例外。但若按上年或前几年的高考作文思路行文，甚至拿来套用，机械模仿，不懂灵活应变，就会吃力不讨好，这也是失分的点。因为阅卷者大都是相对固定的，对以前的高考作文非常熟悉。不主张写诗歌、文言文。

5、苦于材料缺乏则可以突出自己的爱好。你如果喜欢体育，那你就像体育记者一样，叙体育、议体育，只要切合题意就好。你如果喜欢听××的歌、看××的书、爱好上网……你就可以将自己这一方面的经历和感受与命题联系起来。那样就不愁内容贫乏、文思枯竭。不要瞎编乱造。靠编故事骗取老师的眼泪从而获得高分的时代已经一去不复返了。

6、要美化自己，而不是丑化自己。要显现自己的高境界、大抱负、多知识、同情心，要显现自己以天下为己任的豪情。不要出于反衬别人等考虑而故意丑化自己，如果让评卷老师以为你真就是那样，那就麻烦了，因为高考是选拔性考试。从某个角度讲，评卷老师评卷的过程就是一个选择淘汰对象的过程。

7、字数以900字左右为宜。不能给人凑字数的感觉，但也不能拖得太长，不允许加纸条。许欢写长文的同学，开篇要注意不要放得太开，开口不要太大，能跳过去的就跳过去，要相信读者的理解能力。要注意节省篇幅，要防止高潮来了没地方写了。切忌三段文。要突出的句子(扣题的、表现主旨的、文眼、点睛之笔、抒情议论、议论文的分论点等)最好单独成段。

8、看到题目后，可先搜索一下自己以往所写的优秀作文，看有没有可以再利用的。需要注意的是一定要不牵强。

9、行文中要多次扣题，要一路扣题一路歌。材料、引语和话题中的相关文字至少在文中出现三次以上。开头三句话内应点题一次，结尾应回扣标题，“回眸一笑百媚生”。中间至少扣题一次。几次扣题事实上也是在不断地提醒自己不要跑题。有球场上叫暂停的效果，可以调整思路和写法。

10、思想要健康。“思想健康”不是说要你只说冠冕堂皇的话，不是要你刻意拔高，“健康”是针对“病态”、“庸俗”而言的，它的底线是不能欣赏违背法律法规和偏离社会道德的事。恋爱题材是考场作文的禁区，无论考生写得如何缠绵悱恻，真挚动人，因其行为是中学生日常行为规范所不允许的，这类作文自然得不了高分。

11、充分发挥自己的优势。认识水平高、擅长理性思维的同学可选择议论文，擅长形象思维、会刻画人物的同学可选择微型小说，擅长抒情的同学可选择散文。

12、精写前几段，给评卷老师留下一个好印象。要精雕细刻，要出彩。比如，可开门见山，直奔主题;可制造悬念，引人入胜;可提出问题，引人注意;或巧用排比、比喻、拟人等修辞手法，或巧述故事，引人入胜，或巧用题记，揭示主旨，或巧用诗文显诗意。写好结尾和过渡段。阅卷老师一般是S型的扫描全文。结尾可画龙点睛，发人深思;或总结全文，照应开头;或虚笔拓展，扩大容量;或精辟议论，深化主旨。

13、要给自己充足的构思时间，不要急于动笔。“宁停三分，不争一秒”，因为写作是“开弓没有回头箭”的，写到一半，突然发现，呀，把题目理解错了，或没领会好命题的要求。最可怕的是文章写到一半，又想另起炉灶。时间没了，心情也坏了，干着急。建议打草稿，防止“三边工程”(边立项，边设计，边施工)。考场作文不宜见异思迁，边写边改。要贯彻一种构思。一旦构思已定，就不要轻易改变。

14、要力避前松后紧、虎头蛇尾。有些同学构思、提纲拟好后，开头反复推敲，精雕细琢，后来发现时间不够，于是草草收兵。此外，要谨慎对待修改。今年实行网上评卷，更应慎重。修改一般只着眼于字词方面的，可用米尺比好之后划两横。结构方面不能修改。要保持卷面的整洁美观，要努力做到改动少而效果好。

15、如果偏题或者离题，作文的主要分数就失去了。为防止跑题，可从如下几点做出努力：一是将材料、引语和话题联系起来思考，不可单看话题;二是看自己确立的观点能否用话题所给材料来证明;三是想一想这则材料当初发在媒体上登载是要达到一个什么效果的。万一跑题了，要考虑逆挽，使文章形成一种欲扬先抑的结构形态。

16、一定要完篇。熟话说，好文章是风头、猪肚、豹尾。没有豹尾，老鼠尾巴也要有一个，绝不能写半头文。用半篇文章给你评分，怎么会得高分?

17、要重视拟题，特别要注意不能缺题。不是万不得已，不要以话题做标题。张伟民讲那是一种浪费。拟题是显示你才气的一个好的平台，不能轻易放弃。缺题影响远不止2分。正好给了评卷老师扣分的理由。

18、文章要有一至两个亮点。如果是记叙文，应该用抓人的情节和生动的描写表现你的真情，记叙文不能没有描写。如果是议论文，就一定要有1--2个典型的论据，就应该有纵横捭阖，很深刻的见解。如果是微型小说一定要有巧妙的构思。这个亮点还可以是一句富有哲理的警句，也可以是一个精彩的比喻，也可以是一个超常的搭配(酽酽的歌喉)。总之，要能使评卷老师精神为之一震。

一、表达方式：记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论?

二、表现手法：象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、联想、想象、衬托(正衬、反衬)

三、修辞手法：比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互文、对比、借代、反语?

四、记叙文六要素：时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果

五、记叙顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙?六、描写角度：正面描写、侧面描写?

七、描写人物的方法：语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌

八、描写景物的角度：视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉?

九、描写景物的方法：动静结合(以动写静)、概括与具体相结合、由远到近(或由近到远)?

十、描写(或抒情)方式：正面(又叫直接)、反面(又叫间接)

十一、叙述方式：概括叙述、细节描写

十二、说明顺序：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序

十三、说明方法：举例子、列数字、打比方、作比较、下定义、分类别、作诠释、摹状貌、引用?

十四、小说情节四部分：开端、发展、高潮、结局

十五、小说三要素：人物形象、故事情节、具体环境

十六、环境描写分为：自然环境、社会环境

十七、议论文三要素：论点、论据、论证

十八、论据分类为：事实论据、道理论据

十九、论证方法：举例(或事实)论证、道理论证(有时也叫引用论证)、对比(或正反对比)论证、比喻论证

二十、论证方式：立论、驳论(可反驳论点、论据、论证)

二十一、议论文的文章的结构：总分总、总分、分总;分的部分常常有并列式、递进式。

二十二、引号的作用：引用;强调;特定称谓;否定、讽刺、反语

二十三、破折号用法：提示、注释、总结、递进、话题转换、插说。

二十四、其他：

消息即狭义的新闻，它是对新近发生的有社会意义并引起公众兴趣的事实的简短报道。小编收集了关于消息的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

消息即狭义的新闻，它是对新近发生的有社会意义并引起公众兴趣的事实的简短报道。因此 ，真实性、时效性及文字少、篇幅小成为消息的基本特征。

一、消息种类

(一)动态消息：也称动态新闻，这种消息迅速、及时地报道国内国际的重大事件，报道社会 主义建设中的新人新事、新气象、新成就、新经验。动态消息中有不少是简讯(短讯、简明 新闻)，内容更加单一，文字更加精简，常常一事一讯，几行文字。

(二)综合消息：也称综合新闻，指的是综合反映带有全局性情况、动向、成就和问题的消息 报道。

(三)典型消息：也称典型新闻，这是对某一部门或某一单位的典型经验或成功做法的集中报 道，用以带动全局，指导一般。 (四)述评消息：也称新闻述评，它除具有动态消息的一般特征外，还往往在叙述新闻事实的 同时，由作者直接发出一些必要的议论，简明地表示作者的观点。记者述评、时事述评就是 其中的两种。

以上四类消息，以动态消息较易写作，可以经常练习写一些，从实践中提高新闻写作能力。

二、消息写作

写作消息要设想并回答读者问的问题，这些问题就构成了新闻五要素，即：When(何时)、 Where(何地)、Who(何人)、What(何事)、Why(何故)。有的新闻学上补充了一个要素：HOW(如 何)。在五个W和一个H中，最主要的是What(何事)、Who(何人)。写作时要认真写好这几 个方 面的内容。

当我们弄清了“我要说些什么”，接下来就是“怎么说这些内容”，显然这涉及到了如何安 排消息的结构。只要我们用心分析一下报刊发表的消息，就会发现，消息的结构比较固定、 简单，大多数消息的结构都是“倒金字塔”式的，即：最重要的材料放在开头，次要材料放 在后面。消息的结构具体表现为：标题、导语、主体、结尾，并在文中穿插背景材料。

(一)标题

标题是消息的眼睛，拟写得好，可以吸引读者;拟写得差，一篇好消息也会被埋没。可见标 题有着向读者推荐的作用。如：《两位市长直接关怀 大港“油郎”喜结良缘》(新华社1990 年1月6日电讯稿)、《地球三分钟 净增五百人》(新华社1996年7月13日电讯稿)、 《杭城新事见新风 拎书拜年书压岁》(1991年2月19日《解放日报》)。

消息的标题必须简明、准确地概括消息内容，帮助读者理解报道的事实。 消息标题有主题(正题)、引题(眉题)、副题(次题)三种。

主题：概括与说明主要事实和思想内容。

引题：揭示消息的思想意义或交待背景，说明原因，烘托气氛。

副题：提示报道的事实结果，或作内容提要。

(二)导语

导语是指一篇消息的第一自然段或第一句话。它是用简明生动的文字，写出消息中最主要、 最新鲜的事实，鲜明地提示消息的主题思想。

导语的要求，一是要抓住事情的核心，二是要能吸引读者看下去。要做到第一条，必须具备 训练有素的分析能力;要做到第二条，则要有写作技巧。

导语写作中的思维过程，通常是以作者的自问自答开始的：

①什么事情是已经发生的事件中最重要的?

②什么人参加进去了?——谁干的或谁讲的?

③是用直接性导语，还是用延缓性导语?

④有没有什么吸引人的词汇或生动形象的短语要写进导语中?

⑤主题是什么?什么样的动词能最有效地吸引读者?

以上五个问题中，第三个问题涉及到导语的类型。那末，导语有哪些类型呢?

一类是直接性导语：直接写出事实的核心的导语。多是陈述性的像速记一样地反映事实。

另一类是延缓性导语：多用于“软”消息。即所报道的不是正在发展中的、变化中的或突发 性的事件。它通常用来设置一种现场或创造某种气氛。多是解释性、说明性的。

导语的形式主要有：

1、叙述式。用摘录或综合的方法，把消息中最新鲜、最主要的事实简明扼要地写出来。

2、描写式。对消息的主要事实或某一有意义的侧面作简洁朴素而又有特色的描写，以酿成 气氛。

3、提问式。先揭露矛盾，鲜明地、尖锐地提出问题，再作简要的回答，引起读者的关注和 思考。

4、结论式。把结论写在开头，提示报道某一事物的意义或目的或总结。

5、号召式。提出号召，给读者指出方向和奋斗目标。

另外还有摘要式、评论式、综合式、解释式等等。

(三)主体

这是消息的主干部分。它紧接导语之后，对导语作具体全面的阐述，具体展开事实或进一步 突出中心，从而写出导语所概括的内容，表现全篇消息的主题思想。应按“时间顺序”或“ 逻辑顺序”写作，但仍然要先写主要的，再写次要的。

(四)背景

1、什么是背景?新闻背景，指事件的历史背景、周围环境及与其它方面的联系等。写新闻 有时要交代背景，目的在于帮助读者深刻理解新闻的内容和价值，起到衬托、深化主题的作 用，也就是回答五个“W”中的Why(为什么)。

西方新闻学认为背景就是对新闻事件作出的解释。美国新闻学家赖斯特说得很清楚：“我看 不出新闻背景与解释有什么区别。”“解释，在我看来，就是新闻报道的深入化。就是把单 一的新闻事件放到一系列的事件中去写”，“就是提供新闻的背景知识，从而使读者能够对 新闻事件作出客观的判断。”

但是“解释”不是议论，解释本身就是事实，也就是说用事实去解释。所以新闻背景又称之 为“事实背景”。

2、背景有哪些作用?

第一个作用，是说明新闻事件的起因。

第二个作用，显示或帮助读者理解新闻事件的重要性。

第三个作用，突出新闻稿件的新闻价值。

第四个作用，表明记者的观点。记者是不准在新闻中发表议论的，但是，谁也无法禁止记者 通过自己来写的新闻表达自己的立场和看法。纯客观的报道是不存在的。

3、背景的类型有几种?常见的有三种：对比性的，说明性的，注释性的。有的新闻学则将 背景分为四种：人物背景、地理背景、历史背景和事物背景。

(五)结尾

新闻的结尾有小结式、启发式、号召式、分析式、展望式……等等。这些结尾写作与一般记 叙文结尾的写作并无大的不同。

SCI论文，即为被SCI索引收录的期刊所刊登的论文，小编收集了SCI论文写作基础结构，欢迎阅读

标题：SCI论文写作的标题必须符合文章内容而简明、准确表达论文的性质和目的。文题要相扣、标题通常由名词性短语构成，如果出现动词，多为分词或动名词形式。标题不能太长，一般希望一篇论文标题不要超过100个英文字符。

摘要：SCI论文写作的的摘要重在说明全文通过什么样的方法取得什么样的结果，资料数据，提出有意义的结论(包括阳性及阴性)。具体按四要素来书写中、英文摘要：目的、方法、结果、结论。结论中、英文内容要一致。摘要以200-300字为宜。关键词5条。英文摘要也应包括文题、作者姓名(汉语拼音)、单位名称、所在城市名等。作者应列出前3位，3位以上加序言：过去研究的情况、方法、目的和所获得的主要成果或特点。此处不宜超过100～200字。

引言：SCI论文写作的引言部分提出课题背景，总结前人研究成果、现实情况及存在问题，采取适当的方式强调本人在本次研究中最重要的发现或贡献。

材料和方法：这是SCI论文写作的执行科研的关键之处，对于要进行的研究工作，必须按照实际情况，在事先选择好适合一定条件、数量的研究对象采用的特定实验、诊断或治疗方法(包括实验步骤、方法、器材试剂、药品)，经过一定时期的观察，相同条件下的对照组，与他人结果比较并综合分析。如果审稿者认为实验材料和方法有缺陷，则该论文的设计也有缺陷。其结果是该论文被拒绝，其重点在于完整的描述。

结论：将原始资料全部集中起来，随机、客观地加以分析，不用特意地加以挑选。对于一些阴性结果，不必全部列出。尽量组织严密，符合逻辑、进行对比观察，在检验过程中不一样地方加以修正、补充。SCI论文写作在结论的问题中避免以假设来证明假设，以未知来说明未知，并依次循环推论。

讨论：SCI论文写作的精髓，主要是研究结果的解释和推断。概述实验条件的优缺点，本人结果与其他学者结果的异同，突出新发现、新发明;解释因果关系，说明偶然性与必然性;急需研究的方向和存在的主要问题。说明研究局限性对结果的影响。

致谢：SCI论文写作的致谢部分主要表明该研究是什么资金或基金资助的情况下完成的并对参与人员和单位表示感谢即可。

参考文献：所列参考文献的目的，在于引证资料(观点、方法等)的来源，不可随意转抄。一般要求引用文献者必须用阅读过的重要的、近年的文献为准。论著10条左右，论著摘要5条，综述20条左右，参考文献的引用要根据收录参考文献的原则。

SCI论文写作基础结构内容由“辑文编译”整理，转载请请注明出处!

广州辑文汇聚了来自全球著名100多所顶尖高等教育学府的600多名各专业博士团队的雄厚学术力量，主要为非英语国家科研工作者提供SCI论文写作发表﹑医学论文润色编辑和各类科研设计相关服务。

SCI journal editors to teach you how to write SCI thesis

SCI paper, how to write? General can be divided into the title, abstract, introduction, materials and methods, results, discussion, acknowledgements, references eight parts.

Title: the nature and purpose of SCI writing title must conform to article content and concise, accurate expression of the. The title of the paper to buckle, the title is usually composed of noun phrases, if the verb, participle or a gerund form for. The title can not be too long, generally want a paper title not more than 100 English character.

Abstract: the abstract is writing SCI papers by what kind of method to obtain what kind of result, data, put forward meaningful conclusion (including positive and negative). According to four to have written, English Abstract: objective, method, result, conclusion. The conclusion, English content should be consistent. Abstract of 200-300 words. Keywords 5. English abstract should also include the title, author name (Pinyin), unit name, city name. The author lists the top 3, 3 plus Preface: main achievements or past research situation, method, purpose and the. Here is more than 100 ~ 200 words.

Introduction: SCI the introduction of writing this topic background, summing up the results of previous studies, the reality of the situation and the existing problems, take appropriate means to emphasize my most important in this research discovery or contribution.

Materials and methods: This is a key point to SCI thesis writing research, for to carry out the research work, must be in accordance with the actual situation, in a good choice for certain conditions, the number of subjects with specific experimental, diagnostic or therapeutic methods (including pre experiment steps, methods, equipment, reagents, drugs), after observation of a certain period of time, the control group under the same conditions, and other results and analysis. If reviewers that the experimental materials and methods have drawbacks, then design the defective. The result is the thesis is rejected, the focus is to complete description.

Conclusion: will concentrate all the original data, random, objective analysis, dont have to choose. For some negative results, not all. As organized, logical, were observed and compared, in the inspection process is not the same place revision, supplement. SCI thesis writing in order to avoid the assumption that assumption in the conclusion of the unknown, to illustrate the unknown, and in turn circular reasoning.

Discussion: SCI thesis writing essence, is to interpret and infer the results. The advantages and disadvantages of the experimental conditions, the similarities and differences of himself with other scholars results, highlighting the new discovery, new invention; explain the causal relationship, the contingency and inevitability; urgent research direction and the main problems. The effect of limitations on the results.

Acknowledgements: SCI thesis writing acknowledgements part mainly shows the research is funded what funds or funds under the condition of complete and expressed thanks to the participation of personnel and units.

Reference: the column reference purposes, in the citation data (point, etc.) sources, can not be copied. General requirements cited references must be used to read important, recent documents shall prevail. On the 10 or so, on the 5, in about 20, for reference according to the included reference principle.

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应用文是人类在长期的社会实践活动中形成的一种文体，是人们传递信息、处理事务、交流感情的工具，有的应用文还用来作为凭证和依据。

一、【结构】

1. 结构的含义

结构是指文章内部的组织和构造，是作者按照主题的需要，对材料所进行的有机组合和编排，又称谋篇布局。文章的结构具有两重含义：一是宏观结构，即文章的总体构思、大体框架;二是微观结构，即对文章的层次、段落、开头、结尾、过渡、照应和主次的具体设计。

作用：

①使文章言之有体。“体”指体裁。应用文在长期的写作实践过程中，大都形成了比较固定的结构形态，也叫程式。

②使文章言之有序。合理安排结构，就是根据一定的思路，将零散的材料组织起来，使之条理清楚，成为一个有机的整体。

③使文章言之成文。通过精心安排结构，可以增加文章的文采，从而增强其可读性。

2. 安排结构的原则

①要服从表现主题的需要。主题是作者的写作目的、意图的体现，结构必须服从主题的需要，为表现主题、突出主题服务。例如怎样安排开头与结尾、怎样划分层次与段落、怎样设置过渡与照应、怎样确定主次与详略等等，都要围绕主题进行。这样，才能使文章组成一个严谨周密、内容形式统一的有机整体。

②要正确反映客观事物的发展规律和内在联系。应用文是对现实生活、客观事物的反映，客观事物总有一个发生、发展、结局的过程，作者对它的认识也遵循一定的规律。这种规律性，也就表现为文章结构的基本形式。

③要适应不同文体的要求。文体不同，结构的样式和要求也会不同。应用文不同于文学作品，不同类型的应用文体结构方式也存在着区别。

3. 结构的要求

①严谨自然。指文章结构精当严密，顺理成章。要求作者思路清晰，思维严密，以主旨贯穿全文始终，不枝不蔓。层次段落的划分要恰当，组织严密，联系紧凑，脉络畅通，行止自如。过渡和照应要自然，不能刻意的雕凿，更不能牵强拼凑。

②完整匀称。指文章各部分要配置齐全，比例协调，详略得当，完整合理，重点突出，符合格式要求。如文章一般都有开头、主体和结尾三部分，三部分比例要协调，主体要内容充实，不能虎头蛇尾或尾大不掉;对并列内容的处理，要注意处理好详写和略写的关系，以保证结构的完整和匀称，使之浑然一体。

③清晰醒目。大多数应用文不要求行文曲折波澜，而要求纲举目张、清晰醒目，以便读者把握要领或贯彻执行，所以常采用加小标题、写段首撮要、条目式等形式。这在一些法规性文体中最为明显。

4. 结构的内容

①层次与段落。层次是文章中作者表达主题的阶段和次序，是文章内容展开的次序。层次体现了事物发展的阶段，是问题的各个侧面和作者思维的过程，又称为“意义段”、“逻辑段”、“章”、“节”等。段落，又称“自然段”，是组成文章、表达思想最基本、相对独立的最小单位。段落的形式是层次的再分割，是文章意思的间歇或转换，以换行为为标志。两者有明显的区别，层次侧重于内容的划分，段落侧重于文字形式的表现。有时一个段落恰好是一个层次，有时几个段落表现一个层次或一个段落内有几个层次。安排层次有两种模式：

(1)纵式，即思路纵向展开的结构方式。具体有两种类型：时间顺序式和逻辑顺序式。前者是按照事物的生产流程、事情或事件的发展过程或时间的先后顺序安排层次。需要注意的是，采用这种结构方式，不能事无巨细地记流水账，要抓住事物发展的关键环节。逻辑顺序关系是按照事理内在的逻辑顺序安排层次。这种逻辑关系表现为：现象——本质，原因——结果，宏观——微观，个别—一般等。按照这样的关系先后为序、环环相扣、层层递进地安排结构，就是逻辑顺序。

(2)横式，即思维横向发展的结构方式。表现在形式上，它是把整体划分为若干相对的层次，各层次之间互不交织、平等并列，从不同方面和角度共同揭示了事物的整体面貌和主旨，或按照空间方位的变换，或按照材料的不同性质和类型，或按照问题的不同侧面等。这种结构形式，在应用写作中运用很广泛，述职报告、调查报告、总结等均可采用。

②过渡与照应。过渡是指层次与段落之间的衔接与转换，在文章中起着承上启下、穿针引线的作用。照应是指文章内容的前后呼应和关照，可以使文章结构周密严谨，浑然一体，还能使某些关键内容得到强调，突出主题。

一般情况下，当内容由总到分或由分到总时、意思转换时以及表达方式变化时，需要安排过渡。过渡的形式有段落、句子或词语。如上下文空隙大，转折也很大，常用过渡段连结。上下文空隙小，多用提示性的句子，如公文中，常有“特此如下通告”、“现将有关事项告知如下”、“为此，特制定本条例”等作过渡。在意思转折不大的情况下，多用关联词，如“因为”、“所以”、“但是”等作为过渡词。

在应用文中，常用的照应方法有：

(1)首尾照应，即在文章的结尾处，把开头交待的事或提出的问题再次提起，有的进一步加以概括、归纳、补充，如论文、总结、调查报告等。

(2)文题照应，即指在行文中时时照应标题，对主题加以强调、提示。如大多数公文标题中都包含着“事由”，文章内容自然要与标题相照应。

(3)文中照应，即文章自身前后内容间的照应，如某些细节和问题在行文中不断被提起，这样能强化印象，更好地实现作者的表达意图。

③开头与结尾。开头是全篇文章的第一步，可以起到统领全篇，展开全文的作用。结尾是全文的收束和结局，能帮助读者加深认识，把握全篇，达到预期的写作目的。

常见的开头方式有：

(1)目的式。就是将写作的目的和意义直接说明。一些公文常用这种方式，常用介词“为”、“为了”领起。

(2)根据式。就是开头阐明撰文的根据，或引据政策法令和规定指示，或引述全文，或引据事实和道理，常用“根据”、“按照”、“遵照”等领起下文。

(3)原因式。就是以交待行文的缘由作为开头，常用“由于”、“因”、“鉴于”等引出原因或简述某种情况作为原因，再引出写作目的。

(4)概述式。就是在开头部分对文章内容的背景、基本情况、主要内容加以概述。采用这一方式，能起到提纲挈领的作用。

(5)结论式。就是将结论、结果先作交待，再由果溯因。

(6)提问式。就是开篇提出问题，然后引起下文，常见于调查报告的写作。

(7)引述式。常用于有具体规定格式的文体中，如“合同”，或引述下级来文、上级指示精神，或有关政策法规，以此作为撰文的依据。如批复、函等常用这种方式。

常见的结尾方式有：

(1)自然收尾式。就是在主体部分写完之后，事尽言止，自然收结。

(2)总结归纳式。指在主体写完后，对全文的主旨进行简要的概括，总结全文。

(3)强调说明式。是在应用文的结尾处，对全文的主旨意义、重要性进行强调，以引起读者的注意。

(4)希望号召式。就是在结尾部分提出希望，发出号召，展望未来，以鼓舞斗志。

(5)专门结尾用语式。就是在结尾处，采用特定的用语结束全文。

二、【语言】

1. 准确

准确，就是要正确地、恰当无误地表达出所要表达的内容，用词用语含义清楚，概念恰当明确，不产生歧义，不引起误会，无溢美之词，无隐恶之嫌。

要做到语言准确，必须要把握词语的分寸感和合适度。特别是要区分同义词、近义词在适用范围、词义轻重、搭配功能、语体雅俗、词性差别等方面的细微差别。

要做到语言准确，还要注意语意鲜明，不能模棱两可，含糊其辞，以免产生歧义，延误工作。如“大致尚可”、“有关部门”、“条件许可时”、“事出有因，查无实据”等表达含糊的词应谨慎使用。

2. 简明

简明，指文字的简洁、明白，用较少的文字清楚表达较多、较丰富的内容，要“有话则长，无话则短”。要做到简明，首先要精简文意，压缩篇幅，突出主干，把无关或关系不大的内容删去。其次要反复锤炼，提高概括能力，杜绝堆砌修饰语，适当使用缩略语，如“五讲四美”等。第三，要推敲词语，锤炼句子，一句话就能说明白的决不用两句话，一个词能概括清楚的决不用两个词。恰当地运用成语、文言词语等，也有助于语言的简明。第四，要注意用词通俗，不用生僻晦涩的字句。应该指出的是，“简”要得当，不能苟简，要以不妨碍内容的表达为前提，绝不能为简而生造词语、乱缩略、滥用文言，不能让人不明白或产生歧义，引起误解。

3. 平实

应用文是为解决实际问题而写的，它的语言重在实用。一个字、一句话，往往至关重要。为了便于读者理解，应用文语言应力求平实。行文时多用平直的叙述，恰当的议论，简洁明了的说明。比如公文，它具有行政约束力和法定的权威性，因此，用语必须朴素、切实，不能浮华失实，不能乱用形容词或俚俗口语。

应用文写作要求用语平实，但平实不等于平淡。我国历史上保留下来的许多文章既是应用文，同时又是文学佳作。

4. 得体

应用文实用性强，讲究得体，一方面要适合特定的文体。按文体要求遣词造句，保持该文体的语言特色。如公文宜庄重，调查报告须平实，学术论文应严谨，社交文书需较浓的感情色彩，广告就常用模糊的语言，使用说明书则需具体实在，商业交际文书要委婉，合同书则要精确等。另一方面要考虑作者自己的身份，阅读的对象，约稿的单位，行文的目的，甚至与客观环境的和谐一致，恰如其分。比如需要登报或张贴的，语言要通俗易懂，需要宣读或广播的，语言应简明流畅、便于朗读;书信的写作，要根据远近亲疏、尊卑长幼的关系使用相应的语言;公文的写作要根据不同文种和行文关系而使用相应的语言，否则就不得体。总而言之，作者应有针对性地运用得体的语言取得最佳的表达效果。

三、【种类】

应用文的种类繁多，可以从不同的角度划分成不同的类别。

一、按其处理事情的性质划分

可以分为公务类应用文和私务类应用文。

公务类应用文是指为处理国家和集体的事务而写作和使用的应用文，即通常所说的公文。

私务类应用文是指为处理个人的事务而写作和使用的应用文，即通常所说的个人日常应用文书。

二、按表达方式划分

有记叙文、说明文、议论文。

记叙文是以记叙为主要表达方式的应用文;说明文是以说明为主要表达方式的应用文;议论文是以议论为主要表达方式的应用文。

三、按使用领域划分

(一)行政类应用文?行政类应用文包括国家行政机关公文和日常行政公文。

1.国家行政机关公文

国家机关公文是国家机关、社会团体或企事业单位处理事务的文件，主要用来传达和贯彻党和国家的政策法令，指导工作，提出要求，答复问题，通报情况，交流经验，传递信息。公文制作比较严格，具有一定的法律效力，在写作和使用时，要根据国家最新的行政机关公文处理办法，区分每类公文文种的行文要求和使用范围，确定适用的文种形式，确保其使用效率。

2.日常行政机关公文

日常行政机关公文是指上述国家法定的行政机关公文以外的一些事务文件。是指简报、计划、总结、调查报告、规章制度，介绍信、证明信等用来处理单位内部日常事务，与具体部门进行工作联系的应用文。它们的行文格式不像公文那样严格，制作也比较自由。日常事务公文不具有法定的权威，一般不单独行文，如有必要，需另行备文，按法定公文处理，否则只作为参考材料。有些日常事务公文还可在报刊上发表。

(二)专业工作应用文

专业工作应用文是指在一定专业机关或专门的业务活动领域内，因特殊需要而专门形成和使用的应用文。由于分工不同，社会各行各业经管的事务有很大的差异。这样，在长期的工作实践中便逐渐形成了一些与其专业相适应的应用文，称为专业工作应用文。专业应用文除了要遵守应用文的一般规则外，还有很强的专业特点，外行人是不能写好的，如财经部门常用的预决算报告、审计报告、市场调查报告、市场预测报告、项目可行性研究报告、外贸函电、经济合同等;司法部门常用的起诉书、判决书、证词、辩护词、立案报告、破案报告;文教部门常用的教学计划、教学大纲、教案、教学管理条例;医务工作常用的病历、处方、护理日志、诊断证明书、死亡报告;外事工作常用的照会、声明、国书、意向书、备忘录、国际公约、联合公报等等。

在各类应用文中，专业工作应用文涉及的面最广，发展最快。随着社会经济的发展和科学技术的进步，社会分工会越来越细，为适应工作需要随事立体的应用写作新形式，也将会不断增多。

(三)日常生活应用文

日常生活应用文主要指个人用来处理日常生活事务和礼仪的应用文，如书信、电报、启事、请柬、讣告、日记、读书笔记。日常生活应用文与个人的日常生活、人际交往活动关系密切，使用范围很广。日常生活应用文虽然也有一定的格式，但不十分严格，写作较灵活自由。

以上只是从大的方面来划分。如果进一步，还可根据行文方向、内容性质或其他管理文件的标准来划分。

四、【表达方式】

1. 叙述

叙述，指的是把人物的活动、经历和事件发展变化过程交代出来一种表达方式。在应用文写作中是最基本、最常用的表达方式。

应用文写作中叙述的人称，有第一人称(“我”、“我们”)和第三人称(“他”、“他们”)。使用第一人称“我”、“我们”系指作者本人，或作者所代表的群体、单位，如书信、请示、报告、总结等文体的写作，多用第一人称。有时，为简要起见，常使用无主句。有的应用文体，如新闻报道、简介、调查报告、会议纪要，为表明作者立场客观、公正，传播的信息真实、可信，常采用第三人称写作。

应用文中的叙述方式有顺叙、倒叙、插叙、分叙等。应用文中记叙事件的发展过程，介绍单位的基本情况，一般都是按顺叙，即时间先后为序来叙述。其原因在于，应用文重在实用，不求委婉、曲折，故多采用直接的笔法叙事、说理。倒叙、插叙、分叙等用得较少，只在通讯、消息、调查报告的写作中才用得上。

应用文中的叙述要力求真实、准确，不带主观感情色彩;线索清晰，表述完整;以概述为主，尽可能用概括的语言说出其前因后果、来龙去脉，使读者了解其梗概。

2. 说明

说明，就是用简明扼要的文字对事物、事理及人物进行解说的表达方式。目的是使读者对事物的形态、构造、成因、性质、种类、功能，对事理的概念、特点、来源、演变、关系等有一个鲜明的了解和认识。

说明在应用文中使用广泛，如解说词、广告词、说明书、简介等文体，主要是用说明的方法来写的。其他文体如经济文书、科技文书、诉讼文书、行政公文等，也常常借助说明的方法解释事理，剖析事理。

说明的方法多种多样，在使用过程中应注意：定义说明要求“被定义者”和“定义者”外延相等，用语简明准确，具有科学性，不能用否定形式，避免“同义反复”;解释说明要求抓住要领，言简意明;分类说明注意根据写作意图选择恰当的分类角度，再次分类只能依据一个标准，各类的总和要等于被分类的事物;比较说明运用时要求用来作比的事物与被比物要相似，有明确的相比点，尽量用人们熟悉的事物作比;举例说明要求事例典型能给人以深刻的印象，举例应扼要，只需概述介绍，不必具体铺叙;引用说明要求引文要有针对性，要贴切，所引资料要认真核实，使之准确可靠;比喻说明应力求准确贴切;数字说明要求数字准确无误，每个数据都要有来源;图表说明要求选择图表要有代表性和针对性，表格的设计要合理，使人一目了然。

3. 议论

议论，即议事论理，是运用事实材料和理论材料进行逻辑推理阐明观点的一种表达方式。它主要特点是证明性，即通过摆事实、讲道理，或证明自己观点的正确，或驳斥对方观点的错误。

在应用文写作中，议论经常使用。调查报告、总结、通报等文体，经常在叙述事实、说明情况的基础上，表明对人物、事件、问题的评价。指示、决议、会议纪要等公文，也常用议论来阐明党和国家的方针、政策，让下级机关和群众理解和执行。

应用文写作中的议论，与一般议论文中的议论有明显的区别。一般议论文中，议论是最主要的表现方法，贯穿全文始终，论点、论据、论证三要素齐备。而在应用文写作中，最主要的表达方式是叙述和说明，议论居于从属的地位，一般只是在叙述、说明的基础上进行。另外，应用文的议论，一般也不需要作长篇大论，不需作复杂的多层次的逻辑推理，也不一定具备论点、论据、论证这样一个完整的议论过程，而只是在需要分析论证的地方，采取夹叙夹议的方法，或采取三言两语的方式，点到即止，不作深入论证。

运用议论要注意，一要庄重，对任何事物的评价要实事求是，以理示人，以理服人。二要明快，要直截了当的阐明观点，不拐弯抹角，不回避矛盾。

导语：在写记叙文时，如果要使文字内容更具体，不空泛，一定要把叙述与描写结合起来。那么如何才能结合好呢?下面我们来详细看看。

我们首先需要了解一下这两者的基本概念和作用。叙述和描写。是作文中两种不同的表现方式。我们这里说的叙述是指把人的经历行为或事件的发生、发展变化表述出来的一种表达方式，它常常把分散的场景，片断的故事和人物的身世，地位，经历，事迹等贯穿起来。它要求做到头绪清楚，脉络分明，有条有理，重点突出。

在记事、写人、状物的文章中，叙述是不可少的，尤其是在介绍人或事物变化为主的文章中叙述的作用更大，甚至有的文章专以叙述为长。我们本讲选的优秀作文《男班长，女班长》就是一个很好的例子。文章中描写部分很少，介绍事件发展过程的叙述占了很大的篇幅，如开头对男女班长来自何方的介绍，女班长对男班长的观察，正副班长必须合作的现实，以及同学们的揶揄，思想的顾虑，同学开玩笑不断，“收到副班长纸条”，到结尾“男女班长仍然合作着处理班里的事务”。这篇文章用很短的篇幅，以叙述为主，把一波三折的事件按发展轨迹清晰有序地介绍出来。对发展过程虽是梗概地介绍，但文章的思想内涵却非常丰富，也可以说在写法上是比较巧妙的。

叙述在按事件发生发展、人物经历的时间来划分，可以有顺叙，倒叙、插叙、补叙等方式，我们在写文章时，可以根据表达的需要去选择叙述的方式。

描写是对人物，事物和环境所作的具体的描绘和摹写，描写是再现描写对象状态的一种表达方式。描写需要采用绘声绘色的办法，把事物的状貌、神采和动态，具体地、真切地饱含情意地勾画出来。写人要使其声可闻，其容可睹;写物要使之可见，可闻，可触，可感;写景要意境鲜明，使读者产生仿佛置身其间的幻觉。

在我们学过的课文中，传神的描写是很多的。如《天山景物记》中对天山深处的描写，“山色逐渐变得柔嫩，山形也变得柔和，很有一伸手就可以触摸到凝脂似的感觉。这里溪流缓慢，萦绕着每一个山脚，在轻轻荡漾着的溪流的两岸，满是高过马头的野花，红、黄、蓝、白、紫，五彩缤纷，像绵延的织锦那么华丽，象天边的彩霞那么耀眼，像高空的长虹那么绚烂。”这段描写抓住山色、溪流、野花这三种最能表现天山特点的事物，重彩浓墨，绘声绘色地把天山美景表现出来。既能使读者如身临其境，也增添了作品的文采。我们在作文时，如果能恰当地运用描写来表现形象，借以表达某种强烈的思想感情。文章的感染力就一定能有所增强。

叙述和描写在记叙性的文字中都是不可缺少的表现方式。叙述着重于一般情况过程的交待，描写则着重形象的描摹和刻画;如果说叙述是纵的绵延，那么描写便是横的扩展。一篇文字若无叙述，就会显得杂乱无章;没有描写，则会干瘪枯燥，毫无生气可言。

实际上，成功的作品中，常常是叙述与描写交错在一起的。我们所选优秀作文，《奶奶与花》就是叙述与描写交融在一起的，近似于一线串珠式的一篇记叙文。

文中以时间为序，先从小时候家门前有一个很大的“花园”叙述开始，然后再描写人物行为语言、花的形态、气味。从而表现我“深深地爱上花”的过程。接着叙述自己病中见到花的情景，描写花的形态，写出自己感受到“花能给人一种强盛的生命力”。接着是叙述“随着年龄的增长，这种认识愈来愈深”又通过对“死不了”“仙人球”的描写，感悟出“花，让我感到一种无尽的生命力，一种明亮的期望”。第五自然段叙述自己养花的过程。这里又运用描写的方式，描绘出花园的美丽，各种花的特点，表现出花可以陶冶情操的作用。这段描写是比较突出的，描写了花的各种色彩，各种形态，用排比、比喻的手法绘色绘形，有丰富的想象力。为了把文章写得曲折有致，第七段、第八段叙述搬进高层楼房前、后我与奶奶对花的珍爱，对小花园的怀念，这里又有对人物的心理、动作的描写，为“小花园”遭到破坏，我和奶奶沉痛心情做了铺垫。

这篇文章用叙述的方式。介绍了事件发展曲折过程，使文章头绪清楚，脉络分明，重点环节突出。这是文章的一条线。在每个重要环节上，作者都生动形象地描绘了人物的行为、场景、物态，内容丰满。叙述和描写有机地结合在一起，深刻地表达了文章的主题思想，增强文章的感染力。

在作文时，恰当地运用叙述与描写，做到有机结合，要注意以下几点。

一、要熟练掌握叙述与描写的功能，注意二者之间互相依存、互相交通的关系。根据作文内容和思想表达的需要，交错运用。

二、在描写范围比较大、内容比较丰富的地域景物或事物状貌时，(例如《天山景物记》等一些游记式的文章)需要有一条贯穿始终的线索，有一个逐步转移、推进的过程，那么这个线索或过程就要依靠叙述来表现。如我们常讲的“移步换景”的写法，其中对“移步”的交代，往往需要叙述。用时间推移来描写事物或人物的发展变化时，对每个阶段的交代，一般也是要运用叙述来完成的。在这种情况下描写的条理性要依靠叙述来体现。

三、在写故事情节比较强文章时，人物的语言，行动往往是构成情节的重要因素、情节又要依靠叙述来展开，这就需要描写人物语言行动与铺叙故事情节同时进行，也就是说要把叙述故事融化在描写中，或把描写融化在叙述情节中。我们仔细玩味一下作文《奶奶与花》，其中有些地方就是把描写与叙述这样融合在一起的。

我们就应当多选读一些优秀作文或名家的文章，刻意体味一下的相依关系，学习二者的结合形式。使自己的作文能更加条理清晰，情节曲折跌宕，内容丰富有致，更具有感染力。

导语：作文要有一个好的开头就不能有一个烂的结尾，小面小编给教大家如何改变小学生作文烂尾的问题。

一、首尾呼应，浑然一体

篇末点题、首尾呼应，即结尾或呼应题目，或呼应开头，这种结尾方式能使文章结构严谨，浑然一体。同时又能唤起读者心理上一种首尾圆合的美感。

二、引经据典，言简意明

选择引用与主题有密切关系的古诗文、名人名言、歌词、俗语谚语、歇后语等名言警句作总结，往往起到深化主题的作用。因为名言警句是经过实践证明了的、含义深刻动人、有很强的哲理意韵、有启示作用和教育意义的话，有的还很有文采，用来结尾，不仅让读者信服，而且在读者的心中，起到“言已尽，意无穷”的效果。

一篇优秀作文的结尾，“冰心奶奶说过’成功的花，人们只惊羡它现时的明艳;而当初的芽，却浸透了奋斗的泪泉，洒满了牺牲的血雨。‘我们每个人都渴望成功，那么我们就应该在刚刚起步的时候，用我们无悔的付出，去浇灌那刚刚萌芽的种子。”作者引用了冰心的话，再融合自己的观点，使此结尾生动而富有深意。

在此要提醒同学们的是，引用名言要恰当。名言警句是浓缩了的语言，具有深厚的文化背景和内涵，引用时不能望文生义，应做到深入理解。结合自己的感受，名言警句应是文章内容水到渠成的一个升华，将名言与自己的感悟很好地融合，从而借古说今。

三、活用修辞，妙笔生花

巧妙运用修辞手法，特别是比喻、排比、对偶、象征等结尾，会使文章文采飞扬，如明媚的春光，生动形象，不仅可以显示出作者的写作目的，还能使文章增色许多。

例如：此刻我才真正读懂巴金爷爷“让生命开花结果”的含义。“开花”是指为他人奉献。一次受伤后的救助是一朵花;一次适时的看望是一朵花;一个及时的电话是一朵花;一个亲切的微笑是一朵花……总之，每一种付出就是一朵花。上面片段一采用了比喻、排比，既增添了文采，又加深了文章的意境，在篇末揭示出文章的主旨，效果很好。

四、巧妙发问，发人深省

以发问的形式提出问题，也是一种很好的结尾方式。以反问和设问的形式接结尾，具有启发、强调、肯定、感染作用。

一篇优秀作文《适合自己的才是最好的》结尾：我们每个人不都是一道亮丽的风景么?是啊，要找到适合自己的，才能把自己变成最好的。这样的问句结尾引发读者深沉的思考，启示着人们作出正确的抉择，追求有意义的人生，引人深思，催人警醒。同学们在写作文时，要注意问句的目的是抒发真情实感，不要牵强附会。

好啦，以上就是小编介绍的几种结尾方式只是一些常用的方式，结尾的方法丰富多彩，而且各种方法并不是单一的，而是“你中有我，我中有你”，关键是要紧扣文章主旨。总之，只要同学们能够巧用神思，“豹尾”巧摆，定能产生余音绕梁之效。

新闻定义

什么是新闻?不同的文化背景，不同的意识形态，就有不同的回答。

在美国，麦尔文•曼切尔著的《新闻报道与写作》一书，引述了过去和现在新闻学家对新闻的一些解释。例如：

达纳在1869年至1897年主管过《纽约太阳报》，他说，新闻是“社会上大多数人感兴趣，而且在此以前从未对它注意过的那些事情。”

达纳的一个编辑提出了一个经典性的新闻概念：“狗咬人，不是新闻;人咬狗，才是新闻。”(注：这是达纳1882年办《纽约太阳报》时，他属下的采访主任约翰•b•博加特对一个青年记者说的。)

另外一个新闻的典型概念是斯坦利•瓦利克尔提出来的。他是本世纪三十年代初期《纽约先驱论坛报》的采编主任。他说，新闻是建立在三个“w”的基础上：“妇女(women)、金钱(wampun)和坏事(wrongdoing)”。

其实，以上表述并非科学意义的下定义，但他们的观点却集中地代表了西方新闻学的基本立场，即一切反常的、有刺激性的、人们好奇的事才是新闻。这种观点当然有其深厚的人文背景及经济基础，虽然他们对新闻定义的认识已侧重在“读者兴趣”上，但其实质仍不能脱离“利润”的操纵。

在中国，“新闻”这个词最早出现在《新唐书》。《新唐书》记载：初唐神龙年间(公无705年前后)，有一个叫孙处玄的文人曾说过：“恨天下无书以广新闻”。孙处玄曾投书当时执政的大臣恒彦范，评论时政得失，未被采纳，他就挂冠而去，可见他是个很关心时事政治的人。这样的人对没有书刊传播新闻(当时印刷术尚未应用于书籍)表示不满，是理所当然的事。孙处玄这句议论竟被载入《新唐书》，说明尽管唐代还未完全具备传播新闻的条件，但人们已意识到需要报道这类新闻的传播工具。“新闻”一词在这里是指“最近消息”。

《现代汉语词典》释“新闻”为：①报纸或广播电台等报道的国内外消息：新闻广播/采访新闻。②指社会上最近发生的新事情。

《辞海》对新闻的解释是：①报社、通讯社、广播电台、电视台等新闻机构对当前政治事件或社会事件所作的报道。要求迅速、及时，真实，言简意明，以事实说话。形式有消息、通讯、特写、记者通信、调查报告、新闻图片、电视新闻等。②指被人当作谈助的新奇事情。如《红楼梦》第一回：“众人当作一件新闻传说。”

1943年9月陆定一提出：“新闻就是新近发生的事实的报道。”

1981年8月中宣部在京召开全国18大城某地的报纸工作座谈会，其会议纪要对新闻定义作了新的诠释：

“新闻反映新发生的、重要的、有意义的、能引起广泛兴趣的事实，具有迅速、明了、简短的特点，是一种最有效的宣传形式。”

定语修饰的限制显然是考虑了“读者兴趣”，同时也顾及到了“社会效果”，这些是对陆定一定义的有效补充，然而其偏颇也是显而易见的。

下面是小编为你带来的作文写作基础：写作技巧有哪些，希望对你有帮助。

一、记叙顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙

二、表现手法：

象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、联想、想象、衬托(正衬、反衬)

三、修辞手法：比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互文、对比、借代、反语

四、记叙文六要素：时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果

五、表达方式：记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论

六、描写角度：正面描写、侧面描写

七、描写人物的方法：语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌

八、描写景物的角度：视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉

九、描写景物的方法：动静结合(以动写静)、概括与具体相结合、由远到近(或由近到远)

十、描写(或抒情)方式：正面(又叫直接)、反面(又叫间接)

十一、叙述方式：概括叙述、细节描写

十二、说明顺序：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序

十三、说明方法：举例子、列数字、打比方、作比较、下定义、分类别、作诠释、摹状貌、引用

十四、小说情节四部分：开端、发展、高潮、结局

十五、小说三要素：人物形象、故事情节、具体环境

十六、环境描写分为：自然环境、社会环境

十七、议论文三要素：论点、论据、论证

十八、论据分类为：事实论据、道理论据

十九、论证方法：举例(或事实)论证、道理论证(有时也叫引用论证)、对比(或正反对比)论证、比喻论证

二十、论证方式：立论、驳论(可反驳论点、论据、论证)

二十一、议论文的文章的结构：总分总、总分、分总;分的部分常常有并列式、递进式。

二十二、引号的作用：引用;强调;特定称谓;否定、讽刺、反语

二十三、破折号用法：提示、注释、总结、递进、话题转换、插说。

二十四、其他：

高考微作文也可以成为小作文，小作文虽〝小〞，但在写作中，学生经常出现错误，且错误颇多。以下在实际教学中的一些经验或许可用以指导学生的写作。

一、注意语言的简洁

这一点体现在两方面。其一，小作文字数一般是100┄300字，受篇幅限制，语言要求简洁明了。其二，如果是写应用文，则语言也一定要简洁，因为语言简洁是应用文写作的最基本要求。

二、注意审题

小作文的审题(即审读材料)很重要，决定着文章的成败。因为一个小作文的材料中，往往隐含了若干个写作要求，如不细心审读，抓不到这些隐含的要求，就很容易出现错误。例如：

一个孩子乘母亲不在，将家里的小闹钟拆了，母亲见后……

要求;根据上面的材料，展开想象，如果你是母亲，如何处置这个事情。请写出一个200字左右的处置过程。

这个小作文便隐含四个要求：(1)〝母亲见后〞，时间上必须要从母亲看见闹钟被拆之后写起;(2)〝如果你是母亲〞，行文中写作者必须是小孩的母亲，必须以小孩子母亲的身份出现，不能这样写：〝如果我是这位母亲，我会这样处置……〞;(3)〝200字左右〞，字数限定在200字左右;(4)〝处置过程〞，内容只能写处置的过程，而不能写结果和其他。

三、力求结构完整

小作文是片断性作文，而非篇章。虽如此，但不能一味忽略结构的完整性。一篇小作文如果能够做到结构完整，则效果会更好。例如：

在你的身边有许多可亲可爱的事物，请你任选其中一种，以《我眼里的___________》为题写一篇200字左右的短文。

有位学生在叙写完一只小猫的伶俐乖巧后，篇末一句〝我非常喜爱我家的小猫〞独句成段，这样，既抒发了情感，又收束了全文，使短文结构完整，比那些一味描写小猫的文章要好得多了。

要做到结构完整，可运用以下的结构方式：前后照应式、篇末点题式、总分总式(包括总分式和分总式)等。

四、注意表达方式的运用

受文体的制约，一篇文章总以某种表达方式为主，同时兼用其他表达方式为主。小作文也应注意这一点。如江西省2002年中考语文小作文题为二选一，(1)通过某一情景或场面，描写你最喜欢的色彩。(2)就你最喜欢的色彩，发表议论。无论选哪一题，或描写、或议论，总得以一种表达方式为主。但如果能兼用其他表达方式，如兼用议论和抒情，表达自己对某种色彩的某中看法和喜爱之情，则能使短文大为增色。

五、注意直接入题，不必铺陈

为表现中心，大作文可以大肆渲染、铺陈，好比助跑跳远，通过助跑可跳得更远。而作为片断作文的小作文，则不必铺陈。小作文好比立定跳远，不能助跑，站定就跳，它的写作必须围绕中心按要求直接写中心内容。如小作文〝请用200字左右的文字描写学校升国旗的场景〞，写作时就必须围绕中心内容〝场景〞直接描写，与这一场景无关的内容全都不能写。

六、注意时空的局限性，不能任意发挥和联想

有些小作文受篇幅影响，写作内容在时间和空间上受到很大限制。一般来说，只能写材料要求所制约的某一特定的时间和空间内的人或事，不能超出这一时空范围，不能不受时空限制而任意发挥和联想。再以〝描写学校升国旗的场景〞为例，空间上只能是校园内，不能超出范围。否则，势必使字数过多，内容不集中而不符合要求。

七、注意漫画类小作文的写作

要写好漫画类小作文必须做好以下三点。首先，必须认真审读漫画内容。有些漫画附有揭示该漫画所蕴涵的意图的词句，这类漫画易于读懂;而有些则只有图画没有文字。对此，考生要认真审读画面的每一个细节，任何一处都不能忽略。

其次，必须正确领会漫画所隐含的意图或问题，力求避免误解和错解。漫画的意图或是为了反映社会生活中的某一个问题，或是为了揭示某中道理，它总是隐含的。学生就要通过审读图画，联系现实生活实际，正确领会漫画的意图。

第三，写作时必须注意写作内容与漫画内容的联系，二者不能相互脱离。否则，所写的东西便成了无源之水，无本之木

另外，在写作时，必须要有使漫画与写作内容相联系的语句。这样的语句可以在开头，在中间，或在结尾。如在开头可写：〝这幅漫画告诉我们一个道理;……〞。结尾可写：〝……。这幅漫画给了我们这样的启示。〞有了这样的语句，便使漫画内容与写作内容联系了起来。

八、注意拟题

许多小作文并没有要求自拟题目，这时，学生可以不拟题目而直接写。这样既可以减轻写作难度，又可以节约时间。

如果要求自拟题目，则必须拟题。而为了琢磨一个恰当的题目，有时让人半晌难以下笔，焦急万分，此时不妨先把正文写好，而当正文一写好，再行拟题时，往往会出现柳暗花明、豁然开朗的喜人情景。

1、Practice makes perfect.

熟能生巧。

2、Take care of the pence/pennies，and the pounds will take care of themselves.

积少成多。/小事谨慎，大事自成。

3、Swift to hear,slow to speak.

多听少讲。

4、Procrastination is the thief of time.

拖延就是偷走时间。

5、Tomorrow is another day.

明天又是新的一天。/明天还有指望。

6、Exploit to the full one’S favorable conditions and avoid unfavorableones.

扬长避短。

7、Promise little，but do much.

少许愿，多做事。

8、cripples learns to limp.

近朱者赤，近墨者黑。

9、Bend the willow while it is still youn.

修树要趁早，育人要趁小。

10、Knowledge is power.

知识就是力量。

11、Passion，though a bad regulator,is a powerful sprin.

激情虽难驾驭，却是强大动力。

12、Learn from other’S strong points to offset one’S weaknesses.

取长补短。

13、He than run fast gets the rin.

捷足先登。

14、We never know the worth of water till the well is dry.

井干方知水宝贵。

15、Our greatest glory consists not in never failin9，but in rising every time we fall.

人生最大的光荣，不在于永不失败，而在失败还能站起。

16、Ideals are like stars-we never reach them，but like marlners，we chart our courses by them.

人之需要理想，如水手之需星辰；星辰虽不可及，但可指引我们航程。

17、Youth’s stuff will not endure.

青春易逝。

18、A pet lamb makes a cross ralTl.

宠坏的羊羔会变成恶羊。

19、Prepare for the worst and hope for the best.

做最坏的准备，怀最好的希望。

20、Do not throw the baby with the bath water.

别把小孩和洗澡水一起泼掉。

21、Wisdom is only found in truth.

惟有在真理中才能找到智慧。

22、A stitch in time saves nine.

小洞不补，大洞吃苦。

23、An hour in the morning is worth two in the evenin9./The morning hour has gold in its mouth.

一天之计在于晨。

24、Where there is a will，there is a way.

有志者事竟成。

25、Broaden one’S scope ofknowledge and widen one’S horizon.

拓宽知识，开拓视野。

26、He that can have patience can have what he will.

惟坚韧者始能遂其志。

27、Thought is the seed of action.

思想是行动的种子。

28、As you give，as you receive./As you sow，you shall mow.

种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆。

29、Every man is the master ofhis own fogune.

每人都是自己命运的主人。

30、Good health is the best treasure a person can procure.

健康是一个人最宝贵的财富。

31、Disappointment is the nurse of wisdom.

失败是成功之母。

32、The first step to knowledge is to know that we are ignorant.

走向知识的第一步是知道自己无知。

33、Home-keeping youth have ever homely wits.

孩子不见世面，知识少的可怜。

34、People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.

自己有缺点，勿揭他人短。

35、Give me where to stand，and l will move the world.

给我一个支点,我可以跷起整个地球。