英语写作基础教程课后题(通用20篇)

初中英语写作教学要把握一定的基本策略。写作是一个角度复杂的思维过程，对认知能力、思维能力、语言能力、组织能力和自我监控能力都有相当高的要求。写作水平的提高依赖于学生的参与，依赖于教师的指导和课堂教学的有效开展。

所谓写作教学策略，就是用来促进写作教学开展的方式方法。

1.写作的早期训练。英语写作是一门技巧、技能，需要一个长时间的发展过程才能趋于稳固，因此无论从写作能力本身的培养角度来说，还是从写作教学方法的运用角度而言，写作训练都需要早期化。

2.随着学习内容的增多，如学了数字、年龄、年级、班级、个人的喜好和生活习惯等之后，这时可让学生逐步增加写作内容。

做好“书面表达”这道题，学生应该从以下几方面人手：

一、充分准备。打好基础。

为了提高书面表达水平，平时应加强阅读，应背诵一些句型、段落甚至短文。只要读得多、背得多，就能出口成章，下笔成文。其实，用英文写信，记日记等都是学生力所能及且行之有效的练习写作的好方法。

二、仔细审题，明确要求。

对题目所提供的信息要认真分析，明确要求，做到心中有数。要对所提供的信息加以分析、整理，使之更加具体化、条理化，为开始动笔做好准备工作，还要搞清题目的要求，以便根据不同的题材、体裁，写出不同格式，风格各异的文章，此外，还要注意人称、时态、地点等信息，避免出错。

三、抓住重点。寻求思路。

根据题目所提供的信息，草拟提纲，寻求逻辑次序，确定如何下手，否则，语无伦次的文章将不会被人接受，也不可能得到高分。

四、遣词造句，表达规范。

用词要适当，不可逐句把提示汉译英，亦不可生拼硬凑，不要硬拿英语单词到中文句子里去对号，否则写出中文式英语，闹出笑话。一般来讲，写作时，应尽量选出你有把握的词，尽量使用短句(简单句)。如果有的单词不会写，有的思想不会用英语表达，你可以设法绕开，最好找一个同义词、同义句，或近义词、词组短语来代替。要正确使用关联词，如and，or，but，so，because，since等，以便行文自然流畅。

作文写完之后，应注意检查修改，修改时先从全局修改。首先要检查主题是否明确，表达方式是否恰当，接下来检查所写内容是否切题，该交待的内容是否交待了，最后检查所用时态、人称是否符合要求，最后是否一致。

写完后，还应仔细校阅1—2遍。校阅要逐词逐句进行，注意检查语法、拼写、标点、大小写等方面的错误。校阅是自检的最后一关，应严肃认真的进行，尽可能地消灭一切差错，增强文章的效果。

因此，要写好一篇作文，不仅需要具有丰富的思想内容，掌握扎实的词汇、语法及修辞等方面的语言基本功，而且还需要掌握因不同思维方式和文化背景而形成的英语特有的篇章机构模式 惟有这样才能进行最有效的书面交际活动。

铭仁园高三话题类作文常用短语与句型荟萃(一)----旅游&交通

本话题主要包括：1.旅游；2.描述一次旅程；

针对本话题，高考命题人员可能会从以下角度来命题。

1.描述个人旅游经历 2. 谈旅行中的不文明现象 3 .太空旅游、生态旅游 4.度假方式的变化及其原因5.旅游计划的拟订、准备及注意事项 一、话题常用单词

1. travel/journey/trip/tour n.旅游，旅行 16. a group/organized tour n. 团体游

2. travel agency n. 旅行社 17. a self-driving tripn. 自驾游

3. guiden. 向导，导游 18. destinationn. 目的地

4. flight ticketn. 机票 19. sceneryn. 风景，景色

5. passport n. 护照 20. disadvantage n. 不利条件

6. visan.签证 21. insurancen. 保险

7. identity card(ID) 身份证 22. interesting/ funny/ exciting adj 有趣的

8. tent n. 帐篷 23. enjoyable令人愉快的

9. camp n&vi. 露营 24. memorable 令人难忘的

10. hoteln. 旅馆 25. attractive/fascinatingadj 迷人的

11. necessity n. 必需品 26. boring/dull/tiringadj.无聊的

12. schedule n. 计划表，日程表 27. well-organized adj 组织有序的

13. tourist attractions/places of interest 28. convenient adj 方便的，便利的 /scenic spots/sights旅游景点 29. crowded adj 拥挤的

14. DIY tour n. 自助游 30. severe/seriousadj 严重的 15. space tourism n. 太空旅游

二、话题常用短语

1. go on a wildlife tour/a hiking trip

参加野生动物之旅/去远足

2. be on holiday/a trip to sp 去某地度假/旅行

3. see sb off 送行

4. pay a visit to sp/sb 参观某地/拜访某人

5. show sb around 带领某人参观

6. set out/off 出发，启程

7. check in 登记住宿

8. check out 结账退房

9. have a good time/enjoy oneself/have fun 玩的开心

10. broaden one’s horizon/mind 开拓视野

11. eich one’s knowledge丰富知识

11. experience foreign culture 体验国外的文化

12. join a tour group参加旅游团 三、话题常用句型

1. He who travels far knows much. 远行者见闻多。

2. Travelling can eich our knowledge.旅游可以丰富我们的知识。

3. Travelling enables us to learn a lot that we cannot get from books 旅游可以使我们学到很多在书本上学不到的东西。

4. It’s my pleasure to tell you how to get to the Great Wall. 我很乐意告诉你如何到达长城。

5. Welcome to Sichuan. I feel it an honor to be your guide. 欢迎来到四川。我很荣幸能够担任你的导游。

6. I will keep you company to visit numerous places of interest.我将陪你去参加许多的名胜古迹

7. A visit to Sichuan will be an unforgettable experience. 到四川旅行将会令人难忘。

8. There are many places of interest in Sichuan, such as…四川有很多名胜古迹，比如…

9. Sichuan is rich in tourist attractions and enjoys many world-famous places of interest.

四川有很多景点，并且享有很有世界著名的名胜古迹。

10. However, travelling may cause some problems. 然而，旅行可能会造成一些问题。

11. Great changes have taken place in the ways that people spend their holidays in the past decades. 在近几十年内，人们的度假方式已经发生了巨大的变化。

四、佳作欣赏

nick,将于八月来四川旅游，特来询问，有关旅游景点的情况，请根据，提供的要求写封回信，表示盼望他的到来

要点：1.旅游资源：许多世界著名的风景名胜，如九寨沟（海子：清澈见底，色彩斑斓）；都

江堰水利工程（2000年的历史，仍发挥作用） 2.相关信息： 气侯适宜，交通方便。

Dear Nick,

Im glad to hear that youre coming to Sichuan in August. Youve made the wise choice to travel here. Sichuan Province is rich in tourist attractions and enjoys many world-famous places of interest, such as Jiuzhaigou and Dujiangyan Irrigation Projcet.

Jiuzhaigou is well known for its beautiful lakes, of which the water is clear and looks colorful. It can excite visitors imagination. Another attraction is Dujiangyan Irrigation Project. It was built over 2,000 years ago and is still playing an important part in irrigation today. Besides, the nice weather and convenient transportation here can make your trip more enjoyable. Im sure youll have a good time. Im looking forward to your coming.

假设你是李华，父母答应你今年高三毕业后去美国进行为期10天的观光旅游。请你给美国网友Lucy 写一封电子邮件，咨询以下事情：1. 不随团旅游的食宿、交通等问题。2. 必看景点与时间安排 3. 邀请她到中国观光。

Dear Lucy

How are you doingMy parents have just promised me to make a 10-day tour of America after my graduation from senior high school this summer, which will be a good chance for me to experience American culture and practice my oral English.

As I don’t like to join a tour group, could you please offer me some advice on where to stay, what to eat and how to travel in such a short timeI would appreciate it if you could tell the must-see attractions and the time arrangement. Your advice will surely make my visit enjoyable and worthwhile.

Welcome to China at your convenience. Looking forward to your early reply.

范文二：文明旅游

有些旅游景点的文物景观遭到了严重的破坏，致使最近文明旅游的倡议越来越受重视，因此就“游客可付费在仿造长城上涂写留言”发表看法。

内容包括：(1)谈谈对某些人喜欢在旅游景点随便涂鸦留言的看法;

(2)对专门修一段仿造城墙让游客付高价留言的做法你是赞成还是反对，并简要陈述你的理由。

It is reported that tourists to China’s Great Wall can now leave their mark on a fake(伪造的) wall recently built near the real wall in Badaling if they pay 999 yuan.

In China, many visitors have the hobby of carving graffiti on places of interest, especially on some famous cultural relics. Last year I went to the Great Wall and found many people had left names and ugly words on the Wall, which destroys many historic bricks. In my opinion, such people should feel ashamed of leaving their marks on the great relics which were created by our ancestors.

So personally, I quite agree with this brilliant project though it has caused criticism from some people. The Great Wall would be ruined one day if we didn’t take any steps to protect it. The fake wall is a really good idea because it will protect our relics as well as making profits from the project

一、表达方式：记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论?

二、表现手法：象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、联想、想象、衬托（正衬、反衬）

三、修辞手法：比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互文、对比、借代、反语?

四、记叙文六要素：时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果

五、记叙顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙?六、描写角度：正面描写、侧面描写?

七、描写人物的方法：语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌

八、描写景物的角度：视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉?

九、描写景物的方法：动静结合（以动写静）、概括与具体相结合、由远到近（或由近到远）?

十、描写（或抒情）方式：正面（又叫直接）、反面（又叫间接）

十一、叙述方式：概括叙述、细节描写

十二、说明顺序：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序

十三、说明方法：举例子、列数字、打比方、作比较、下定义、分类别、作诠释、摹状貌、引用?

十四、小说情节四部分：开端、发展、高潮、结局

十五、小说三要素：人物形象、故事情节、具体环境

十六、环境描写分为：自然环境、社会环境

十七、议论文三要素：论点、论据、论证

十八、论据分类为：事实论据、道理论据

十九、论证方法：举例（或事实）论证、道理论证（有时也叫引用论证）、对比（或正反对比）论证、比喻论证

二十、论证方式：立论、驳论（可反驳论点、论据、论证）

二十一、议论文的文章的结构：总分总、总分、分总；分的部分常常有并列式、递进式。

二十二、引号的作用：引用；强调；特定称谓；否定、讽刺、反语

二十三、破折号用法：提示、注释、总结、递进、话题转换、插说。

下面是由语文迷网整理的三类英语作文开头句型，希望对你有帮助。

一、常规开头句型

1.As far as …is concerned 就……而言

2.It goes without saying that… 不言而喻，…

3.It can be said with certainty that… 可以肯定地说……

4.As the proverb says， 正如谚语所说的，

5.It has to be noticed that… 它必须注意到，…

6.Its generally recognized that… 它普遍认为…

7.Its likely that … 这可能是因为…

8.Its hardly that… 这是很难的……

9.Its hardly too much to say that… 它几乎没有太多的说…

10.What calls for special attention is that…需要特别注意的是

11.Theres no denying the fact that…毫无疑问，无可否认

12.Nothing is more important than the fact that… 没有什么比这更重要的是…

13.whats far more important is that… 更重要的是…

二、四级引出开头

1：It is well-known to us that……(我们都知道……)==As far as my knowledge is concerned, …( 就我所知…)

2：Recently the problem of…… has been brought into focus. ==Nowadays there is a growing concern over ……(最近……问题引起了关注)

3：Nowadays(overpopulation)has become a problem we have to face.(现今，人口过剩已成为我们不得不面对的问题)

4：Internet has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life. It has brought a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.(互联网已在我们的生活扮演着越来越重要的角色，它给我们带来了许多好处但也产生了一些严重的问题)

5：With the rapid development of science and technology，more and more people believe that……(随着科技的迅速发展，越来越多的人认为……)

6：It is a common belief that……==It is commonly believed that……(人们一般认为……)

7：A lot of people seem to think that……(很多人似乎认为……)

8:It is universally acknowledged that + 句子(全世界都知道...)

三、高考英语引出开头

Recently, the problem of … has aroused peoples concern. 最近,……问题已引起人们的关注.

The Internet has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life. It has brought a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.

互联网已在我们的生活中扮演着越来越重要的角色.它给我们带来了许多好处,但也产生了一些严重的问题.

Nowadays, (overpopulation) has become a problem we have to face.

如今,(人口过剩)已成为我们不得不面对的问题了.

It is commonly believed that … / It is a common belief that … 人们一般认为……

Many people insist that … 很多人坚持认为……

With the development of science and technology, more and more people believe that…

随着科技的发展,越来越多的人认为……

A lot of people seem to think that … 很多人似乎认为……

要点：实际上中考英语写作就等于两个字，翻译!因为中考英语写作一般会给出几个要点，要求必须在文章中有所体现。文章写的再好，只要缺少要点就会扣分。所以要点，也就是文章的第二段内容，要做到全，围绕中心。

结构：中考最流行的结构就是三段式，深受各地区中考英语写作阅卷老师的喜爱。为什么尼?因为这种结构十分清晰。“观点——要点——总结”让人一目了然。三段式的第一段：简单明了，开门见山，不超过2句话，如，我们想表达小强很强壮，第一段直接说XQis extremely strong。观点明确，这一句足矣。

第二段：分2-3点说为什么他强壮。1. 每天吃10顿饭，He has ten mealseveryday!详举吃的是什么。2. 每天运动2小时，He does exercise 2 hours a day!详举做了什么运动。

第三段：经过第二段的论证，可以得出结论。但请注意，不能完全照抄第一段，要有升华。也可以提出希望和建议等。如，Howstrong and robust XQ is!I hope to be him one day!

逻辑：这里的逻辑实际指的就是逻辑词。最常用的就是表示递进的，转折的，总结的逻辑词等。递进：除了first，second，third，finally等还可以使用高级点的，如first of all(首先)，in addition，whatsmore，moreover(都是另外的意思)，in a word，all inall(表示总结的)。转折：but，yet，however等。真正有经验的阅卷老师会很注意这些逻辑连接词，因为这些词体现了这个文章的思路。

语法：其他几点都不是硬性的要求，不那样做不能说是错，只能说是不好，但是语法却是硬性的。如，单词的使用，时态等。

亮点：当我们将前八个字都做得很完美的时候也只能得到一个二等文的上。要想得到一等文，最后两个字，亮点至关重要。大家设想如果我们是阅卷老师。有两篇写人美丽的作文摆在我们面前，都是结构清晰的三段式，要点都很全，都用了一些逻辑词，都没有语法错误，但是A篇只用了beautiful，good-looking，B篇却用到了attractive，charming，catching等，我坚信正常人都会给B篇高分的。这些高级一点的词汇，词组，句型便是我们得到一等文的最有力的绝招。所以，以后写英语作文要养成一般词汇限量用的好习惯。

导语：套用一些英语作文模板可以得到分数的提高哦!下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的相关英语作文，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

Some people contend that ... has proved to bring many advantages (disadvantages)

有些人认为________有很多有利之处(不利之处)。

Those who argue for ... say that ...economic development of the cities.

觉得_____的人认为，______ 城市的经济发展。

Some people advocate that ....

有些人在坚持认为_________。

They hold that ... 他们认为_________。

People, who advocate that ..., have their sound reasons (grounds)

坚持认为______的人也有其说法(依据)。

Those who have already benefited from practicing it sing high praise of it.

那些从中受益的人对此大家褒奖。

Those who strongly approve of ... have cogent reasons for it.

强烈认同_______的人有很多原因。

Many people would claim that...

有人会认为___________。

Just as the saying goes: "so many people, so many minds". It is quite understandable that views on this issue vary from person to person.

俗话说，""。不同的人对此有不同的看法是可以理解的。

To this issue, different people come up with various attitudes.

对于这个问题，不同的人持不同的观点。

There is a good side and a bad side to everything, it goes without saying that...

万事万物都有其两面性，所以，勿庸置疑，____________。

When it comes to ..., most people believe that ..., but other people regard ...as ....

提到_________问题，很多人认为_________，不过，一些人则认为______是____.

When faced with...., quite a few people claim that ...., but other people think as...

提到_________问题，仅少数人认为________，但另一些人则认为_________。

1)做模版：拿几片范文，找几句比较拽的结构型句子，拼凑出一个你自己顺手的框架即可。不用到处找，也不用找很多，一个框架即可，当然，准备一些可以替换的词：比如recommendation替换conclusion.漂亮句子很多，但若水三千，我只掬一瓢饮。

2)找出主要的错误类型，每种写出一道两句经典的表述即可。

3)考时30分钟分三个阶段：一)12-15分钟，写出完整的第一段，三个征文段的topic sentence，和完整的末段。写第一段的同时就构思topicsentence,末段无非是重复结论和三句topic。这样的好处是结构已经完整了，你不用慌了。。二)13-10分钟，完成三段正文。我以前觉得这个很困难，后来想通了。无非是把这层意思说清楚就行。3句话就够了。也够长了。三)5分钟check.还一个作用时，是在前面没有完成，还有一个buffer,也不至于弹尽粮绝。

4)非常措施：考试万一时间不够，首段就抄原句;如果时间还不够，末段就cut-paste首段和topic 的文本，稍加修改即可。但是，结构是完整的。

5)ok作文法的精髓和适用范围：精髓：看上去很美。适用范围：不想得6分的人(因为想的6分的人追求的是实际上也很美。如果运气好，可以的5分，运气不好，可以的4分。

英语是占据分数比较多的，所以写好英语作文很重要。小编整理了关于文明的英语作文，快来看看吧。

【预测作文】文明旅游

【猜题理由】有些旅游景点的文物景观遭到了严重的破坏，致使最近文明旅游的倡议越来越受重视，因此就“游客可付费在仿造长城上涂写留言”发表看法。

【预测题目】文明旅游

写作内容：1. 以约30个词概括短文的要点;

2. 以约120个词写一篇短文，就“游客可付费在仿造长城上涂写留言”发表你的看法，内容包括：

(1)谈谈对某些人喜欢在旅游景点随便涂鸦留言的看法;

(2)对专门修一段仿造城墙让游客付高价留言的做法你是赞成还是反对，并简要陈述你的理由。

【参考范文】

It is reported that tourists to China’s Great Wall can now leave their mark on a fake wall recently built near the real wall in Badaling if they pay 999 yuan.

In China, many visitors have the hobby of carving graffiti on places of interest, especially on some famous cultural relics. Last year I went to the Great Wall and found many people had left names and ugly words on the Wall, which destroys many historic bricks. In my opinion, such people should feel ashamed of leaving their marks on the great relics which were created by our ancestors.

So personally I quite agree with this brilliant project though it has caused criticism from some people. The Great Wall would be ruined one day if we didn’t take any steps to protect it. The fake wall is a really good idea because it will protect our relics as well as making profits from the project.(124 words)

英语写作指导：

英语学习中，在英语书面表达时，每次写作前问自己四个问题：这篇文章的体裁格式是怎样的?主体时态用什么时态?人称用第几人称?可以分几段，之间用什么过渡词、连接词?带着这四个问题去审题，搞清楚文章的主要内容，然后列出提纲。最后利用自己有把握的英语句子丰富自己的提纲就可以了。

(1)条理性。指的是合理布局文章结构。首先，在文章思路、组织材料、叙述顺序等方面要有一定的条理性。其次，根据需要，安排好段落，各段之间要层次分明，也要重视每一段的开头和结尾，开头语往往是总起句，结尾语往往是总结句。

(2)准确性。指要求写出语法正确的句子，包括时态、语态、用词和句法等，要准确、地道地表达。必须要牢牢掌握一些常用句型或习惯表达，避免中式英语，在实践中不断总结中英用法的差异，养成用英语思维写作的习惯。高考英语作文素材。

(3)流畅性。指根据整篇文章思想的需要，有效采用不同的连接手段，清晰段落，使文章层次清楚、行文连贯。

(4)简洁多样性。简洁性就是语言简洁，不重复。多样性就是能随情景内容的变化写出句式多样的语句。这也是新课程标准对写作的评价标准。

(5)思想性。新标准对写作的要求，增加了情感因素，在准确流畅表达写作要点的同时，适当增加句子的感情色彩，增加一些人情味，使文章读起来更亲切，完全达到与读者进行交流的目的。

(6)美观性。指的是卷面书写规范、清楚、干净、整洁。在高考书面表达中，书面整洁是也是一个主观评分标准，所以在高考中保持书面整洁是必要的。

总结：那么在高考作文中，除了自己的一些英语知识的巩固还需要的是自己的情绪和思维。写作期间保持稳定的情绪，按照自己的思维完成写作，从总结文章中—布置文章结构—使用表达的语句—下笔连贯。最后当然是要检查是否出现拼错字，句子语法有误等。

对于英语科目的准备，学生要根据自己的情况，做不同的准备。”对于英语基础比较薄弱的学生来说，这个暑假与其进行先修，不如利用这点时间把小学的英语知识再巩固、复习一遍。很多新升入初一的学生，在用词方面有很多不规范的现象，比如单复数，人称、时态的变化，短语的固定搭配等，总是出现错误。这些问题都与基础掌握不牢有关系，有些学生觉得这都是小毛病，不注意，等到了写作文的时候，这些都是扣分的地方，他们可能因为这些问题最后作文只能得几分。

要克服这些问题，学生可以在这个暑假把小学的课本再从头学一遍，要做到学过的单词都会默写，固定搭配的用法掌握准确，对名词的词性掌握清楚。在这个过程中，家长可以督促孩子，每天出几道题考考他(她)，家长在检查时一定要保证孩子写的单词完全正确，不能说差不多就行了。”

对于英语基础比较好的学生，这个暑假可以在词汇准备方面多下点功夫，达到熟练掌握的程度，“初中知识难度系数增加，而且词汇量也加大，提前掌握好初中的词汇，对于今后的学习会有很大帮助。”

剧本区别于任何一种文体形式，我经常看到有的朋友把剧本写成了小说或人物传记，这是不对的，至少是不专业的。剧本有自己专署的格式，写剧本从某种程度上说是个技术活。小编收集了短片剧本的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

写剧本也不是什么很崇高的艺术创作，这只是一个普通的工种，剧作家和清洁工人没什么区别，都是很普通的工作而已，所以每个人都可以写剧本，每个人都可以当导演。当然，既然是一个工种，就有自己的规范。这些规范也许不会让你迅速变成一个专家，但至少能使你看上去像一个专家。或者，不至于让你糟糕的格式成为审稿人枪毙你稿子的理由。因为一个审稿人每天要看三到四篇稿子，如果你的剧本格式看上去不怎么专业的话，他完全有理由翻上几页就把你的剧本扔在角落里凉快。

先来看看剧本写作常犯的错误：

1：把剧本写成了小说

刚刚上面提到有的朋友把剧本写成了小说，不是不可以，但那个是文学剧本，根本不能用来指导拍摄和制作。举个例子，你可以在小说里花几页的笔墨来写一个人的身世，背景，家庭组成，或是用几页的笔墨来描写主角的心理斗争过程，但这些东西是无法表现在电影屏幕上的。你的剧本就是一个屏幕，你所要表现的是电影屏幕上能被观众直接看到感受到的东西。像心理活动这类东西是无法很好的表现出来的。加旁白?当然可以，除非你能忍受主角的画外音在一动不动的镜头里读几页小说。电影用画面表达情绪，你的剧本就是电影画面，要通过摄像机的角度来写，这可能引起第二个问题。

2：不必要的摄象机标注

如果你这样写剧本：在5号升降台，用盘纳为升70型相机，60mm镜头，由8.5m摇至2m对焦…………如果你这样写，就算过了审稿人这一关，你的剧本也会被导演扔掉。你不需要教他怎么拍，这不是你的事。你在写剧本的时候完全不用担心相机的事。但是不是剧本就不要考虑相机了呢?也不是，你需要考虑相机的关系而不是位置。剧本里有自己的专用相机术语，多多使用这些术语，能让你的剧本很专业，至少看上去很专业。

1.Angle on 角度对准：比如BILL走出便利店，相机对准BILL。

2.Favoring 主要表现：BILL在一个大广场，人很多，但主要表现BILL。

3.Another angle 另一个角度：换个角度的相机表现BILL在大广场玩的很开心。

4.Wilder angle 更宽的角度：先表现BILL在广场的一角喝可乐，然后镜头拉远，表现BILL所在的广场。

5.New angle 新角度：换个角度表现BILL喝可乐，使镜头丰富。

6.POV 视点：从BILL的视点看东西。就是第一人称视角。

7.Reverse angle 反拍角度：BILL和SALLY在一起跳舞，先拍BILL看到的SALLY，再拍SALLY看到的BILL，通常是两人的POV互反。

8.Over shoulder angle 过肩镜头：相机越过BILL的肩头看到SALLY，BILL的肩头能把画面自然的分割，很常用的类型。

9.Moving shot 运动镜头：包括跟拍，摇移，追随等等，反正镜头是运动的，至于具体怎么动，还不是现在考虑的问题。

10.Two shot 双人镜头：BILL和SALLY在边喝可乐边交谈，这种镜头的相机不要随意移动，防止“越轴”。把BILL和SALLY两人连起来有一条轴线，相机只能在轴线一侧运动，如果越过这条轴线，在画面上BILL和SALLY的位置就会左右互换，引起观众视觉上的逻辑混淆。

11.Close shot 近景：强调SALLY美丽的眼睛，但一般少用为妙。

12.Insert 插入镜头：某物的近景，比如天色已晚，SALLY问BILL几点了，BILL抬起手来，接下来可以接一个BILL手表的特写，当然你还可以用此种镜头来换景，比如BILL移开手表时摄象机里看到的已经是夜晚的舞会了。

以上就是剧本里的镜头描写格式，看个例子就明白了。这是具体的写作格式：

场景说明要黑体，时间地点要黑体，居左

场景中出现的音效要黑体标出

第一次出现的人物名要黑体居中

人物的对话要居中，两边留空，不同人物的对话要另起一行

标明摄象机的关系

标明场景的切换，“切至”就是硬切，“化至”就是加转场的效果，全部居右

如有特效运用，也要用黑体标出

二剧本写作入门

这是我在大学修读剧本写作课程时所得到的体会。记得当年导师和我们说：「要想写好剧本，就必须懂得剧本的基本知识和理论，搞明白电影的规律!」

今天，身为其中的一员，有幸和大家分享一下我所懂得的剧本理论知识，如有错漏，还望大家多多包容。

简单来说，要写好一个故事，首先要构思好你的故事走向，人物关系，情节高潮，主题思想等…… 美国好莱坞有一套编剧规律：即开端、设置矛盾、解决矛盾、再设置矛盾，直至结局。中国也有自己的编剧规律：起、承、转、合。

在下面的文字，本人会分类将写作剧本的基本和重要的元素详加论述，并会举出实例加以说明。

剧本基本理论 ：态度、主题

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写故事最重要的是对故事的态度，不同的态度会产生不同的效果。举一个简单的例子，同样是写一个青楼女子的故事，如果作者是以一个淫秽、色情的态度去写，故事自然集中于男女之间欢爱的部份。相反，如果作者是以一个同情、尊重的态度去写，故事便会集中于描写青楼女子被迫卖身，身不由己的可怜、无奈……

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在下笔写故事之前，你必须要问自己：你要讲一个怎样的故事?是朋友之间的友情(如电影午夜牛郎—midnight cow boy)，男女之间的爱情(铁达尼号—Titanic)，外星人入侵地球的故事(天煞地球反击战)，还是一个控诉战争的故事(杀戮战场—platon)等。这就是主题。

主题必须十分明确、贯彻、毫不怀疑。你不能写一套战争片段，一时就怀疑战争，一时就歌颂战争。主题有如一支指南针，它会引导你创作故事，和贯穿故事中的枝节。而最重要的是它能避免你在写作中偏离主道。试举一例，清朝皇帝雍正在野史是一个杀弟、杀父夺位，强奸弟弟妻子的禽兽。但在雍正皇朝(早期亚视播出的电视剧)作者笔下的雍正，却是一个好皇帝。因为作者的主题是要写一个好皇帝，所以在故事中只会见到雍正彻夜不眠批奏章、视察农民、减税、推行德政等场面，并没有杀弟、杀父等场面。

所以，一套成功的剧本是要让观众看完后，清楚明白作者想表达的思想和主题。

创造角色冲突 (create character conflict)

角色冲突是吸引观众的不二法门。这包括故事角色和角色之间的冲突，角色和他自身价值观的冲突等。

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故事里的人物想做一些事，但有一股力量抗衡他，这就是Potogonist /Antogonist

例如电影怒火风暴(Falling Down)故事中，主角刚刚经历完痛苦的劳狱生涯，当他出狱时，他一心想见回自己的妻子，重过正常人的生活(Potogonist，他想追求的事)。但他的妻子逃避他，不认他，而四周的人也因他的犯罪纪录而歧视他(Antogonist，阻止他达到目的的力量)。

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当角色和角色之间存在冲突，而且有一个不能分开的结把他们拉在一起，好戏便来了。举一个简单的例子，男主角的妻子是个三姑六婆、八卦的女人，而男主角的母亲则是个守礼节的传统妇女。因为环境的因素，主角和他的妻子必须搬进家里和妈妈一起住。试想两个完全冲突的人：媳妇和奶奶被一个 unbreakable bond 拉在一起时，会是怎样。

创造表面张力 (create dramatic tension)

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例如故事中的主角闯进了敌人的基地，有支枪在黑暗处伸出来瞄准着他(观众知道但主角不知道)，敌人就快要开枪了，观众也为主角担心。

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主角的母亲病了，他全身家只有一百元，于是他便去睹场碰碰运气。很好运地，主角不停地赢钱，已有几千元，有足够的医药费了。但他竟然贪胜不知输，继续赌下去，结果输了一局又一局(观众已知他已走在一条错误的路上)。最后连手上的一百元也输了，竟然还去问大耳窿借钱(他用错误的方法企图达到目的)。

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故事中某些事件若存着时间的限制，或计时炸弹，能够给观众一股紧张的情绪，并且这股紧张情绪能维持一段长时间。

还有十二个小时，陨石便会撞击地球，地球上超过一半的生物会死亡。(电影--陨石撞地球)

这辆巴士必须维持在时速一百二十公理，否则车上的炸弹便会爆炸。(电影--生死时速)

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使用转折点能制造意外的效果，引起观众的预期心理，加强情节张力，从而持续观众对故事的兴趣。转折点最常出现于故事的前段和后段。剧本前段的转折点一般用于开启故事和陈列出主角即将面临的各项选择。至于后段的转折点则指向主角解决危机，收拢故事。

例如著名电影「生于七月四日」(Born on the fourth of July)，主角在故事开始面临第一个转折点：是否要参加越战。主角最后选择参战，走上战场。但好景不常，在战争中主角被打破了双脚，要终生坐轮椅。原本爱国主战的他经历了多件事件后，改变了他的想法。导致故事结局出现了很出人意表的转折点，他由主战派变成反战派，从而带出反战的主题。

其它技巧

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相信有作文的人都会知道什么叫做伏笔吧!埋下伏线可以吸引观众追看剧情。例如在电影心计中，主角汤美一早便表露了他有模仿人签名和行为的能力(伏线)，到故事发展到他杀了有钱人迪奇后，观众凭借伏线已经估到主角会假冒迪奇。

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所谓 Payoff，就是最能象征整个故事的对象。例如在电影”Apartment”中，那条门匙就是Payoff。又如著名电影「舒特拉的名单」中，那张犹太人的名单也是Payoff。

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有两个画面，梅花间竹地播出，这就是蒙太奇。例如在电影教父中，画面一边播出教会里正在举行的神圣仪式，如神父替孩子洗礼，向天主祈祷等。但另一边画面却转接地播出教会中邪恶的一面，例如教会中的领袖为求夺权，去反对他的人的住所，不停地大开杀戒。

蒙太奇亦可以指一些不同而没有关系的画面,当他们剪接在一起的时候,会产生另一种意义,简单来说,如第一画面中有一只手正在投球,而另一画面是另外一只手接到一个球,然而球不见得是同一个,但当两个画面前在一起的时候,就是一个人把球投给另外一个人,注意/若中间再加入另外的画面,这意思就完全不一样了!! (注：这一段蒙太奇的文字解释由网友「贝戈」提供)

剧本三大忌

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剧本写作和小说写作是两样完全不同的事，要知道写剧本的目的是要用文字去表达一连串的画面，所以你要让看剧本的人见到文字而又能够实时联想到一幅图画，将他们带到动画的世界里。小说就不同，他除了写出画面外，更包括抒情句子，修辞手法和角色内心世界的描述。这些在剧本里是不应有的。举一个简单的例子，在小说里有这样的句子：

「今天会考放榜，同学们都很紧张地等待结果，小明别过父母后，便去学校领取成绩通知书。老师派发成绩单，小明心里想：如果这次不合格就不好了。

他十分担心，害怕考试失败后不知如何面对家人……』

试想，如果将上面的句子写在剧本里，你叫演员看了怎样用动作去表达。

如果要用剧本去表达同样的意思，就只有写成如下：

「在课室里面，学生都坐在座位上，脸上带着紧张的表情，看着站在外面的老师。老师手上拿着一叠成绩通知书，她看了看面头的一张，叫道：「陈大雄!」大雄立刻走出去领取成绩单。小明在课室的一角，两只手不停地搓来搓去。他看出课室外面，画面渐渐返回当日早上时的情景。小明的父母一早就坐在大厅上，小明穿好校服，准备出门，看了看父亲，又看了看母亲，见到他们严肃的脸孔，不知该说些什么。小明的父亲说：「会合格吗?」小明说：「会……会的。」

「陈小明!」老师宏亮的声音把小明从回忆中带回现实。老师手上拿着小明的成绩单看着他，小明呆了一会，才快步走出去领取……』

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剧本里不宜有太多的对话(除非是剧情的需要)，否则整个故事会变得不连贯，缺乏动作，观众看起来就似听读剧本一样，好闷。要知道你现在要写的是电影语言，而不是文学语言。只适合于读而不适合于看的便不是好剧本。所以，一部优秀的电影剧本，对白越少，画面感就越强，冲?力就越大。

举一个简单的例子，比如你写一个人打电话，你最好不要让他坐在电话旁不动，只顾说话。如果剧情需要，可让他站起来，或拿着电话走几步，尽量避免画面的呆板和单调。

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很多人写剧本都写得太多枝节，在枝节中有很多的角色，穿插了很多的场口，使故事变得复杂化，观众可能会看得不明白，不清楚作者想表达什么主题。试想如果在一幕电影中同时有十几个重要的角色，角色之间又有很多故事，你叫观众在短短时间里那能把每一个角色记得这么清楚。

其实，写剧本有一句格言：「 Simple is the best! 」愈简单的故事就愈好。大家想想你们所看过的好电影中，它们的剧情是不是都很简单。例如电影铁达尼号(Titanic)只是讲一艘大船下沉，而下沉当中男女主角产生了爱情。其它电影也一样，简单到报纸短评用短短几十个字就能讲出故事大纲。

但是，简单永远是最困难的：

散文与记叙文的最大区别在于，散文中所写的人生、自然、事件、景物等，都是从自身感悟出发，是作者对事物特殊意义和美的发现。这种发现，是知觉、思维、感觉的综合思维结果，体现着作者的深思妙悟，是散文的情、理、意、味。而记叙文是记录生活中的人和事，并不从作者的感悟出发。

散文的取材十分广泛，不间万象、宇宙万物、各色人等、宏观微观无不涉及，而这些材料一旦出现在文章中，就立即刻上了作者的主观感悟，代表着作者的人生经验、观点感受。所以，同样的材料，不同的作者看到的内涵是不同的。这里，我们把散文的取材叫“形”，把作者的感悟叫“神”。散文的文体特点就是：形散神聚。

散文的写法较其他文体更活泼自由，不拘一格。常见的方式是抒情，即使是记叙，也是带有强烈感情色彩的。散文常把记叙、抒情、议论等融为一体，夹叙夹议。表现手法上能出奇制胜，让读者产生新鲜独特的阅读感受。散文的结构追求自然而然的境界。在材料选取上，般运用联想手法。

总体来看，抒情的散文有时气势磅礴，有时低吟浅唱;记叙的散文如诗如画，曲径通幽;议论的散文情真意切，精彩纷呈……但是，不管作者怎么样安排文字，怎样组织材料，归根结蒂还是为了表达他对人生或自然的特殊感受悟。

SCI论文，即为被SCI索引收录的期刊所刊登的论文，小编收集了SCI论文写作基础结构，欢迎阅读

标题：SCI论文写作的标题必须符合文章内容而简明、准确表达论文的性质和目的。文题要相扣、标题通常由名词性短语构成，如果出现动词，多为分词或动名词形式。标题不能太长，一般希望一篇论文标题不要超过100个英文字符。

摘要：SCI论文写作的的摘要重在说明全文通过什么样的方法取得什么样的结果，资料数据，提出有意义的结论(包括阳性及阴性)。具体按四要素来书写中、英文摘要：目的、方法、结果、结论。结论中、英文内容要一致。摘要以200-300字为宜。关键词5条。英文摘要也应包括文题、作者姓名(汉语拼音)、单位名称、所在城市名等。作者应列出前3位，3位以上加序言：过去研究的情况、方法、目的和所获得的主要成果或特点。此处不宜超过100～200字。

引言：SCI论文写作的引言部分提出课题背景，总结前人研究成果、现实情况及存在问题，采取适当的方式强调本人在本次研究中最重要的发现或贡献。

材料和方法：这是SCI论文写作的执行科研的关键之处，对于要进行的研究工作，必须按照实际情况，在事先选择好适合一定条件、数量的研究对象采用的特定实验、诊断或治疗方法(包括实验步骤、方法、器材试剂、药品)，经过一定时期的观察，相同条件下的对照组，与他人结果比较并综合分析。如果审稿者认为实验材料和方法有缺陷，则该论文的设计也有缺陷。其结果是该论文被拒绝，其重点在于完整的描述。

结论：将原始资料全部集中起来，随机、客观地加以分析，不用特意地加以挑选。对于一些阴性结果，不必全部列出。尽量组织严密，符合逻辑、进行对比观察，在检验过程中不一样地方加以修正、补充。SCI论文写作在结论的问题中避免以假设来证明假设，以未知来说明未知，并依次循环推论。

讨论：SCI论文写作的精髓，主要是研究结果的解释和推断。概述实验条件的优缺点，本人结果与其他学者结果的异同，突出新发现、新发明;解释因果关系，说明偶然性与必然性;急需研究的方向和存在的主要问题。说明研究局限性对结果的影响。

致谢：SCI论文写作的致谢部分主要表明该研究是什么资金或基金资助的情况下完成的并对参与人员和单位表示感谢即可。

参考文献：所列参考文献的目的，在于引证资料(观点、方法等)的来源，不可随意转抄。一般要求引用文献者必须用阅读过的重要的、近年的文献为准。论著10条左右，论著摘要5条，综述20条左右，参考文献的引用要根据收录参考文献的原则。

SCI论文写作基础结构内容由“辑文编译”整理，转载请请注明出处!

广州辑文汇聚了来自全球著名100多所顶尖高等教育学府的600多名各专业博士团队的雄厚学术力量，主要为非英语国家科研工作者提供SCI论文写作发表﹑医学论文润色编辑和各类科研设计相关服务。

SCI journal editors to teach you how to write SCI thesis

SCI paper, how to write? General can be divided into the title, abstract, introduction, materials and methods, results, discussion, acknowledgements, references eight parts.

Title: the nature and purpose of SCI writing title must conform to article content and concise, accurate expression of the. The title of the paper to buckle, the title is usually composed of noun phrases, if the verb, participle or a gerund form for. The title can not be too long, generally want a paper title not more than 100 English character.

Abstract: the abstract is writing SCI papers by what kind of method to obtain what kind of result, data, put forward meaningful conclusion (including positive and negative). According to four to have written, English Abstract: objective, method, result, conclusion. The conclusion, English content should be consistent. Abstract of 200-300 words. Keywords 5. English abstract should also include the title, author name (Pinyin), unit name, city name. The author lists the top 3, 3 plus Preface: main achievements or past research situation, method, purpose and the. Here is more than 100 ~ 200 words.

Introduction: SCI the introduction of writing this topic background, summing up the results of previous studies, the reality of the situation and the existing problems, take appropriate means to emphasize my most important in this research discovery or contribution.

Materials and methods: This is a key point to SCI thesis writing research, for to carry out the research work, must be in accordance with the actual situation, in a good choice for certain conditions, the number of subjects with specific experimental, diagnostic or therapeutic methods (including pre experiment steps, methods, equipment, reagents, drugs), after observation of a certain period of time, the control group under the same conditions, and other results and analysis. If reviewers that the experimental materials and methods have drawbacks, then design the defective. The result is the thesis is rejected, the focus is to complete description.

Conclusion: will concentrate all the original data, random, objective analysis, dont have to choose. For some negative results, not all. As organized, logical, were observed and compared, in the inspection process is not the same place revision, supplement. SCI thesis writing in order to avoid the assumption that assumption in the conclusion of the unknown, to illustrate the unknown, and in turn circular reasoning.

Discussion: SCI thesis writing essence, is to interpret and infer the results. The advantages and disadvantages of the experimental conditions, the similarities and differences of himself with other scholars results, highlighting the new discovery, new invention; explain the causal relationship, the contingency and inevitability; urgent research direction and the main problems. The effect of limitations on the results.

Acknowledgements: SCI thesis writing acknowledgements part mainly shows the research is funded what funds or funds under the condition of complete and expressed thanks to the participation of personnel and units.

Reference: the column reference purposes, in the citation data (point, etc.) sources, can not be copied. General requirements cited references must be used to read important, recent documents shall prevail. On the 10 or so, on the 5, in about 20, for reference according to the included reference principle.

The above content by text compiled finishing, reprint please indicate the source! Series Guangzhou Wenhui together strong academic strength from the world famous more than 100 top institution of higher education, more than 600 professional doctoral team, mainly for non English speaking countries, scientific research workers to provide SCI thesis writing medical papers published, Polish editing and all kinds of scientific research design service.

1.用形容词"very"，"single"等表示强调

eg.You are the very person Im looking for.

你就是我要找的那个人。

Red Army fought a battle on this very spot.

红军就在此地打过一仗。

Not a single person has been in the office this afternoon.

今天下午竟然没有一个人来过办公室。

2.用反身代词表示强调

e.g.I myself will see her off at the station.

我将亲自到车站为她送行。

You can do it well yourself.

你自己能做好这件事情。

3.用助词"do/does/did+动词原形"表示强调

e.g.The baby is generally healthy，but every now and then she does catch a cold.

那孩子的健康状况尚好，但就是偶尔患感冒。

Do be quiet.I told you I had a headache.

务必安静，我告诉过你，我头疼。

4.用"...and that"，"...and those"，等结构表示强调

e.g.They fulfilled the task，and that in a few days.

他们在几天内完成的就是那项任务。

I gave her some presents，and those the day before yesterday.

前天我送给她的就是那些礼物。

5.用双重否定结构表示强调

e.g.There is no reason why this new immigrant should not have the same success.

完全有理由相信这些新移民应该拥有相同的成功。

A man can never have too many ties.

一个男人有再多的领带也不为过。

I cant thank you too much.

我无论怎样感谢你都不过份。

A mother can never be patient enough with her child.

I am not unfaithful to you.我对你无比忠诚。

6.用短语"in every way"，"in no way"，"by all means"，"by no means"，"only too"，"all too"，"but too"，"in heaven"，"in the world"，"in hell"，"on earth"，"under the sun"等表示强调

e.g.His behaviour was in every way perfect.

他的举止确实无可挑剔。

The news was only too true.

这消息确实是事实。

Where in heaven were you then?

当时你到底在哪里?

7.用倒装句表示强调

8.用强调句型表示强调

It is that或 It is who

e.g.It was the headmaster who opened the door for me.

正是校长为我开的门。

It was yesterday that we carried out that experiment.

就是在昨天我们做了那个实验。

1)We have (take) pleasure in informing you that......

兹欣告你方......

2)We have the pleasure of informing you that......

兹欣告你方.....

3)We are pleased (glad) to inform you that......

兹欣告你方......

4)Further to our letter of yesterday, we now have (the) pleasure in informing you that......

续谈我方昨日函, 现告你方......

5)We confirm telegrams/fax messages recently exchanged between us and are pleased to say that......

我方确认近来双方往来电报/传真,并欣告......

6)We confirm cables exchanged as per copies (cable confirmation) herewith attached.

我方确认往来电报,参见所附文本.

7)We learn from Messrs......that you are interested and well experienced in ......business, and would like to establish business relationship with us.

我方从...公司获悉,你方对...业务感兴趣且颇有经验,意欲与我方建立业务关系.

8)Although no communication has been exchanged between us for a long time, we trust that you are doing well in business.

虽然久未通讯,谅你方生意兴隆.

9)Although we have not heard from you for quite some time, we hope your business is progressing satisfactorily.

虽然好久没接到你方来信,谅业务进展顺利.

10)We have pleasure in sending you our catalog, which gives full information about our various products.

欣寄我方目录,提供我方各类产品的详细情况。

11)We are pleased to send you by parcel post a package containing...

很高兴寄你一邮包内装...

12)We have the pleasure in acknowledging the receipt of your letter dated...

欣获你方...月...日来信.

13)We acknowledge with thanks the receipt of your letter of...

谢谢你方...月...日来信.

14)We have duly received your letter of ...

刚刚收悉你方...月...日来信.

15)We thank you for your letter of ...contents of which have been noted.

谢谢你方...月...日来信,内容已悉.

16) Refering to your letter of ......we are pleased to ....

关于你方...月...日来信,我们很高兴...

17) Reverting to your letter of ...we wish to say that...

再洽你方...月...日来信,令通知...

18)In reply to your letter of ...,we...

兹复你方...月...日来函,我方...

19) We wish to refer to your letter of ...concerning

现复你方...月...日关于...的来信

20) In compliance with the request in your letter of ... we...

按你方...月...日来函要求,我方...

小编今天与大家一起探讨一下应用文的写作基础知识。

第一节 应用文的主题

应用文写作基础知识既有与一般文体写作的共通之处，更多的是其在写作知识运用上的独特性，只有掌握其独特性，才能正确、规范地写好应用文体。

一、主题的特点 (主题单一性、主题先行性、主题显露性)

应用文的主题就是解决问题的方法、建议。其主题是十分明确直接的，主题的确立大多不是写作者有感而发，而是应客观实际的需要，为解决实际问题而产生的，由此可以说应用文主题就是解决问题的具体方法。因此应用文的主题具有以下特点：

文学作品的主题是从生活中、从已获取的材料中提炼出来的，往往反对主题先行。而应用文主题的确立与文学作品主题的确立不同，其主题确立在全文写作之前，所谓“意在笔先”。因为应用文总是先产生了具体问题而后产生写作的需求，而解决这一问题的方法、结论往往也产生在文章写作之前;同时执笔者的写作行为往往也是被动的，是应解决问题而动笔，写作的过程更是确切地体现主题。如《国务院关于同意黑龙江省调整哈尔滨市部分行政区划的批复》一文就是为答复《调整哈尔滨市部分行政区划的请示》而写的文章，表示同意请示提出的请求事项而作，主题一定是确立在写作之前。

一般说文学作品的主题具有其复杂性，对主题的理解更呈多元化。然而应用文的主题则必须单一、明确，读者对主题的理解不允许多元，而要求理解上的同一性，这样才利于统一认识，更有利于问题的解决。如：《关于当代青年消费问题的调查报告》一文就消费观念、消费现状、消费趋势和消费结构等四个方面，展开调查，尽管涉及面广，材料较丰富，但文章紧紧围绕“当代青年消费”这一中心，内容集中，一题一议，主题单一、明确。

文学作品的主题要求含蓄、曲折，令人回味。而应用文写作就不同，要求直截了当地点明主题，表明态度，提出解决问题的措施和办法，对文章所涉及的各类问题，必须有明确的观点立场，应该怎么做，解决什么问题，达到什么目的，都要明确地表达出来。

二、主题的表现方法 (标题显旨、开头点旨、结尾点旨)

应用文主题的表达要做到明确、显露。那么怎么才能做到主题从文章中显露出来呢?下面就给大家介绍几种表现方法：

标题显旨，就是在文章的标题中直接点明主题。如《三季度物价水平再次转降，出口增速趋于稳定》，这篇经济活动分析报告的标题就直接点明了主题，让人一看就大致明白了文章的主要内容，主题十分显露。这不失为是一种使主题显现的好方法。

这种方式是在文章的开头或每一段落的开头用简短的语句陈述主题，使主题凸现出来。如《 2001 年经济形势展望》一开头就指出： “展望 2001 年，经济回升的势头还比较微弱，促进经济的持续向好仍然需要克服许多困难。” 开宗明义，点明主题。再如《靠名牌赢得市场——关于深圳市飞亚达(集团)股份有限公司的调查》一文在 “启示：现代企业必须重视实施名牌战略” 的小标题下，分三段来阐述这一问题，在每段开头用段首句点明主旨：第一段的段 首句： 实施名牌战略是提高产品质量、提升企业品味的内在要求。 第二段的段首句： 实施名牌战略是企业参与市场竞争尤其是国际市场竞争的客观需要。 第三段的段首句： 实施名牌战略是增强国家经济实力的重要手段。 在这三句主题句的提示下，每段的中心就十分明了。

这种方式是在文章的的结尾之处点明文章主题。如李政道的论文《基础、应用科学与生产三者关系》一文就是采用这一方法结尾。文章的结尾指出： “我再重复一下，没有基础学科就没有应用学科，没有应用学科就没有生产学科，三者是紧密结合在一起的。” 非常清晰地显示了主题。

三、主题的作用 (主题决定材料的选取、主题决定文种的选用、主题决定结构的安排、主题决定表达方式的选用)

第二节 应用文的材料

一、材料的特点 (材料的真实性、材料的现实和新颖性、材料的典型性)

应用文写作对材料是十分依赖的，常言道“巧妇难为无米之炊”，为了表现主题我们需要收集一系列材料，或综合或舍取运用到文章的写作之中，使主题真实立体地表现出来。应用文材料的使用除了与文学作品有共通之处外，更多地体现自身特点：

应用文在材料的选用过程中不准改变材料本身性质，必须保持材料的真实性，对材料的时间、地点、数据、事实过程及结果都不能任意改动，否则就会使材料本身的价值发生变异，导致歪曲事实的真相，弄虚作假的后果，失去应用文的主题应有的价值，不仅不能解决问题，反而于事无补。应用文要求的真实是“绝对的真实”，也就是说所有材料要确凿无误、持之有据。不仅对搜集到的材料要反复核实，在材料的解释上，也要有科学的态度，实事求是。

应用文写作是为了解决现实问题而作的即时之作，其主要的材料需选取能反映现实的新颖材料。所谓现实是指，围绕文章要解决的问题所存在的事实(数据)材料而非通过联想和推论得到的材料。如在《新的消费热点：出门旅游过年》一文中，为了陈述出门旅游过年的现状，就采用了大量的事实(数据)材料： “根据国家旅游局对江苏、广东、云南、海南、北京、福建、广西、四川、黑龙江、湖南、山东、山西等 13 个省、自治区、直辖市的调查，……今年春节期间，这些地区直接由旅行社接待的国内旅游人次比往年至少有 15 %的增长……以上 13 个省、区、市的旅行社，春节期间共接待旅游者 124 万人次，旅行社营业收入 14 亿元。” 文中采用的材料都是新近现实发生的，这是大多数应用文材料的特点。所谓新颖是指，材料本身是新近产生的，如新事实、新政策、新的统计数据、新发现的问题等和用新的角度重新审视其新意。

所谓典型性是指那些最能支持主题和说明问题的材料。典型材料可以是一个具体的事例，一些有说服力的数据和一些带有普遍性的现象。如题为《“小解放”为何俏销湖北》的市场调查报告中，在说明“优质服务获得良好口碑”这一经验时，采用了这样一则事实材料： “去年 10 月的一天傍晚，河南省郑州市某单位的一辆小解放牌车在去广州途径武汉时，在武汉黄鹤楼处出现问题，求助电话打到了该销售中心，中心经理立即亲自带队迅速赶到现场，发现该车是用户对后驱动桥端面螺丝没拧紧而发生齿轮油漏尽，导致差速器锥齿烧损。当维修人员在后半夜将修好的车交给用户时，用户激动地说虽然我们不属于该省管辖，又没带保用手册，并且问题又是因我们使用不当所致，你们还这样及时周到地服务，太让我们感动了!‘小解放走到哪服务到哪，此言不虚，以后再买车，还买‘小解放。” 这一材料就是一则很能表现主题的材料，是典型的材料。 直接获取

二、材料的选取 (获取材料的方法、间接获取、围绕主题，挖掘材料的意义、材料的使用 根据主题的需要，进行详略处理、合理安排材料，注重条理)

如何获取材料，哪些材料是应用文写作值得关注的?下面我们谈谈这个问题：

在实践之中积累材料。在自身及周围同事的工作实践中做个有心人，时刻关注有价值的事件及数据，如在工作中及时对做了什么工作、采用了什么方法、取得了什么效果、有哪些人参与等信息及时记录收集。

在观察中掌握材料。在观察时要做到实事求是，防止主观武断、先入为主，同时要全面、系统、动态地进行观察，以获取真实、广泛、完整的材料，并能把观察所得及时整理成文字，给写作提供基础。

在调查中拓展材料。个人的实践和视野总是有限的，观察也不可能做到深入细致，这样就需要走向实际、走向社会，向有关人士了解情况，做一些调查，以扩大自己的视野，获取材料上的补充。经济类的应用文，调查是必不可少的步骤，如市场调查报告，市场预测报告需在调查之后，才能动笔。

通过查阅文献资料获取材料。应用文写作材料常常从有关文件、正式出版物，以及会议资料中获取材料，为写入具体文章之用，因此大量查阅文献资料来获取材料，是应用文写作经常采用的方法。

获取材料是写作的第一步。总的来说，获取材料要求以多为好，以全为贵。材料多了，便于比较、鉴别，更有选择的余地;材料全面，观点才能不至于偏颇，因此，动笔之前，应当围绕主题，占有详尽而充实的材料。

其次，强调对感性材料的分析研究，不能停留在表面的认识上，要挖掘材料能凸现主题的一面，使其在文章中发挥挖掘主题的作用。如有这样一则材料 ： 某日，某国驻广州领事馆的外交官员去珠江三角洲某市参观，市长亲自接待，但讲不好普通话请了一个翻译，本来 10 分钟就可以讲完的话，结果用了 20 分钟。此外交官用标准的普通话问：广东不是在大力推广普通话吗么? 这则材料从不同的角度可展现不同的主题，但意义深浅不一。从较粗浅的角度看，可表现“市长不重视说普通话”的主题;进一步挖掘可表现“我们的官员素质的高低，直接关乎办公的效率”。这样的材料还可以根据主题的需要进行开拓。同学可以动动脑筋来挖掘一下。

使用材料时，要分清主次。对材料的加工整理，无非是为了突出文章的主题，加强应用文的表达效果，处理材料的详略要以此为据。突出事件特征的材料要详写，一般材料可略写;处于主体地位的材料详写，处于从属地位、过渡的材料略写;读者不熟悉的材料详写，熟悉的略写;材料之间角度相异的详写，材料之间相同的略写。

根据主题的需要，按照一定的组织形式，安排材料的先后顺序，在安排顺序时要考虑材料的主次、时间的先后、材料间的逻辑顺序、人们认识事物的规律、事物发展的过程等因素。

最后，数字材料是应用文写作中十分重要的材料，数字有时比文字材料更具体、准确、更能说明问题。因此，要注意： ⑴ 真实、准确地用好数据材料。 ⑵ 运用统计数据，展开分析论证，更好地为主题服务。 ⑶ 适当地使用统计图表。 ⑷ 变抽象的数字为具体，使其形象。如有两篇介绍乐山大佛的文字，其中一篇在介绍时用了这样一些数字： “乐山大佛身高 71 米 ，头高 14 . 7 米 ，宽 10 米 。” 这些数字看似具体清晰，但比较抽象，大佛的高大这一主题没有凸现出来。另一段文字这样写道： “佛像有三十多层楼高，耳朵有四人高，每只脚背上可以停五辆解放牌汽车，脚大拇指上，可以摆一桌酒席。” 这段文字也用了数字，但采用文字叙述的方法，使抽象的数字形象了，大佛的高大形象仿佛就在眼前，极好地体现了主题。

第三节 应用文的结构

一、应用文结构的特点 (固定性、条理性、文种不同结构不同)

应用文是经过长期写作实践，逐渐形成较固定的写作结构，以适应实际工作需要，使写作更快速，阅读更便捷，提高办事效率。特别是公文写作，其格式更规范，结构更固定。

应用文写作要求有严密的思路，表现在结构上以求清晰有条理。在写作中要根据主题的需要安排好结构。如写事件，就应按“开端——发展——结果”的顺序安排结构;写问题就应按“发现问题——分析问题——解决问题”的顺序安排结构。

凡文种都有相对稳定的结构样式，应用文写作结构安排需适应不同文体的要求。如写合同就需要将合同的条款按标的、数量、质量、价款等内容分条列项地写清楚;写通知要按目的依据、事项、执行要求的顺序安排结构。

二、常见的应用文结构模式

(一)单段式

正文内容用一个自然段来表达。用于内容少而单一，不便分开，往往采用一段文字来表达。如写在商品外包装上的说明文;公文中的函、批复，也常用一段文字来进行写作。“玉兰油”写在外包装上的说明： “经实验证明能帮助减少细纹。四星期内，肌肤重现青春光泽。请不要涂抹在眼睛及眼睑周围。如不慎入眼，即用清水彻底洗清。如有持续眼睛刺激，请向医生咨询。如有持续皮肤刺激，请停止使用。请置于儿童接触不到的地方。” 这就是单段式。

(二)两段式

正文内容用两个自然段来表达。用于内容简单，不需每层内容都分段。这种结构模式，一般用于以下几种情况：

1 .把结语部分内容和主体内容分开写，单列一个自然段，成为两段式。即行文的缘由和行文事项为一段，希望、要求等结语为一段。

2 .写作目的缘由、行文事项各为一段。

3 .在转发、发布性公文中，将发布或转发的文件名和发文意见列为一段，执行要求另为一段。

4 .在答复性公文中，将表示收到对方文件为一段，而答复事项为另一段。

5 .没有开头、结语部分，将主体内容列为两段。

(三)三段式

这是短篇应用文比较规范的常用模式。正文把写作目的缘由、写作事项、结尾分为三段来写。

(四)多段式

它用于内容较多，篇幅较长的应用文书，总共有四个自然段以上。一般是开头概述基本情况、说明原因、目的、依据，结尾单独成段或省略结尾，主体部分内容分为若干个段，各部分不分条列项。如短文式的说明书、简单的市场预测报告等。内容多、篇幅长的应用文书，一般不宜采用多段式，宜采用将主体内容分成几部分，用小标题或总分条文式。

(五)条款式

用分条列项的形式安排结构。规章制度、计划、合同和职能部门的一些文书，较多使用这种形式。全文从头到尾都用条款组织内容，给人以眉目清楚、排列有序的印象。

(六)表格式

这是应用文不同于其他文体所特有的一种结构形式。表格式通常有以下两种形式：

1 .由职能部门或企事业管理部门或企业如银行、厂矿、公司等单位，事先印制好表格式的规范文本，将有关内容分项列出，各项之后留下空白，让使用或合作单位和个人按规定填写。表格文书一般要注明填写要求和注意事项。如申请专利、商标的文书、合同、税务征管文书、财务会计文书，大都采用这种形式。

2 .作者单位临时制作的表格式文书。根据写作目的，将有关统计数据编制成表格。

三、应用文结构的基本内容及写法

(一)标题

应用文写作的标题，要求充分体现主题，有的标题还有规范要求。这与文学作品形式多样、灵活多变的标题有着明显的不同。应用文的标题通常有三种形式：

1 .公文式标题。这类标题程式性强，表达直接而少变化，主要用于公文。

2 .新闻式标题。新闻式标题通常又称文章式标题，又可分为单标题和双标题两种形式。单标题有的直接提出文章主题，如 “小商品也要高质量” 、 “做好纪检信息工作实践与体会” ;有的概述主要内容，如 “积极财政政策仍将持续至少两到三年的时间” ;有的在标题中提出问题，如 “日本经济何时走出低谷” 。

双标题是有正题和副题的双行标题，其中正题符合单标题的要求，更多地突出文章主题，副题则对正题起补充作用，常常说明应用文的内容范围和文种，如 “靠名牌赢得市场——关于深圳市飞亚达(集团)股份有限公司的调查” 、 “繁重 · 活跃 · 稳定 · 上升—— 2002 年国内市场发展趋势” 。

3 .论文式标题。这类标题或表达文章的观点和内容或点明所论述范围。如 “核心竞争力——企业制胜的根本” 、 “双峰县农村劳动力转移的调查与思考” 。

(二)开头

应用文写作开头担负着统领全文，揭示主题或全文的作用。开头要求开门见山，直接显露，常见的开头方式有：

1 .概述式。这种方式要求用简明扼要的语言，围绕主题介绍有关情况或背景。如一篇题为《加强民族团结 繁荣民族事业》的总结开头： “山东省青州市是少数民族居住比较集中的地区之一，有回、满、蒙古、朝鲜、土家等 27 个民族， 2 . 6 万余人，占全市人口的 2 .5 %。近年来，青州市积极加强 民族团结，繁荣民族事业，有力地推动了全市经济和社会各项事业全面发展。” 就是用了这一开头方式。报告、会议纪要、调查报告等文种也常用此开头方式。

2 .说明依据式。开头引用上级指示精神或有关法律，常以“根据”、“按照”、“遵照”等词语领起下文。如《关于粮食政策性财务挂帐停息的意见》一文的开头： “根据中共中央、国务院关于妥善解决粮食财务挂帐问题的一系列文件精神，结合各地清理粮食财务挂帐的实际情况，经过反复研究，对粮食财务挂帐实行停息的有关政策提出如下意见”。 这种方式常在通知、批复、通告、规章等文种的开头使用。

3 .陈述目的式。开头以简明的语言，直接说明写作的目的和意义，常用介词“为”、“为了”领起下文。如《国务院关于成立经济贸易办公室的通知》一文开头写道： “为适应加快改革开放和经济建设的新形势，加强宏观调控和协调日常经济工作，国务院第 100 次常务会议决定，……”。

4 . 说明原因式。开头常用“由于”、“鉴于”、“因为”等词领起下文，也可以简述发文原因，再引出写作目的。如《广州市建设用地起坟通告》的开头 “因建设的需要，经核准，市公安局天河区分局征用天河区东圃镇堂下乡(村)土地。为便利建设工程顺利进行，……”。

5 .议论式。开头用议论的表达方法，表达作者的看法，提出观点。如《现代化企业需要什么样的复合型会计人才》的开头： “随着社会主义市场经济的不断深入发展，会计工作也不断拓宽，过去那种单一的会计知识结构已远远不能适应会计管理工作的需要，会计人员作为企业经济管理的重要的专门人才，必须相应地提高自身的专业素质，改变原来那种单一的知识结构，以适应市场经济发展的需要。因此，培养造就一批复合型会计人才是当前会计工作的一项重要任务，也是企业发展向现代化迈进的关键所在。”

6 .提问式。先提出问题，然后引出下文。这种开头方式能引起读者的注意和思考。这种开头方式常见于调查报告、学术论文的写作。如《核心竞争力——企业制胜的根本》的开头： “在激烈的市场竞争中，一个企业制胜的根本是什么?为什么有的企业能长盛不衰，有的企业只能成功一时，而有的企业却连一点成功的机会都没有?笔者一直为这些问题所困惑。” 这篇论文就是采用了提问式开头。

(三)结尾

应用文的结尾讲究言尽意尽，不留“余味”，不添“蛇足，更不能草率。常用的结尾方法有：

1 .强调式。对文中提出的问题作强调说明，以引起重视。

2 .结论式。对文中的主要观点或问题，加以归纳总结或略作重申，以加深印象。

3 .说明式。对与主体内容有关但性质不同的问题或事项作补充交代、说明，以保证内容的完整性，如公文结尾交待施行日期、执行范围、传达对象、与该文规定不符的原有规定如何处置等;论文结尾处说明尚未解决而应另作讨论的问题。

4 .号召式。提出希望，发出号召，展望未来。如公文的通报、市场预测、计划等常用这种结尾形式。如《关于成都矿产综合利用研究所值班人员勇斗歹徒先进事件的通报》一文结尾就是采用这一方法。

5 .建议式。针对设定的施行目标、产生的问题提出意见和建议。

除了上述几种结尾方式，还有请求式、责令式、表态式等不一一列举，有的则没有结尾，自然收尾。

第四节 应用文的表达方式及语言

一、表达方式

应用文写作中常用的表达方式只有叙述、说明、议论三种，而描写、抒情一般在广告、调查报告、经济新闻等文体中偶尔使用。我们现在只谈叙述、说明、议论这三种方式在应用文体中的使用。

(一)叙述

叙述这种表达方式是应用文体写作常用的一种方法。有的以叙述事实作立论的依据，如通报、经济活动分析报告、市场调查、总结等;有的以叙述事实为依据进行决策和预测;有的对事实作如实反映和记载，如会议纪要、合同、诉讼公文等。叙述在应用文写作中有如下几个特点：

1 .以记事为主

应用文写作反映现实，解决问题，与记叙文以写人为主不同，而是多以记事为主，如反映经济活动状况、市场情况、经济信息、介绍典型经验、阐述事情原委、总结工作等，采用叙述来记事。

2 .叙述客观真实

文学作品的叙述可作艺术加工，所述事件不必是客观存在的事实。但应用文不同，其所述事实，必须客观真实，不允许对事实夸大或缩小，更不能歪曲事实或主观臆造，否则就会导致决策失误，使经济活动混乱，使企业和消费者蒙受损失。如市场预测所依据的市场事实失真，那么预测结果必定出现很大的偏差，从而导致决策的失误。

3 .以概括叙述为主

文学作品需通过叙述细节来塑造人物形象，展开故事情节。而应用文写作则是通过叙述为文章得出正确结论作依据。如通报的叙述是为后面阐述事实的性质，达到对这一事件学习，鉴戒或引起注意的目的而服务的。叙述本身不是全文的核心(主题)所在，因而应用文写作的叙述大多用简明扼要的概括叙述。

4 .多用顺叙

为使应用文条理清晰，让读者掌握理解所述的客观事实，在文章中常常使用顺叙。在叙述时有的按照时间顺序，有的以事件发展的顺序，有的按人们认识事物的客观过程来叙述，这样叙述能使较复杂的事实头绪清晰，一目了然。

5 .语言较平实

应用文的语言要求平铺直叙，较少使用修饰性词语，笔法较朴实。因为应用文语言是需把握问题实质，直接表现主题，为主题服务，而不像文学作品那样文笔的曲折，主题的含蓄 , 讲究语言的修饰性、词语的色彩，常用修辞手法，应用文的实用性决定了其语言的简洁朴实。

(二)说明

说明这一表达方式在应用文中是与叙述相结合的，起到对客观事物真实介绍说明的作用，有很多文种都依赖这一表达方式。如说明书、报告、请示、经济活动分析、合同、自荐书等，都离不开说明。说明在应用文写作中表现出以下几个特征：

1 .说明客观、科学

通过说明真实客观地反映事物的真实面貌，本质特征，这就要求说明需客观、科学、严肃。

2.多用数字进行说明

说明不但要客观真实，而且要做到准确无误，用数字进行说明就能起到这样的作用。因此在应用文写作中就少不了数字进行说明，特别是需要反映量的变化时，数字的作用就尤为突出。

3.综合使用多种说明方法

在说明方法使用的过程中，常常是多种方法结合同时使用。如数字说明和比较说明、定义说明和分类说明等说明方法结合运用，这样可以把事物说得更具体、准确。

(三)议论

应用文写作常常用议论的方式进行评论、分析，探寻事物发展的规律，阐述主题。其议论有以下几个特点：

1 .重数据、重材料

与议论文的议论不同，应用文中议论不是靠言论的雄辩，而是需要无可辩驳的事实材料和数据为依据，正可谓“事实胜于雄辩”。应用文反对不切实际的议论。如在一篇《三季度物价水平》的经济活动报告中，对该季度的物价水平转降的情况分析是这样议论的：“ 三季度，居民消费价格总水平同比上涨 0.8 %，涨幅比二季度缩小 0.8 个百分比，其中 9 月份已转为下降，同比下降 0.1 %;社会商品零售价格总水平同比下降 0.9 %，已连续 4 个月处于下降之中，并且降幅在不断增大;工业品出厂价格指标同比下降 1.7 %，降幅比二季度增大 1.4 个百分点。各种物价总水平再次全面转降在很大程度上是外生性涨价因素所致，但这也清晰地表明困扰我国经济的紧缩和总需求不足问题并未真正消除，而只是被外生性涨价因素掩盖起来了。一旦政策支持力度减弱，经济就会再次下降。” 这段文字在议论时采用了大量的数据材料，材料充分，议论切合实际，得出的结论有说服力。

2 .常与说明、叙述等方式结合使用

夹叙夹议、说议结合，是应用文中的议论特点。应用文写作往往不单独进行完整的议论，议论依赖于所叙述的事实和说明的现象，是在事实和现象的基础上进行议论。如在一篇《靠名牌赢得市场》的调查报告中，文章是这样写的：“ 90 年代初，瑞士、日本各种品牌的钟表开始大规模进入中国市场。面对严峻的市场形势，公司决策层认真研究数量和质量的辩证关系，决定借鉴国外钟表工业发展的成功经验，走‘少而精的道路，即以提高‘单位面积的产出取胜，生产高技术含量、高附加值的产品，在工艺上精益求精，把人、财、物集中用到刀刃上，争取在最短的时间里后来居上。 ”这段文字采用夹叙夹议方法，材料具体，剖析深入，语言生动活泼。

二、 语言运用

应用文的语言与文学创作的语言有较大的差别，其主要特点是：

(一)程式化

程式化的语言是写作实践的产物，是应用写作实践中常用的习惯用语，这种语言已经约定成俗，得到广泛的认可和共识。学习掌握这种语言的关键是表达要简明合乎规范。程式化的语言根据功用不同，可大致分为下列几方面内容：

(二)书面化

应用文的写作性质决定其语言风格表现为简明、规范、严肃，而书面语能较好达到这一语言要求，因而应用文语言大多采用书面语进行书写。如《中共中央关于接受宋庆龄同志为中国共产党正式党员的决定》中写道： “她一贯是共产党最亲密的战友，是中国各族人民包括台湾同胞和海外侨胞衷心敬爱的领袖之一，是爱国主义、民主主义、国际主义和共产主义的伟大战士，是保卫世界和平事业久经考验的前驱，是全体中国少年儿童的慈爱的祖母……。” 中的“同胞”、“战士”、“祖母”等用的都是书面语，改为口语就不合适了。

(三)常用数词

应用文写作常用数字来说明问题，因此经常大量使用数字。在分析问题、说明问题时，运用数字，可以比较明确地表达事物的状态，从而加深对该事物的认识。如一个企业管理是否先进，只有运用同行业国内外的对比数字才能说明。邓小平同志在《关于科学和教育工作的几点意见》中，讲到我国科研人员少、队伍小时用了三个数字：美国科研队伍有 120 万人;前苏联是 90 万人;我们是 20 多万人。这三个数字勾勒出三个国家科研队伍的基本状况，十分清晰地说明了我国科研人员少、队伍小的现状。应用文常用的数字有以下几种：

(四)运用应用文语言的要求

1 .叙述语言需简洁、概括。

在进行叙述时要用最简短的语言陈述特定时空的信息，通过概述事实的主干，而不应纠缠于耗时费事的具体情节之中。如有一篇表彰通报是这样写的： “ ××× 在科学研究上走的是一条不平凡的路，他全心扑在科研上，而忘记了个人的事。有一次孩子病了，他妻子在家里忙着护理，打电话到 ××× 单位叫他赶回家把孩子送医院治疗。 ××× 接了电话答应后，电话筒一放他又埋进了实验。他妻子在家中左等右等等不到他回家，急得像热锅上的蚂蚁，又往 ××× 单位打电话，这时 ××× 正潜心做实验，电话铃声都没听见了。他妻子又急又气只好打 120 急救中心的电话，才把孩子送往医院治疗。他的小孩高烧退后，还在问他妈妈：‘爸爸又出差了吗?或者还没下班……” 该公文将 ××× 先进事迹作为表彰决定的理由时，不懂得以最简洁的文字陈述特定时空的信息，通过快叙概述事实的主干，而仍用记叙文慢叙写话的方法表述公文事实，结果摆脱不了耗时费字的情节纠缠，公文内容冗长，不简明扼要，失去了公文的品味，违背了文约事丰的要求。

2 .语言表达要严谨、有分寸。

应用文语言表达是否严谨有分寸，关系到对问题的判断、处理是否合理、准确。如一份处理决定，其中这样写道： “李××在 1998 年 9 月间收受×××工程公司的 50 万元的巨款。案发后李××还和×××工程公司经理及会计订立攻守同盟，妄图掩盖其过错”。 文中“过错”一词有失严谨，表述与事实不符，李××的行为不是过失而是严重犯罪。

3 .数据语言书写要规范、清晰、准确。

具体要做到以下几点：( 1 )在同一篇文章中序数数字的体例要统一，不能体例混杂。如 “农历初一至初 7 放假” 一句，前后数字体例书写不规范，需统一书写。同时分数与小数的体例也必须统一。如 “该县企业所得税收入完成 95.6 万元，比去年增长百分之十三 ” 也出现了混写的错误。( 2 )表示公元世纪、年代、年、月、日、时刻均需使用阿拉伯数字 , 而星期则用汉字。如” 21 世纪 ” 、“ 90 年代 ，“星期五”。( 3 )邻近两个数字并列表示概数时，应该用汉字书写，数字与数字之间不能用顿号将其隔开。如“ 3 、 4 天 ” 应写成”“三四天”，“七、八种”的“七”和“八”之间不能用顿号隔开。

4 .朴实、简洁。

应用文的语言要求准确无误，朴实无华，简洁有力，不像有些文学作品用华丽多彩的语言去描摹事物，呈现事物的形象，而是提倡朴素美，简洁美。如一篇公文是这样写的： “ 2000 年某天深夜，乌云密布，雷声隆隆，大雨倾盆而下，刹那间，美丽富饶的鱼米之乡被一片汪洋吞没。接连几天如注的暴雨，淹没了田野、冲毁了村庄和工厂，交通、电力、通讯一度中断。这百年不遇的特大洪涝灾害，给我乡造成了不可估量的损失。……” 这段语言就违反了应用文语言的写作要求，带有浓厚的文学色彩，不够朴实、简洁，也有失真实。

well-known 众所周知 important 重要的 pollution 污染

focus 面对 benefit 益处 development 发展

society 社会 knowledge 知识 necessary 必要的

opinion 观点 harm 危害 exception 例外

advantage 优点 disadvantage 缺点 serious严峻的

measures 措施 solve 解决 overcome 克服

increase 增加 decrease减少 deny 否认

prefer 喜欢 example 例子 addicted 沉迷

useful 有用的

play an important role in our life在生活中扮演重要角色

with the development of our society 随着社会的发展

bring a lot of benefits 带来很多益处

everything has two sides 任何事物都具有两面性

Become more and more serious 变得越来越严峻

on the contrary 相反 take measures 采取措施

solve this problem 解决这个问题

the best way to 最好的方法

overcome the difficulties 克服困难

be faced with 面对

No one can deny the fact that 没有人能够否认这个事实。。。

in favour of 赞同 支持 For example 例如

become addicted to the Internet 沉迷于网络 All in all 总之

come to the conclusion 得出结论

As far as I am concerned that 就我而言

There is no doubt that 毫无疑问

in a right way 正确的方法

waste a lot of time 浪费时间

导语：古人云："不积跬步，无以致千里，不积小流，无以成江河。"要写好作文，语言材料和生活感悟的积累是基础。下面是高中生写作基础指导，欢迎参考！

一，阅读与摘记

这里的阅读不仅仅是指语文课内的阅读，更不等同于语文课本的学习，还包括大量的课外阅读。只凭借语文课内的阅读，是难以满足积累语言材料的需要的。早在50多年前，叶圣陶先生就指出："国文课本为了要供同学试去理解，试去揣摩，分量就不能太多，篇幅也不能太长;太多太长了，不适宜做细琢细摩的研讨工夫。但是要养成一种习惯，必须经过反复的历练。单凭一本语文书，是够不上说反复的历练的。所以必须在国文教本以外再看其他的书，越多越好。" 要进行大量的课外阅读，首先要有阅读的条件，同学们可在图书室借书，也可以自己订课外书，或者同学之间互相交流。对于一本好书，反复诵读，在读中自悟，在读中自得，记住其中的要点，自己的感受以及好词佳句，古诗名句和名人名言等，分门别类地摘在笔记本上。再对这本书其他内容进行快速的浏览，得到想要的要点或具体的信息，就停下来，把它们记下。读完全书以后，回顾全文内容，根据要点列成提纲，从而整体把握。而我校的读书笔记，这个时候是最能派上用场的了。

二，观察与思考

作文源于生活。我们身边每天都在发生着不计其数的新鲜事，可惜，有些同学对此视而不见，听而不闻。可见，无材可写的根源是不善于观察。同学们观察时应调动一切感官，充分运用视觉，听觉，触觉，味觉，嗅觉，进行细致的观察。对观察到的现象，要给自己多提几个问题，多问几个为什么，并勇于向别人请教，要进一步分析，综合，比较，判断，以获取更全面更深刻的认识，觉得很有收获的就记下来。 同学掌握了大量的语言材料与生活素材，就为写作做好了准备。剩下要做的，就是实践，实践，再实践，也就是反复多次地进行习作训练。

三，每日一忆，每周一记

坚持写日记确实能有效地提高同学的作文能力，但也会给同学造成较重的课业负担。"每日一忆"改"记"为"忆"，只要求同学在入睡前，把一天中经历的事回想一下，把有意义的事情挑选出来，想想可以写成什么作文。第二天在课堂上交流，比比谁是生活中的有心人，最有"慧眼"，最会发现。如果碰到自己特别感兴趣又有把握写好的素材，就写成周记。 同时还要注意，积累要持之以恒，锲而不舍。英国著名科幻小说作家儒勒·凡尔纳为了积累写作材料，曾写了几百本读书笔记，摘录了两万多张卡片。

四，作文的修改

作文自己改，进步更显著。好作文是改出来的，"改错先于求美"，作文之道总是"先求其通次求其美"，同学学会自改作文则更是有益一生的事。 写作上必须努力通过各种途径，培养同学的主体意识，提高同学自主作文的能力和创新能力。兴趣是最好的老师，同学一旦对作文产生了浓厚的兴趣，就会"乐此不疲"。自由是作文的生命，让同学敞开自己的心怀，拥抱自己的天空，写出感情，写出个性。通过写作，从现实走向未来，从未知走向已知。

现在是各大学校放寒假的时间，年后要参加中考的同学们要注意了，趁着假期要好好恶补一下英语哦，下面是小编收集整理的中考英语作文写作指导，希望对您有所帮助。

最近几年的中考英语当中，很多省市已经摆脱了单一作文模式，采用一大一小两个作文相结合的模式。例如，去年辽宁沈阳中考英语作文就是一个小作文，应用文-写假条，加上一个大作文，汉语提示作文构成。今年，北京中考英语作文也将是两个，一个看图作文在加上一个提示作文构成。这一讲，我们先来学习一下看图作文的写法。

看图作文要求考生按照所给图画，通过合理的联想将一组画面的内容正确地表达出来。看图作文与其他类型作文的不同之处在于，它除了要求考生有英语语言表达能力，还要求考生有观察能力、分析能力和想象能力。

写好看图作文应注意的事项1、结合文字提示，正确理解图意。一般情况下，看图作文在提供图画的同时也附带有简要的文字提示，我们可以利用文字提示去正确地理解图意，得到要点。切忌孤立地看图而忽视文字提示。

写作从图画的细节出发。所谓细节，就是指图画中的人物、事件、地点、环境、时间、动作等。依据图画细节，就可以把图画的内容用英语具体而生动地表达出来了。

例题分析(例题)

同学们，看到下面的四幅图片及相应的报道后，你感到最担忧的是哪两种情形?请简述你担忧的理由并提出建议或希望。

要求：

⒈ 从所给素材中任选两种情形进行阐述，不可多选或少选。

⒉ 条理清楚，意思连贯，语句通顺，标点正确;

⒊ 词数 80 ～ 100。

参考词汇： 建议 suggest v. suggestion n.

气体 gas n. 污染 pollution n.

THE POLLUTIONS

① One third of the worlds people dont have enough clean water.

② More and more diseases are caused by polluted air.

③ People are disturbed quite often by kinds of noises.

④ Every person in our city makes about 1.8 kilos of rubbish every day.

这道看图作文题，主题和图片连接得不是很紧密。从考查的形式上来说，虽是看图，实质上却属于提示性的作文。这个作文应该结合个人的观点，选择的余地还是很大的。做这个题应该注意几个方面：

1、认真读题。注意，题目虽然给了四幅图，但是却只要求写其中的两个就行。

2、题意要求的是阐述个人的观点-最担忧的两种情形。而不是对图片进行描述。

3、结合所给的提示。提示中，对每种污染都进行了阐述，考生可以这些描述进行写作。

4、注意字数，语法，拼写等，避免错误。

下面是两个例文，大家可以参考一下。

One possible version:

The environment is becoming worse and worse. There are many kinds of pollution I worry about. The most serious two are water pollution and air pollution, because people cant live healthily with dirty water and polluted air, nor can animals. More and more diseases are caused by polluted air.

I think factories should not pour dirty water into the river directly or produce more waste gas. Wed better go on foot or by like instead of by car, because more cars mean more waste gas. We should make our world more and more beautiful.

Another possible version:

The first fact I worry about is noise pollution. People cant sleep well if there is too much noise. Thats why so many people prefer to live in the countryside rather than live in the noisy city. I suggest all the factories and cars shouldnt make terrible noises. If they make terrible noise that isnt allowed, they will be fined, and we can also produce the cars which cant make terrible noise.

The other pollution is rubbish pollution. If everyone makes so much rubbish, one day we may live in a world filled with rubbish. Some people throw the waste paper about. I suggest rubbish should be put into different kinds of dustbins or paper bags.

下面，我们来看看这道题的评分标准。一般来说，各地的评分标准都和下面的这个标准差不多。这个最高的标准，实际上也就是我们写作的目标。

评分标准：

1. 内容完整，语句流畅，无语法错误，书写规范，给9-10分;

2. 内容较完整，语句较流畅，基本无语法错误，书写较规范，给6-8分;

3. 内容不完整，语句欠流畅，语法错误较多，书写较规范，给3-5分;

4. 只写出个别要点，语法错误较多，书写欠规范，只有个别句子可读或不知所云，给0-2分。

看图作文不可小视。希望大家掌握答好这种题型的要点，并积累词汇。

Each years Arbor Day across the country will be massive tree-planting activities, because of afforestation greening and beautifying the home, not only can also at the same time expanding forest resources, prevent water loss and soil erosion, protecting farmland, regulating climate, and promote economic development, and so on, is a grand project of contemporary, benefiting future. But the meaning of the Arbor Day is not everyone want to plant a tree in the Arbor Day this day, but through the Arbor Day again come, make us more attention of greening, the problems of environmental protection.

As we all know: the earth is in arid and desert area covered are increased year by year, but we seem to feel these are far from us, but in our side have such a group of people: they are quietly for planting green the earth, they are called "hero", some are called "contemporary yu gong", some even are foreign friends... They plant trees in their practical action to tell us, was the event of all mankind, is benefiting future generations of the ten thousand.

Hundreds of millions of years ago, the earth belongs to the animals with lush plants, everywhere full of vitality, full of green, however, IQ is far more human than the other animals, plants like enchanted decreased dramatically. That is because the human in order to build houses, caused by the cutting down trees. Have a plenty of because business needs, large teams of cut down the trees to set aside space, used to build the building. Because many people without authorization, cut down trees and trees, so nature was damaged.

The disadvantages of cutting down trees a lot. We all know trees can be recycled carbon dioxide, if a large number of cut down trees, trees will sharply reduce the number of, we cant get exhaled carbon dioxide cycle. Lush trees can stop the sandstorm, two years before Beijing encountered sandstorms, the entire city was shrouded by sand that is because of the lack of protection in the trees.

Trees are the earths lungs, I hope everyone can protect the forest, protection of trees, green make urban life add a minute! Protect trees is to protect the earth is to protect our humanity!

But for all of us, the meaning of the Arbor Day is not just as simple plant a tree. Arbor Day to express meaning not only for us is to plant more trees, but to cultivate citizens to take good care of our natural, low carbon a philosophy of life.

Arbor Day if there are no conditions to plant trees, we can do from daily life and the same effect to plant trees. Such as a piece of paper with a pair of disposable chopsticks, less waste less and less an air-conditioner and so on. The concept of low carbon, saving itself is beneficial to the progress of the society, the protection of the trees. Only our demand for trees, trees cut down will be less, then the love will be more and more trees. Arbor Day, what are you waiting for, from now on, since you have come together to love nature, low carbon a day!

每年的植树节全国各地都会大规模开展植树活动，因为植树造林不仅可以绿化和美化家园，同时还可以起到扩大山林资源、防止水土流失、保护农田、调节气候、促进经济发展等作用，是一项利于当代、造福子孙的宏伟工程。但是植树节的意义不是在于每个人都要在植树节这天去种一棵树，而是通过植树节的又一次来临，使我们大家更加的关注绿化、环保的问题。

众所周知：地球正在沙化，沙漠的覆盖面积正在逐年的增加——可我们似乎觉得这些离我们还很远，但是在我们的身边有这样的一群人：他们在默默无闻地为这片大地播种着绿色，他们有的被称为“英雄"、有的被称为“当代愚公”，有的甚至是外国友人……他们用他们的实际行动告诉我们，植树是全人类的大事，是造福子孙万代的伟业。

几亿年前，地球归动物所拥有的时候植物繁茂，到处生机勃勃，充满了绿色，但是，智商远远高出其他动物的人类出现后，植物像被施了魔法一样的急剧减少。那是因为，人类为了建造房屋，砍伐树木所造成的。有的是因为商业需要，大批大批的砍伐树林留出空地，用来建造大楼。正因为许多人擅自砍伐树林和树木，所以大自然被破坏。

砍伐树木的坏处很多。大家都知道树木可以循环二氧化碳，如果大量砍伐树木，树木的数量就会急剧减少，我们呼出的二氧化碳无法得到循环。茂密的树木可以阻挡沙尘暴，前两年北京遭遇沙尘暴，整个城市被沙子所笼罩这也是因为缺少树木的保护所造成的。

树是地球的肺，我希望每个人都能保护树林、保护树木，让都市的生活添一分绿色!保护树木就是保护地球就是保护我们人类!

但是对于我们大家来说，植树节的意义并不仅仅是种一棵树那么简单。植树节向我们表达的意义不仅是要多种植树木，而是要培养我们广大市民爱护自然、低碳生活的一种理念。

植树节如果没有条件去种树，我们从日常生活中也可以做到和种树一样的效果。比如少用一双一次性筷子、少浪费一张纸、少开一次空调等等。这些节约低碳的理念，本身就有益于社会的进步，树木的保护。只有我们对树木的需求少了，树木的砍伐才会少，那么爱护树木的人就会越来越多。植树节，大家还在等什么，从现在开始，从你开始，都来一起爱护自然吧，低碳的过一天!

一、引出开头

1. It is well-known to us that…(我们都知道……)==As far as my knowledge is concerned...就我所知……)

2.Recently the problem of… has been brought into focus. ==Nowadays there is a growing concern over …(最近……问题引起了关注)

3.Nowadays(overpopulation)has become a problem we have to face.(现今，人口过剩已成为我们不得不面对的问题)

4.Internet has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life. It has brought a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.(互联网已在我们的生活扮演着越来越重要的角色，它给我们带来了许多好处但也产生了一些严重的问题)

5.With the rapid development of science and technology, more and more people believe that…(随着科技的迅速发展，越来越多的人认为……)

6.It is a common belief that…==It is commonly believed that…(人们一般认为……)

7.A lot of people seem to think that…(很多人似乎认为……)

8.It is universally acknowledged that +句子(全世界都知道……)

二、表达不同观点

1.Peoples views on…vary from person to person. Some hold that…However, others believe that…(人们对……的观点因人而异，有些人认为……然而其他人却认为……)

2.People may have different opinions on…(人们对……可能会持有不同见解)

3.Attitudes towards (drugs)vary from person to person.==Different people hold different attitudes towards(failure)(人们对待吸毒的态度因人而异)

4：There are different opinions among people as to…(对于……人们的观点大不相同)

三、表示结尾

1.In short, it can be said that…(总之，他的意思是……)

2.From what has been mentioned above, we can come to the conclusion that…(从上面提到的，我们可以得出结论……)

3.Taking all these factors into consideration, we naturally/reasonably come to the conclusion that…(把所有的这些因素加以考虑，我们自然可以得出结论……)

4.Hence/Therefore, wed better come to the conclusion that…(因此，我们最好的出这样的结论……)

5：There is no doubt that (job-hopping)has its drawbacks as well as merits.(毫无疑问，跳槽有优点也有缺点)

6.All in all, we cannot live without…, but at the same time we must try to find out new ways to cope with the problems that would arise.(总之，我们没有……无法生活，但同时我们必须寻求新的解决办法来面对可能出现的新问题)

四、提出建议

1.It is high time that we put an end to the (trend).(该是我们停止这一趋势的时候了)

2.There is no doubt that enough concern must be paid to the problem of…(毫无疑问，对……问题应予以足够重视)

3.Obviously, if we want to do something … it is essential that…(显然，如果我们想要做么事，很重要的是……)

4.Only in this way can we …(只有这样，我们才能……)

5.Spare no effort to + V (不遗余力的)

五、预示后果

1.Obviously, if we dont control the problem, the chances are that…will lead us in danger.(很明显，如果我们不能控制这一问题，很有可能我们会陷入危险)

2.No doubt, unless we take effective measures, it is very likely that …(毫无疑问，除非我们采取有效措施，否则我们很可能会……)

3.It is urgent that immediate measures should be taken to stop the situation(很紧迫的是应立即采取措施阻止这一事态的发展)

六、表示论证

1.From my point of view, it is more reasonable to support the first opinion rather than the second.(在我看来，支持第一种观点比第二种更有道理)

2.I cannot entirely agree with the idea that…(我无法完全同意这一观点)

3.As far as I am concerned/In my opinion, ...(就我来说……)

4.I sincerely believe that…==I am greatly convinced (that)子句。(我真诚地相信……)

5.Finally， to speak frankly， there is also a more practical reason why …(最后，坦率地说，还有另外一个实际的原因……)

七、给出原因

1.The reason why + 句子 ...is that + 句子(……的原因是……)

2：This phenomenon exists for a number of reasons .First, ... , Second, ... ,Third, ... . 这一现象存在有很多原因的，第一……第二……第三…

3.For one thing, ... For another thing, ... ==On the one hand, ... On the other hand…一方面……另一方面……

4.I quite agree with the statement that…The reasons are chiefly as follows. 我十分赞同这一论述，即……其主要原因如下。

八、列出解决办法和批判错误观点做法

1.The best way to solve the troubles is… 解决这些麻烦的最好办法是……

2.As far as something is concerned,…就某事而言，……

3.It is obvious that…很显然……

4.It may be true that…but it doesnt mean that…可能……是对的，但这并不意味着……

5.It is natural to believe that…but we shouldnt ignore that…认为……是自然的，但我们不应忽视……

6.There is no evidence to suggest that…没有证据表明……

九、表示好处和坏处

1.It has the following advantages.它有如下优势

2.It is beneficial/harmful to us.==It is of great benefit/harm to us.它对我们有益处

3It has more disadvantages than advantage.他有很多不足之处

十、表示重要、方便、可能

1.It is important(necessary/difficult/convenient/possible)for sb to do sth.对于某人做……是……

2.It plays an important role in our life.

十一、采取措施

1.We should take some effective measures.我们应该采取有效措施

2.We should try our best to overcome/conquer the difficulties.我们应该尽最大努力去克服困难

3.We should do our utmost in doing sth.我们应该尽力去做……

4.We should solve the problems that we are confronted/faced with.我们应该解决我们面临的困难。

十二、显示变化

1.Some changes have taken place in the past five years.过去五年发生了很多变化2.Great changes will certainly be produced in the international communications.在国际交流中理所当然会发生很多大的变化3.It has increased/decreased from…to…他已经从……增加/减少到……

4.The output of July in this factory increased by 15%.这个工厂7月份产量以增加了15%

十三、表明事实现状

1.We cannot ignore the fact that…我们不能忽略这个事实……

2.No one can deny the fact that…没人能否认这个事实……

3.This is a phenomenon that many people are interested in. 4：be closely related to ~~ (与……息息相关)

十四、进行比较

1.Compared with A, B……与A比较，B…

2.I prefer to read rather than watch TV.

十五、常用英语谚语

1.Actions speak louder than words.事实胜于雄辩

2.All is not gold that glitters.发光的未必都是金子

3.All roads lead to Rome.条条大路通罗马

4.A good beginning is half done.良好的开端是成功的一半

5.Every advantage has its disadvantage有利必有弊

6.A miss is as good as a mile.失之毫厘，差之千里

7.Failure is the mother of success.失败是成功之母

8.Industry is the parent of success.勤奋是成功之母

9.It is never too old to learn.活到老，学到老

10.Knowledge is power.知识就是力量

11.Nothing in the world is difficult for one who sets his mind to it.世上无难事，只怕有心人

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

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