英语议论文的写作技巧(经典20篇)

英语，是世界上最流行的语言，现在不知有多少人在学习，可学习之路总是艰难的。

首先，我们应该认识英语的重要性。英语是这世上发达国家风行的一种语言，对于我们这些新一代的学子来说，当然必不可少。而且英语对于我们来说是一种简单的语言，无论单词、句子、文章等有多长，里面都只有26个字母，自己需要多多掌握的则是语法。

我还是一个初二的学生，正在努力地学习着英语，因为这是一门重要的主科，将来还会是出国的必要条件。而我感觉英语并不需像李阳说的那样，要疯狂起来，而要融入它。我认为学英语应该让自己身临其境，把自己所站的角度换到国外去，对于外国的社会环境，我们应该如何地交流。

当然，读肯定是要的，要放开心，大胆地读出来。熟话说：熟能生巧。只要我们多读，再多读，到需要用的时候就会情不自禁地脱口而出了。学英语的心态也要放正。我们应该觉得我们需要学英语，这对我们是有极大地用处的，。当我们真正地认为英语已经融入了自己的生活的时候，我们就会像学母语般地去学习英语。

在这，我还有个小窍门来帮助大家记单词。自己用硬纸板做26个字母的卡片，然后尝试着用卡片去拼写单词，就靠自己的记忆把单词拼出来。只要一有空就拿出来玩玩，在不经意间，我们的英语词汇量就会上去。

不要害怕英语，因为它是我们的伙伴，努力征服。

抒情散文以抒发主观情感为出发点，以空灵飘逸见长，着力点在于准确表达感情色彩的语言运用上。

最大特点就是“形散而神不散”，往往借助具象，写景状物来抒发主观情感。文中的景或物是作者抒情的依托，作者往往将所要抒发的情感具象化，运用比兴、象征、拟人等手法，或写景抒情，情景交融，或托物咏志，有所寄托，以达到抒情的目的。

抒情散文有哪些分类？

抒情散文分为：借景抒情、因物抒情和以事抒情三类。

抒情散文有哪些特点？

1.抒情散文是作者激情的鲜明表现，换句话说，就是“文中有我，重在抒情”；

2.诗情画意，“登山则情满于山，观海则意溢于海”；

3.立意清新，精心结构

4.抒情语言表达方式的运用，具体地说，即： ①托物抒情； ②因事（人）抒情； ③借景抒情；

5.语言有准确、简练、形象、生动、音律优美的特色，是诗一样的语言。

常用抒情散文写作有六种格式：

1、静赏式

套路模式：进入景点→依次静赏→赏景联想→离开景点。代表篇目《荷塘月色》

注意：一要注意进入景点的缘由要自然，最好能点到主题上；二要注意多角度写主要的景物，至少要有三个角度；三要注意使用联想，旨在与开头所交代的缘由相照应，用抒发情感的方式来深化主题。

2、参游式

套路模式：参游起因→参游见闻。代表篇目《难老泉》

特点：作者是文中的穿线人，由作者的目击联想来描写景物、抒发感情。

注意：一要注意众多的景物应以作者行踪为线串联起来，移走换景，景不离步；二要注意每进一步，地点要交代明确，描写要虚实相间，这样才能清晰而深广；三要注意描写手法的使用，众多的景物要详略得当，详处着力描写，略处简要概述。

3、象征式

套路模式：物的概述→物的性格→由物及人。代表篇目是《白杨礼赞》。

特征：一用物来象征人，形在写物，旨左象征之人；二是卒章显志，篇末点旨。

4、情索式（并列式）

套路模式：情的缘起→情的积蓄→由情至人→情的归结。所谓情索，就是以情为线索，来连缀景物。代表篇目朱自清的《春》；

特点：看似处处写景物，实是处处借景抒情，只是为情感找一个假托物而已。关键是要善于将景物特征分解成若干个方面，从若干个点上来抒情。

5、怀念式

套路模式：睹眼前景→思从前景→抒怀念情。代表篇目郑振铎的《海燕》

6、叙史式

套路模式：一语统篇→分叙史实→抚今抒情。代表篇目《土地》。

议论文的写作，总体上来讲，可能它的难度显得要比记叙文大一点。上句下句之间有一种什么逻辑联系呀?材料跟观点之间是不是有个严密的因果关系呀?好多同学这一方面好像水平不太高，注意得不够。议论文很需要语言的连贯，一句接一句，一句接一句，语气很流畅地下去，把一个理讲了，才能服人，但是不少同学那个语言疙疙瘩瘩的，不是很好。

议论文要以理服人，那么以理服人，人家怎么服你呀?觉得你这个理对他才服你，没理搅理谁服你?怎么才能让人觉得你的理对?你要用材料证明你的观点，你的材料跟你的观点之间必须有一种很严密的因果关系。你在用每一个材料甚至于你在写每一句话的时候，你都要考虑：这个是不是能得出那个果来呀?因为什么什么所以什么啊，要考虑这个;我写的这个跟因果关系能搭得上吗?你要琢磨这个。打个简单的比方，证明两个三角形全等，或者两边加一角，或者两角加一边，角A等于角AP，角B等于角BP，AB等于AB，所以两个三角形全等。你写了这个，对证明这个结论就管用。我发现有的同学写作文，我仍然用这个比方，角A36度，角BP71度，这玩意跟三角形全等有什么关系?没关系，没关系你写它干嘛?咱们这个注意得不够。议论文里面，这是一个问题。

咱们许多同学写作文有一个习惯，给我一个观点我立刻一个例子、两个例子、三个例子，还有什么理吗?没了。有的同学再多，四个例子五个例子，只是写成了证明文，没有写成议论文。论证论证，要论要证，你不论哪行?当然事实论证是一种方法，但是，仅仅是一种啊，你只用这个，不大容易使人服。我们有的同学一到写艰苦朴素，张三艰苦朴素，李四艰苦朴素，王五艰苦朴素，所以我们要艰苦朴素。为什么所以我们要啊?你这个文章能让人服吗?要学会讲理就是要变单纯举例为就例说理。就例说理，就是结合着这个例子，就着这个例子我来讲一点理。咱们要学会掌握这种方法，例子举完了，然后马上我紧接着这个例子我来讲一点理，使得这个例子更好地为证明观点服务。而我讲这个分析这个例子说的话，也是更好地为观点服务，把这个例和理拴得紧紧的。要做到这一点，或者，我换句话来说，你们不是以例代理吗?用例子代替道理吗?怎样就例说理。第一种方法，叫做假言因果法。就是说，用假设性的语言，把事物之间的因果关系讲出来，使得人们服你。先说一个例子，你听一听。欧立西为了发明一种新药，坚持进行实验，失败了，总结教训再干，一直实验了606次，才获得了成功，制出了以实验次数命名的新药606。我们有的同学写到这儿可能底下就来，“由此看来，坚持到底就是胜利”。应当说这个例子是能说，证明这个道理，但是觉得不够。你为什么不对这个例子再进行一点分析呢?好，大家接着往下听。“新药的问世是坚持的结果。假如欧立西仅仅实验一次，失败后就撒手不干了，新药当然不会问世。就是他实验了605次，失败了以后不再坚持，也绝不可能有新药的制成;正是因为他坚持到了最后，才获得了最后的胜利。所以，可以说，坚持到底就是胜利。”

你看看假如他仅仅实验一次就停下来了，是不是假设，进行假设性的分析?那么，进行假设性的分析，它当然有一个最基本的要求，大家要注意：进行假设性的分析，就是你举的例子是正面的，那么你就从反面来假设分析;你举的例子是反面例子，你就从正面来进行假设。基本要求，因为它是假设性的，所以叫做假言因果法。是吧，用假设性的语言，这是第一个办法。

第二个办法叫做论据引申法。你举了一个例子，是吧?这个例子是不是论据呀?由这个论据里面你可能看到了一定的苗头，看到了某种苗头，然后你就就着这个苗头你给它引申出去，这是看出苗头来了。而你由这个事例里面，你可以设想出某种结果，你就往那个方向引申一下。那么它跟假言因果有什么不同呢，或者说区别在哪儿呢?就是这个例子里面，它已经有某种苗头可以看出来了，刚才那个是不是完全假设，是不是?人家没有停过，第一次没停，到605次人家也没停。下面要讲的就是这个例子里面它有一种苗头，好，现在先把这个例子说一说。

缪贤心胸开阔，他发现蔺相如的才德，并不因为他出生卑贱而瞧不起他，而是不怕群臣嘲笑，把蔺相如推荐给赵王，得以出使秦国。蔺相如此去吉凶难料，虽然他有勇有才，但未必能旗开得胜，若是此去非但没有换回秦国的城池，连“天下所共传宝”的和氏璧也被秦国夺走了，辱没了赵国的威名，那么赵王一怒之下，恐怕不只是杀了蔺相如一个了事，连缪贤也将因推荐庸才之过而受到牵连。但缪贤并不惧怕这些，他识才敢用，非常信任蔺相如，置个人安危于不顾，毅然把蔺相如推荐到赵王面前。若非出于对国事的关心，是难以做到的。

好了，这个例子，请看从这儿开始，“若是此去非但没有换回秦国的城池，连天下所共传宝的和氏璧也被秦王夺走”，这个是不是出现苗头了?这个璧丢了就不是假设吧?差一点丢，苗头出现了，就此我来引申。假如这个璧丢了，倒霉的恐怕不只是蔺相如了，是不是?你这个缪贤怎么把这个大草包推荐给我呀?必然除了蔺相如要被杀，缪贤也要倒霉。缪贤没有顾虑，是吧?推荐人才要出于公心，从国家利益出发，不要考虑个人，一引申把这个道理是不是讲得很清楚了?更能服人了，是吧?所以，第二种方法我把它叫做论据引申，就是它是有这个苗头的，有这种可能性。

第三个方法，叫做例后解说法。这个例后解说法，怎么用?用在哪儿?要提醒大家。你举了一个例子，当这个例子比较长的时候，可能你有一个担心：对于这个事例的中心，别人认识会不会和我不一样呢?你把它解说一下;二，同样你举的那个例子比较长了，可能你会有一个考虑，我这个例子跟观点是个什么关系，别人会不会跟我认识不太一样?或者觉得我这个例子跟我要讲的观点关系不那么密切。这个时候你来把这个例子解说一下，这个例子或者解说它的中心是什么，或者解说这个例子跟中心有什么关系，在这个范围内你解说一下。同样用一个事例来说话。

从前有一种病，这种病使人食欲不振，最后导致人死亡，在当时几乎是不治之症。有一位化学家，也得了这种病。有一天他路过一个村子，村里的人听说他有这个病，于是乎告诉他，我们这个村里面有一种神水，一口井里的水，能治你的病。化学家听了，照办了，就去喝那个水，结果病好了。病好了以后，化学家就想：为什么这个水能救我啊?结果就是这么一个村子里的人们从来不曾想过的问题，促使化学家去研究，最后化学家发现水里含有芒硝，芒硝救了他，因此他发现了芒硝的药用作用。

大家听到这个故事了，这故事的中心是什么，你清楚吗?也许你想到一点。用这个想证明哪个观点呢?好，下面往下听，正所谓“于不疑处有疑，方是进矣”(宋代张载语)古人的话，在别人没有产生疑问的地方，你产生疑问了，你这就是比别人前进了一步了。村里的人就知道能治病，想了没有，从来不想;化学家想了，发现芒硝了，说什么，正所谓“于不疑处有疑，方是进矣”(宋代张载语)。“疑”是发现矛盾的钥匙，“思”与“学”是解决矛盾的方法，发现矛盾是解决矛盾的开端，“疑”便是“思”与“学”的“端”和“始”了。

一个人要善于质疑，善于质疑你才会去学，才会去思，最终可能才能解决问题。这儿讲什么，善于质疑和学、思的关系，因为你善于质疑了，你才会去学，才会去思，还暗含着一个才可能得出一个最终结果。解说一下目的是为了说明这个。好了，这样子这个例子就能很好地为中心服务了。

第四个方法，我把它叫做正反对比法。这个正反对比可不像学生那个作文里面，一个正面的例子，一个反面的例子，还是两例子往这放在一块。当然，免不了要举例，因为我这说了正反对比，两种情况。一种情况是我可能一个正面的例子，一个反面的例子搁在这里。但是，并不是搁在这儿就算数了，要对这个例子还要进一步进行分析。或者，举一个例子，这个例子里面含有正反两种因素，这个例子举完了，从正反两个方面来加以对照性分析，重在分析，不是例子。跟你们说举一个例子、举两个例子一对比就完了不是一回事。好，用一段文章来告诉你们。

孙膑与庞涓同出于鬼谷子门下。他们二人可说是精于谋略，都是不可多得的人才。但是当孙膑来到庞涓任职的魏国时，庞涓嫉妒他的才能，表面恭敬，内心狠毒，多次向魏王进谗言，以致使孙膑被挖去膝盖骨，不得展其才志。而，转到另外一个方面。而齐王听说孙膑之才，不惜费尽心力，将孙膑请到齐国，委以重任。齐军终于有了马陵道之胜。例子是不是完了?想说什么，想说“好集体不会埋没人才”?但是人家没有就此而止，下面做对比性分析。要害在这儿呢。

同是孙膑，为何落得两种境遇呢?就是因为他效劳于优劣不同的两个统治集团。在魏国，庞涓只为私利，妒贤嫉能，魏王昏庸，偏听偏信，而且缺乏识别千里马的伯乐眼光。试想孙膑在这么一个集体中，如何施展大志呢?而齐王任贤用能，身边的臣子也不像庞涓那样谋私，因而上下齐心，孙膑在此，可说计出即行，正得以充分发挥作用。可见，好集体不会埋没人才。你看看，如果仅仅是刚才这个例子，跟多了这个对于事例的对比性分析，你觉得效果怎么样?是不是多了分析，说服力就更强了?议论文，议论文，你要议论，这就是议论。

顺便再介绍另一种方法，这个不叫事例分析。同学们写作文，还有一个习惯，喜欢引用名言名句。某某某说得好，说什么什么，说的正是这个意思，就完了。某某某这么这么说，他的这个说法不是证明了这个道理吗，这就证明道理了。那么你要不要对某某某的话分析一下呢?要分析，不能简单地引一下就完。简单地引一下就完效果不好。给大家举个例子说说。这个例子干嘛?告诉你，这个方法叫做披文示意。披露一段文字解释它的含义。披露文字解释含义在解释含义过程当中，使得这一段话更有说服力，更能证明观点。当然解释意思本身也是在证明观点，我给大家读一个你听一听。

“常见有这种人，遇事总是自惭形秽。我认为，做人还是不要妄自菲薄。”观点出来了没有?出来了。“俄国作家契诃夫曾经说过：“有大狗，有小狗，但小狗无需因大狗的存在而惶惑”。我们有的同学写作文，到了这儿，契诃夫说的就是这个意思啊，完了。你能有说服力吗?不行。好，你听下面，人家有一句话过渡了一下，“天下人也是如此这般。“有大狗，有小狗”就如人世间存在有能力、有风度、有才华的人们，也存在各方面略有些不足的人。天下事纷繁复杂，天下人更是多种多样，这是自然选择的结果。“但小狗无需因大狗的存在而惶惑”。是的，小狗的存在自有其价值，自有其自然选择的位置，何必因为“小”就在“大”者面前惶惑不安呢?大狗是小狗长成的，如果小狗们自轻自贱，纵使长成大狗，也会在自卑的压迫下碌碌无为。何况，小狗的娇媚，表演技能的高超，也是大狗们望尘莫及的。”

大家听出来了，是不是还是沿着契诃夫那个比喻的意思继续延伸比喻下去的，是不是?下面再告诉你一个例子，就这一段话引用完了，有的同学用比较直白的语言就说，不是用比喻了，把这个道理也说出来了。

契诃夫曾经说过：“有小狗，有大狗，但小狗无需因大狗的存在而惶惑”。小狗，比喻那些初出茅庐的青年人，大狗则比喻那些有名望的老前辈。青年人应该尊重老前辈，虚心向他们学习，但也不能妄自菲薄。正像契诃夫所说的：“小狗无需因大狗的存在而惶惑”。有些青年人把老前辈历年言语作为金科玉律，哪怕是错误的言论，也不敢加以评论。这种做法只能使他们的思想凝滞，缺乏创造性活力。这种现象在自然科学界和社会科学界尤其明显。老前辈的理论被奉为金科玉律，无人敢提出异议，而真正有作为的青年人向来是自信的，他们敢向科学权威挑战，在事业上取得了成就。因此，劝君不要妄自菲薄，应该有自己的主见。

你看这段是不是用比较直白的话，把道理说出来了，是吧?“不要自惭形秽，不要妄自菲薄，要有主见。”人家不只是说把名人的话一引就完。这种方法也该学一学，这会增加议论文的说服力。

第二个大题，变换一下思路求变求新。也就是说，改变一下习惯性思维。有的同学一看到这个试卷上给了一个材料，马上就想起了一个什么东西。但是呢，缺乏创新，习惯性思维起作用了。我们是不是能够改变改变思维的方向，一个材料一个话题，你是不是要想到许多相关的方面?

比方说这个成语，滥竽充数。你们是不是脑子里边马上反应到那个南郭先生不怎么样，凑数呢，不学无术，不求上进。但是仅仅想到这个行吗?还有新的方面可以想。齐王能不能想到，比方讲，齐王是不是冒充内行?他假如真正地懂音乐，一个乐队里面那个叽哩哇啦的声音他发现不了，他的听觉不敏锐，并不是很懂音乐，还是外行。好了，话题出来了，担任领导工作的人要尽量使自己成为内行，不要仅仅靠权力去领导，要靠学识去领导。这个话题是不是出来了?好了，上百人的乐队大家想一想看，是不是得有一个队长吧?这个队长为什么没有发现南郭先生那个声音吹得那么难听?好了，用人不当，这个话题是不是又找出来了?领导干部要把人放到适合他的位置上去，让他充分发挥作用，尤其不要让那种不大负责任的人去负责某项工作。这个话题是不是又出来了?用人不当，不是说用南郭先生。你这个队长不行，又有新话题了，比方说，从乐队的其他竽手那儿能不能找到话题?也能找到，他南郭先生身边的人是不是能听出南郭先生吹得不怎么样?好了，为什么不揭发?“报告队长，这位南郭同志不怎么样，混事呢。”不揭发，混下去了，好了，老好人要不得，是吧?又有话题来了。我们需要的就是这个，要向多向去想去，去联想。这个材料里边能看出这个来，能看出那个来，你能看出来，看到一个新的，你这个作文绝对有新意了。但是同学们有的时候缺乏这个，从新角度去考虑。

第三个问题叫做不要端着金饭碗讨饭。有好多同学手里端着金饭碗，这个金饭碗多值钱，但是他却讨饭：“老爷爷给点吧，太太给点吧。”你那么富有。这里说的富有是什么?许多同学手里有理，没有自觉地想到用。“老师，怎么说理呀?我不会，我哪来那么多理?”其实你手中理有的是。因此，怎么改变端着金饭碗讨饭的现象?建议你把你手头掌握的理，梳梳辫子，整理整理看看你有哪些方面的理，到考场上根据需要你来用。下面，举几个例子来说说，你手头有哪些理。

比方量变和质变的理，内因和外因的理，原因和结果的理，现象和本质的理，目的和手段的理……你们手头掌握这么多理，梳理梳理，把它梳成辫子。到考场上，讲这个事的时候，要说个什么理，讲那个事的时候我要讲个什么理，哪几种理可以用上。

下面是语文迷小编为大家整理提供的英语写作技巧以及关联词，供大家阅读参考。

英语写作技巧之一：用介词短语替代从句，例：

原句：While they were playing tennis, she started an argument that lasted all morning.

修改后：During tennis she started an argument that lasted all morning.

原句：When you come to the second traffic light, turn right.

修改后：At the second traffic light turn left.

英语写作技巧之二：删除诸如"who is”或"that is"之类的关系代词，变从句为短语，例：

句：The novel, which is written in three parts, told a story that took place in the Middle Ages.

修改后：The three-part novel told a story set in the Middle Ages.

注：把句中的"three parts"改用形容词来表达，节省了四个不必要的单词"which is written in"。我们经常可以将关系代词如"that"去掉，这只会引起最少的变动。

英语写作技巧之三：剔除你不需要的单词，例：

Two joint partners will present their views over a long-distance telephone call.

写完这样的句子后，你自己再读一遍，挑出单词"joint"和"telephone"，注意删去不必要的词。

关联词的积累

1.提出观点不要只用I think，要学会用：

As far as I am concerned

In my opinion

From my point of view

From my perspective

The way I see it

2.转折不要只用but， 要多用：

However,

nevertheless, nonetheless,

Whereas

Some people like fat meat, whereas other people hate it.

转折也可用比喻：as a coin has two sides(就象硬币有两面一样), …(陈述转折内容)

3.表递进的：

In addition, in addition to, additionally,

what is more, moreover, furthermore,

more importantly，

what is worse (更槽糕的是)

4.表示“事实上”：

In fact,

as a matter of fact,

actually

5.表总结：

in conclusion, as a result,

all in all 总而言之

In short,

In a word, 一句话讲

Taking into consideration,

Taking into account all the factors that I have mentioned above, it is safe to draw a conclusion that …

6.表示因此：

Consequently,

Hence,

Therefore,

Thus,

as a result,

resultingly

7.表因为：

because of

due to,

owing to,

thanks to,

as a result of,

8.虽然

Although, even though, even if, though

Proud as these nobles are, …

As flattered as I am, I would say no.

In spite of, despite

I love you in spite of that.

9.比较：

In comparison with,

compared to,

compared with

She’s nothing compared to you.

10.表最后：

Finally,

eventually,

in the end,

at last,

ultimately,

11.表示程度的副词词组亦非常重要，会使文章看起来比较成熟、辨证：

To some extent 在某种程度上讲

To some degree 在某种程度上讲

To a large part 在很大程度上说

In a sense 在某种意义上讲

In general, generally 大体上说

Generally speaking 一般地讲

In some cases 在有些情况下

Basically 基本上

Broadly speaking 宽泛地讲

12.其他(要尽可能多用在文章中。始终牢记内容次要，而语言形式第一位。内容服务于形式)：

Not only, but also

Neither nor, either or

Instead of, instead

For example, for instance (替换使用), take … for example

Be likely to

Be able to

Speaking of, when it comes to …

When it comes to food, he is really picky.

In terms of 根据

First of all, second of all

Above all,

Significantly,

The more, the more

对于高考我们要很早就有准备，下面是小编整理的高考作文“5段”写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

第1段150字左右：写出中心论点，首选单句形式，且是判断句或肯定句。绝对不用复句(复句容易走题，影响得分)，点出写作的由头，作文题中含有的提示性文字材料，一定要有所涉及。

第2段200字左右：段首讲述分论点一，如第一节的内容是几个分论点的简单组合，则“分论点一”适宜放在段尾。这样和分论点二、分论点三的位置区别开来，使行文有变化。“分论点一”论证不许举例，采用纯分析的说理论据展开。

第3段200字左右：段首讲述分论点二，采用举例论证，首选作文题提示中的例子来分析论证，同时也可辅助一个自己举的例子，自己举的例子要比前例文字少。如没有作文题提示中的例子，则自己举个典型的例子来分析论证，同样要求叙写例子的文字一定要比分析论证的文字少。否则对文体特征会产生重创，影响得分。

第4段200字左右：段首讲述分论点三。采用联系实际举例。这是写作本文的时代意义所在。联系的实际可以是学习、生活、社会任何一个方面，目的是或提高思想认识，或明确是非正邪，或提出解决的方法途径，或揭示某种疑难迷惑，总之要给人以启发。

第5段150字左右：要再现中心论点，扣住中心论点写出作用、意义、号召、展望等。

写作技法，是一个在写作实践中不断地被创生出来，并永远被创生下去，没有止境的东西。小编收集了初中生高分作文的写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

一、写作技法的重要性

如果说，“好人出在嘴上，好马出在腿上”，那么我说：好记叙文就出在写作的技法上。写作方法犹如刀上的刃，刃上的钢一样，直接决定着记叙文品质的优劣。忽视写作技法，文章是徒具形体的行尸走肉;充分运用写作技法，就会把文章妆扮得清秀美丽。可以说：一切优秀的记叙文，都是大量使用写作技法的记叙文;极多写作效果较差的记叙文，主因归结在忽视使用写作技法上。

写作技法既然如此重要，那么，写作技法到底有哪些呢?

二、写作技法有哪些

写作技法多得数不胜数，浩如烟海。如果哪个老师说：“同学们，我现在把所有的写作技法都归纳整理给你们”，那只能说明这个老师知识的浅薄而绝不是渊博。因为，写作技法源于在写作实践中，对成功案例，所做的规律性的提炼总结。它与人们在生产劳动实践中摸索劳动技巧相类似。所以说，写作技法，是一个在写作实践中不断地被创生出来，并永远被创生下去，没有止境的东西。在写作技法的大海里，我们只有不断地去探寻、去发现、去认识、去整理、去积累，并谨慎地说，我已经掌握了沧海中的一粟或一桶或一湾水域，但绝不能狂妄地说已掌握了它的全部。

我这样说，只是想让同学们明确：我下面讲的，仅是初中生记叙文写作中，常见并常用的一些写作技法，它仅是整个写作技法中冰山的一角，而不是全部。更多的写作技法，还需要靠同学们自己在阅读大量的文学作品中去探寻，去积累。

(一)修辞手法：比喻、拟人、拟物、排比、夸张、引用、反问、设问、反复、顶真、双关、反语、借代、对偶、对比、仿词、移用等。

(二)表达方式：1、记叙：顺叙、倒叙、插叙、补叙等。2、描写：景物(环境)、场面、间接(侧面)、直接(正面)、特写、动作(行为)、语言、心理、外貌(肖像)、神情等。3、说明。4、议论。5、抒情：直接、间接。

(三)选择句式：陈述句、肯定句、判断句、否定句、双重否定句、疑问句、设问句、反问句、感叹句、祈使句、选择句、排比句、对偶(对仗)句、顶真句、回环句、连动句、整散句、长短句、独词句等。

(四)篇章结构：时间推移式、空间转换式、景物更迭式、串糖葫芦式、起承转合式、线索引导式、一波三折式、思想意识式、逐层推进式、由远及近式、总分总式、悬念式、对照式、套娃式、顶真式、填充式、分列式、插叙式、倒叙式、释疑式、见闻式、引子、题记、附记、后记等。

(五)推敲运用新颖、灵动、精准的动词，恰当使用形象、生动、传神、富有表现力的修饰语。

(六)其他的基础写作技法：开门见山、首尾呼应、卒章显志、先抑后扬、托物言志、点面结合、融情于景、情景交融、虚实相生、以古讽今、以小见大、动静相衬、对比烘托、人称变换、摩拟语气、言近旨远、兴波澜、转动法、剥笋法、拟人法、拟物法、五觉法、详略法、矛盾句、哲理句、中心句、警句、伏笔、线索、过渡、照应、设悬、象征、隐意、升华、点睛、类比、回环、通感、文眼、注释、联想、想像、物品自诉法、动物自诉法、远眺近看法、彩笔描绘法、特征举例法、实验证明法、季节变换法、日内变换法、现场目击法、成长变化法、赞美颂扬法、群体描写法、言已尽意无穷等。

另外，还有异彩纷呈、新颖别致的开头和结尾的众多写作技法，限于翻陈出新太多太快，虽列举些许皮毛，终免不了顾此失彼，举一斑而失全豹，道一足而全象尽失，也就不再罗列了。

三、怎样使用技法

了解一些基础的写作技法，只算完成了一步;如何适当使用这些写作技法，是我们要走好的另一步。走好这一步尤其迫切而关键。

(一)不能无目的地滥用。

初学写作的人，知道了运用写作技法的重要性，并掌握了一些写作技法，就开始在文章中大量地运用了。虽说是无法不成文嘛，这也不是什么坏事;何况，学生能从不去用，到有意识地大量地使用，这本身也是一个巨大的进步，是可喜可贺的事。但作为指导教师来说，发现了问题还是要说问题的。

出现的问题是：一些初始习作的中学生，为了最大限度地追求采用写作技法的效应，就出现了写作技法无目的滥用的情况。表现是：在文章该略写处，也运用大量的写作技法去藻饰、染色，这样，的确是增强了表现力和感染力，增强了生动、形象、传神性，也增强了文采，可惜的是挥拳打错了地方，射箭脱离了靶子。

我们知道，写文章该详处一定要详，该略处也是一定要略的。否则，把该略的写详了，就会出现主旨不明朗，废话有的是，宣宾夺主，不知所云的弊病。要纠正这个弊病，就要求，运用写作技法也一定要注意写作的目的性，一切是为表现中心思想服务，切不可把宜略处写具体详细了。

(二)要用得自然，少一些刻意雕琢之痕。

俗话说：万法皆归自然;历尽沧桑而归淡泊;大智若愚，大勇若钝。这里面包含一个至理：反璞归真。也就是说，道的最高境界是平淡、自然。写作方法的运用就是这样，追求的最高境界应该是：看似平易实则内蕴其法，千山万壑皆敛于平淡自然之中。

晏殊的“无可奈何花落去，似曾相识燕归来”，之所以成为名句，主要原因之一是：看似信手拈来，实则对仗工整。王维的“大漠孤烟直，长河落日圆”脍炙人口，也是由于这两句语言浅易，看似平白无奇，实则意象阔大，内蕴至丰。我也曾拜读过一些语言大师(如叶圣陶、吕淑湘、俞敏等人)的手笔，发现他们存在一个共性，那就是：追求平易、自然。〔注1〕

写作方法要用得巧、用得妙、用得自然、用得浑然天成。而应尽量避免刻意的斧刻雕琢之痕，尽量避免牵强附会，以免产生惺惺作态的令人生厌的反效果。

(三)要善于综合混用，而不必非此即彼，孤立使用。

优美的语句文段，通常都是综合混用了写作技法的。这就像做菜一样：几种菜杂烩在一起，再辅以油、盐、各种调料，做出来后，要远比清炖单一菜的味道好得多。写作技法不必单一孤立使用，而要综合混用，道理就在于此了。〔注2〕

初学习作的中学生，要注意，不必把写作技法孤立地使用，而可以尽量地综合混用它们。

(四)不要墨守成规，宥于定式，提倡有新意。

“文无定法”，没有谁规定文章必须怎样写，而不能怎样写;也没有谁规定写作技法必须这样用，而不能那样用。运用写作技法决不必墨守成规、宥于定式，完全可以不拘一格〔注3〕。老套熟套可以做借鉴用，但不可以做限定用。能有创意，才有新意。

(五)再好，终究是别人的;最好，是自己的。

再好的写作技法，终究是踏着前人的足迹亦步亦趋，这样纵是捷径，终是踩在了巨人的肩上眺望。把我们目光投注到深远，将来我们中学生中的某个人或某些人，若能在文学之路上走向高峰，则我殷切地期望，你能在文学领域，开创出一片全新的天地。再好，终究是别人的;最好，是自己的。我期望你能最终跳下巨人的肩膀，自己做个巨人。

一. 心理

古人云，不战而屈人之兵，很大程度上取决于心理因素。随着四六级考试改革的深入，会有，更新，更难的题目，包括作文题目出现，这样就要求我们有处惊不变的能力。即使是出现某种没有预料到的题型，考生也应该及时调整心态、从容不迫地应答。事实上，历史经验证明：题目要求越是高，难度越是大，考生的发挥余地也就越大。挑战和机遇是成正相关的。

二. 评分

知己知彼，百战不怠。熟悉老师的评分习惯，对于考生正常、甚至是超常发挥自身水平也十分有益。正常情况下，阅卷老师要领会贯彻考试规定的评分原则，依照文章的结构和语言水平进行评分。然而，除此以外，有“两个基本点”我们也需要给予足够的重视——闪光点和语法点。在一篇出类拔萃的范文中，我们往往可以看到像提问法、谚语总结法、从句、并列句、理由段公式、理由词汇、路线句型、插入语、名词化、和被动语态等等闪光点;而在一篇低分例文中，基本的语言错误则多得数不胜数。

三. 休息

考试迫在眉睫时，同学们往往容易进入一种临考状态。这种状态比较突出的表现是夜不能寐。尤其是在专业课和全国四六级考试纷至沓来的时候，很多同学更是发扬连续作战的精神，通宵达旦，头悬梁、锥刺骨。其实这对于像四六级考试这样的高强度考试而言是有百害而无一益的。道理很简单，四六级考试对于一个学生来说，不仅是一次英语水平的综合测试，也是一种意志力、甚至是体力的考验。没有良好的休息作为后盾，考生很难笑到最后。所以，保证充足的睡眠是最基本也是首要的应试技巧。

四. 营养

无庸置疑，营养的摄入在最后关头也是异常重要的一环。在保证充分睡眠的同时，食物是另一个“工夫在诗外”的客观因素。尤其是参加四级考试的同学，早餐一定要定时定量，不可或缺。一般来说，类似奶酪苏这样的奶制品外加一杯热牛奶或者热巧克力已经足以提供整个半天考试所需的热量，当然，这也因人而异。有些体质虚弱的同学也可以考虑服用一些如西洋参、鸡精这样的营养品。不过，安眠药等有副作用的药物一定要慎用，否则过犹不及。

五. 审题

磨刀不误砍柴工。在落笔前花两三分钟时间进行构思，既有利于理清行文思路、也避免了差之毫厘、失之千里的遗憾。尤其是在应对图表类作文时，我们更是要看清图表，牢牢把握各个数据的变化和相互关系，才能够下笔。否则张冠李戴，即使文章本身再不同凡响、语惊四座，也只会竹篮打水、甚至起到适得其反的效果。

六. 卷面

对于像作文这样的主观题而言，考生与阅卷老师从来就犹如搏弈，无形中彼此互动、相互影响。一个考生可以做的，首先是通过卷面给阅卷老师下意识地传达个人信息。用笔的颜色(深蓝色使人心情放松愉快)、粗细(粗线条给人以安全感)，整齐划一的格式(段首或一律顶格或一律空两格)，明了的段落感(每段空一行)，清晰的字数感(一行以十字为宜)，工整的字迹都会给任何阅读者留下深刻的正面印象，从而使考生先发制人、取得先机。

七. 结构

有始有终、首尾照应，是任何一篇好文章的基本标准之一，也是两大评分原则之一。如果说广大考生已经给第一段以足够重视的话，那么是不是大多数考生都意识到了理由段的条理和最后一段的呼应在全文中所具有的不可忽视的地位了呢?其实，要写好理由段，我们只需要注意表示启承转合的衔接词即可。而要写好结尾，最好的方法莫过于温故而知新，回顾第一段的大致内容了。

八. 表达

言之无文，行而不远。语言作为评分原则中的基本要素之一，在四六级作文评分的整个过程中具有决定性作用。有评分老师甚至断言：“It is not what you say, it is the way that you say it.”(重要的并不在于考生写了些什么，而在于考生是怎么表达的。)虽然这种说法本身似乎有失偏颇，可是参加过国际标准化英语考试的同学应该也听说过那么一句话，叫做：“Give the monkey exactly what he wants.”(给阅卷老师最想要的。)，不是吗?譬如同样是描述数据，一些同学拘泥于图表本身，动辄按部就班地引用图表上现成的数字和年代，其实这都是图表作文的忌讳。聪明的同学引而不用，他们常喜欢用倍数、分数、小数、百分比、或者一些动词(double / triple / quadruple)来表现极端数据，动态数据以及他们的相异之处。

九. 检查

行百里者半九十。一篇成功的作文少不了反复推敲、一再修改。然而，由于考试时间和条件等诸多因素的限制，考生绝对需要慎重对待作文的检查和修改。这里，我不得不提考生检查作文时的三大“通病”，即，数字数、孤芳自赏、和做结构与内容上的修改。我们必须明确：考试作文的润色和修改只需要达到三个目的即可：1. 拼写正确，看文章中是否有汉字、多余符号、糊乱涂改、划线、和错别字;2. 搭配正确;和3. 语法正确，特别是人称、时态、和单复数的三一致。

鲁迅先生说过，世界上本没有路，走的人多了也就成了路。我们要善于在学习实践中发现、总结和运用规律，这样才能够在复习迎考的过程中事半功倍，百尺竿头、更进一步。路漫漫其修远兮，愿以此文抛砖引玉。

一、审题

我们拿到作文后第一件要做的事就是审题。审题的作用在于使你写作不跑题(如果跑题，条理和语言再好，也得不到及格分，甚至0分。)那末审题要审什麽呢?

1.体裁(议论文，说明文，描述文)

审题就是要审作文的题材和体裁。因为什末样的体裁就会用什末样的题材去写。那末体裁包括那些呢?它包括议论文，说明文和描述文。从近些年看，四级作文不是单一的体裁，而是几种体裁的杂合体。例如： Directions: For this part ,your are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topicTrying to Be A Good University Student .You should write at least 100 words and you shouldbase your composition on the outline (given in Chinese ) below :

1.做合格大学生的必要性

2.做合格大学生的必备条件(可以从德智体方面谈)

3.我计划这样做

很多人说这种类型的作文是议论文。这是片面的，因为，第一段要求写"...必要性"，这说明本段体裁是议论文;第二段要求写"

...必备条件"，这说明本段要求写说明文;儿地三段要求写"...这样做"，这说明本段要求写描述文。所以在大多数情形下，四级作文是三种体裁的杂合体。

2.根据不同体裁确定写作方法

我们审题的目的就是根据不同体裁确定不同的写作方法。通过审题，我们可以看出四级作文大都是三段式。如上例第一段为议论体，第二段为说明体，地三段为描述体。而各种文体又不同的写作方式： 议论文;要有论点和论据，而且往往从正反两方面来论述。例如上面第一段的思路是：做合格大学生，会怎末样(这是从正面论述);不能做合格的大学生，会怎末样(从反面论述);所以我们要做合格的大学生(结了论)。

说明文：可以从几方面或几条来说明一个问题，就上作文而言，可以从方面(德智体)来说明合格大学生的必要性。

描述文：一"人"为中心描述一个"做"的过程。与上两段相比，本段的主语多为人称代词，他要与第二段相互应进行描述。 二 确定主题句

通过审题，我们知道该如何确定正确的写作思路。下边我们就谈如何些。第一部就是要写主题句。主题句是确保不跑题的前提，只有不跑题才有可得及格分。写主题句嘴保险的方法就是把中文提纲的各句译成英语。例如上述三段主题句分别为：

1.It is very necessary to be a good university student . (议论体的主题句)

2.There are several respects of necessities to be a good university student .(说明体的主题句)

3.What I will do in the future is the following .(描述体主题句)

如果要求句是英语就可以把它变成主题句，例如这样一篇作文：

Good Health

1.Importance of good health

2.Ways to keep fit

3.My own practice

这样的作文的要求句就可以扩充成主题句。扩充后三段的主题句分别为：

1.It is very important to have good health .(将名词 importance变成形容词important)

2.There are four ways to keep fit for me .(用 there be 句型)

3.My own practices are the following .(采用原词)

二、条理清楚

保证不跑提示写作当中第一任务，第二个重要任务就是要做到条理清楚。对于议论文来说，正反面要清楚，对于说明文来说条理要清楚，对于描述文来说，谁干什么要清楚。就拿上例Good health 来说，第一段保持正反面要清楚救应这样写：正面(With good health ,we can...)，反面(Without good health ,we cando nothing .We cant do...)

为了使文章更具有条理性，我们可以用first(ly) second(ly) third(ly)等副词，他们可以是文章的条例性更加突出。作文是主观题，想得告分就必须引起老师的主意，老师的时间很短(每篇作文只有一两分钟就要阅完)，所以我们在列调试最好不用: To be with,... after that ,...And then, ... The next , ... Thefollowing , ... As last ... 。因为用这样的词语不利于老师看出你作文的条理性。

三、保证作文符合字数要求的十二句作文法

考生一般都希望作文达到字数而又不至于写得太多，因为写得太多一方面暴露自己语言上的弱点，另一方面又会占用过多的时间。写得太多还易跑题，一个有效的方法就是十二句作文法。

我们知道，四级作文都是三段式。我们算一下，如果我们在每一段中写上四句，即主题句加两三句扩展句和一个结论句就可以了。这样全片在十二句左右，每一句十多个词，就又120-150个字。大家可以试图找一些作文题练一练。

说明文可分为事物说明文和事理说明文。下面是小编整理了说明文的写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

说明文，即用来解释或说明事物、理论、方法、过程或某种抽象概念的文章。说明文的基本目的就是说清楚。也就是说，要让人看了文章后对文章中解释或说明的对象有清晰明确的认识。这就决定了说明文的基本特征是客观和科学。

说明文首要的一点是明确说明的 对象，然后用准确的语言，结合多种说明手法对之进行介绍和描述。常用的说明手法有下定义、分类别、作比较、引资料、举例子、列数字、画图表等。下定义，即给要说明的对象下一个明确的定义。如博物馆的定义就是征集、保藏、陈列和研究代表自然和人类的实物,并为公众提供知识、教育和欣赏的文化教育机构。分类别是将要说明的对象按照某种标准划分类别，以帮助读者对事物的理解。如电视机，可以分为彩色电视机和黑白电视机。作比较，即将这种事物与那种事物比较异同，从而更清楚地说明事物的特点。如将城市和乡村作比较，将大学和幼儿园作比较等。作比较的时候一定要注意比较的事物之间应当具有可比性，不能生拉硬扯，也不能不尊重客观事实，胡乱比较。为了说明某种事物的特点，有时候需要介绍它的背景、原理、历史等，这时就要用到引资料这种手法。比如我们要对长城进行说明，适当地引用一些历史文献，就更有助于今天的人们了解长城的历史，从而加深对长城中所蕴含的民族精神的认识。在复杂说明文中，列图表具有不可替代的优势。大量的数据、冗长的叙述、复杂的相互关系等，都可以通过图表得到直观的表达。

按说明的对象不同，说明文可分为事物说明文和事理说明文。前者着重在于说明的成因、构造、形状、用途等，后者则重在说明事理。这两类说明文常用的写作手法也有一定的区别。比如事物说明文重在说明事物的物理特征，常用的是下定义、分类别等说明手法，事理说明文重在说明事物的逻辑特征，地要用到引资料、作比较等说明手法。但时候，在同一篇文章中，几种说明手法都要用到，相辅相成，互为补充。

如何使说明文物理并重、形神兼备的呢?首要的一点是观察。说明文写作的前提是对要说明的事物非常熟悉。要做到这一点，就要养成认真观察、深入了解的习惯：

观察要有针对性。要带着问题观察，而不是走马观花、浮光掠影。最好能在观察前列出观察提纲，观察时要记笔记、画图标。要善于提出问题。

观察时要分清主次。这就要求我们注意观察的顺序。观察有概括性观察和特写性观察之分。前一种方法有助于抓住事物的概貌，后者则利于把握观察对象的细节和特征。由概括到特写、由全局到局部，是观察的一般原理。

观察重在事物的形。要想传神，写出事物的内涵、原理等，则需要有很好的查阅资料、作调查的能力。比如我们要写一篇文章来说明洛阳牡丹。在写好它的形状、颜色、品种之外，如果能够考察一下洛阳牡丹的来历、其中的牡丹名品在培育中的科学原理，这篇文章就会有说服力，使读者更深刻地认识到洛阳牡丹的文化特色。这就要求我们具备相当的知识积累、广阔的知识面和优秀的调查能力。作为小，应当从小注重积累知识和调查能力的训练。比如通过剪报、记笔记、上图书馆和阅览室等途径来有意识地训练自己。

写作说明文还要注意说明的顺序。有合理的顺序，文章才能条理清晰，让人看得明白。说明顺序一般有三种，即空间顺序、时间顺序、逻辑顺序。间顺序一般有从上到下、从左到右、从前到后、从远到近等。时间顺序一般有从古到今、从过去到现在等。 逻辑顺序有从现象到本质、从原因到结果、从主要到次要、从整体到部分、从概括到具体等。什么是合理的顺序呢?这要根据人们认识事物的过程以及说明对象本身的特征、规律而定。说明事物的形状、构造等，往往以空间为顺序;说明事物的成因、方法，往往以时间为顺序;说明事物的事理，往往以逻辑关系为顺序。

当然，大多数说明文会综合使用多种说明顺序。因此，在写作时，我们要合理地安排好说明顺序，理清说明文的结构层次。常用的结构层次有并列式、层进式和总分式三种。比如我们以“水”为题目进行写作，可以先写水的外形特征，再写水的分类，然后写水的用途，这是并列式的写作层次。我们也可以先写水的外形，再写水的成因，最后写水给人类带来的利与害，这是层进式的结构层次。先概括水的用途和特征，再一一细述，就是总分式。结构层次能力需发们在长期的写作过程中培养，现在就不一一细说了。

一、审题思维——概念的形成过程

“概念是形式逻辑思维的细胞。”其最主要的特点就是高度概括地反映对象的特征或本质属性的思维形式，它要求人脑对感性材料进行加工制作，逐渐产生认识过程的突变。

在议论文写作中，题目即是概念。具体分为两种情况：一是命题作文(包括半命题作文);二是材料作文(包括看图作文)。

在命题作文中，概念已明确给出，要求考查学生对概念的理解能力。学生对概念的理解水平总是与他们对事物本质属性的认识相联系的。因此，要使学生对概念理解的深刻、丰富、系统，必然要培育他们形式逻辑思维中的抽象、概括、比较等能力，这样才能提高他们对事物本质属性的认识能力。

具体要做到以下三点：A、概念要明确。概念明确，才能正常和有效地表达自己的思想，写出的文章才能清楚明白，否则，文不对题，令人不知所云。B、要准确把握概念的内涵和外延。在议论文写作中，概念的内涵就是题目的含义：概念的外延就是指题目的适用范围。只有明确灵活地界定题目在特定语境的内涵和外延，才能抓住事物的本质，论证才更有说服力。C、弄清概念间的关系、不少议论文题目使由两个或两个以上的概念组成的，这时就要弄清楚这几个概念之间是相容关系还是不相容关系。如《独木与森林》、《高分=高质量》这两个题目就是不相容关系。对于相容关系的题目来说，我们就要着重挖掘它们之间的逻辑因果关系，而对于不相容关系的题目，我们就要着重选好立足点，肯定一个，否定一个，态度要鲜明，不能模棱两可。

在材料作文中，首先我们要充分理解材料，透过材料的表象抓其实质，由此及彼，由表及里，由现象到本质，由感性具体走向思维抽象，从而形成一个总领性的概念，是一个提炼概念的过程。这个过程中的主体思维即是形式逻辑思维，其中必须要采用分析、综合、比较、分类、抽象、概括等方法。

具体要做到以下三点：A、整体把握材料，抓住材料的关键词和关键句子，分清主次。如果学生能抓住材料的关键词语和句子，那么学生就容易理解和吃透材料的中心及其蕴含的意义，这样，形成的概念才会准确无误。B、善于化具体为抽象，不能把目光总是停留在材料的表面，要力求通过综合、比较、抽象、概括等方法力求从感性上升到理性，从特殊中归纳出一般规律来。C、善于运用多种思维去思考材料，力求选取一个新颖、富有时代性的角度。

二、立意与拟题思维——运用概念构成判断的过程

把概念弄清楚之后，便要确定中心和想出一个恰当的题目了。本文将立意放在拟题之前，是因为在具体的写作过程中是先确定了中心才能准确拟好题目的，它们同属于运用概念构成判断的过程。

“判断是人们思维活动的中间环节。”人们在认识客观事物的基础上，脑子中形成概念，而要对事物进行肯定或否定，就要运用概念进行判断。议论文要求运用正确的观点，按照准确的思维过程，准确无误地进行分析说理，推理论证，因此，在写作过程中必须高度重视判断，否则立意错误、拟题不当就是离题，全盘皆输。

判断分为简单判断、复合判断和模态判断三种。在议论文的立意和拟题过程中，应该明确要运用哪种判断进行推理。

简单判断就是本身不包含其他判断的判断。它又分为两种情况：一种是性质判断，例如现在社会上许多人昧着良心做坏事，我们意识到良心很重要，于是便得出做事情不要把良心丢了这一判断，就可以拟《“良心”不可废》这样的题目;再一种就是关系判断，如《“洋”未必“奴”》这个题目，在它形成之前，作者一定想过：“洋”与“奴”的关系，经过反复思考，得出“洋”与“奴”是不相容关系的判断，于是便拟出了这个题目。

复合判断就是一种在其自身这包含了其他判断的判断。其包括三种情况：一是假言判断，例如当意识到多说无益，得出“语言如果能够产生采访，那么夸夸其谈的人就会成为最富有的人了”这个判断之时，就可以拟出《动口不如动手》这样的题目;二是选言判断，“近墨者黑”是一句流传很久的古谚，但是也有不少是洁身自好的人，那么就形成了“近墨者黑”和“近墨者未必黑”这两个判断，其中

必须选出一个作为自己的论点，这样，也就有了《近墨者黑》、《近墨者未必黑》这两个题目;三是联合判断，我们知道，全面发展的学生才是好学生，于是得出“作为一名学生，既要学好科学文化知识，也要具备良好的道德情操和强健的体魄”这个判断，题目《论“三好”》也就出来了。

模态判断是指判定事物的必然性或可能性的判断。例如，现在人们纷纷出来批判应试教育，提倡素质教育，得出了“应试教育只能培养出高分低能的人才”这样的判断时，便可以拟出《高分与低能》这个题目。

三、选材思维——推理之前的酝酿过程

题目和中心出来之后，接下来就要为论证收集材料，也就是运用概念构成判断之后进入了推理的酝酿阶段。形式逻辑思维在这个阶段同样占据着重要作用。

“材料是表现观点的支柱。”材料选好了，写出来的文章才具有较强的说服力，否则，就像冬天的枯树，空空洞洞，引不起读者的兴趣，达不到教育人、感染人、启迪人的目的。所以，必须高度重视推理的这个酝酿过程。

首先，议论文的选材必须紧紧围绕中心、主旨，分清主要材料和次要材料。凡适合表现主题的材料就采用，不适合表现主题的，尽管材料新鲜、具体、生动，也一定要忍痛割爱，这样才能做到主题鲜明突出。例如，魏巍的《谁是最可爱的人》，当初作者写《自豪吧，祖国》的通讯时，文中用了20多个不能说不生动的例子，给周围的人看了看，感到不好，后来，经过认真推敲，删去了不少，只剩下我们今天见到的三个例子。细究这三个事例的好处，就不难发现，这三个事例已起到了原先20多个事例的作用。

其次，要运用分析、综合、比较、分类等形式逻辑思维，通过加工、提炼、筛选等方法，力求使所选材料具有准确性、真实性、典型性、时代性、新颖性、例如，鲁光写《中国姑娘》，所用的全部是第一手的材料，他所追求的准确真实使他的这篇文章写得感人。又如罗兴平写的《高度重视世界观、人生观问题》一文中，选取了孔繁森和王宝森作比较。他们都是共产党员，又是同龄人，都曾处在党的重要领导岗位上，但他们一个万世流芳，重如泰山，一个轻如鸿毛，为后世唾骂，对比鲜明。他所追求的典型性使得文章有非常强的说服力。再如，谈人才问题，自唐韩愈以来，人们往往强调的只是“伯乐”的作用，而叶永烈的《首先要做马》一文，突破了他人的思维定势，提出了“首先要做马”的全新观点，立意新颖，角度独特，又具有时代性，因此获得极大成功。

四、结构思维——推理的构筑过程是形式逻辑思维的细胞。

材料准备充足，接下来就是如何组织和安排这些材料，也就是安排文章的结构。结构是推理过程的骨架，是作者思路的反映，也就是文章内部的组织与构造。议论文结构主要包括层次、段落的安排，观念、材料的联系、起笔、收束的确定，叙议、详略的处理。这一切都十分强调逻辑性，要求结构合理、完整、严谨。

议论文需要提出问题，分析问题，解决问题，它是依靠立论点，摆论据并通过论证而结构篇章的，其中必然要运用逻辑推理。形式逻辑中的推理即由一个或几个判断推出另一个判断，它所根据的判断叫“前提”，它所推出的判断叫“结论”。在议论文写作中，结构需要由一系列的判断层层堆砌而成，由一个或几个判断构成的前提推出结论，再以这些结论为前提提出新的结论，如此层层推进，便构筑了文章的骨架。构筑结构主要是运用演绎推理、归纳推理、类别推理，这三个推理笔者将在表述思维中相信论述，在这里先放着不谈。

五、表述思维——推理的具体运行过程

材料和结构都处理号令，接下来就进入关键的阶段——把脑子里酝酿的东西用书面语言表述出来。在写作过程中，运用语言进行表述必须遵循一定的思维规律，这在议论文写作中尤其突出。议论文的表述其实就是形式逻辑思维中推理的具体运行过程。议论文写得是否严密，语言是否准确，行文是否流畅，就是推理是否成功的表现，与一个人的形式逻辑思维有密切的联系。例如，毛泽东在《为人民服务》一文中对张思德同志的死的评价就运用了推理的方式：“人固有一死，或重于泰山，或轻于鸿毛，为人民利益而死，就比泰山还重••••••张思德同志是为人民利益而死的，他的死是比泰山还要重的。”这段话整理成一个推理就是：为人民利益而死的比泰山还重;张思德同志是为人民利益而死的;所以他的死是比泰山还要重的。毛泽东同志运用推理进行论证，使文章言简意赅，令人信服的说明道理，证明观点，收到了理想的说理效果。

在议论文写作过程中，如果推理缜密，文章则逻辑性强：推理混乱，则不知所云;思路清晰，则层次分明;思路不畅，则滞涩生硬。因此，要求学生的表达言之有序，实际上使要求对学生形式逻辑思维能力的培育。学生的表达能做到井井有条，序列清晰，说明他们的形式逻辑思维达到一定的水平。

推理具体可以分成三种，即演绎推理、归纳推理合类比推理。在议论文写作过程中，这三种推理各有各的优势，可以运用其中的一种进行论述，也可以把两种或三种结合起来运用，看具体的文章内容而定。

演绎推理是指由一般性的前提推出特殊的结论的推理。例如，不进行改革开放，国家的经济发展就会缓慢，国家就难以富强;我们要尽快发展经济，使我们的国家富强起来，所以，我们必须改革开放。

这是一个典型的演绎推理过程。在议论文教学中，可以通过演绎推理的教学，让学生先能够从论点出发找出一般性的原来依据(如经典性的言论、公认的原则、公理、格言等)，再以所确定的原理为前提进行演绎推理，推出所要证明的论点即为结论。

归纳推理是由特殊性(或个别性)的前提推出一般性的结论的推理。如毛泽东同志在《一切反动派都是纸老虎》一文中这样写道：“一切所以号称强大的反动派统统不过都是纸老虎。原因是他们脱离了人民。你看，希特勒是不是纸老虎?希特勒不是被打倒了吗?我也谈到沙皇是纸老虎，中国皇帝是纸老虎，日本帝国主义是纸老虎，你看，都倒了，”这段话就是一个典型的归纳推理，由希特勒、沙皇、中国皇帝、日本帝国主义等几个具体前提推出一个普通性的结论：一切反动派都是纸老虎。在议论文教学中，可以通过归纳推理的教学，让学生先能够从论点出发找出典型事例的依据，再能以这些事例为前提进行归纳推理，推出所要证明的论点即为结论。

类别推理是根据两个(或两类)事物某些属性的相同，而推知这两个事物的另一些属性也相同的一种特定的推理形式。如我们在写文章时，常常先举一个例子，分析它具有某种性质，接着，常用“由此类推”之类的词语，分析与该例子类似的某种事物也具有相同的性质，这就是运用了类比推理。在议论文教学中，可以通过类别提炼的教学，让学生先能够找出与所论证的事物相类似的另一事物，然后进行类别推理，推出所要证明的论点即为结论。

推理能力的强弱，直接关系到议论文说理是否透彻，分析是否具体，论证是否严密，文章是否更具有逻辑性和说服力。因此，推理能力在议论文写作中至关重要。

六、修改思维——整个逻辑思维的反思过程

“文章皆为客观事物的反映”，客观事物以其本身固有的复杂性，不能一下子为写作主体所认识清楚把握全面。文字表述又以其灵活多样性，也不能一下子就能选择恰当。因此，文章只有经过严密的修改，进行结构的重新条理、文字的润饰才能使之更加完整，更加精粹，其目的在于追求思维的深化与表述的完善，而表述的完善正源于思维的深化。叶圣陶显示讲：“修改文章不是什么雕虫小技，其实是修改思维，要它想得更正确，更完美。”[7]议论文的修改，应是检查整个形式逻辑思维的严密性，要从概念到判断再到推理各个环节反复推敲，查补漏洞，不能出现违反形式逻辑思维四个基本规律的情况。

一是应遵循同一律，避免偷换论点。同一律是指人们在对客观事物进行思维时，每一思维都有其确定性，都必须保持同一。也就是说在同一色瓦过程中，既不能前后不一致，随意改变，转移论题，也不能在使用概念时，概念的含义和使用范围前后不一致，混淆或偷换概念。在议论文 写作过程中，必须保持思想的一致性，只有这样，论证才能紧扣中心论点，不至于出现离题、偏题的现象。例如，把“勤奋是成才的决定因素”论证成“勤奋是成功的决定因素”，把“做热爱集体的模范”论证成“做热爱祖国的模范”，把“祸患常积于忽微”论证成“知识也在于积累”等等都是由偷换概念而转移论题，违反了思维的同一律。

二是应遵循矛盾律，防止不攻自破。矛盾律是指人们在同一思维过程中，对两个反对或矛盾的判断不能通道号承认它们都是真的，其中至少有一个是假的。如果违反了矛盾律的要求，就会出现思维上的前后不一，自相矛盾。例如，有人说：“这些指标，我们基本上完全达到了”。这句话就存在自相矛盾之处，原因是在一句话中，同时运用了两个互相矛盾的判断，即“基本上达到”和“完全达到”。

“基本上达到”就不是“完全达到”，两者必有一假。

三是应遵循排中律，不能模棱两可。排中律是指人们在同一思维过程中，对两个矛盾的判断不能同时都承认它是假的，其中必有一个是真的。如果违背了排中律，就肯出现模棱两可、无所适从的情况。

例如，毛泽东在《在延安文艺座谈会上的讲话》中谈到歌颂与不歌颂的问题时，就运用了排中律，他说：“你是资产阶级文艺家，你就不歌颂无产阶级而歌颂资产阶级;你是无产阶级文艺家，你就不歌颂资产阶级而歌颂无产阶级和劳动人民：二者必居其一。

四是应遵循充足理由律，克服论证不充分。充足理由律是指人们在思维过程中，确定任何一个判断是真实的，都必须有充足的理由。充分摆事实、讲道理是议论文写作的基本要求，也是议论文具有说服力的条件，只有充分分析说理，才能以理服人。“横看成岭侧成峰，远近高低各不同”，看山如此，看人、看事、看问题更是如此，只有把各个方面的道理都分析透了，各种理由都阐述够了，客观事物的真实与否才会明白，文章中的观点才能让人接受，写出来的文章也才能帮助人们提高思想认识，能帮助人们正确地从事客观实践，发挥文章的教育作用。

通过审题、立意、拟题、选材、结构、表述、修改等运用概念和判断进行推理的过程，也就构成了一个完整的形式逻辑思维运行的过程。所以，要提高学生的议论文写作能力，关键是加强学生的形式逻辑思维训练，必须把形式逻辑思维训练放到日常教学上来抓。具体要做到以下三点：

(1)把形式逻辑思维立论贯穿到世界训练中。对学生来讲，逻辑学的只是比较艰深，而且也比较枯燥，直接灌输大多的理论可能会适得其反，束缚了学生思维的发展，也使学生失去了兴趣，所以要从学生的实际出发，在实际训练中深入浅出地锻炼学生的形式逻辑思维。例如，可以把概念的训练与词语的训练相结合，把判断的训练与句子的训练相结合，把推理的训练与论证方法的训练相结合。

(2)逐步把形象思维过渡到形式逻辑思维。在日常训练中，应先把概念和判断这两项训练搞好，其中应着重训练好抽象力和概括力，因为只有学好抽象和概括，具体形象才能上升为抽象的概念和判断，才能运用概念和判断进行推理。同时还应引导学生多从因果联系上分析问题，因为由结果到原因的探求过程，就是一个对事物的现象作本质分析的过程，其中贯穿着思维的分析和综合、抽象和概括，也贯穿着运用概念和判断进行推理。

(3)在课文讲解中注重形式逻辑思维训练。教师在讲解议论文课文时，可以先确定每一课所要训练的思维目标，有目的地引导学生思考作者的写作思路，理清文章句段篇之间的逻辑关系，提炼思维线索。同时还可借助还原思维训练，每讲完一篇议论文时，要求学生将整篇课文的思维训练回顾一番，总结一遍，让学生更加清楚地审视整个思维过程。通过这样潜移默化的训练，学生就能渐渐掌握形式逻辑思维规律，从而提高形式逻辑思维能力。

时刻注意“的、地、得”的用法，这是语言的硬功夫，不能懈怠和马虎。平时形成好习惯，考试时不要出错。

注意句子的完整性。一般来说，一句话有主语谓语宾语等，这句话基本就结束了，这时就要用句号了。假如句子之间是同一类，可适当用分号。不能一逗到底。结尾或者合适的地方，可用感叹号、省略号等。标点符号要规矩，也要丰富。

语言的精彩有奥妙。一是语言的华丽和词汇的丰富。二是比喻修辞的运用，比喻和排比，是最通用的方法。记住，不要干巴巴地讲述，注意引用点古诗词、修辞等等。

小学和初中作文考试，就按记叙文准备。开头结尾要准备好几套方法，什么类型用什么开头，你用什么方法比较拿手，考试前一两天，尤其是头天晚上，默记一下。准备结尾，要背好一两个结尾的语言类型，可以有排比、比喻或者反问。实在不行，就用做梦式结尾法。

写记叙文，无非是亲情、诚信、善良、爱心等等，记住，实现要准备好各种类型的，发生在自己生活中的，典型的事例，到时候写进去。考场上临时想，很难想出动人心的事例来。

一般来说，试卷上的空格，比要求的字数要多一些。争取写满而不溢出。最理想的字数是就留下一两行的空格。

作文一定要注意卷面的整洁，一笔一划地把字写好。要养成好习惯，只要拿笔，就要写出端正的字来。在写字的时候，最好在格子上方留下点空隙，使每行之间，显得清晰。

必须学会5分钟内列提纲，要面对卷面的格子，想好哪个段写什么，写到卷面的什么位置。列提纲的时候，开头和结尾必须想详细，最好事先写出来。

开头结尾，不要很长。开头几句话就接近中心思想，三四行结束开头，不要弄大头作文。结尾是抒情或者归纳主题，语言优美，三四行结束，不要弄大尾巴结尾。注意，不要出现大肚子作文。

写记叙文，要想好叙事的层次，按时间或者按地点，或者按故事发生的节奏，一个层次一段。注意，假如某一段需要详细些，文字比较多，注意分段，死拉硬拽也要分段，不要一段超过七八行。如果写议论文，开头论点提出后，接下来的每段都是论证过程，一个论据就是一段。结尾可变相重复论点，稍微抒情。

导语：When there is no hope there can be no endeavour.下面是yuwenmi小编为还在备考的同学整理的优秀英语素材，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

Actions speak louder than words.

事实胜於雄辩。

Adversity leads to prosperity.

逆境迎向昌盛。

A fall into the pit, a gain in your wit.

吃一堑，长一智。

A friend in need is a friend indeed.

患难朋友才是真朋友。

A friend is a second self.

朋友是另一个我。

A friend is best found in adversity.

患难见真友。

All time is no time when it is past.

光阴一去不复返。

All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy; all play and no work makes Jack a mere boy.

只工作，不玩耍，聪明孩子要变傻;尽玩耍，不学习，聪明孩子没出息。

A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman.

远亲不如近邻。

An idle youth, a needy age.

少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲。

Business before pleasure.

事业在先，享乐在後。

Diligence is near success.

勤奋近乎成功。

Diligence is the mother of good luck.

刻苦是成功之母。

Diligence is the mother of success.

勤奋是成功之母。

Education has for its object the formation of character.

教育的目的在於培养品德。

Every brave man is a man of his word.

勇敢的人都是信守诺言的人。

Every man is the architect of his own fortune.

每个人都是他自己命运的建诛师。

Every man is the master of his own fortune.

每个人都是他自己的命运的主宰。

Failure is the mother of success.

失败是成功之母。

Faith will move mountains.

精诚所至，金石为开。

Friendship ---- one soul in two bodies.

友谊是两人一条心。

Grasp all, lose all.

贪多必失。

He alone is poor who does not possess knowledge.

没有知识，才是贫穷。

Health is above wealth.

健康胜於财富。

Health is better than wealth.

健康胜於财富。

He who does not advance falls backward.

不进则退。

Honesty is the best policy.

诚实是上策。

Hope is life and life is hope.

希望才有人生，人生要有希望。

Idle young, needy old.

少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲。

If you dont aim high you will never hit high.

不立大志，难攀高峰。

I might say that success is won by three things: first, effort; second, more effort; third, still more effort.

成功之道唯三点∶努力、努力、再努力。

Improve your time and your time will improve you.

珍惜时间，时间才会珍惜你。

In doing we learn.

行而知。

Industry if fortunes right hand, and frugality her left.

勤勉是幸福的右手，节俭是幸福的左手。

In lifes earnest battle they only prevail, who daily march onward and never say fail.

在人生的搏斗中，只有日日前进不甘失败的人，才能获胜。

It is dogged does it.

天下无难事，只怕有心人。

Judge not according to the appearance.

不要以貌取人。

Labour is often the father of pleasure.

勤劳常为快乐之源。

Learning without thought is labour lost; thought without learning is perilous.

学而不思则罔，思而不学则殆。

Like tree, like fruit.

有其因必有其果。

Manners make the man.

礼貌造就人。

Never neglect an opportunity for improvement.

抓住大好时机，切莫等闲错过。

Never too old to learn.

学到老，学不了。

No great loss without some small gain.

塞翁失马，安知非福。

No one can call back yesterday.

往日不复返。

No sooner said than done.

言而必行。

No sweet without some sweat.

不劳则无获。

Nothing is difficult to a man who wills.

世上无难事，只怕有心人。

Nothing is impossible to willing mind .

有志者事竟成。

Nothing is impossible to the man who will try.

天下无难事，只怕不努力。

Nothing is really beautiful but truth.

只有真理才是真美。

No time like the present.

只争朝夕。

One cannot put back the clock.

光阴一去不复返。

Overdone is worse than undone.

过犹不及。

Paddle your own canoe.

自立更生，自食其力。

Perseverance is vital to success.

不屈不挠是成功之本。

Second thoughts are best.

三思而行，再思可也。

Selt-trust is the essence of heroism.

自信是英雄的本色。

Self-trust is the first secret of success.

自信是成功的首要秘诀。

Success belongs to the persevering.

坚持到底必获胜利。坚持就是胜利。

Success grows out of struggles to overcome difficulties.

成功来自於克服困难的斗争。

The first element of success is the determination to succeed.

成功的首要因素是要有成功的决心。

The more a man knows, the less he knows he knows.

懂得越多，就越知道自己懂得不多。

Union is strength.

团结就是力量。

Virtue is a jewel of great price.

美德是无价之宝。

Waste of time is the most extravagant and costly of all expenses.

浪费时间是一切花费中最奢侈豪华的费用。

When there is no hope there can be no endeavour.

没有希望就不会努力。

Without a friend the world is a wilderness.

没有朋友，世界就等於一片荒野。

You cannot judge a tree by its bark.

人不可貌相。

新闻，是指通过报纸、电台、广播、电视台、互联网等媒体途径所传播信息的一种称谓。小编收集了新闻稿件的写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

一、培养新闻触角和新闻敏感，善于发现新闻线索，是写好第一篇新闻稿的意思准备

同是大学生记者，共同生活在同一个环境里，也都到实践中去了，到学生中去了，为什么有的记者能写出漂亮的新闻作品，而有的记者仍然发现不了新闻线索，或者说发现不了有意义的新闻线索呢?为什么有的学生记者通讯员总是埋怨没有什么东西可写，而一再要求编辑老师为他们提供采访的话题，说到底这就是一个新闻敏感的问题。

什么叫新闻敏感或新闻触角呢?简言之，它就是新闻工作者识别新闻的敏锐能力。一个具有新闻价值的事情，别人不能看出它是新闻，而你却一下就能识别它是新闻，这就是新闻敏感。没有一定的新闻触角和新闻敏感，就很难写出一篇像样的新闻稿。美国新闻学家卡斯柏.约斯特在《新闻学原理》一书中的一段话，形象的阐述了新闻敏感对于记者的重要性。他说：“一个不善于辨别色彩的人，不能成为一个画家;一个不懂得和谐的人，不能成为一个音乐家;一个没有‘新闻敏感’的人，也不能成为一个新闻记者。”(1)培养新闻触角和新闻敏感，善于发现新闻线索，就能够当事情还在“风起于清萍之末”时，就敏感地察觉到它，并预见它的去向，从而比较得心应手地写出一篇新闻稿。

当然，新闻敏感不是与生俱来的，而是记者在采访实践中不断培养训练获得的。在大学生记者群中，不乏这样的人，他们刚开始成为一名学生记者，通讯员的时候，由于都是刚刚从中学来到大学，不用说缺乏新闻触角和新闻敏感，就是基本的新闻知识也不具备。但是，他们经过一段时间的新闻工作实践，刻苦学习，勤奋笔耕，终于成为了一名有一定新闻敏感和写作能力的校园记者。二、积累新闻素材，选好新闻题材，找准新闻角度，是写好第一篇新闻稿的前提。

人民艺术家老舍曾经对初学写作的年轻人说过：“先收集材料，越多越好。”周立波也认为“材料少了不好办。”有个外国记者说：“你要有作为吗?*8小时写稿不行，要做24小时的记者。”这些都说明积累素材对写作的重要意义。作为一个初学写作的大学生记者，更应该重视积累新闻素材。新闻素材是进入记者视野并被记者所意识，所采摘的生活现象，即从社会生活摄取而来的、尚未通过提炼和加工的原始材料。没有新闻材料的积累过程，就谈不上新闻写作的问题，作为记者，要积累新闻素材，必须重视自己的“笔记本”。法国作家果戈里便有一个近五百页的笔记本，他总爱把自己每时每刻看到的、听到的传闻趣事、警句谚语随时记到这个笔记本上。他说：“一个作家。应该象画家一样，身上经常带着铅笔和纸张。一位画家如果虚度了一天，没有画成一张画稿，那很不好。一个作家如果虚度了一天。没有记下一条思想，一个特点，也很不好。”每一个大学生记者，要写好一篇新闻稿，就必须养成随得随记的习惯，把在校园内看到的一切与师生相关、有可能产生新闻的素材积累起来。一个校报记者在几年的采访过程中积累起来的“笔记本”，将成为他从事新闻写作和研究工作的“万宝囊”。

角度，是新闻写作向自然科学借用来的一个概念。报道的角度，是记者认识被报道对象的思想方法及对被报道对象各“侧面”把握水平的综合反映的结果。它在一定程度上能说明记者处理采访的素材、挖掘材料的新闻价值的流程。大量散漫在笔记本上和记忆中的材料，如何进入新闻的既成轨道中呢?找出它之所以构成为新闻的特殊由头，就为记者进入材料的世界打开了一个突破口，开启了一扇大门;同时，找出最便于读者接受的角度，实质上是对材料的归纳和梳理，并对读者认识、接受事实起到了一个“导读”的作用。

要写好一篇新闻稿，可以注重这样几个角度：

第二、特色角度，有些节日的庆祝活动每年都大同小异，但我们如果找准了该年活动的特色内容进行报道，就能写出有价值的新闻。

分享或讨论以及反映相关话题，请到论坛讨论

第三、读者角度，要注意研究同全校师生的物质生活和精神生活竟紧密相连、普遍关心的问题，选择发生在师生学习、生活中的“小事”，以小见大，才能增强新闻的吸引力。作为一个大学生记者，只要经常深入到同学们的教室、寝室、图书馆、运动场，注意观察他们的学习和生活状况，了解他们的意见和要求，从他们的意见和要求，从他们最关心、最想知道的内容入手，才能写出有意义的新闻。

第四、时间和空间角度。有些新闻事实，在不同的时期、不同的空间其重要的程度也会发生一定的变化。有的事实发生在去年算不了新闻，但发生在今年却要算新闻了;有的事实发生在a学院算不了新闻而发生在b学院却又算新闻了;有的事件和话题，在一定时期内迫切需要解决，对实际工作能起推动作用;有的问题在一定时期内成为师生关注的焦点。

三、掌握新闻写作的一般技巧，提炼新闻主题，是写好第一篇新闻稿的关键

大学生记者要写好一篇新闻稿件，就必须掌握各种新闻体裁写作的一般技巧。如果是学写第一篇新闻稿，至少要做到以下几点：

第一、基本掌握标题的制作技巧。标题是文章的眼睛，一篇新闻稿若有一条新颖别致的标题，就能象磁石那样牢牢地吸引编辑和读者的注意力。

第二、学会写导语。导语是消息的开头，是消息中最有价值的部分。国外新闻界有人称导语是“抓心的手”这就是极言导语吸引作用的。没有好的导语，就算不上成功的新闻稿。

第三、基本熟悉各种新闻体裁的写法和结构。不熟悉各种新闻体裁的基本写法，就无法比较得心应手地进行新闻写作。而谋篇布局的好坏在一定程度上决定新闻稿件在受众和编辑眼中的“身价”

第四、理解和掌握新闻写作的基本方法——用事实说话。摆事实，用事实说话，这是新闻独特魅力所在，也是新闻事业不可代替的价值所在。初学新闻的大学生记者往往用自己的主观评价和臆断代替大量的重要的新闻事实，使写出的新闻或空洞无物，或言不及义

而孕育新闻主题，则是提高新闻稿价值的应有之义。新闻主题是一篇报道的主旨，我们写任何东西，都要有一个明确的目的，到底要表现什么、反映什么，若是心中无数，势必信笔涂鸦，不知所云。如果要反映记者对生活现象和社会问题的基本态度和看法，使写出的新闻报道吸引人、鼓舞人、引导人、就必须注重提炼新闻主题。清代的袁枚对“主题思想”的问题讲的精彩。他把漂亮的句子比做一大堆铜钱，古代的铜钱外圆内方，可以用绳子穿起来，一串铜钱叫“一贯”，袁枚认为，文章的主题就好比是穿钱的绳子，要是没有一个明确的主题思想来统帅你的文字，那你写的东西就像撒满一地的铜钱，不能派上用场。如获得1986年全国高校校报好消息一等奖的《小郎和日本姑娘喜结良

缘》(3)，如果作者只是轻描淡写地描述去婚姻本身，而不是站在“为中日友谊写下了新篇章”、日本姑娘向往中国、追求自我存在价值的高度，就不会使这篇消息给人以启迪和教育，也就成不了一篇好消息。

新闻主题是整篇报道的灵魂，它隐藏于新闻素材之中，一旦我们把它发掘出来，它就会统领全篇，成为整篇报道的中心内容。我们要站在时代和社会的高度，坚持实事求是、不落俗套、贴近生活、读者至上等原则，运用追根究底法、对比联系法、见微知著法等方法，提炼和深化新闻主题。

四、虚心请教，大胆投稿是写好第一篇新闻稿的必要过程

请教的时间，可以贯穿到新闻采访写作的全过程。如何培养新闻敏感，寻找新闻线索可以请教;如何拟订采访提纲、选好新闻题材、提炼和表现新闻主题可以请教;如何使写出来的新闻更加符合新闻写作的要求，更加精彩，更应该虚心向学长、师长请教。

一篇新闻概写好后，还得大胆投稿。有的初学新闻的学生记者，或者认为自己的作品羞于出手，即使写好了，也不敢或不愿寄出去，或者总是过分要求稿子的质量，一而在，再而三的修改，结果错过了报道的时机。其实，由于校园存在范围小、易于捕捉、头绪少等特点，如果不抢时间积极投稿，就会让别人抢得先机，即使你写得再好，也只能算作又一次练笔了。

当然，大胆投稿不是盲目投稿。如果没有任何目的，打的是无准备之仗，再好的稿子也可能石沉大海。因此，作为一个大学生记者，一定要认真研究传播媒介，研究它的版式结构、专栏设置、报道风格、出版或播出周期甚至编辑部的人员构成、编辑姓名及联系电话等。是邮寄的，还要弄清楚通讯地址，保证所投稿件万无一失地寄到编辑部。这样一来，就可以在写稿之前，针对传播媒介的特点，引导自己的创作思路和方法，对写作内容和形式作出必要的限制;在新闻稿写好之后也能够有的放矢地投递到报纸等媒体的相应版面、专栏及编辑手中，从而大大增强新闻稿见报几率或播出几率。

总之，作为初学新闻的大学生记者，如何写好第一篇新闻稿是十分关键的，也不是轻而易举的事情。大学生记者只有勇于实践，大胆尝试，深入采访，勤奋笔耕，不断提高新闻采访写作的技巧，才能写出更多更好的新闻作品。

书写求职信的技巧：

1.表现自我的个性及特质——建议使用积极正面的陈述方式。

2.文章不可冗长——控制在总共四段、每段五行以内。

3.前瞻性的气魄——具有勇于突破与开创气质的人是外商公司的最爱。因此并不需要对之前辞职的原委做太多的解释。

4.少用第一人称——为了避免流于自大与主观的缺点，尽量少用第一人称。

求职信中的主要内容：

第一、说明你从何处得知这个工作机会

这是最基本的部份。一般来说会将媒体广告的名称改用别的字体书写或用底线加以标记。

第二、自己的学历、工作经历。

这是为了补充简历介绍的缺点，更具体的介绍自己的特点、能力。

第三、自己的工作能力能够胜任这份工作

这里要重点写，自己可以根据求才广告的内容，将自己的能力及特点体现出来。但不要太过吹嘘，这样到面试时一样会被否认掉。

第四、最后的感谢语

在最后的一段要写对公司或面试官的感谢语，体现你的真诚与修养。让面试官和招聘公司对你留下好的印象。，自荐信写作方法

现在许多的小学生对作文的写作觉得很困难，以下是下面整理的小学生作文的写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

1、第一人称叙事法

【特点】由于文章的内容是通过“我”传达给读者，表示文章中所写的都是叙述人的亲眼所见，亲耳所闻，或者就是叙述者本人的亲身经历，使读者得到一种亲切真实的感觉。采用第一人称，由于叙述人是当事人，所以叙述的人与事，只能是“我”活动范围内的人物和事件。活动范围以外的人物和事情就不能写进去。

2、第三人称叙事法

【特点】用第三人称叙事，叙述人既不受空间、时间的限制，也不受生理、心理的限制，可以直接把文章中的人和事展现在读者面前，能自由灵活地反映社会生活。但第三人称叙事又往往不如第一人称叙事那么亲切自然。

3、顺叙法

【特点】顺叙是按时间的先后顺序来叙述事情，这就跟事情发生发展的实际情况相一致，所以易于把文章写得条理清楚，脉络分明。运用顺叙，要注意剪裁得当，重点突出。否则，容易出现罗列现象，犯平铺直叙的毛病，像一本流水帐，使人读了索然无味。

4、倒叙法

【特点】倒叙并不是把整个事件都倒过来叙述，而是除了把某个部分提前外，其他仍是顺叙的方法。采用倒叙的情况一般有三种：一是为了表现文章中心思想的需要，把最能表现中心思想的部分提到前面，加以突出;二是为了使文章结构富于变化，避免平铺直叙;三是为了表现效果的需要，使文章曲折有致，造成悬念，引人入胜。倒叙时要交代清楚起点。倒叙与顺叙的转换处，要有明显的界限，还要有必要的文字过渡，做到自然衔接。特别要注意，不要无目的地颠来倒去，反反复复，使文章的眉目不清。

5、插叙法

【特点】插叙是为了表达文章中心的需要。有时是为了帮助读者了解故事情节的追叙;有时是对出场人物的情节作注释、说明。使用插叙一定要服从表达中心思想的需要，做到不节外生枝，不喧宾夺主。在插入叙述的时候，还要注意文章的过渡、照应和衔接，不能有断裂的痕迹。

6、补叙法

【特点】补叙主要用于对上文的叙述补充说明，一般是片断性的、简要的，不具备完整的事件，也可以把解释或说明的文字放有前面，以引起下文。补叙的作用，一般不发展情节、事件，只对原来的叙述起丰富、补充作用。

7、分叙法

【特点】分叙的作用是把头绪纷繁、错综复杂的事情，写得眉目清楚，不条不紊。分叙可以先叙一件，再叙另一件，也可以几件事情进行交叉地叙述。采用分叙时要根据文章内容和表达中心思想的需要确立叙述的线索，还要交代清楚每一事件发生和发展的时间。

8、详叙法

9、略叙法

【特点】略叙的作用是在于交代事件发生发展过程中不可缺少但又不必详叙的内容。它与详叙相结合，便整个叙述有详有略，疏密相间，形成叙述的起伏。略叙一般用于文章的开头和结尾;与中心思想关系一般的部分;人所共知的部分。

10、直接抒情法

【特点】直接抒情可以使感情表达得朴实真切，震动人心。直接抒情一般适用于抒发强烈而紧张的感情。直接抒情的特点是叙述时感情强烈，节奏时快、紧张，情感直露，容易把握。

三、启、承、转、合

为了避免文章的平铺直叙，我们提倡做文章要讲究启、承、转、合。当然“启承转合”的提法过于陈旧，对初学作文的人来说是有益处的。

在小学语文课本中，有一篇阅读课文叫《捉鱼》，作者就大胆地运用了这一技巧。我们现在可以回忆一下这篇课文：

1?两个孩子提着小胶桶去河沟里捉鱼。(启)

2?他们开始清沟，已见到许多活蹦乱跳的鱼。(承)

3?这时发现一头牛正在吃庄稼。是捉鱼还是去赶牛呢?(转)

4?放弃了捉鱼，去赶牛，尽管没捉着，但他们为别人做了一件好事。(合)

从上看来，牛吃庄稼与捉鱼没有必然的联系，但通过取之舍之反映了青少年一代的美好内心世界和高尚品德。

当然我们作文，也不是浮躁，一口吃个胖子，一锄头挖口井都是不现实的，因此，我们要想作文有一个提高，其一要注意观察周围事物的变化，紧抓事物的特征;其二要有一定的原始积累，多搜集一些写作素材;其三要多练习，养成动脑和动手的习惯;其四感情要到位，只有这样，我们的作文就有一个很大的提高。

写事作文注意什么

在我们日常生活中，有许多事都是我们亲身经历、亲眼所见、亲耳所闻，而且大多是普普通通，平平常常的小事，如何把这些小事作为材料来写或作文呢?请注意以下几点：

⒈如果根据题目的要求选定了某件事，你就要对这件事进行认真的回忆，并仔细琢磨，反复思考，挖掘出这件事中含有的生活道理，或找出它闪光的地方。

⒉要交代清楚时间、地点、人物、事件，让读者明白文章写的是什么人，在什么时候，什么地方发生了怎样的事。

⒊必须把事情发生的环境写清楚。因为任何事情总是在一定的环境中发生、发展的。环境写好了，写出特点来，还能渲染气氛，表达感情，使文章更生动。

⒋一般要按事情发展顺序，把一件事的起因、经过、结果写清楚，不能颠三倒四，还应把事情的前因后果，来龙去脉写清楚。

⒌记事中要围绕中心，抓住重点，不要面面俱到。重点部分(一般指事情发展高潮处)要详写，写具体，写详尽，给读者以深刻的印象。

⒍写事离不开写人，同此在记事过程中，一定要把人物的语言、神态、动作、心理活动等写细致，写逼真，这样才能表达出人物的思想品质，才能更好地表达这件事所包含的意义，即文章的中心思想。

☆定语和状语（时间、地点等）都属于附加成分，在基本句型中一般都不列出。

☆时态包含于句子中，任何句子都有时态。

1主语＋谓语(不及物动词)：S+V

It will rain tomorrow.

He often runs in the morning.

They cried.

Tom exercises every day.

2主语＋谓语(及物动词)＋宾语：S+V+O

I miss my mother very much.

She wants to go home now.

The English club is going to hold an English party.

They all love her.

3主语＋系动词＋表语：S+V+P

The music sounds wonderful.

The leaves have turned red.

She is a student.

We keep silent about that.

4主语＋谓语(及物动词)＋间接宾语（人）＋直接宾语（物）：S+V+IO+DO

The teacher gave a book to him.=The teacher gave him a book.

They told me an interesting story.

The waitress offered me a bottle of wine.

My father will buy me a bike.=My father will buy a bike for me.

Miss Smith teaches us English.

5主语＋谓语(及物动词)＋宾语＋宾语补足语：                                      S+V+O+C

They call me Xiao Wang.

I saw him swimming in the river.

We elected him monitor of the class.

写人，可以直接写头发、画眼睛，使其栩栩如生，这叫直接描写;还可以通过间接的方法写人，如通过第三者的转述介绍某人，通过描写第三者来反衬某人，以写景状物来烘托某人等等。根据描写人物的详略，轻重、着墨的浓淡，我们还可以将人物描写归纳为白描、漫画式勾勒、浓墨重彩细描等等。

一、白描

文字简练单纯，不加渲染烘托。它没有浓烈色彩的描写，不借助比喻、比拟等修辞手法，也不用或少用形容词，依然描写出事物的形象。如：

“其时进来的是一个黑瘦的先生，八字须，戴着眼镜，挟着一叠大大小小的书。”(鲁迅《藤野先生》)

寥寥数语，就活化出一位生活俭朴、治学严谨的学者形象。

二、漫画式勾勒

即以夸张的手法、揶揄的口吻，将人物勾画成奇形怪状、荒诞陆离的形象，以表达嘲笑、憎恶、同情等思想感情。如：

“他倘若低头看，断然是看不到自己的脚尖的，中间隆起的那个部位，会把视线挡住。稀稀拉拉的花白头发，整齐地朝后梳拢着，蘸了水，没有一根错乱的。白皙皙的脸上，看不见一条皱纹，像刚出锅的馒头。由于胖，鼻子、眼睛就显得特别小;由于小，就显得格外精采有神。”(王润滋《卖蟹》)

通过描写，塑造出“过滤嘴”的形象：老而胖，整洁考究，富态优裕，高人一等。在描写中渗透着作者的嘲笑。

三、浓墨重彩细描

即以生动、形象、传神的语言，多方位、多层次、多角度，细致全面地去刻画人物形象。如：

“……坐在南首的是一个瘦瘦的，五十上下的中国人;穿一件牙黄的长衫，嘴里咬着一支烟嘴，跟着那火光的一亮一亮，腾起一阵一阵烟雾。”

“他的面孔黄里带白，瘦得叫人担心，好像大病新愈的人，但是精神很好，没有一点颓唐的样子，头发约莫一寸长，显然好久没剪了，却一根一根精神抖擞地直竖着。胡须很打眼，好像浓墨写的隶体‘一’字。”

“黄里带白的脸，瘦得让人担心，头上直竖着寸把长的头发;牙黄羽纱的长衫;隶体‘一’字似的胡须;左手里捏着的一支黄色烟嘴，安烟的一头已经熏黑了。”(阿累《一面》)

这三处，作者通过全面而细致的描写，刻画出处于艰苦条件下的鲁迅的精神面貌，一位“越老越顽强”的伟大战士的形象，即赫然屹立在我们的面前。

人物描写的方法是很多的，每种方法各有千秋，同学们可以根据写作的需要，灵活地加以运用。

[关于人物写作的技巧

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

1)主语从句

It is common knowledge that honesty is the best policy。

It is well-known that…

It is self-evident/ conceivable / obvious / apparent that…

It goes without saying that… It is universally acknowledged that…

It is / that

2)宾(表)语从句

We cannot understand why he was so cruel to his roommates。

The problem is not who will go, but who will stay。

3)定语从句(限定性和非限定性)

As is shown/ demonstrated/ illustrated/ depicted/ described…in the cartoon/ picture/ graph/ table…,

There are many reasons why I want to study in your university。

It is estimated that tens of billions of pounds is spent on cigarettes every year in our country, which is a huge waste。

4)状语从句(时间，原因，地点，条件，让步，转折等)

When the man is enjoying the cigarette, the smoke becomes a monster (怪物) which will devour him。

Whatever the reason, there are still some problems with student use of computers。

5)分词短语做定语或状语

Prof. Kang came to our university, giving us a lecture on how to acquire English better。

6)倒装句

Only through these measures can we hope to solve the problem。

Scattered around the globe are more than 100 small regions of isolated volcanic activity known to geologists as hot spots。

7)被动句

Some measures should be taken to deal with the problem。

He is said to have accomplished a lot of great deeds。

Many people believe that…(It is believed that…)

8)设问句

Do you still remember the boy who cried wolf for several times so no one would trust him?

9)比较

1.The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages。

2.The advantages of A are much greater than those of B。

3.A may be preferable to B, but A suffers from the disadvantages that.。。

4.It is reasonable to maintain that ...but it would be foolish to claim that.。。

5.For all the disadvantages, it has its compensating advantages。

6.Like anything else, it has its faults。

7.A and B has several points in common。

8.A bears some resemblances to B。

9.However, the same is not applicable to B。

10. A and B differ in several ways。

11. Evidently, it has both negative and positive effects。

12. People used to think ..., but things are different now。

13. The same is true of B。

14. Wondering as A is ,it has its drawbacks。

15. It is true that A ... , but the chief faults (obvious defects )are .。。

10)原因

1.A number of factors are accountable for this situation。

A number of factors might contribute to (lead to )(account for ) the phenomenon(problem)。

2. The answer to this problem involves many factors。

3. The phenomenon mainly stems from the fact that.。。

4. The factors that contribute to this

5. The change in ...largely results from the fact that.。。

6. We may blame ...,but the real causes are.。。

7. Part of the explanations for it is that .。。

8. One of the most common factors (causes ) is that .。。

9. Another contributing factor (cause ) is .。。

10. Perhaps the primary factor is that …

11. But the fundamental cause is that .。。

英语作文如何才能得高分呢?以下几种手段是增加句子复杂性的常见方法,也是得高分的“亮点”。

1. 改变句子的开头方式,不是一味地都是主语开头,接着是谓语、宾语,最后再加一个状语。可以把状语置于句首,或用分词作状语等。试比较:

(原文) My brother and I went to the cinema by bicycle the other day.

(修正) The other day my brother and I went to the cinema by bicycle.

(原文) The young man couldn’t help crying when he heard the bad news.

(修正) Hearing the bad news, the young man couldn’t help crying.

2. 在整篇文章中,避免只使用一两个句式,要灵活运用诸如强调句、主从复合句、分词短语、倒装句、省略句等。例如:

(1)强调句

(原文) The dog has saved my little sister bravely.

(修正) It is the dog that has saved my little sister bravely.

(2)主从复合句

(原文) We had to stand there to catch the offender.

(修正) What we had to do was to stand there, trying to catch the offender.

(3)分词短语、由with或without引导的短语

(原文) The driver escaped and didn’t stop, he left the old man lying on the road.

(修正) The driver escaped without stopping, leaving the old man lying on the road.

(4)倒装句

(原文) I went to bed at 11:30.

(修正) Not until 11:30 did I go to bed.

(5)省略句

(原文) While you are crossing the street, you should be careful.

(修正) While crossing the street, you should be careful.

3. 通过分句和合句,增强句子的连贯性和表现力。例如:

(原文) He stopped us an hour ago. He made us catch the next offender.

(修正) He stopped us half an hour ago and made us catch the next offender.

(原文) We had a short rest. Then we began to play happily. We sang and danced.

(修正) After a short rest, we had great fun singing and dancing.

4. 注意连接词与句子的运用。

以2001年高考作文为例,在信的开头,可加上“You want to know something about what is going on in schools in China?”这句话起承上启下的作用,使文章过渡自然;再如,用“What was worse?”引出减负前,晚上还要做作业,就寝时间11:30等要点。又如,“Now I have more free time...” 可引出减负后的情况。另外,在信的结尾,可用“How about you? I’m looking forward to hearing from you.”来自然地结束这封信。

5. 使用过渡词语。

写好了每个句子,并不一定就是一篇好文章,因为作为一篇文章,还必须行文连贯。那么,如何使文章行文连贯呢?这就要求我们在组成篇章时,要用好过渡性词语,过渡性词语就像是我们组装机械时使用的润滑剂一样,起着润滑的作用。常用的过渡词语主要有:

并列递进:and, also, as well as, besides, what’s more, furthermore, moreover, etc.

转折:but, yet, however, although, nevertheless, in spite of, after all, etc.

因果:because, as, for, since, for this reason, because of, so, therefore, thus, as a result, etc.

对比:or, otherwise, like, unlike, on the contrary, while, on the other hand, instead of, etc.

总结:in all, in brief, on the whole, in short, in general, in one word, etc.

总之,要使文章的层次高,可读性强,考生应增加些较高级的词汇与复杂的结构,并运用恰当的连接词和复合句,只有这样,才能在考试中取得理想的成绩。

高中语文考试作文占的比重是最大的，如何提高自己的写作能力呢?今天小编告诉大家。

【如何写好记叙文】

写事文章：是以事件为主要记叙描写的对象的记叙文，以揭示事件的实质及其对人、对社会所具 有的意义为目的的;这类文章，事是重点，虽然少不了写到人和环境景物，但人物和环境景物的描写只能围绕着事，服从于事或依附于事。它的明显特点是：注重把事件、情节的过程具体地表现出来，文章的着眼点在事情的过程上;不着力去刻画人物，也无中心人物;文章的中心思想着重表现事件的思想意义，而不是着重表现主人公的思想品德。

写人文章：就是以人为写作对象，通过记叙人物的具体活动，来表现人物特点、性格、道德品质、精神风貌及思想感情为目的的。记人的记叙文离不开事件，但写事的记叙文和记人的记叙文写事着眼点和思路不完全一样。记人的记叙文着眼在人，以人为主，文中写的一件事或几件事都是为表现人的思想性格服务的，写事情并不要求完整、细致，只拣有助于表现人物有关的事写。写人的文章的中心思想着重在表现主人公的思想品德。 要想写好写人的作文，必须学会以下几个方面的技巧、方法。

一、抓住特点 。

有的同学爱学习、有的同学爱帮助别人，有的同学爱做小手工，有的同学爱吃零食，等等。这“爱学习”“爱帮助别人”“爱做小手工”“爱吃零食”就是这些人的主要特点。写人的作文就是要抓住这些特点，通过特点反映出这个人是什么样的人，有什么样的思想品质，等等。这些特点抓得越准确，事例写得越具体，给读者留下的印象就越深刻。如《胆小的我》，就是抓住了“我”胆小的事，写出了“我”胆小的性格特点。

二、选好事例 。

写人的文章，也要写事例，通过一个或几个事例来表现出这个人的特点(最好用两、三件事来写一个人)。选择事例时，要选那些能打动人、影响人、感染人，给人印象深刻的事例，也就是要选择典型、新颖的事例。作文时，你第一个想到的事例不要用，第二个想到的事例也不要用，第三个甚至是第四、第五个想到的事例，你用在作文中一般容易吸引人、给人留下深刻的印象。这是因为你容易想到，别人也容易想到，大家都把这样的事写在作文中，作文就成了人云亦云的“大路货”，得不到高分或老师的好评。所选的事例要能充分表现人物的性格和品质。当你读完《爱哭的妹妹》及《胆小的我》后，你对这位“妹妹”和“我”就有了深刻的印象了，作文就成功了。

三、运用描写。

要想把人物写得栩栩如生、活灵活现，就要运用动作、语言、心理、神态、肖像等多种描写方法。如《胆小的我》中“吓得我大叫一声，赶忙把眼睛蒙住，心‘怦怦’地跳个不停。”这句动作描写，把“我”胆小的性格写得惟妙惟肖。描写要符合人物的年龄、身份和职业。对同一个事物，一个中学生说的话肯定同大学教授说的话不一样。具体来解说一下：

1.肖像。对描写对象的外貌，包括面容、神态、身材、服饰乃至举手投足、或哭或笑进行刻画。这种刻画应该是有选择的，而不是一股脑儿往上堆。好的肖像描写着墨不必多，甚至只有一两个词，就能起到画龙点睛的作用。要防止人物的“脸谱化”，关键是要抓住人物特征，通过外貌描写既给其形又传其神。同时，肖像描写还应注意符合并反映出人物的出身、地位、经历和人物的性别、年龄、职业等特点。

2.语言。人物的语言是表现人物性格的一个重要方面，写好富有个性化的人物语言是很重要的。要让人物说他自己会说、该说的话，切忌用作者的语言代替人物语言，也不能套用千人一腔的现成话。由于各个人的身分、地位、性情、经历不同，因而说出来的话也就很不相同，语言描写应该符合对话者的这些特点。

3.行动。人物的行动是他的思想性格的具体表现，在作文时要通过动作描写表现人物在“做什么”和“怎样做”，特别是选择那些足以表现人物性格的动作，特别要注意选用准确、生动的动词通过"怎样做"写出人物的个性。

4.心理。心理描写是指对人物在一定环境中的心理状态、思想活动的描写。心理描写能使人物形象、丰满。人物心理描写的手法很多，常用的有以下几点：让人物直接倾诉衷肠，这种描写，让人物与读者直接进行感情交流，通常显得真切感人;细致描写人物的心理状态，这是一种动态的写法，描写人物在一定条件下或一定环境中的复杂心情;心理描写往往与行动、神态等的刻画结合起来，这样的描写往往容易收到更好的效果。

四、写出细节。

细节描写是指对文学作品中的人物、环境或事件的某一局部、某一特征、某一细微事实所作的具体、深入的描写，它是刻画人物性格、推进情节发展、表现生活环境的重要因素。运用好细节描写可以增强作品的真实性，深化文章的主题。

如《在烈日和暴雨下》描写车夫们为了生计在烈日下遭受的煎熬时写道：“每一口井都成了他们的救星，不管刚拉了几步，见井就跟过去，赶不上新汲的水，就跟驴马同在水槽里灌一大气。还有的，因为中了暑，或是发痧，走着走着，一头栽到地上，永不起来。”还有，在描写祥子在暴雨中拉车挣命，而“坐车的仿佛死在了车上，一声不出地任凭车夫在水里挣命”，“拉到了，坐车的连一个铜板也没多给。”这些细节把祥子所处的时代写活了。

再如《迟归》中的片段描写：------随着话音，校门突然“咿呀”一声开了，露出老工友斑白的头发来。他揉了揉眼睛，轻轻笑了一下，慈爱地说：“快点进来吧，傻姑娘，别净在那数星星了，夜深风凉。……”女孩子们互相望了一望，静静地走过他的身边，每双眼睛都充满了感激。老人发窘地揉着眼，不知为什么轻轻地说：“今晚，睡不好，出来看看，看看月亮……”这段文字中有许多细节，如“老工友揉眼睛”的细节，深刻表现了老工友对学生的爱及关怀 。

五、善用对比 。

对比是写人作文经常用到的写作方法。可以拿自己的某一方面特点、爱好、特长和他人的对比，即横向对比;也可以写自己现在在某一方面怎么样和过去自己在某一方面如何进行对比，即纵向对比。通过横、纵对比，能把一个人的思想品质、精神风貌、主要特点给突出形象地表现出来。运用对比描写，不应该勉强凑合，适合采用对比写法就用，不适合采用对比写法的就不要用。如《孔乙己》一文中的两次外貌描写的对比，两次出场的动作的对比，都很鲜明的突出了人物的形象。

六、写人的主要结构方式

第一种，总分总式。

这是最常见最朴素的写人结构。它的特点是有一个点明题意的开头(A)，简洁醒目，作为文章的总起部分。主干(B、C、D)也可以说是文章的分述部分，它的几段互相独立，从不同的角度表达中心，在编排先后的次序上还需要有一定的斟酌。结尾E是文章的总结部分，它不仅是D的自然过渡，而且常常是对B、C、D的归纳小结，又是对A的照应。

第二种，逐层进入式。

这种结构方式适用于用一件事写人。它的特点是：第一层次A，写事情的起因;第二层次B，写事情的发展;第三层次C，写事情的高潮;第四层次D，写事情的结局。文章的二三层次是全文的灵魂和力量所在。这两个层次写得好，常常可以使文章内容丰富起来。 七、为了便于同学们理解记忆，编了以下顺口溜： 写人文章并不难，抓住特点是关键。 选择事例一二三，典型新颖考虑全。 描写方法有五个，交叉运用文章鲜。 运用细节不呆板，突出中心记心间。 横纵对比形象现，不宜用时勿生搬。 以上几点全做到，写人文章一定好。

【如何写好风景作文】

一、什么是景物描写?

A、晚秋的天空是澄清的，山脚下的高粱成熟了。

B、晚秋底澄清的天，像一望无际的平静的碧海;强烈的白光在空中跳动着，宛如海面泛起的微波;山脚下片片的高粱时时摇曳着丰满的穗头，好似波动着的红水;而衰黄了的叶片却给田野着上了凋敝的颜色。

很明显前者是景物叙述，后这才是景物描写;前者虽涉及景物，但只是简单的状态介绍，后者则是从形象、色彩等方面进行感性的叙述，并综合运用多种修辞手法。

描写，是指用准确、鲜明、生动的语言文字，对人、事、景、物进行具体描绘和刻画的一种表达方式。从描写的对象看，描写分成三种，分别是人物描写、环境描写、景物描写。景物描写的主要内容有形状、颜色、质地以及音响、气味等方面。

二、景物描写的方法

(一)、从多种感官写。(触觉、视觉、听觉)

秋天的风，吹走了春季的“湿”，吹走了夏季的“闷”，带来了一阵清凉。人们都说，秋风是干燥的。我却不以为然，我喜欢秋风拌面的感觉，它可以让人头脑清醒;可以让身上的尘埃飞向远方;可以带我们的灵魂走进秋色。秋风一闪，万树都会报以热烈的掌声和优美的舞姿，那个场面隆重盛大，不亚于盛大晚会的热闹场面，满天飞舞着蝶一般的落叶。叶子之间碰撞出的响声似乎在向大地母亲报喜，离家的孩子要回到大地母亲的怀抱，激动的心情是无以用言语表达的，也不需要表达，因为秋风已经悄悄地告知大地。

(二)、正面与侧面相结合。

正面描写：就是指直接描写人物的外貌、心理和行动和语言。

又称“直接描写”。文章的描写手法之一,与“侧面描写”相对。它主要是指对人物的肖像、心理、语言、行动以及对正面描写一般包括动静描写，虚实描写，色彩渲染描写，观察角度变化描写，点面结合描写五种描写方法;对人物的肖像、语言、动作、心理方面进行的直接描写。(也叫实写)

侧面描写：侧面描写也叫间接描写,是指在文学创作中，作者通过对周围人物或环境的描绘来表现所要描写的对象，以使其鲜明突出，即间接地对描写对象进行刻画描绘。

黄果树瀑布虽不如庐山瀑布那样长，但远比它宽得多，所以显得气势非凡，雄伟壮观。瀑布激起的水花，如雨雾般腾空而上，随风飘飞，漫天浮游，高达数百米长，形成了远近闻名的“银雨撒金街”的奇景。瀑布从岩壁上直泻而下，如雷声轰鸣，山回谷应。坐在下面，仿佛置身在一个圆形的乐池里。 *四周乐声奏鸣，人就像漂浮在一片声浪之中，每个细胞都灌满了活力。 我们久久地坐着，任凉丝丝的飞珠扑上火热的脸庞，打湿薄薄的衣衫。聆听着訇然作响的瀑布声，只觉得胸膛在扩展，就像张开的山谷，让瀑布飞流直下，挟来大自然无限的生机。

(三)、虚实相结合写。

景物描写中，我们在此时此地所见之景是实的，由眼前所见实景生发联想、想象而得的彼时彼地之景是虚景。

虚写是叫常见的一种手法，与之相对应的是实写。虚实结合是其运用最多的地方。虚即是空。通过浮想联翩将画面描写得美妙绝伦。

秋姑娘来到了森林里，一片片黄叶像一只只蝴蝶在空中飞舞。只有松树和柏树的叶子是绿的，他们挺直了身体，威武地站在山坡上。

秋姑娘又来到了果园里。果园里的果子成熟了，葡萄架上挂满了一串串紫里透红的大葡萄，它们相互掩映着自己的身体，太阳出来了，照射在葡萄上就像一颗颗透明的紫色宝石。 桔树上，一个个金黄色的桔子，让人看了忍不住想咬一口。假如你剥开桔皮，你就可以看见一瓣瓣桔子就像一弯弯亏月时的月亮，晶莹剔透。

(四)、多角度的进行描写。

比如上看、下看、近看、远看，要变换各种观察角度。就像一个摄影师，一会儿把镜头遥远，一会儿拉近呈放大特写，一会儿俯拍，一会儿仰拍，这样文章才有动感。

黄果树瀑布，真是一部大自然的杰作!

刚进入黄果树风景区，便听到“哗哗”的声音从远处飘来，就像是微风拂过树梢，渐近渐响，最后像潮水般涌过来，盖过了人喧马嘶，天地间就只存下一片喧嚣的水声了。

透过树的缝隙，便看到一道瀑布悬挂在岩壁上，上面折为三叠，好像一匹宽幅白练正从织布机上泻下来。那“哗哗”的水声便成了千万架织布机的大合奏。

(五)、生动的描写。

运用一些艺术手法，尤其是修辞手法，使得内容生动形象起来。

(六)、动静结合。

孤立的写动态或静态，往往不能给人以深刻的印象。若能将动态描写与静态描写结合起来，以动衬静，以静写动，则会塑造出栩栩如生的艺术形象。

(七)、色彩的渲染。

三、安排好描写的顺序

景物描写的顺序一般分为空间顺序和时间顺序两种

空间顺序--一般是取一个固定的观察点，按照视线移动的顺序依次写出各个位置上的景物。还有一种空间顺序，不取固定的观察点，而随着观察者位置的转移来描写景物，这叫做游览顺序。

时间顺序--同一个地方在不同的时间里，其景物是有变化的，按一定的时段依次写来，可以表现出景物的丰富多姿，使人产生美的感受。时段有长短之分，长时段如春、夏、秋、冬，短时段如晨、午、暮、夜。选用哪一种时间顺序，应视描写对象的特点而定，

描写手法：

描是描绘，写是摹写。描写就是用生动形象的语言，把人物或景物的状态具体地描绘出来。这是一般记叙文和文学写作常用的表达方法。它分为细 描与白描、静态描写与动态描写、正面描写与侧面描写、虚写与实写、人物描写、环境描写、物体描写、细节描写、渲染与烘托、欲扬先抑、联想和想象等。

作用

一、正面描写：直接描写人物外貌、语言、心理和行动。

1)肖像描写：揭示人物身份、境遇、所处的社会环境，以形传神，表现人物内心世界和性格特点。

2)行动描写：展示人物精神面貌，直接体现人物性格。(在人物描写中有重要地位。)

3)语言描写：表达人物情感，反映人物性格特征，折射出人物所处时代的特点。

4)心理描写：是人物在特定环境下的心理活动。揭示人物内心，刻画人物性格。

二、侧面描写：从对其他人物、事件的叙述和描写中渲染气氛、烘托人物。

1)环境描写

A、自然环境描写：衬托人物心情;点明时令、地点;表现人物关系;表现人物性格。

B、社会环境描写：从狭义上讲，社会环境是指人物活动的处所、背景、氛围等;从广义上讲，是指一定历史时期社会生活、人际关系的总和。

2)周围人物的反应、评价等。

三、细节描写：抓住生活中细微而具体的典型情节，加以生动细致的描绘。作用是丰富人物形象、使人物描写有血有肉有灵魂。写人则如见其人，写景则如临其境。

此外还有：

细描：使用大量生动、贴切的比喻，绚丽的文字，斑斓的色彩，进行浓笔涂抹。

白描：以质朴的文字，抓住人物或事物形象的特征，寥寥几笔就勾勒出人物或事物形象。

静态描写：平面地、静止地对人物或景物进行描写。

动态描写：以动写静，或把物用拟人化的手法进行描写。