英语写作基础教程课后题（汇集20篇）

每到毕业，同学们都要写毕业论文。那么本科毕业论文该怎么写呢。下面是小编收集了本科毕业论文的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

一、如何选题

确立论文题目，就是确定研究的目标，研究的主攻方向。考生在选题时应该注意以下三点：

1、论题要大小适中。题目不要太大，尽量"小题大做"。

2、注意研究角度要有新意。进行科学研究，就是找问题，没有新问题就谈不上研究，更谈不到创新，论文也就没有写作的价值，因此，确定研究方向只有从新的角度去研究、研究以前没有人研究过的问题，或者是研究过探讨过但说法不一的问题去分析论证，才会得出与众不同的结论，才会见出新意。

3、要知己知彼。在选题中，要了解本专业本领域中已有的科研成果，了解别人已经解决了什么问题，还存在什么问题;是否有争论，争论的焦点是什么;那些方面的研究较薄弱，那些方面的研究尚待开拓等等。只有知己知彼才能避免重复和雷同。

二、根据论题，拟定论文提纲

根据论文题目，充分、大量的搜集查找资料。可以通过图书馆各类藏书和情报机构电脑文件检索，国际互联网络的远程登陆、查询、浏览或阅读大量文献资料来获取论文素材。还可以进行实地调查，可通过开会、访谈、观察、统计、论证、实验学习等方法来获取资料。

收集资料主要注意三种：1、与论题直接相关的原始材料;2、他人对该论题或相关论题的研究成果材料;3、与论题有关的社会、文化、语言、历史背景等方面的材料。

收集资料既要有历史材料，也要有现实的材料;既要有正面材料，也要有反面的材料;既要有面上的材料，也要有点上的材料;只有全面地拥有材料，才有可能产生正确而富有创见的观点，展开深刻而周密的论述。

有了充分的材料，还要进行整理分析比较，"去粗取精，去伪存真"对资料进行推敲、筛选，留下最能反映本质、最有说服力的材料，同时提炼和形成自己的观点也就是论点，明确拟定论文提纲。

形成论点时应注意：1、论点要鲜明，不能含糊其词，同时论点又要辩证，不能走极端;2、论点要科学正确，不与常理和事实相背离;3、论点要准确，不要夸大其词，防止偏颇。

拟定论文提纲可以是简单提纲，也可以是详细提纲。简单提纲只是概括地提示论文的要点;详细提纲则是把论文的主要论点和展开部分较详细的列出来，这样写作时就能更顺利完成。

提纲可以采用标题式、提要式和图表式三种，一般标题式较为常用，用简洁的标题形式把论文各部分的内容要点概括出来，同时这些标题可直接作为论文中各部分的小标题。

三、撰写正文

正文是论文的核心部分，占据论文的主要篇幅，是提出问题和解决问题的过程。是作者理论水平和创造能力的集中体现，它决定着论文水平的高低和质量。

论文的正文一般包括三大部分：绪论、本论和结论。

绪论是论文的开头部分。主要讲清研究的动机、写作的理由、目的和意义、提出问题、概述内容、明确中心论点等。一般要求语言简洁扼要，开门见山，引人注目。也可以简要交代确定选题的过程和有关背景材料，目的是为了使读者更好地了解全文的旨要。

本论是论文的主体，要求以充分有力的材料阐述观点，条理要清晰，逻辑要严密，要求内容扎实、丰厚。

本论主要是展开论题，对论点进行分析论证，是表达作者的见解和研究成果的中心部分。考生在这一部分，必须根据论题的性质正面论证，或反面批驳不同的看法，或解决别人未解决的问题，或论述新思想新发现等。在该部分中论证是极其重要的，它决定着论文的成败。

要写好这一部分应注意以下几点：1、论点是明确新颖、深刻、严肃的。论点不管是否需要论证，都必须是可以论证的。2、论点必须有材料的支撑，必须有可用来证明使其成立的材料。3、论证必须根据论题的需要选择不同的论文结构形式，不同的论证结构形式，决定了本论部分的结构。4、论证逻辑要严密。合乎逻辑的论证，别人是无法驳倒的。

结论是论文全文的总结，总体的结论，是全篇论文中分析、论证的问题综合性概括，是论文的精华所在。内容主要讲研究结果说明了什么问题、得出了什么规律，有何创新，解决了什么理论和实际问题，还存在那些不足及质疑。还可以对自己和他人在这一领域的研究进一步提出展望，以及对有关人士致谢等内容。要求结论要完整、明确，不能含糊其词、模棱两可;不能与本论相矛盾，应与绪论呼应;对成果的评价要恰如其分，不能自鸣得意或借故贬低他人;语言应简洁、干净利落。

四、论文修改、定稿

正文初稿写好以后，考生应该多修改几遍，对整篇论文逐行逐句逐段反复推敲，检查每一个具体论点、论据、论证是否恰当有力，表达是否合乎逻辑，务求不留疑点，直到确实有说服力为止。

检查并修改初稿时应注意以下几点：1、论点与论题的一贯性;2、观点与材料的统一性;3、论文的结构层次与逻辑思维的密切性;4、论文的语言表达意思的准确性;5、文章中标点符号使用的正确性;6、采用的数据、年代、人物名及地名是否准确;引用的注释、文献参考资料的列举是否真实恰当;封面署名、装订是否工整等等。

经反复多次修改的论文，应再次送达指导老师审阅认可后，以指导老师签署同意定稿字样为止，该篇论文才算是完成了.

五、毕业论文的基本格式

一篇定稿的毕业论文的基本格式是：

(一)论文标题。

(二)作者姓名。

(三)内容摘要。一般为中文摘要，如有英文要求则要附上英文摘要。摘要应该以研究目的、研究方法、研究结果和结论，围绕主题展开，明确介绍重点。一般用200-300字高度概括全篇论文的精华。

(四)关键词。又称主题词，从论文中选出用以表示全文主题内容信息的单词或术语。一般以3-8个词以显著的字体另起一行，排在摘要的左下方。

(五)正文。1、绪论;2、本论;3、结论。

(六)参考文献。在论文主体的后面列出参考文献，目的在于表明作者的科学态度和对前人劳动成果的尊重，并方便读者去查阅参考文献之前专门列出一项"致谢"。

论文的有关各部分全部誊清后还应加上封面，如指导老师有特别要求列出论文提纲的也应一并附上后并装订成册。封面按规定格式写上论文题目、主考学校、专业全称、指导老师、作者姓名、论文完成时间等。

电影剧本，包括着三种不同的剧本，即电影文学剧本、电影分镜头剧本和电影完成台本。小编收集了电影剧本的写作基础知识，欢迎阅读。

电影剧本，包括着三种不同的剧本，即电影文学剧本、电影分镜头剧本和电影完成台本。今天，几乎任何一部发行放映了的国产影片都同时拥有这三种剧本。就一部影片所拥有的这三种剧本的内容而言，是大致一样的，但它们是由影片不同职务的创作人员完成的，而且在影片制作的不同阶段上出现，发挥着不同的作用。

一 、电影文学剧本

电影文学剧本的创作活动，是一部影片总体创作过程的第一个环节。它是由电影编剧来完成的。在影片的全部创作人员中，编剧是第一个接触生活素材的人，是他最先从生活中获得启示、灵感、冲动和思想，对素材进行分析、选择、加工、提炼，使之成为一部影片特定的题材，构思出人物和情节，并组织成一个完整统一的格局，设计出与内容相应的艺术形式的。

电影文学剧本是电影的基础，它对未来影片的主题、人物、情节、结构、以及风格、样式等等，都有明确的规定。导演在把一个电影文学剧本实现在银幕上的时候，对上述内容通常是无法作根本改动的。例如他不可能把在文学剧本中本来是顺序讲下来的故事改成插叙或回叙式的结构;他也不可能把一个喜剧剧本导演成一部悲剧。除非在拍摄之前他重新改写电影文学剧本，而这样的作法反而更加说明文学剧本乃"一剧之本"了。

电影文学剧本是一部影片成功的保障。一个导演只是在拥有一个好剧本之后才有可能组织创作班子，展开他的工作;一个电影厂的领导部门只有在审定了电影文学剧本并对它的思想艺术质量做出充分估价之后，才有可能下达生产命令，投放摄制经费。

二 、电影分镜头剧本

又常被称为导演台本或导演剧本。

电影是由一个个场景和一个个镜头组成的。导演在拿到满意的文学剧本之后，就要作一些更为具体细致的拍摄计划，比如这一段戏用多少镜头拍，这些镜头是从什么角度、什么距离、什么方式(推、拉、摇、移……等)去拍。在这个剧本中，哪些戏可以在同一个景里拍摄?哪些戏可以在同一个季节里拍摄?等等。所有这一切，在文学剧本中通常规定的并不是十分明确，有些问题甚至根本不去规定它(例如不规定拍摄的镜位、景别)，所以导演要以电影文学剧本为依据，在电影分镜头剧本中把它们制定出来。只有这样，摄制组全体人员才能根据分镜头剧本的十分具体的指示，着手自己的工作。

分镜头剧本的写作方式因导演的习惯而不同。有的导演喜欢自己单独来干，有的导演则喜欢同它的主要创作人员(摄影师、美工师、录音师、化妆师、道具师……)一齐讨论研究，最终把它制定下来。

三、 完成台本

又常被称作镜头记录本。这是在整部影片拍完之后，由场记完成的工作。导演在拍片过程中并不总是按照分镜头剧本进行。他经常灵机一动地改变自己在分镜头剧本中订下的方案，作一些增删改动。完成台本的任务就是把拍成并定了稿的影片中一切技术、艺术内容，原原本本地记录下来，并详细写明每个镜头的呎数。每卖出一个影片拷贝，都附上一册完成台本。这样，电影理论工作者可以把它作为一种研究资料，比如通过它与文学剧本、分镜头剧本的对比，看看其间作了哪些改动，琢磨一下改动的原由。电影放映部门可以根据它对拷贝作检查，看看它的损坏程度，并据此进行修复。最后，我想说明一点：在口语中，我们又常常习惯地把电影文学剧本简称为电影剧本。在这本书中，我们也认同这种习惯式的说法，把电影文学剧本称为电影剧本

电影剧本的文字形式

可以肯定地说，电影剧本不象写信或打电报那样有个固定的文字形式。它的文字形式甚至比话剧剧本更自由。譬如话剧剧本大约总是先在起首写上时间，地点，人物表之类，然后再写内容----台词，和写在台词缝隙里，用括号括起来的情景说明。电影剧本却没有这一套成规。一个电影剧作家可以根据自己的喜好习惯或剧本内容的需要，决定采用什么样的文字形式。在此，我只能根据一种约定俗成的习惯，把电影剧本的文字形式粗分为两大类。

一 、可读性较强的剧本

这种类型的剧本在苏联和我国较为流行。它们的文字形式大都有如下几个特点：(1)剧本不但是可供拍摄的(习惯上称为"可拍性")，而且也很注意文字语言的修辞和文采。它既为导演拍摄提供了基础，又能成为一种普通读者直接阅读欣赏的文字读物。例如《甲午风云》、《红色娘子军》、《归心似箭》、《巴山夜雨》等等;我国已经翻译出版的苏联电影剧本《夏伯阳》、《红莓》、《恋人曲》等等，即便作为读物阅读，它们所给予人的审美快感也不亚于小说。(2)往往以场景的时空变化来划分剧本的文字段落，但不在每次时空转换的时候标明时间，地点之类。而是通过对情节的描述自然而然地把那些内容体现出来。这样就可以使读者在阅读时保持住情绪的连贯性，不被"5.县城火车站。寒冷的冬夜。"之类的文字打断。例如《夏伯阳》中的这一段：

小县城的火车站上，停着客车。司令部车厢的车窗里，灯火辉煌。传来断续的铜号声，火车头调度的汽笛声，缓冲器的铿锵声，挂车员的口笛声…… 在司令部华丽的车厢里，一个穿着卡别列夫中尉军服的军官站在一大幅标着战线的地图前面。

如果按照镜头记录式剧本的写法，这两段前边都会标明时间，地点，比如第二段文字起首可能专用一行文字写上："6.司令部车厢内景。夜。" 甚至有这样一些剧本，编剧为了不打断读者在阅读时情绪上的连贯性，索性不以场景的时空转换来划分文字的段落，而是以情节发展相对完整的阶段来划分。例如美国电影剧本《克莱默夫妇》在同一文字自然段落中写下了一系列不同时空中发生的场面：先写父亲特德带儿子在公园里玩，同女邻居聊天，再写他在办公室给儿子打电话的情景，而后又写俩人一同在家中用晚餐…… (3) 不对拍摄技术作明确的规定(比如注明什么"特写"、"推"、"淡出"之类)，而是通过对艺术形象的直接描写把那些内容暗示出来。例如苏联电影剧本《应该为她辩护》(又译《辩护词》)的开头这样写道：

熙熙攘攘的大街上，站着一位面目清秀的青年，他身体斜倚、臂肘撑住铁栅栏，正在等待什么人。我们从裁缝店里偷偷地注视着他，仔细地打量他，简直出了神。那女裁缝干脆凑在玻璃窗前看。后来，她终于转过身来对我说：

这段文字虽未写明用什么具体方法拍摄，但有经验的导演却不难想象出摄影机的拍摄位置。例如被我加了着重号的那句话，暗示出摄影机是由屋内对准街窗方向拍摄的，而且会出现女裁缝的近景。最后一句则暗示出境头里该出现正试穿衣服的女主角了。这样的写法有一定的好处，它可以使导演能动地发挥自己的创造性，也不使读者因被那些技术术语干扰而破坏了阅读时的情绪。

二、 可读性不强的剧本

这类剧本在西方国家和日本比较流行。它们大致有如下几个正好与前一类相反的特点：(1)编剧把提供导演拍摄作为自己唯一的责任和目的，并不准备使自己的剧本成为一种文字读物。因此，多采用对动作或画面的直接白描，不追求文采，所以也就没有什么可读性。例如日本影片《裸岛》的剧本：

2. 黎明

海还在沉睡。

人也在沉睡。

晨雾中传来橹声。

一只小舢板靠近岸边。

船上有一对贫苦农民夫妇，那是千太和阿丰。

千太是个三十五、六岁动作笨拙的矮胖汉子。

阿丰是个二十六、七岁，脸色微黑肩膀很窄的妇女。

船上放着四只木桶。

两人各自用扁担挑起木桶，走上岸边。

象这样的剧本，普通读者是读不出什么味道来的。(2)以场景(有时甚至细致到以镜头)来划分文字的自然段落。在每段之首专用一行文字标明场(或镜)号，场面发生的地点、时间等等。例如上面列举过的《裸岛》中的那段文字，一开始就标明了场号和时间："2.黎明"。后面的段落又有标明地点的，如："22.梯田"、"23.干旱的大地"。而"24.海滩上的松球"就写下了镜头内容，这一文字段落是一个仅仅包括一个空镜头的场面。(3)这类剧本经常明确地从技术上规定拍摄的方法，甚至详细地对摄制组的其他创作人员(导、演、摄、录、美……)也做出许多的较为具体的指示。例如法国电影剧本《广岛之恋》开头的这一段文字的描写：电影开始时，两对赤裸裸的肩膀一点一点地显现出来。我们能看到的只有这两对肩膀拥抱在一起---头部和臀部都在画外，上面好像布满了灰尘、雨水、露珠或汗水，随便什么都可以。主要是让我们感到这些露珠和汗水都是被飘向远方、逐渐消散的"蘑菇云"污染过的。

剧作者在这段文字里十分明确地在拍摄方法上、镜头的距离上、画面构图上、人物造型上提出了技术方面的要求。由于这类剧本看上去较接近于导演的分镜头剧本，故而人们又常常称其为镜头记录式剧本或技术剧本等等。

当然，这两种不同文字形式的剧本的划分只是相对而言的，有很多剧本是介于两者之间的，它们既追求文字语言的文采，又在必要的时候对摄法作一些简要的提示。这种剧本在今天的我国是较为普遍的，《祝福》就采用了这种文字形式。我见过不少初学者采用镜头记录式剧本的写法，行文之间加入了很多技术术语，诸如"特写" 、"淡出"、"推"、"拉"之类。由于他们尚未弄懂那些导演术语的内涵和使用时的逻辑根据，而仅仅是为了装点自己的剧本，让人读来似乎很有点象个电影剧本似的，其实，那些术语常常让内行人看了以后不免皱眉摇头，有时甚至感到有些画蛇添足。例如有个青年写道："一缕轻烟从铜烟锅上冉冉升起(特写)。"其实，稍有点电影常识的人看了这句话就知是个特写镜头，这时再标明"特写"，就显得多余了。

我以为，初学者不宜采用镜头记录式剧本的文字形式。那种文体应建立在你对电影的导演和制作知识有了较深入的了解基础之上，没有这个基础反倒会弄巧成拙的。

03 小说和电影剧本的不同?

经常可以见到这样的情况：一些颇有水平的小说家对写电影剧本发生了兴趣，但在他们花费了不少的时间和精力之后，写出的东西却常常无法拍摄，或者即使拍摄了也不是什么好作品。这使他们非常恼火，因为若把这部分生命用来写小说，成果要比这大得多。于是他们乘兴而来，扫兴而去，从此以后再也不敢轻易地去写什么电影剧本，并告诫别的小说家也不要去写电影剧本。

为什么会出现这种情形呢?

原来，小说和电影剧本虽说都是用笔在纸上写故事，但叙事的方法、手段和构思的规律却是有差别的。写小说和电影剧本虽说都需要运用形象思维，但电影的形象思维特殊一些，它叫做电影思维。这种思维要求剧作者在构思的时候，时时刻刻站在摄影师的立场和视点展开艺术想象。他的脑海里总是张挂着一个银幕，构思中的一切生活都只能在这个四方框框里出现。这就好像戏剧家在构思的时候，脑海里总有一个舞台是一个道理。我们知道，凡是出现在电影银幕上的一切内容都是十分具体的、实实在在的。如果一辆车迎面驶来，那就一定是一辆汽车或是一辆火车，不可能又是汽车又是火车或随便什么车。这一特点与小说相去甚远，小说的文字描写需通过读者头脑中的想象才能变成形象。例如《红楼梦》中的贾宝玉，不同的读者就可能想象出不同长相的贾宝玉来。但一旦把《红楼梦》拍成电影，贾宝玉就只能是具体地由一位演员扮演的贾宝玉了。正因为电影有这么个特点，所以电影思维也就要比小说思维更为避虚就实。

比方说肖像描写吧，你写"一人走来，四十多岁年纪，一看便知是个善良和气、讨人喜欢的人。"这就不符合电影剧本避虚就实的要求。因为"善良和气、讨人喜欢"只是对性格抽象的、虚泛的形容，导演无法得知这些性格是具体通过什么形象一看便知的。你不如这么写："一个人走来，四十多岁年纪，胖乎乎的脸上带着一种颇有感染力的心满意足的微笑，他不断对身边走过的人点头打招呼，那些熟人们---不论年长年轻--都亲切地拍拍他的肩，拉拉他的手，甚至刮刮他的后脑勺。"当然，这不一定是段好文字，但至少它是可拍的。

小说家企图通过文字描写使读者对人物外表特征有个正确的想象，往往需要对肖像作十分细致入微的描绘。有时，这种肖像描写甚至是连篇累牍的。电影剧本中的肖像描写虽求具体，但又不能过于繁杂琐细，因为一个人物的造型最终还要由导演、演员、化妆师、服装师等一系列创作人员的合作实现在银幕上，规定得过于具体是没多大意义的，只需抓住关键性的、能从某一侧面反射出人物个性特征的细节具体地描写出来就行了。

电影剧本中的景物描写也应该遵循这样的原则，语言尽可能简洁，但又绝不能虚泛、抽象。比如，"夜，甜蜜而温柔的夜。"这样的写法就要不得。你必须把"甜蜜而温柔"这层意思通过视听形象表露出来才行。比如你可以写："街道旁的垂柳隐退到暮色里，街灯向路面喷洒下金红色柔美的光，一辆洒水车从街上缓缓驰过，湿湿的路面便映出灯光，象是闪光的河。一对情侣相偎而来、飘然而去。晚风里远远传来隐约的圆舞曲声……"这样，你就通过具体的视听形象所体现出的舒缓的节奏和韵律，把那种"甜蜜而温柔"的情绪传导出来了。

在一部电影剧本中，最重要的还是写好人物的行动。电影剧本中的行动描写与小说中的行动描写之间的差异也许是最突出的。小说家写人物行动，常常用很多抽象的语言直接分析人物的内心活动，却不一定直接描写这些内心活动是通过怎样的外部行为表现出来的。现在，我信手从中篇小说《万元户主和猫》中摘来这样一段：他家的大花猫病得厉害。按理说，他不能去开会，要想办法抓紧诊猫病。但他怕人家说他装大、装阔，发了财就喊不动了。他之所以能混到眼下这步田地，当初离不开干部们呢。人在得意的时候，引人注目的时候，千万不可傲慢哩。

第一句就不符合电影的要求。在电影剧本中不能只写"猫病得厉害"，要具体写出"厉害"成什么样子才行，否则就等于把编剧的责任推给了导演。后面的句子就更无法拍了，他们都是写对人物内心矛盾的直接介绍，至于这时的人物是站着还是蹲着?是坐在炕沿上叹气还是准备出门?我们一概不得而知。当然，机械地要求电影剧本中的每一句话都是具体的形象也是不对的。其实，在不少时候，编剧对自己设计的人物动作加上一些解释，也是必要的和允许的。例如《裸岛》中有这样一段文字：

11. 村里的路上

阿丰挑着空木桶边走边向来往的行人恭敬地行礼。因为阿丰一家在村里所处的地位低于村里所有的人，所以不得不走向对方恭敬地行礼。

"因为……"后面的这句话，就是对阿丰前边行为的解释性语言。我们可以看出，这种解释性语言与小说中直接描写人物内心活动的语言不一样。它有一个重要的存在前提，即这种解释是依附于具体的动作描写的，是能通过那个动作表现出来的。创作者之所以写入这类句子，一定是他认为有必要让导演和演员知道自己前边写下那个动作的用意，以使他们更好地把那层意思通过动作表现出来。比如上边这一例中，如果不作解释，"阿丰对人行礼"这个动作的意义可能会被导演和演员忽视。经编剧一解释，他们得知剧作者如此设计的苦心，在表现这个动作时就会掌握恰到好处的心理依据，通过行礼表现出因地位低下而露出的卑谦来。但又要注意，如果导演和演员通过行动描写完全可以看出人物做出这些行动的内心动机和内心依据，编剧如再用一些话语把它们解释一番，就是不必要的了。电影剧本的行动描写还不允许小说中常见的那种对动作过程的"虚处理"。例如，"转眼间十几年过去了，兰兰已长成了大姑娘。""他找遍了大街小巷，可就是寻不见小佳佳。""他夜以继日一连苦战三天，终于攻克了最后一道技术难关。"这些句子都是无法直接搬上银幕的。例如中间那一句，除非你把他写成这样：

"人群熙攘的公园里，他焦急地寻找、呼唤着小佳佳。

街头，他焦急地向警察询问。

他在百货商店里的人群中挤来挤去地寻找着……

他精疲力竭地坐在街头一家商店的台阶上。

电影剧本与小说的又一不同之处是它不允许写入视、听以外的内容，比如肤觉、味觉、嗅觉等。"他和她走在一起，她身上散发出的香味使他迷醉。""脸孔开始象针扎般发痛。"这些句子如果出现在小说里不算稀奇，可是一旦你把它们写入电影剧本，人家就会说你是外行，因为再高明的导演也不可能把它们表现清楚。

最难办的是，小说作者只管写他要写的一切，完全不必顾及自己与被表现的对象之间的距离和角度之类的问题，而一个电影剧作家却不能这样，在他头脑中出现的不再是随心所欲的漫无边际的生活场景，而是一个又一个有着具体的方位、具体的视句和拍摄方法的镜头。他在稿纸上写下的，实际就是在他的大脑银幕上由这一个个镜头组成的影片。而这部影片的包括导演、表演、摄影、剪辑等等一切制作过程，都是由剧作者一个人预先在自己的大脑中完成的。一个人的文字表达能力再强，如果没有这种电影思维，写出的东西也往往只能读，不能拍。我们从下面这些例子中可以看出这一点。

例一："车身上，北京开往C市直快的白牌。"

也许，我们在小说中写什么"M君"、"S市"尚无不可，但如果表现在银幕上，这块牌子莫非写成"北京--C"吗?这不是苛求，这暴露出作者在写它的时候头脑里没有画面感觉，而这对写电影剧本的人来说是至关紧要的。

例二："在场的三人，眼光对视着。"

如果我们在写的时候考虑到了演员的表演，就会发现，要么是其中一人与另外两人对视着，要么是其中两人对视着，而第三人左右地观察他们。三人对视是不可能表演的。

例三："从海边吹来一阵风，吹动了果实累累的树枝。真奇怪，这棵被无花果树紧紧环绕起来的苹果树上有多少个苹果成熟了啊!累累的苹果!你看!这面是粉红色的，那面是金黄色的，仿佛被太阳射透了似的。本可以靠近来看它们，糟糕的是，大石头叠成的围墙挡住了我们。"

从表面上看，这段文字描写下的形象都是十分具体的，但由于作者缺乏电影场面调度的知识，仍然无法拍摄。作者详细地描述了苹果的两面颜色和"被太阳射透了似的"形象，要想把它表现出来除非使用近景拍摄。然而，作者又告诉我们这苹果是被一圈无花果树环绕着的(且不说这环绕不好表现)，无花果树挡住了镜头的视线。何况在最后一句里，作者又一次否定了我们靠近拍摄的可能性，让"大石头叠成的围墙挡住了我们"。

综上所述，一个电影剧作家的电影思维水平是建立在他对电影总体制作工艺的全面了解之上的，而这就不可能是一蹴而就的事。小说家已经习惯于不受限制地在纸上纵横驰骋，他不习惯把目光限制在镜头的取景框里，不习惯以镜头组接的方式来结构自己的作品，所以才会出现作家害怕写电影剧本的情形。

04 "人"是银幕形象的主题核心

这个问题可以从以下几个方面去认识：

一、人与环境

任何一部电影剧作都少不了对环境景物的描写。那么，什么样的景物描写才算得上是好的呢?标准很简单，就看那描写是否为塑造人物提供了有利条件或者直接成为人物思想情绪的体现者。从这点来看，倒与我国古典诗词有某些相似之处。在古诗里常有对景物的描写，但最终那描写要落在人的身上。例如："碧云天，黄花地，西风紧，北雁南飞。晓来谁染霜林醉?总是离人泪。"前边写景的句子都在最后一句上找到了归宿。电影剧作中成功的景物描写也是如此。例如《城南旧事》的结尾处，影片充分发挥了环境描写的作用。台湾义地里，灰色的坟茔静卧于凄凄芳草之中，一团一团火红的栌叶在秋风中瑟索，霜天里传来乌鸦苍凉的叫声，再伴之以令人神伤的音乐，这一切构成了义地特有的情调。在此，剧作者显然不是在单纯地描绘美丽的秋天景色。对于全剧来说，这里是一个情绪高潮：英子长大了，经历了人世不少风雨了，她的性格至此已有较大的发展。她再不是那个无忧无虑，只知道唱"小麻雀"的小姑娘了。除了快乐之外，她明白了世间还有许多不平和痛苦，她学会了忧伤。影片结尾的这一系列景物描写，恰恰是通过画面的内涵、色调、节奏和韵律，将小英子那种与亲人(死去的父亲和离去的宋妈)、也是与自己的童年告别时那种凄切的离愁和怅惘的心绪外观化了。它折射出小英子的性格和情感，因而也才具有诱人的艺术魅力，使观众能从这景物描写之中对人生思索和品味一些什么……

由此可见，在剧本中景物是没有独立存在的意义的。离开了人，景物写得再美，也会令人生厌。这种毛病在今天的国产影片里还是较为普遍的。一些影片中的景物描写很多，也很美，但它们仍无法吸引观众。说到底，就因为人们在欣赏不同艺术的时候是采取不同标准，提出不同要求的。欣赏话剧，没有人会抱怨听不到唱腔：欣赏歌剧，听不到好的歌曲就不行了。观众欣赏电影，要看的就是人生--人的社会生活和人的命运。如果要看风景，他们就会去看摄影展览或风光旅游片去了。我们很多初学编剧的同志往往不懂这一点，片面地追求景物描写的文词华美，却忽视了多写人于人的关系，这是不对的。

二 、人与动物

确实，有不少影片直接描写人与动物的关系。例如苏联影片《白比姆，黑耳朵》中很详尽地写了一条狗的生活经历。表面上看，这部影片主要描写对象是条狗，但实际上剧作者正是通过这条狗在人类中的种种遭遇，揭示了苏联社会之中人与人的关系、不同人所体现出来的不同的道德情操。又如美国影片《大白鲨》用了很多的篇幅来写鲨鱼的凶猛残暴，从片名看，大白鲨成了影片的主角，而人倒反而成了辅助因素似的。其实不是这么回事。从头到尾，这部影片的诱人魅力都仅仅来自一个原因：观众在为剧中人物的命运担忧。他们关心的是，在突然降临的灾难面前各种人物的性格反映，以及人物之间相互关系的变化。他们期待着人能战胜这一灾难。如果这部影片不是以这些"人的问题"为核心的，这部影片就与电视系列片《动物世界》没有多大区别了。

也许有人会问，如果是一部纯粹以动物为描写对象的影片又怎么以"人"为核心呢?这样的影片确实是有的，比如日本影片《狐狸的故事》，美国影片《海鸥乔那森》，前者只写狐狸，后者只写海鸥。其实，如果我们细心对它们分析一下，便会发现它们实际上是寓言式的。其中的动物分明是人的化身，是拟人化了的。剧作者赋予它们的是人的思想情感，社会本质和社会关系，它们的生活就象征着人类的社会生活，因此，也就寄托着作者对人生的看法。如果不是这样，这些影片就与普通科教片无异了。

三 、人与技术

我曾听说这样一件事，有个同志写了一个反映炼钢工人的剧本给故事片厂送去，编辑看过之后却把它转到科教片厂去了。因为那个剧本把主要的精力用来描写炼钢的技术问题，却忘了塑造人物，忘了表现人与人之间的关系，以致编辑误以为它是部有关如何炼钢的科教片脚本。可以设想，一旦把这样的剧本拍摄下来，其结果会怎么样。

在故事片剧本中遇到技术问题的时候，最好的办法莫过于绕开它。比如你写石油战线的故事，其中写到井喷，你就没有必要通过人物之口详细讲解井喷的原因，只要暗示出它将造成的严重后果就行了。因为观众要看的是井喷以后人们的不同表现，而不想听那一大堆技术术语。

综上所述，我们可以充分地认识到：电影剧作家应时时刻刻把自己创作的目光对准人，他所感兴趣的只能是和人物的性格揭示有直接关系的事物，与此无关的他都不屑一顾。

05 性格

所谓性格，即指一个人较稳定的对现实的态度和与之相应的习惯化的行为方式。构成性格的因素是很复杂的，研究性格心理学的专家们经常要用大量的文字去分析、推论、总结、归纳它们。我们学习编剧的人在构思人物性格的时候更多地是从形象思维的角度出发的。没有必要象心理学家那样去一一剖析人物性格的构成因素。真那样去做，反而会把一个生动活泼的艺术创作弄得冷漠、机械。所以，我们只要从主要的方面把握人物的性格就行了。

在一个人的性格结构中，最主要的莫过于"倾向性"和"气质"这两个因素。一场大火燃烧起来了，烈焰正在吞噬着国家的财产。面对此情，有的人公而忘私、奋勇救火，有的人则贪生怕死、逃之夭夭。决定人们采取不同态度的，就是性格中的倾向性。所谓倾向性，即指人的世界观、人生观、立场、政治态度等等。它是性格结构的主要方面。它决定着人的行为的目的、意志、情感、生活计划，以及他的生活积极性的程度。很显然，性格结构中的倾向性是后天形成的。它的成因与人的社会经历、遭遇、家庭、阶级地位、出身、教育、职业……等等一系列社会因素有直接的关系。

一场大火燃烧起来了，两个人都把自己的生死置之度外，一心想着保护国家财产。但其中一人简单鲁莽，一下子冲进火海，反被烈火烧伤;另一人从容冷静、机智灵活，采取了有效措施。这两人的倾向性是相近的，这时决定他们行为方式不同的一个重要因素便是性格结构中的气质(当然，还有其他因素，比如对于救火知识是否了解熟悉)。在现实生活中有的人脾气火爆、容易激动;有的人沉静稳重、动作迟缓;有的人性情脆弱、内向娴静等等。这就是不同的气质表现。气质受先天影响很大，但是由于后天的生活环境和自然条件不断改变着人的生理素质，所以人的气质也会有所改变。

在人的性格中，倾向性和气质是密不可分的。我们不能错误地以为人的这一些行为取决于他的倾向性，而那一些行为取决于他的气质。人的任何行为都同时受着两个方面的因素的影响。并同时体现着这两个因素。我们在塑造人物的时候不仅要写人物做什么，而且要写出人物怎么做，而这些都是由人物性格中的倾向性、气质以及其他因素的共同作用下产生的。气质等等虽然不能改变人的倾向性，却能使倾向性呈现出丰富的个性色彩。

文艺作品中真正活生生的人物性格，是丰富复杂的，也是千差万别的。我在这里着重讲了"倾向性"和"气质"，并不是说只注意这两个因素就够了。要从多方面去把握性格的各种因素和复杂表现，才能创造出独特的、丰富的人，一个立体的人物形象。

不管做什么是，找对技巧很重要。下面语文迷网整理了英语六级的写作技巧，供大家阅读参考。

一、 长短句原则。

工作还得一张一弛呢，老让读者读长句，累死人!写一个短小精辟的句子，相反，却可以起到画龙点睛的作用。而且如果我们把短句放在段首或者段末，也可以揭示主题：As a creature, I eat; as a man, I read. Although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy the intellectual need of mind, they are in a way quite similar. 如此可见，长短句结合，抑扬顿挫，岂不爽哉?牢记!

强烈建议：在文章第一段(开头)用一长一短，且先长后短;在文章主体部分，要先用一个短句解释主要意思，然后在阐述几个要点的时候采用先短后长的句群形式，定会让主体部分妙笔生辉!文章结尾一般用一长一短就可以了。

二、 主题句原则。

国有其君，家有其主，文章也要有其主。否则会给人造成“群龙无首”之感!相信各位读过一些破烂文学，故意把主体隐藏在文章之内，结果造成我们稀里糊涂!不知所云!所以奉劝各位一定要写一个主题句，放在文章的开头(保险型)或者结尾，让读者一目了然，必会平安无事!

特别提示：隐藏主体句可是要冒险的!To begin with, you must work hard at your lessons and be fully prepared before the exam(主题句). Without sufficient preparation, you can hardly expect to answer all the questions correctly.

三、 一 二 三原则。

领导讲话总是第一部分、第一点、第二点、第三点、第二部分、第一点… 如此罗嗦。可毕竟还是条理清楚。考官们看文章也必然要通过这些关键性的“标签”来判定你的文章是否结构清楚，条理自然。破解方法很简单，只要把下面任何一组的词汇加入到你的几个要点前就清楚了。

1)first, second, third, last(不推荐，原因：俗)

2)firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally(不推荐，原因：俗)

3)the first, the second, the third, the last(不推荐，原因：俗)

4)in the first place, in the second place, in the third place, lastly(不推荐，原因：俗)

5)to begin with, then, furthermore, finally(强烈推荐)

6)to start with, next, in addition, finally(强烈推荐)

7)first and foremost, besides, last but not least(强烈推荐)

8)most important of all, moreover, finally

9)on the one hand, on the other hand(适用于两点的情况)

10)for one thing, for another thing(适用于两点的情况)

建议：不仅仅在写作中注意，平时说话的时候也应该条理清楚!

四、短语优先原则。

写作时，尤其是在考试时，如果使用短语，有两个好处：其一、用短语会使文章增加亮点，如果老师们看到你的文章太简单，看不到一个自己不认识的短语，必然会看你低一等。相反，如果发现亮点—精彩的短语，那么你的文章定会得高分了。

其二、关键时刻思维短路，只有凑字数，怎么办?用短语是一个办法!比如：I cannot bear it. 可以用短语表达：I cannot put up with it. I want it. 可以用短语表达：I am looking forward to it. 这样字数明显增加，表达也更准确。

五、多实少虚原则

原因很简单，写文章还是应该写一些实际的东西，不要空话连篇。这就要求一定要多用实词，少用虚词。我这里所说的虚词就是指那些比较大的词。

比如我们说一个很好的时候，不应该之说nice这样空洞的词，应该使用一些诸如generous, humorous, interesting, smart, gentle, warm-hearted, hospitable 之类的形象词。

再比如： 走出房间，general的词是：walk out of the room 但是小偷走出房间应该说：slip out of the room 小姐走出房间应该说：sail out of the room 小孩走出房间应该说：dance out of the room 老人走出房间应该说：stagger out of the room 所以多用实词，少用虚词，文章将会大放异彩!

六、 多变句式原则。

1)加法(串联)都希望写下很长的句子，像个老外似的，可就是怕写错，怎么办，最保险的写长句的方法就是这些，可以在任何句子之间加and, 但最好是前后的句子又先后关系或者并列关系。比如说：I enjoy music and he is fond of playing guitar. 如果是二者并列的，我们可以用一个超级句式：Not only the fur coat is soft, but it is also warm. 其它的短语可以用：besides, furthermore, likewise, moreover

2)转折(拐弯抹角)批评某人缺点的时候，我们总习惯先拐弯抹角说说他的优点，然后转入正题，再说缺点，这种方式虽然阴险了点，可毕竟还比较容易让人接受。所以呢，我们说话的时候，只要在要点之前先来点废话，注意二者之间用个专这次就够了。The car was quite old, yet it was in excellent condition. The coat was thin, but it was warm. 更多的短语：despite that, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, notwithstanding

3)因果(so, so, so)昨天在街上我看到了一个女孩，然后我主动搭讪，然后我们去咖啡厅，然后我们认识了，然后我们成为了朋友…可见，讲故事的时候我们总要追求先后顺序，先什么，后什么，所以然后这个词就变得很常见了。其实这个词表示的是先后或因果关系!The snow began to fall, so we went home. 更多短语：then, therefore, consequently, accordingly, hence, as a result, for this reason, so that

4)失衡句(头重脚轻，或者头轻脚重)有些人脑袋大，身体小，或者有些人脑袋小，身体大，虽然我们不希望长成这个样子，可如果真的是这样了，也就必然会吸引别人的注意力。文章中如果出现这样的句子，就更会让考官看到你的句子与众不同。其实就是主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句的变形。举例：This is what I can do. Whether he can go with us or not is not sure. 同样主语、宾语、表语可以改成如下的复杂成分：When to go, Why he goes away…

5)附加(多此一举)如果有了老婆，总会遇到这样的情况，当你再讲某个人的时候，她会插一句说，我昨天见过他;或者说，就是某某某，如果把老婆的话插入到我们的话里面，那就是定语从句和同位语从句或者是插入语。The man whom you met yesterday is a friend of mine. I don’t enjoy that book you are reading. Mr liu, our oral English teacher, is easy-going. 其实很简单，同位语--要解释的东西删除后不影响整个句子的构成;定语从句—借用之前的关键词并且用其重新组成一个句子插入其中，但是whom or that 关键词必须要紧跟在先行词之前。

6)排比(排山倒海句)文学作品中最吸引人的地方莫过于此，如果非要让你的文章更加精彩的话，那么我希望你引用一个个的排比句，一个个得对偶句，一个个的不定式，一个个地词，一个个的短语，如此表达将会使文章有排山倒海之势!Whether your tastes are modern or traditional, sophisticated or simple, there is plenty in London for you. Nowadays, energy can be obtained through various sources such as oil, coal, natural gas, solar heat, the wind and ocean tides. We have got to study hard, to enlarge our scope of knowledge, to realize our potentials and to pay for our life. (气势恢宏) 要想写出如此气势恢宏的句子非用排比不可!

七、挑战极限原则。

既然十挑战极限，必然是比较难的，但是并非不可攀!原理：在学生的文章中，很少发现诸如独立主格的句子，其实也很简单，只要花上5分钟的时间看看就可以领会，它就是分词的一种特殊形式，分词要求主语一致，而独立主格则不然。比如：The weather being fine, a large number of people went to climb the Western Hills. Africa is the second largest continent, its size being about three times that of China. 如果你可以写出这样的句子，不得高分才怪!

下面是语文迷网整理提供的35个初中英语写作会用到的句型，大家一起来看看吧。

一、~~~ the + ~ est + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + haveever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

~~~ the most + 形容词 + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

例句：

Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

海伦是我所看过最美丽的女孩。

Mr. Chang is the kindest teacher that I have ever had.

张老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。

二、Nothing is + ~~~ er than to + V Nothing is + more + 形容词 + than to + V

例句：

Nothing is more important than to receive education.

没有比接受教育更重要的事。

三、~~~ cannot emphasize the importance of ~~~ too much.(再怎么强调...的重要性也不为过。)

例句：

We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。

四、There is no denying that + S + V ...(不可否认的...)

例句：

There is no denying that the qualities of our living have gone from bad to worse.

不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。

五、It is universally acknowledged that + 句子~~ (全世界都知道...)

例句：

It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable to us.

全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。

六、There is no doubt that + 句子~~ (毫无疑问的...)

例句：

There is no doubt that our educational system leaves something to be desired.

毫无疑问的我们的教育制度令人不满意。

七、An advantage of ~~~ is that + 句子 (...的优点是...)

例句：

An advantage of using the solar energy is that it wont create (produce) any pollution.

使用太阳能的优点是它不会制造任何污染。

八、The reason why + 句子 ~~~ is that + 句子 (...的原因是...)

例句：

The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air./ The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can supply fresh air for us.

我们必须种树的原因是它们能供应我们新鲜的空气。

九、So + 形容词 + be + 主词 + that + 句子 (如此...以致于...)

例句：

So precious is time t

that we cant afford to waste it.

时间是如此珍贵，我们经不起浪费它。

十、Adj + as + Subject(主词)+ be, S + V~~~ (虽然...)

例句：

Rich as our country is, the qualities of our living are by no means satisfactory. {by no means = in no way = on no account 一点也不}

虽然我们的国家富有，我们的生活品质绝对令人不满意。

十一、The + ~er + S + V, ~~~ the + ~er + S + V ~~~

The + more + Adj + S + V, ~~~ the + more+ Adj + S + V ~~~(愈...愈...)

例句：The harder you work, the more progress you make.

你愈努力，你愈进步。

The more books we read, the more learned we become.

我们书读愈多，我们愈有学问。

十二、By +Ving, ~~ can ~~ (借着...，..能够..)

例句：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy.

借着做运动，我们能够始终保持健康。

十三、~~~ enable + Object(受词)+ to + V (..使..能够..)

例句：Listening to music enable us to feel relaxed.

听音乐使我们能够感觉轻松。

十四、On no account can we + V ~~~ (我们绝对不能...)

例句：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge.

我们绝对不能忽略知识的价值。

十五、It is time + S + 过去式 (该是...的时候了)

例句：It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems.

该是有关当局采取适当的措施来解决交通问题的时候了。

十六、Those who ~~~ (...的人...)

例句：Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished.

违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。

十七、There is no one but ~~~ (没有人不...)

例句：There is no one but longs to go to college.

没有人不渴望上大学。

十八、be + forced/compelled/obliged + to + V (不得不...)

例句：Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports.

既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃做运动。

十九、It is conceivable that + 句子 (可想而知的)

It is obvious that + 句子 (明显的)

It is apparent that + 句子 (显然的)

例句：It is conceivable that knowledge plays an important role in our life.

可想而知，知识在我们的一生中扮演一个重要的角色。

二十、That is the reason why ~~~ (那就是...的原因)

例句：Summer is sultry. That is the reason why I dont like it.

夏天很燠热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。

二十一、For the past + 时间，S + 现在完成式.(过去...年来，...一直...)

例句：For the past two years, I have been busy preparing for the examination.

过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。

二十二、Since + S + 过去式，S + 现在完成式。

例句：Since he went to senior high school, he has worked very hard.

自从他上高中，他一直很用功。

二十三、It pays to + V ~~~ (...是值得的。)

例句：It pays to help others.

帮助别人是值得的。

二十四、be based on (以...为基础)

例句：The progress of thee society is based on harmony.

社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。

二十五、Spare no effort to + V (不遗余力的)

例句：We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

我们应该不遗余力的美化我们的环境。

二十六、bring home to + 人 + 事 (让...明白...事)

例句：We should bring home to people the valueof working hard.

我们应该让人们明白努力的价值。

二十七、be closely related to ~~ (与...息息相关)

例句：Taking exercise is closely related to health.

做运动与健康息息相关。

二十八、Get into the habit of + Ving= make it a rule to + V (养成...的习惯)

We should get into the habit of keeping good hours.

我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。

二十九、Due to/Owing to/Thanks to + N/Ving, ~~~(因为...)

例句：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream.

因为他的鼓励，我终于实现我的梦想。

三十、What a + Adj + N + S + V!= How + Adj + a + N + V!(多么...!)

例句：What an important thing it is to keep our promise!

How important a thing it is to keep our promise!

遵守诺言是多么重要的事!

三十一、Leave much to be desired (令人不满意)

例句：The condition of our traffic leaves much to be desired.

我们的交通状况令人不满意。

三十二、Have a great influence on ~~~ (对...有很大的影响)

例句：Smoking has a great influence on our health.

抽烟对我们的健康有很大的影响。

三十三、do good to (对...有益)，do harm to (对...有害)

例句：Reading does good to our mind.读书对心灵有益。

Overwork does harm to health.工作过度对健康有害。

三十四、Pose a great threat to ~~ (对...造成一大威胁)

例句：Pollution poses a great threat to our existence.

污染对我们的生存造成一大威胁。

三十五、do ones utmost to + V = do ones best (尽全力去...)

例句：We should do our utmost to achieve our goal in life.

我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标。

电影剧本是部故事片的指南或概要吗?是蓝图吗?是图表吗? 小编收集了电影剧本的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

第一章电影剧本是什么?

在本章我们将介绍戏剧式结构的示例

电影剧本是什么?

是一部故事片的指南或概要吗?是蓝图吗?是图表吗?

是一系列通过对话和描写来叙述的形象、场景、段落等，就像一串联系在一起的珍珠项链一样吗?是 一幅梦境中的风景画吗，是一些思想的汇集吗?

电影剧本究竟是什么?

首先，它不是小说，当然它也绝对不是戏剧。

如果你看一部小说而且尝试着去确定它的基本特性时，你会发现那种戏剧性行为动作、故事线等，时 常是发生在主要人物的头脑中。我们(读者)是在偷窥主人公的思想、感情、言语、行为动作、记忆、梦 幻、希望、野心、见识和更多的东西。如果出现了另外一位人物，那么故事线则随着视角而变化，但时常 是又返回到原来的主要人物那里。在小说中，所有的行为动作都发生在人物的头脑中──在戏剧性行为动 作的“头脑幻景”之中。

在戏剧(舞台剧)中，行为动作和故事线则发生在舞台前拱架下面的舞台上，而观众是第四面墙，偷听舞台人物的秘密。人物用语言来交谈他们的希望、梦幻、过去和将来的计划，讨论他们的需求、欲望、恐惧和矛盾等。这样，戏剧中的行为动作产生于戏剧的对白语言之中，它本身就是用口头讲述出来的文字

。

电影则不同。电影是一种视觉媒介，它把一个基本的故事线戏剧化了。它所打交道的是图像、画面、一小片和一段拍好的胶片;一个钟在滴滴答答地走动、一个窗子正在打开、一个人在看、两个家伙在笑、一辆汽车在弯道上拐弯、一个电话铃在响等等。一个电影剧本就是由画面讲述出来的故事，还包括语言和描述，而这些内容都发生在它的戏剧性结构之中。

一部电影剧本就是一个由画面讲述出来的故事。

它象名词(noun)──指的是一个人或几个人，在一个地方或几个地方，去干他或她的事情。所有的电影剧本都贯彻执行这一基本前提。

一部故事片是一个视觉媒介，它是把一条基本的故事线加以戏剧化。如同所有的故事一样，它有一个明确的开端、中段和结尾。如果我们拿来一个电影剧本，把它象一幅画那样挂在墙上来审视，那么它看起 来就象下面那个图表。

第一幕 第二幕 第三幕

开端(beginning) 中段(middle) 结尾(end)

│ │

A──·───┼───·───────┼─────Z

│ │

建 置(setup) 对抗 (confrontation) 结 局(resolution)

第1～30页 第30～90页 第90～120页

情节点Ⅰ(Plot Point) 情节点Ⅱ

第25——27页 第85——90页

所有的电影剧本都包括这一基本的线性结构。

我们把这一电影剧本的模式称之为示例(Paradigm)①。

它就是一个模特儿，一个式样，一个构思的规划。

表中的示例象一张桌子：一张桌面加上(通常是)四条腿。在此示例范围内，可有方桌子、长桌子、圆桌子、高桌子、矮桌子、矩形桌子、可调节的桌子等等。以此示例为样板，我们可以随意制作各种各样的桌子──反正都是一张桌面加上(通常是)四条腿。

这个示例是确定无疑的。

上面的图表就是一个电影剧本的示例。

下面我们将其分解：

第一幕，或称开端

一个标准电影剧本的篇幅大约有120页，或长两个小时。

不论你的剧本全用对话、全用描写，或两者兼有之，均可按一分钟一页来计算。

规矩是不变的──电影剧本中的一页等于银幕时间一分钟。

第一幕是开端，可看成建置(setup)部分，这是因为你要用30页左右的稿纸去建置(确定)你的故事。如果你去看电影，你时常会自觉或不自觉地做出判断──你是否喜爱这部影片。今后看电影时，请注意一下，你需要多长时间做出你是否喜爱这部影片的决定。一般大约十分钟左右。也就相当于你写的电影剧本的头十页。你应该及时地抓住你的读者。

你应该用大约十页的篇幅来让读者明白谁是你的主要人物，什么是故事的前提，故事的情境是什么。以《唐人街》(Chinatown)为例：第一页使我们知道杰克·吉蒂斯(杰克·尼科尔森JackNicholson饰)是地区调查所的一位不拘小节的私人侦探。在第五页我们认识了一位墨尔雷太太(狄安娜·莱德Di-

aneLadd饰)。她要雇用杰克·吉蒂斯去调查“我丈夫和谁正在乱搞”。这是这部电影剧本的主要问题，而且它提供了一股导致最后解决的戏剧动力。

在第一幕结尾处要有一个情节点。所谓情节点就是一个事变或事件，它紧紧织入故事之中，并把故事转向另一方向。这一事件一般出现在第25～27页之间。在《唐人街》之中，当报纸上发表了声称墨尔雷先生在“爱巢”之中被人抓住的故事之后，真的墨尔雷太太(费伊·邓纳维FayeDunaway饰)和她的律师来到事务所，恐吓说要提出诉讼。她是不是那位雇用杰克·尼科尔森②的真的墨尔雷太太?又是谁雇人冒充墨尔雷太太呢?这一切都是为什么?这个事件就把故事转引到了另一个方向：杰克·尼科尔森作为事件的幸存者必须弄清楚，是谁在摆布他，并且为了什么。

第二幕，或称对抗

第二幕是你故事的主体部分。一般是在剧本的第30页至90页。它之所以称为电影剧本的对抗部分，是因为一切戏剧的基础都是冲突(conflict)。一旦你给自己的人物规定出需求(need)，亦即在剧本中他想要达到什么目的，他的目标是什么，你就可以为这一需求设置障碍(obstacles)，这样就产生了冲突。在《唐人街》这个侦探故事中，第二幕就是杰克·尼科尔森与一些势力发生了冲突，这些势力不愿意让他调查出谁应该对墨尔雷先生之死以及争水丑闻负责。杰克·尼科尔森所需要克服的障碍支配着这个故事的戏剧动作(dramaticaction)。

第二幕结尾处的情节点一般发生在第85页至90页之间。在《唐人街》中，第二幕的结尾的情节点就是：杰克·尼科尔森在墨尔雷先生被谋杀的水池中找到了一副眼镜，并知道它不是墨尔雷的就是属于那个谋杀者的。这样就把故事引入到结局部分。

第三幕，或称结局

第三幕通常发生在第90页至第120页之间，是故事的结局。

故事是如何结束的?主人公怎么样了?他是活着还是死了?

他是成功还是失败了?等等。你的故事需要有一个有力的结尾，以便使人理解并求得完整。那种模棱两可，含义暧昧的结尾，现在已经过时了。

所有的电影剧本都贯彻着这一基本的线性结构。

戏剧性结构可以被规定为：一系列互为关联的事情、情节或事件按线性安排最后导致一个戏剧性的结 局。

如何安排这些结构组成部分，决定了你的电影的形式。以《安妮·霍尔》(AnnieHall)为例，它是一个由闪回来叙述的故事，但也有一个明确的开端、中段和结尾。《去年在马里昂巴德》 AnneederniereaMarienbad)也是一样。《公民凯恩》(CitizenKane)、《广岛之恋》(Hiroshimamonamour)和《午夜牛郎》(MidnightCowboy)都是如此。

所以这个示例是起作用的。

第一幕 第二幕 第三幕

│ │

────·─┼──────·─┼─────

│ │

建置 对抗 结局

情节点Ⅰ 情节点Ⅱ

Ⅰ Ⅱ

它是一个模特儿，一个式样，一个构思的规划;一个技巧高超的电影剧本就是这个样子的。它为我们提供了关于电影剧本结构的总观。如果你弄清楚了它就是这个样子的话，你可以简单地把你的故事“装”进去就行了。

所有的好电影剧本都符合这个示例吗?

肯定是的。

但不必盲目相信我的话。你把它当成一件工具来使用它;对它发生疑问，去研究它，并且思考它。

也许有人不相信它。可能不相信会有什么开端、中段和结尾。你可能说：艺术如同生活一样，它充其量不过是在某个巨大的中间部分中偶然发生的几个个人的“重要时刻”，并没有什么开端也没有什么结尾。它正如库特·冯尼格特(KurtVonnegut)所称，是“一系列偶然的时刻被随意地串联在一起”。

我不同意上述这种看法。

请问：一个人出生、生活到死亡，难道不象是开端、中段和结尾吗?

想一想伟大文明的兴起与衰亡吧──如：古埃及、古希腊、古罗马帝国，它们都是从一个小小的社团萌芽，发展到权力鼎盛时期，然后衰败直至覆灭。

想一想一颗星的诞生与消亡，或者宇宙的开端，根据现在大多数科学家已经赞同的“大统一”理论，如果宇宙有其开端的话，那它必然也应该有一个结尾。

想一想我们身体的细胞吧!它们从补充、恢复到再生这一循环周期要用多少时间呢?只要七年──在七年中我们身体中一些细胞要死亡，别的一些细胞要生殖、活动、死亡，然后再生。

想一想你获得某项新工作的第一天吧!你要和新同事相识，要承担一些新的职责，直到后来你决定离职、退休或者被解雇。

电影剧本也毫无例外。它们有自己明确的开端、中段和结尾。

这是戏剧性结构的基础。

如果你不相信这个示例的话，那请再做一次检验，来证明我错了。请去看一部影片或看几部影片，看一看它们是否符合这个示例。

如果你对电影剧本写作感兴趣的话，你就应该时常这样去做。你看的每一部影片都能成为你的学习材料，帮助你理解什么是故事影片，什么不是故事影片。

你还应该尽可能多读电影剧本，以便使你明白剧本的形式和结构。现在很多电影剧本印成了书，在许多书店里出售。也有一些剧本已绝版了，但你可以在自己的藏书里去找，或者从大学里的戏剧艺术部的图书馆里去借阅。

我让我的学生们阅读并研究一些电影剧本，如：《唐人街》、《网络》(Network)、《洛奇》(Rocky) 、《秃鹰的三天》(ThreeDaysoftheCondor)、《非法挣钱人》(Hastler)(选自简装本的罗伯特·罗逊的《三个剧本集》，现已绝版)、《安妮·霍尔》，《哈罗德与摩德》(HaroldandMaude)等。

这些剧本都是很好的教材。如果找不到它们，那就读一下你所能看到的任何电影剧本，读得越多越好

。

示例是有用的。

它是所有好的电影剧本的基础。

练习：

到电影院去看电影。当影院光线暗淡下来影片开始后，请问一下你自己究竟需要多少时间能做出“喜 欢”或“不喜欢”这部电影的决定。一旦你明确做出决定后，请看一下手表，记下时间。

如果你发现一部你真正欣赏的影片，不妨再看一遍。看一看这部影片是否真正符合这个示例。再看一看你自己能否分解出各个部分，找出它的开端、中段和结尾。记下：故事是如何开始建立的，你需要多少时间能知道这个影片讲的是什么，你是否被这部影片所吸引，或者是被硬拖到影片故事中去。然后再找出

第一幕结尾处与第二幕结尾处的情节点，看看它们是如何导致结局的。

————————

①原文Paradigm本书均译为“示例”。但这个词的实际意义比通常我们所理解的示例有更广泛的外延 涵义。在语法学中，这个词专指(动词、名词的)词形变化表。而本书作者使用这一词则指电影剧本结构的变化表，为了统一，本书内则把此词译为“示例”。

②本文作者在分析电影剧本及影片时，习惯把剧中人和扮演者混在一起议论。

1

主语＋谓语(不及物动词)：S+V

It will rain tomorrow.

He often runs in the morning.

They cried.

Tom exercises every day.

2

主语＋谓语(及物动词)＋宾语：S+V+O

I miss my mother very much.

She wants to go home now.

The English club is going to hold an English party.

They all love her.

3

主语＋系动词＋表语：S+V+P

The music sounds wonderful.

The leaves have turned red.

She is a student.

We keep silent about that.

4

主语＋谓语(及物动词)＋间接宾语（人）＋直接宾语（物）：S+V+IO+DO

The teacher gave a book to him.=The teacher gave him a book.

They told me an interesting story.

The waitress offered me a bottle of wine.

My father will buy me a bike.=My father will buy a bike for me.

Miss Smith teaches us English.

5

主语＋谓语(及物动词)＋宾语＋宾语补足语：                                      S+V+O+C

They call me Xiao Wang.

I saw him swimming in the river.

We elected him monitor of the class.

导语：在写记叙文时，如果要使文字内容更具体，不空泛，一定要把叙述与描写结合起来。那么如何才能结合好呢?下面我们来详细看看。

我们首先需要了解一下这两者的基本概念和作用。叙述和描写。是作文中两种不同的表现方式。我们这里说的叙述是指把人的经历行为或事件的发生、发展变化表述出来的一种表达方式，它常常把分散的场景，片断的故事和人物的身世，地位，经历，事迹等贯穿起来。它要求做到头绪清楚，脉络分明，有条有理，重点突出。

在记事、写人、状物的文章中，叙述是不可少的，尤其是在介绍人或事物变化为主的文章中叙述的作用更大，甚至有的文章专以叙述为长。我们本讲选的优秀作文《男班长，女班长》就是一个很好的例子。文章中描写部分很少，介绍事件发展过程的叙述占了很大的篇幅，如开头对男女班长来自何方的介绍，女班长对男班长的观察，正副班长必须合作的现实，以及同学们的揶揄，思想的顾虑，同学开玩笑不断，“收到副班长纸条”，到结尾“男女班长仍然合作着处理班里的事务”。这篇文章用很短的篇幅，以叙述为主，把一波三折的事件按发展轨迹清晰有序地介绍出来。对发展过程虽是梗概地介绍，但文章的思想内涵却非常丰富，也可以说在写法上是比较巧妙的。

叙述在按事件发生发展、人物经历的时间来划分，可以有顺叙，倒叙、插叙、补叙等方式，我们在写文章时，可以根据表达的需要去选择叙述的方式。

描写是对人物，事物和环境所作的具体的描绘和摹写，描写是再现描写对象状态的一种表达方式。描写需要采用绘声绘色的办法，把事物的状貌、神采和动态，具体地、真切地饱含情意地勾画出来。写人要使其声可闻，其容可睹;写物要使之可见，可闻，可触，可感;写景要意境鲜明，使读者产生仿佛置身其间的幻觉。

在我们学过的课文中，传神的描写是很多的。如《天山景物记》中对天山深处的描写，“山色逐渐变得柔嫩，山形也变得柔和，很有一伸手就可以触摸到凝脂似的感觉。这里溪流缓慢，萦绕着每一个山脚，在轻轻荡漾着的溪流的两岸，满是高过马头的野花，红、黄、蓝、白、紫，五彩缤纷，像绵延的织锦那么华丽，象天边的彩霞那么耀眼，像高空的长虹那么绚烂。”这段描写抓住山色、溪流、野花这三种最能表现天山特点的事物，重彩浓墨，绘声绘色地把天山美景表现出来。既能使读者如身临其境，也增添了作品的文采。我们在作文时，如果能恰当地运用描写来表现形象，借以表达某种强烈的思想感情。文章的感染力就一定能有所增强。

叙述和描写在记叙性的文字中都是不可缺少的表现方式。叙述着重于一般情况过程的交待，描写则着重形象的描摹和刻画;如果说叙述是纵的绵延，那么描写便是横的扩展。一篇文字若无叙述，就会显得杂乱无章;没有描写，则会干瘪枯燥，毫无生气可言。

实际上，成功的作品中，常常是叙述与描写交错在一起的。我们所选优秀作文，《奶奶与花》就是叙述与描写交融在一起的，近似于一线串珠式的一篇记叙文。

文中以时间为序，先从小时候家门前有一个很大的“花园”叙述开始，然后再描写人物行为语言、花的形态、气味。从而表现我“深深地爱上花”的过程。接着叙述自己病中见到花的情景，描写花的形态，写出自己感受到“花能给人一种强盛的生命力”。接着是叙述“随着年龄的增长，这种认识愈来愈深”又通过对“死不了”“仙人球”的描写，感悟出“花，让我感到一种无尽的生命力，一种明亮的期望”。第五自然段叙述自己养花的过程。这里又运用描写的方式，描绘出花园的美丽，各种花的特点，表现出花可以陶冶情操的作用。这段描写是比较突出的，描写了花的各种色彩，各种形态，用排比、比喻的手法绘色绘形，有丰富的想象力。为了把文章写得曲折有致，第七段、第八段叙述搬进高层楼房前、后我与奶奶对花的珍爱，对小花园的怀念，这里又有对人物的心理、动作的描写，为“小花园”遭到破坏，我和奶奶沉痛心情做了铺垫。

这篇文章用叙述的方式。介绍了事件发展曲折过程，使文章头绪清楚，脉络分明，重点环节突出。这是文章的一条线。在每个重要环节上，作者都生动形象地描绘了人物的行为、场景、物态，内容丰满。叙述和描写有机地结合在一起，深刻地表达了文章的主题思想，增强文章的感染力。

在作文时，恰当地运用叙述与描写，做到有机结合，要注意以下几点。

一、要熟练掌握叙述与描写的功能，注意二者之间互相依存、互相交通的关系。根据作文内容和思想表达的需要，交错运用。

二、在描写范围比较大、内容比较丰富的地域景物或事物状貌时，(例如《天山景物记》等一些游记式的文章)需要有一条贯穿始终的线索，有一个逐步转移、推进的过程，那么这个线索或过程就要依靠叙述来表现。如我们常讲的“移步换景”的写法，其中对“移步”的交代，往往需要叙述。用时间推移来描写事物或人物的发展变化时，对每个阶段的交代，一般也是要运用叙述来完成的。在这种情况下描写的条理性要依靠叙述来体现。

三、在写故事情节比较强文章时，人物的语言，行动往往是构成情节的重要因素、情节又要依靠叙述来展开，这就需要描写人物语言行动与铺叙故事情节同时进行，也就是说要把叙述故事融化在描写中，或把描写融化在叙述情节中。我们仔细玩味一下作文《奶奶与花》，其中有些地方就是把描写与叙述这样融合在一起的。

我们就应当多选读一些优秀作文或名家的文章，刻意体味一下的相依关系，学习二者的结合形式。使自己的作文能更加条理清晰，情节曲折跌宕，内容丰富有致，更具有感染力。

英语写作是中考学生的一个盲点，缺乏对英语写作的专门训练和反思，老师的工作量大，造成作文讲评大多数时候只谈现象，因此学生学得也不具体、不深入，忽略写作技能的提高，甚至误认为只要句子结构正确，无单词拼写错误就应该得满分。同学们应该走出对英语写作认识上的误区。那么怎样才能写出一篇优秀作文，而在中考中获取高分呢?下面是YJBYS网作文频道为大家整理的英语写作指导。

一、写作决窍

总体把握，要点齐全;人称时态，逻辑清楚;

关键词汇，动词第一;组词成句，结构完整;

组句成文，连词增色;此路不通，绕道迂回;

字迹工整，留好印象;从句适量，高分有望。

二、写作步骤

1.认真审题。审题包括要点、格式、词数以及此篇文章要传递给读者什么样的信息，告诫读者什么(即写作目的)。

2.确定文体和时态。确定文体后，根据不同文体的特点和要求进行组织材料;同时确定出该篇文章的总时态与时态的变化。

3.写完要点，但不随意发挥。

4.先草稿，后抄写。

三、习作点评

[2004年全国中学生英语能力竞赛初赛初三组] (14分)

Choose one of your hobbies and write an article for the school magazine about it. Tell the magazine readers.

·What exactly your hobby is;

·When and how you became interested in this hobby;

·Why you enjoy your hobby;

·About your hopes and plans for the future.

写作要求：

1.根据所提供的内容，适当拓展想象空间，灵活地将提供的信息体现在文章中。

2.条理清楚，语句通顺，书写清晰、规范。

3.词数60-80.

[高分突破]

①文体：记叙文。

②要点：what → when →how → why → hope and plan for the future.

③时态：一般现在时，一般过去时，一般将来时的自然变化。

内容具有开放性，但它也是“控制性”的写作试题，因此不能随意发挥，要善于抓信息，写完要点。选用这两篇学生真实习作，一是因为他们选材相同，二是因为他们都是英语成绩优秀的同学。同学B灵活使用连词so…that，so，little by little，when，so that等，恰到好处地使用新句型和短语used to，became interested in，come true……等，使内容丰富，读起来优美流畅。其实这些表达同学A也会，只是缺乏技术加工。通过这两篇作文点评，同学们便能悟出其中的奥妙。

四、培养途径

1.根据老师布置的写作内容，独立完成一篇写作。

2.与同伴合作，交流自己的写作，通过交流找出各自作文中写得好的地方和优美的句子，合作创造一篇新的文章，供大家欣赏。

3.找老师点评，请求老师指点，尤其是怎样润色。

4.自己纠错，写下反思。

五、备考演练

A

缙云山是重庆著名的游览胜地，每天有大量的游客。请你根据下面提供的信息写一篇报道，说明现在的游客在环境保护方面的变化。

写作要求：

1.词数在100左右。

2.条理清楚，语句通顺。

3.开头已写好，但不计入总词数。

Jinyun Mountain is a famous place of interest …

B

阅读电视广告词：“If we don’t save water，the last drop of water will be a tear-drop.”根据提示，写一篇60-80词的短文。

提示：

1.生活离不开水。

2.可饮用水在减少。

3.水污染严重。

4.应保护水源，再利用水。

思路点拨与参考答案

A. [思路点拨]：

①文体：记叙文。

②时态：一般过去时态，一般现在时态。采用正反对比的写作手法，增加感染力。

③写作目的：告诉读者保护环境的重要性。

Jinyun Mountain is a famous place of interest.Every day a lot of tourists come here to enjoy its beauty. But a few years ago，some of them paid no attention to protecting the environment.They threw their rubbish，such as plastic bags，fruit skins and waste paper on the ground.Sometimes they broke trees，picked flowers and killed birds. Some even made fires in the woods to cook food.How dangerous it was.Luckily，great changes have taken place here.Tourists are used to putting their rubbish into dustbins，and they are doing their best to protect the birds and plants as well.They bring their own meals instead of cooking to prevent starting a forest fire in the mountains.All these changes make us very happy.

B. [思路点拨]：

①夹叙夹议(说明现状，谈谈感想)。

②时态：一般现在时态。

③广告词的含义——水很重要，应保护和再利用(写作意图)。

Water is very important to humans.We can’t live without water.The water we can drink is falling.But some people don’t seem to care about it.They waste a lot of water.They pour dirty water into rivers and lakes.Water pollution is getting more and more serious.So we must do something to stop the pollution.We not only protect the water but also find ways to reuse it.If we don’t do this，the last drop of water will be a tear-drop.

想象力是十分强烈地促进人类发展的伟大天赋，那么大家知道学生如何写好想象文章呢？下面一起来看看！

想象是以感觉、知觉和记忆为基础的。三者的区别在于：感觉、知觉反映当前事物的形象；记忆反映过去感知的事物的形象；想象则反映未曾经历过的或现实中不存在的事物的形象，例如《西游记》中的孙悟空、猪八戒及各种妖魔鬼怪，都是想象的形象，是非现实的。?想象在科学论文和文学作品的写作中有着重要的作用。大量的科学研究成果是受想象的启发而获得的，无数文学人物的形象是通过想象而创造出来的。所以，爱因斯坦说：“想象力比知识更重要，因为知识是有限的，而想象概括着世界上的一切，推动着进步，并且是知识进化的源泉。严格地说，想象力是科学研究中的实在因素。”（《爱因斯坦文集》第一卷）

古今中外的许多作家都认为想象力是文学创作绝对必需的。例如，茅盾说：“创作文学时必不可缺的，是观察的能力与想象的能力：两者缺一不可。”（《茅盾文艺杂论集》上集）

想象力的基础是敏锐的观察力和牢固的记忆力。较强的想象力表现为：善于控制想象的方向，围绕一个中心展开想象；善于提高想象活动的新颖程度；善于在现实的基础上创造非现实的新形象；想象的内容是丰富的、多层次、多侧面的。这种较强的想象力主要是经由人的后天教育与环境熏陶，通过实践的锻炼而逐步发展起来的。

重视并且认真培养、锻炼想象力，就可使想象活动在写作中发挥开拓思路、强化感情、促进独创、深化主题的作用。

想象分为有意想象和无意想象。梦是无意想象的极端表现，与写作有着密切的关系。然而，写作中的想象按其创造性的本质来说，则都是有意想象。有意想象又可以分为再造想象和创造想象。科学写作中的想象具有客观性和精确性，而文学写作中的想象具有主观性和虚构性。

文学创作想象的主要特点是进行表象的分解与综合。只有在理解想象的特点的基础上，才能经过不断的写作实践，培养出丰富的想象能力。

[写作基础：学生如何写好想象文章

英语写作当中经常会用到“……很重要”这一句式，一般考生会用something be important/essential的词汇表达。不过学了比较状语从句以后，大家可以试着用一种更高级的表达方式，一定会让阅卷老师眼前一亮，作文高分就不在话下啦。

箴言仿写：Cultivation is to the mind what food is to the body.

——M·T·Cicero

上述句子可以概括为A is to B what C is to D.替换ABCD四个名词就可以用来表达“重要性”这一概念。

【例句】

★ 人生态度——乐观与悲观

A positive attitude is to life what the sun is to the earth.积极的态度对于生活，好比太阳对于地球一样。

★ 谈读书

Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body.阅读对于思想，好比运动对于身体一样。

★ 赡养父母——家庭

Family is to the people what life is to the individual.家庭对于人类，好比生活对于个人一样。

★ 投诉信

Cleanness is to the canteen what reputation is to the people.清洁对于食堂来说，好比名誉对于人一样。

★ 谈诚信

Honesty is to the people what life is to the creature.诚信对于人来说，好比生命对于人一样。

比较状语(倍数表达法)：

A+ be+倍数+as many/much as+ B

A+ be+倍数+the amount+ B

A+ be+倍数+what it was+ B

【例句】

★ 从1999年到2009年，奢侈品的销售增长了3倍。

①The sale of luxuries doubled from the end of 1999 to 2009.

②The sale of luxuries increased three times/three-fold from the end of 1999 to 2009.

③A three-fold increase was seen in the sale of luxuries from the end of 1999 to 2009.

④There was a three-fold increase in the sale of luxuries from the end of 1999 to 2009.

【写作练习】

定语从句与状语从句的写作方法指南：合并简单句!

1.通过指代关系合并简单句为定语从句

【例句】

★ 故事发生于19世纪末期。那个时候，中国正遭受西方列强的蹂躏。

A: The story happened in the late 19th century.

B: At that time, China was suffering from the invasion of western powers.

→合并为定语从句：The story happened in the late 19th century when China was suffering from the invasion of western powers.

2.通过逻辑关系合并简单句为状语从句

【例句】

★ 这个问题很复杂。我们花了近两周的时间才把它搞定。

A: The problem was very complicated.

B: It took us nearly two weeks to solve it.

→合并为结果状语从句The problem was so complicated that it took us nearly two weeks to solve it.

长难句虽然是考研[微博]复习中让很多考生都头疼的一部分，但可以说是无处不在的，不仅仅是阅读理解和翻译题中，需要我们去读懂并理解，更重要的是在作文题中，准确精彩地写出几个长难句，往往会让你的作文增色不少，也是你作文制胜的重要砝码，所以考研英语要想拿高分，千万不能忽视长难句哦。

1. The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.

最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

2. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.

没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

3. According to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.

依照最近的一项调查，每年有4，000，000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

4. People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.

人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。

5. An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.

越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。

6. When it comes to education, the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.

说到教育，大部分人认为其是一个终生的学习。

7. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.

许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

8. Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful effects of international tourism.

应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量，努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。

9. An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However, this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents, who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.

越来越多的专家相信移民对城市的建设起到积极作用。然而，越来越多的城市居民却怀疑这种说法，他们抱怨民工给城市带来了许多严重的问题，像犯罪和卖淫。

10. Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus, which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.

许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少，以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车，而车上可能已满载乘客。

要想写好剧本，就必须懂得剧本的基本知识和理论，搞明白电影的规律，小编收集了剧本写作入门，欢迎阅读。

简单来说，要写好一个故事，首先要构思好你的故事走向，人物关系，情节高潮，主题思想等…… 美国好莱坞有一套编剧规律：即开端、设置矛盾、解决矛盾、再设置矛盾，直至结局。中国也有自己的编剧规律：起、承、转、合。

在下面的文字，本人会分类将写作剧本的基本和重要的元素详加论述，并会举出实例加以说明。

剧本基本理论 ：态度、主题

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写故事最重要的是对故事的态度，不同的态度会产生不同的效果。举一个简单的例子，同样是写一个青楼女子的故事，如果作者是以一个淫秽、色情的态度去写，故事自然集中于男女之间欢爱的部份。相反，如果作者是以一个同情、尊重的态度去写，故事便会集中于描写青楼女子被迫卖身，身不由己的可怜、无奈……

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在下笔写故事之前，你必须要问自己：你要讲一个怎样的故事?是朋友之间的友情(如电影午夜牛郎—midnight cow boy)，男女之间的爱情(铁达尼号—Titanic)，外星人入侵地球的故事(天煞地球反击战)，还是一个控诉战争的故事(杀戮战场—platon)等。这就是主题。

主题必须十分明确、贯彻、毫不怀疑。你不能写一套战争片段，一时就怀疑战争，一时就歌颂战争。主题有如一支指南针，它会引导你创作故事，和贯穿故事中的枝节。而最重要的是它能避免你在写作中偏离主道。试举一例，清朝皇帝雍正在野史是一个杀弟、杀父夺位，强奸弟弟妻子的禽兽。但在雍正皇朝(早期亚视播出的电视剧)作者笔下的雍正，却是一个好皇帝。因为作者的主题是要写一个好皇帝，所以在故事中只会见到雍正彻夜不眠批奏章、视察农民、减税、推行德政等场面，并没有杀弟、杀父等场面。

所以，一套成功的剧本是要让观众看完后，清楚明白作者想表达的思想和主题。

创造角色冲突 (create character conflict)

角色冲突是吸引观众的不二法门。这包括故事角色和角色之间的冲突，角色和他自身价值观的冲突等。

>

故事里的人物想做一些事，但有一股力量抗衡他，这就是Potogonist /Antogonist

例如电影怒火风暴(Falling Down)故事中，主角刚刚经历完痛苦的劳狱生涯，当他出狱时，他一心想见回自己的妻子，重过正常人的生活(Potogonist，他想追求的事)。但他的妻子逃避他，不认他，而四周的人也因他的犯罪纪录而歧视他(Antogonist，阻止他达到目的的力量)。

>

当角色和角色之间存在冲突，而且有一个不能分开的结把他们拉在一起，好戏便来了。举一个简单的例子，男主角的妻子是个三姑六婆、八卦的女人，而男主角的母亲则是个守礼节的传统妇女。因为环境的因素，主角和他的妻子必须搬进家里和妈妈一起住。试想两个完全冲突的人：媳妇和奶奶被一个 unbreakable bond 拉在一起时，会是怎样。

创造表面张力 (create dramatic tension)

>

例如故事中的主角闯进了敌人的基地，有支枪在黑暗处伸出来瞄准着他(观众知道但主角不知道)，敌人就快要开枪了，观众也为主角担心。

>

主角的母亲病了，他全身家只有一百元，于是他便去睹场碰碰运气。很好运地，主角不停地赢钱，已有几千元，有足够的医药费了。但他竟然贪胜不知输，继续赌下去，结果输了一局又一局(观众已知他已走在一条错误的路上)。最后连手上的一百元也输了，竟然还去问大耳窿借钱(他用错误的方法企图达到目的)。

>

故事中某些事件若存着时间的限制，或计时炸弹，能够给观众一股紧张的情绪，并且这股紧张情绪能维持一段长时间。

还有十二个小时，陨石便会撞击地球，地球上超过一半的生物会死亡。(电影--陨石撞地球)

这辆巴士必须维持在时速一百二十公理，否则车上的炸弹便会爆炸。(电影--生死时速)

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使用转折点能制造意外的效果，引起观众的预期心理，加强情节张力，从而持续观众对故事的兴趣。转折点最常出现于故事的前段和后段。剧本前段的转折点一般用于开启故事和陈列出主角即将面临的各项选择。至于后段的转折点则指向主角解决危机，收拢故事。

例如著名电影「生于七月四日」(Born on the fourth of July)，主角在故事开始面临第一个转折点：是否要参加越战。主角最后选择参战，走上战场。但好景不常，在战争中主角被打破了双脚，要终生坐轮椅。原本爱国主战的他经历了多件事件后，改变了他的想法。导致故事结局出现了很出人意表的转折点，他由主战派变成反战派，从而带出反战的主题。

其它技巧

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相信有作文的人都会知道什么叫做伏笔吧!埋下伏线可以吸引观众追看剧情。例如在电影心计中，主角汤美一早便表露了他有模仿人签名和行为的能力(伏线)，到故事发展到他杀了有钱人迪奇后，观众凭借伏线已经估到主角会假冒迪奇。

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所谓 Payoff，就是最能象征整个故事的对象。例如在电影”Apartment”中，那条门匙就是Payoff。又如著名电影「舒特拉的名单」中，那张犹太人的名单也是Payoff。

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有两个画面，梅花间竹地播出，这就是蒙太奇。例如在电影教父中，画面一边播出教会里正在举行的神圣仪式，如神父替孩子洗礼，向天主祈祷等。但另一边画面却转接地播出教会中邪恶的一面，例如教会中的领袖为求夺权，去反对他的人的住所，不停地大开杀戒。

蒙太奇亦可以指一些不同而没有关系的画面,当他们剪接在一起的时候,会产生另一种意义,简单来说,如第一画面中有一只手正在投球,而另一画面是另外一只手接到一个球,然而球不见得是同一个,但当两个画面前在一起的时候,就是一个人把球投给另外一个人,注意/若中间再加入另外的画面,这意思就完全不一样了!! (注：这一段蒙太奇的文字解释由网友「贝戈」提供)

剧本三大忌

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剧本写作和小说写作是两样完全不同的事，要知道写剧本的目的是要用文字去表达一连串的画面，所以你要让看剧本的人见到文字而又能够实时联想到一幅图画，将他们带到动画的世界里。小说就不同，他除了写出画面外，更包括抒情句子，修辞手法和角色内心世界的描述。这些在剧本里是不应有的。举一个简单的例子，在小说里有这样的句子：

「 今天会考放榜，同学们都很紧张地等待结果，小明别过父母后，便去学校领取成绩通知书。老师派发成绩单，小明心里想：如果这次不合格就不好了。

他十分担心，害怕考试失败后不知如何面对家人……』

试想，如果将上面的句子写在剧本里，你叫演员看了怎样用动作去表达。

如果要用剧本去表达同样的意思，就只有写成如下：

「 在课室里面，学生都坐在座位上，脸上带着紧张的表情，看着站在外面的老师。老师手上拿着一叠成绩通知书，她看了看面头的一张，叫道：「陈大雄!」大雄立刻走出去领取成绩单。小明在课室的一角，两只手不停地搓来搓去。他看出课室外面，画面渐渐返回当日早上时的情景。小明的父母一早就坐在大厅上，小明穿好校服，准备出门，看了看父亲，又看了看母亲，见到他们严肃的脸孔，不知该说些什么。小明的父亲说：「会合格吗?」小明说：「会……会的。」

「陈小明!」老师宏亮的声音把小明从回忆中带回现实。老师手上拿着小明的成绩单看着他，小明呆了一会，才快步走出去领取……』

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剧本里不宜有太多的对话(除非是剧情的需要)，否则整个故事会变得不连贯，缺乏动作，观众看起来就似听读剧本一样，好闷。要知道你现在要写的是电影语言，而不是文学语言。只适合于读而不适合于看的便不是好剧本。所以，一部优秀的电影剧本，对白越少，画面感就越强，冲?力就越大。

举一个简单的例子，比如你写一个人打电话，你最好不要让他坐在电话旁不动，只顾说话。如果剧情需要，可让他站起来，或拿着电话走几步，尽量避免画面的呆板和单调。

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很多人写剧本都写得太多枝节，在枝节中有很多的角色，穿插了很多的场口，使故事变得复杂化，观众可能会看得不明白，不清楚作者想表达什么主题。试想如果在一幕电影中同时有十几个重要的角色，角色之间又有很多故事，你叫观众在短短时间里那能把每一个角色记得这么清楚。

其实，写剧本有一句格言：「 Simple is the best! 」愈简单的故事就愈好。大家想想你们所看过的好电影中，它们的剧情是不是都很简单。例如电影铁达尼号(Titanic)只是讲一艘大船下沉，而下沉当中男女主角产生了爱情。其它电影也一样，简单到报纸短评用短短几十个字就能讲出故事大纲。

导语：小编给大家总结了所有的写作技巧，如果需要详细说明，请到www.ruiwen.com上交流学习，希望对大家有所帮助。

一、表达方式：

记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论?

二、表现手法：

象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、联想、想象、衬托(正衬、反衬)

三、修辞手法：

比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互文、对比、借代、反语?

四、记叙文六要素：

时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果

五、记叙顺序：

顺叙、倒叙、插叙?六、描写角度：正面描写、侧面描写?

七、描写人物的方法：

语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌

八、描写景物的角度：

视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉?

九、描写景物的方法：

动静结合(以动写静)、概括与具体相结合、由远到近(或由近到远)?

十、描写(或抒情)方式：

正面(又叫直接)、反面(又叫间接)

十一、叙述方式：

概括叙述、细节描写

十二、说明顺序：

时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序

十三、说明方法：

举例子、列数字、打比方、作比较、下定义、分类别、作诠释、摹状貌、引用?

十四、小说情节四部分：

开端、发展、高潮、结局

十五、小说三要素：

人物形象、故事情节、具体环境

十六、环境描写分为：

自然环境、社会环境

十七、议论文三要素：

论点、论据、论证

十八、论据分类为：

事实论据、道理论据

十九、论证方法：

举例(或事实)论证、道理论证(有时也叫引用论证)、对比(或正反对比)论证、比喻论证

二十、论证方式：

立论、驳论(可反驳论点、论据、论证)

二十一、议论文的文章的结构：

总分总、总分、分总;分的部分常常有并列式、递进式。

二十二、引号的作用：

引用;强调;特定称谓;否定、讽刺、反语

二十三、破折号用法：

提示、注释、总结、递进、话题转换、插说。

任务的动作的表达形式有很多，例如站、坐等，但是形容人物动作的词语是更加的多。下面是小编为大家搜集整理出来的有关于写好人物的动作的方法，希望可以帮助到大家！

一提到动作描写，肯定要准确运用动词。比方说，表示“看”这个动作的词语就有“瞄”“瞟”“盯”“瞥”“端详”等，我们在写人物动作的时候，就不能总是“我看了一眼”可以根据当时的情况，写成“我漫不经心地瞟了他一眼”或“我死死地盯着他”。这样，通过准确运用动词，就能把人物的动作写得准确、具体、鲜明。

妙招一：动词+修饰语的方法

这种方法很简单，就是我们在描写人物的动作的时候，首先要准确运用动词，这是基础。然后在这个动词前或后加上表示“方向”“程度”“轻重”“快慢”“数量”的词语。

如：方向+动词--他高高地举起了手；我向右侧了侧身。

轻重+动词--老师轻轻地摸了摸学生的头；他的脚重重地踢在了墙上。

快慢+动词--厨师手里的菜刀飞快地舞动着；他一下子就跳了起来。

程度+动词--爸爸狠狠地打了小明一巴掌。

动词+数量--他向前跑了几步。

以上这些类的词语可以单独用，也可以结合在一起用。大家试一试，用这样的方法写出来是不是很具体呢？

在介绍第二种方法之前，我们来做一个简单的动作--敲门，注意是“敲门”，而不是“拍门”或“推门”。这个动作看似简单，但要把它写好，其实包含着“大玄机”。

妙招二--动作拆分法。

其实，再复杂、连贯的动作，都不是一下子就能完成的，在观察和描写时，如果把动作分解成若干步骤，一步一步仔细观察，并选择恰当的动词一步一步地描写，就不难把人物动作写具体了。动作拆分法，简单来说，就是把一个大动作分成几个连贯的小动作，用慢镜头的方式一一描绘出来。我们都知道，在传统的武打动作或电视的慢镜头中，往往把一种行为分解成若干个部分，或者是把一个大动作细化为几个小动作，然后分别对每一个部分、每一个小动作按一定层次具体展示或描写，使整个动作行为栩栩如生。

运用这种动作拆分的方法，“敲门”这个简单的动作可以分解为如下几个小动作：①走到门前②停下③举起（右）手④弯曲手指⑤敲门。准确地描述出这几个连续动作，组成流畅的句子，就能具体地写出人物“敲门”的经过了。

运用这种方法，“敲门”这个大动作，我们就可以写成一段话：他穿戴整齐地来到妈妈的门前，轻轻推了一下，门紧闭着，里面似乎有亮光。他迟疑地举起了右手，想了想，慢慢弯曲食指，轻轻地敲在门上，里面没有反应，又敲了三下，仍然没有动静。他鼓起勇气，又轻轻地敲了敲，还是没有人出来开门，他一下子愣在了那里。

同学们，运用这种动作拆分的方法，我们是不是一下子就能把动作写具体了呢？希望同学们在自己的作文中也能运用这种方法，让自己的文章更加具体。

妙招三：准确运用词语

这里的“准确”，包括两层含义：一是体现人物特点，二是结合具体情境。这就要求在写人物动作的时候，避免使用那些“万能词”。什么是万能词呢？就是那些无所不能，多用途的词语。比方说下面的句子

我走到门前。

我走到妈妈面前。

我走过去。

“走”就是一个万能词，还有“看”“拿”“吃”等等。这些词用起来看似没有任何问题，可以用来写人物的动作。但是要知道，这些万能词有时却是万万不能的，因为它们不够准确。

我们都知道，世界上没有完全相同的两个人，人物的性别、性格、年龄、身份不同，他们所表现出来的行动的特点也一定是不同的。所以，在描写人物动作的时候，要充分结合人物的性别、性格、年龄、身份等，要表现出人物的特点。

例如：一个家境富裕的孩子，他是把一块钱拿在手里。而一个贫穷的孩子，他会把一块钱攥在手里。

再如：一个腼腆的人，笑的时候是“抿着嘴，嘴角微微翘起”的微笑，而一个爽朗的人笑得时候是“咧开嘴巴，露出牙齿”的开怀大笑。

第二点，人在不同情景、环境中，行动的特点更是不同的，更需要注意准确用词。

比方说，你在饭后散步时的“走”和上学要迟到时的“走”是一样的吗？肯定是不一样的。你在平时喝水时，可能是“拿起杯子，把杯子凑到嘴边，一仰脖，喝一口。”而当你渴极了或者是时间紧急的时候，你会怎样喝水呢？肯定是“一把抓过杯子，凑到嘴边，一仰脖，‘咕咚’灌下一大口”，你看，同样是你这个人，同样是喝水，因为情境不同，表现出来的动作不同，所选用的动词肯定也是不一样的。

提醒同学们一定要注意，在描写人物行动时，务求做到“准确”二字--抓住人物行动的特点写，抓住人物在特定情境中行动的特点写。这样才能把人物的动作写准确，把人物写活。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

会写文章，善于写文章，需要若干条件，其中一个条件就是练好基本功。以下是为大家分享的3小学生写作基础及提升技巧，供大家参考借鉴，欢迎浏览!

打好写作基础，练好写句子的基本功，要从把句子写完整、具体、通顺、连贯这几方面做起。

一、把句子写完整

怎样的句子才算是完整的呢？读读下面的句子：

1.我们劳动。(谁，干什么)

2.小蚂蚁运送食物。(什么，干什么)

3.哥哥是一名少先队员。(谁，是什么)

不难看出：在一般情况下，句子是由两部分组成的，前半部分交代“谁”或“什么”，后半部分交代“做什么”“怎么样”或者“是什么”。前后两部分说全了，句子才算是一句完整的话。

需要强调说明的是：知道什么是完整句，怎样的句子才算完整，这只是一个知识性的问题;落实在行动上，即平日在说每一句话，在写每一句话时，都要认真思考，反复斟酌，提高“完整”意识，不写残缺不全的句子，这才是最重要的。

二、把句子写具体

句子要完整，这是首要的。但在许多时候，句子只做到“完整”是不能准确表达意思的，还要做到“具体”。怎样的句子才算是具体的呢?读读下面这几组句子，体会一下：

第一组：

1、爸爸做工。

2.爸爸在工厂里做工。

分析：第二句写清了爸爸在哪儿做工。

第二组：

1.小蜜蜂飞来。

2.夏日，一只金色的小蜜蜂从远处嗡嗡地飞来。

分析：第二句写清什么时候，有多少，什么样，从哪儿，怎么样。

由上面这两组句子可以看出：在句子主要成分的前面或后面，写清什么时候(时间)、有多少(数量)、在什么地方或从哪儿(地点)、什么样(形状或颜色)、怎么样(态势)、达到什么程度(情境)等，就写清了事物外形特点、活动特点，就把自己要准确表达的意思写出来了，这就叫做把句子写具体。这样的句子就算是完整、具体的句子。

学习把句子写具体，这是一项极为重要的技能，需要同学们抓住人物或事物的特点，准确运用词语，进行持久练习。

三、把句子写通顺

句子通顺，就是句意明白，读得顺口。具体来说，句子通顺包括以下几个方面：

1.用词要准确，经得起推敲。例如：我们把门口的泥土消除掉了。句中，“泥土”不能“消除”，只能“清除”掉。

2.句中词语排列的顺序要合理。例如：正在花上，有几只漂亮的蝴蝶翩翩起舞。这句话改成“有几只漂亮的蝴蝶，正在花上翩翩起舞”,句子就通顺了。

3.词语使用搭配要得当。例如：公园里生长着各种树木和五颜六色的鲜花。句中“生长”和“鲜花”两词搭配不当，应改为“公园里生长着各种树木，盛开着五颜六色的鲜花”。

4.句中各词语的意思不能自相矛盾。例如：我断定他大概是王小刚的哥哥。句中“断定”与“大概”矛盾，应删掉“大概”。

5.关联词语的使用恰到好处。例如：只有天下雨，地才会湿。“下雨”不是“地湿”的唯一条件，因此，第一句应改为：只要天下雨，地就会湿。

6.句意明白，合乎实际，符合情理。例如：博物馆里展出了五千多年前新出土的文物。说“五千多年前新出土的文物”不合实际，应改为：博物馆里展出了新出土的五千多年前的文物。

四、把句子写连贯

连贯，即句子之间连接贯通。显然，把句子写连贯，这是指写几句话(又叫“句群”)来说的。

翻开某些同学的作文本，段落中上下句不连贯的现象比比皆是，主要表现在：句子之间无顺序，承接不紧密，跨度大;上下句之间，被描述的对象(即“主语”)重复出现，不会运用“他(她)”或者“它”这些人称代词。怎样才能做到把句子写连贯呢?

1.合理安排顺序，使句子连贯。

有顺序，这是写几句意思连贯的话的最基本的要求。这就要求我们，在写几句话时，一定不能东一句、西一句，想到哪儿就写到哪儿;总要围绕既定的中心意思，按照一定的顺序，把相关的句子组织在一起，使句子前后连贯。

2.学会运用“他(她)”或“它”这些人称代词，使句子连贯。

读读下面这段话，想一想，有什么毛病，怎样说才好：

妈妈的衣袖破了。妈妈赶忙从抽屉里拿出一个小布包。妈妈先从布包里拿出一根针，一根青线，用牙咬了咬线头，把线头穿过针眼。妈妈又从布包里找出一小块布，贴在破了的地方，然后一针一线地缝起来。

读后，大家一定会发现：这几句话写的对象是妈妈，主要写的是妈妈缝补衣服时所作的准备工作，是按事情经过的先后顺序排列的。只是由于这四句话的开头重复出现“妈妈”一词，因此读起来显得很拗口。如果把后面三句开头中的“妈妈”改成“她”字，这几句话就连贯多了。

这就告诉我们：在几个句子里，如果写的是同一个人物(或事物)，后面再指这个人物(或事物)时，就可以用“他(她)”或“它”来代替。

导语：要学好写英语短文，就必须经常练习写作。记日记是提高书面表达能力的有效方法之一。下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的优秀英语作文指导，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

一、日记的格式

英文日记通常由书端和正文两个部分组成。日记常以第一人称记下当天生活中的所见、所闻、所做或所想的事情。中、英文的日记三格式大致一样。英语日记的书端是专门写日记的日期、星期和天气的。左上角是日期(年、月、日)、星期。右上角写上当天的天气情况，如：Sunny，Fine，Rainy，Windy，Snowy，Cloudy等。

1、日期表达有多种形式。年、月、日都写时，通常以月、日、年为顺序，月份可以缩写，日和年用逗号隔开。例如：

A)September 1，2004或September 1st，2004也可省略写成Sept. 1，2004或Sept. 1st，2004;the 1st of September in 2004(月份不可以缩写)

B)只有月、日：September 1或September 1st(月份可以缩写)

C)只有年、月：September 2004或the September of 2004(月份不可以缩写)

以上的1或1st都应读作the first.

2、星期也可以省略不写，可将其放在日期前或后，星期和日期之间不用标点，但要空一格，星期也可缩写。如：

Saturday，October 22nd，2004;October 22nd，2004 Saturday

3.天气情况必不可少。天气一般用一个形容词如：Sunny，Fine，Rainy，Snowy 等表示。写在日期之后，用逗号隔开，位于日记的右上角。如：

Saturday，March 4，2004，Windy;1st January，2004，Fine

二、日记的要求

日记的正文是日记的主要部分，写在星期和日期的正下方，可以顶格写，也可以内缩3至5个字母的空间。由于记载的内容通常已经发生，谓语动词多用一般过去时。但也可根据具体情况，用其它时态。如：记叙天气、描写景色，为了描写生动，可以使用现在时，以表现当时的情景。再如文后发表感想或评论可用现在时态或将来时态。记日记力求简单明了，有连贯性。若有文字提示，则应重视提示，把握要点。在句式上尽量使用简单句，以防繁杂，造成语法、句型错误。

三、日记的类型和训练

日记分为记事型、议论型、描写型和抒情型。建议大家在学习写日记的过程中，可按以下步骤进行：

①将一天所经历的主要事情和过程依次简要地记下来，不附加任何感情色彩，这是最简单的记日记的方法;

②阅读别人的日记，并利用所学过的句型来表达个人在一天中观察到的或感受到的事情。

「范文与点评」

March 12th，2003，Tuesday Sunny (Fine)

Today is Tree Planting Day. At 7∶30 in the morning，all the students in our class met at the school gate. We walked to the park. Miss Gao and other teachers went and worked with us. All the students worked very hard，and we planted about 200 trees. Though we were dirty and tired，we still felt very happy.

这是一篇记叙型的日记。结构严谨，中心突出，有选择地记录当天的见闻(人或事)，并加以分析和评论。

常用的励志英语句子有很多，但是你能在短时间内就想起来吗?下面是语文迷为大家整理的英语励志句子，希望对你写英语作文有帮助。

Children in backseats cause accidents. Accidents in backseats cause children. 后排座位上的小孩会生出意外，后排座位上的意外会生出小孩。

Don’t take guilt trips. Take a trip to the mall, to the next country, to a foreign country, but NOT to where the guilt is.别踏上犯罪的道路。你可以去逛街，可以到邻县去，可以出国旅行，但就是别踏上犯罪的道路。

Enjoy the simple things.享受简单事物的乐趣。

I will greet this day with love in my heart.我要用全身心的爱来迎接今天。

Keep learning. Learn more about the computer, crafts, gardening, whatever. Never let the brain idle. "An idle mind is the devil’s workshop. And the devil’s name is Alzheimer’s."学无止境。多学学电脑、手艺、园艺等等。不要让你的大脑闲置下来。无所事事是魔鬼的加工厂。魔鬼的名字叫“痴呆症”。

Keep only cheerful friends. The grouches pull you down.结交快乐的朋友。整日愁眉不展只能让你雪上加霜。

There will be no regret and sorrow if you fight with all your strength.

只要全力地拼搏，就不会有遗憾，没有后悔。

Time is a bird for ever on the wing.

时间是一只永远在飞翔的鸟。

Time will never change and stop for any person.

时间不给任何人情面，也不会为谁而停留。

Today, give a stranger one of your smiles. It might be the only sunshine he sees all day.

今天，给一个陌生人送上你的微笑吧。很可能，这是他一天中见到的唯一的阳光。

Victory wont come to me unless I go to it.

胜利是不会向我们走来的，我必须自己走向胜利。

Walk the road you want to walk and do what you want to do , keep moving ahead and that’s not the silence of failure.

走自己想走的路，干自己想干的事，勇敢向前，这就是你不败的沉默。

We all have moments of desperation. But if we can face them head on, that’s when we find out just how strong we really are.

我们都有绝望的时候，只有在勇敢面对时，我们才知道我们有多坚强。

We must accept finite disappointment, but we must never lose infinite hope.

我们必须接受失望，因为它是有限的，但千万不可失去希望，因为它是无穷的。

The future is scary but you can’t just run to the past cause it’s familiar.

未来会让人心生畏惧，但是我们却不能因为习惯了过去，就逃回过去。

The first step is as good as half over.

第一步是最关键的一步。

The failures and reverses which await men - and one after another sadden the brow of youth - add a dignity to the prospect of human life, which no Arcadian success would do.

尽管失败和挫折等待着人们，一次次地夺走青春的容颜，但却给人生的前景增添了一份尊严，这是任何顺利的成功都不能做到的。

Success is the continuous journey towards the achievement of predetermined worth while goals .To live your life in your own way .To reach the goals , you’ve set for yourself . To be the person, you want to be ——that is success .

成功是不断向领先确定的有价值的目标前进的过程，用自己的方式生活，达到自己定下的目标，做出自己想做的人——这就是成功。

Success is the ability to go from one failure to another with no loss of enthusiasm.

成功是，你即使跨过一个又一个失敗，但也沒有失去热情。

Ones real value first lies in to what degree and what sense he set himself.

一个人的真正价值首先决定于他在什么程度上和在什么意义上从自我解放出来。

People neeed some courage in life, just like climbing a cliff .Although there are stemp ahead, you still fell some timorous and dare not go ahead. But when you conquer the timidity and reach the peak, you will feel the importance of courage as you enjoy the beautiful scenes. It is the same with life.

人生需要一点勇气和胆量，就如登一座悬崖峭壁的山峰，虽然上面都有云梯、搭好的台阶，可你就是有点胆怯，不敢向前，但你战胜了自我，到达了顶峰，看到了山顶的景色，你就会感到勇气和胆量是成功的标准人生何尝不是如此呢?

Real dream is the other shore of reality.

真正的梦就是现实的彼岸。

Sharp tools make good work.

工欲善其事，必先利其器。

Sometimes your plans don’t work out because God has better ones.

有时候，你的计划不奏效，是因为上天有更好的安排。

Standing firm is to challenge difficult courageously and to leave the smile after sccess to oneself.

坚强，就是勇敢的向困难挑战，把成功的微笑留给自己。

Never underestimate your power to change yourself!

永远不要低估你改变自我的能力!

Never, never, never, never give up.

永远不要、不要、不要、不要放弃。

What can I say about Pixar? Amazing?? Perfect?? Got to see this at the Cannes Film Festival in France (went>【扩展阅读篇】

所谓“感”

可以是从书中领悟出来的道理或精湛的思想，可以是受书中的内容启发而引起的思考与联想，可以是因读书而激发的决心和理想，也可以是因读书而引起的对社会上某些丑恶现象的抨击、讽刺。读后感的表达方式灵活多样，基本属于议论范畴，但写法不同于一般议论文，因为它必须是在读后的基础上发感想。要写好有体验、有见解、有感情、有新意的读后感，必须注意以下几点：

首先，要读好原文

“读后感[1]”的“感”是因“读”而引起的。“读”是“感”的基础。走马观花地读，可能连原作讲的什么都没有了解，哪能有“感”?读得肤浅，当然也感得不深。只有读得认真，才能有所感，并感得深刻。如果要读的是议论文，要弄清它的论点(见解和主张)，或者批判了什么错误观点，想一想你受到哪些启发，还要弄清论据和结论是什么。如果是记叙文，就要弄清它的主要情节，有几个人物，他们之间是什么关系，以及故事发生在哪年哪月。作品涉及的社会背景，还要弄清楚作品通过记人叙事，揭示了人物什么样的精神品质，反映了什么样的社会现象，表达了作者什么思想感情，作品的哪些章节使人受感动，为什么这样感动等等。

其次，排好感点

只要认真读好原作，一篇文章可以写成读后感的方面很多。如对原文中心感受得深可以写成读后感，对原作其他内容感受得深也可以写成读后感，对个别句子有感受也可以写成读后感。总之，只要是原作品的内容，只要你对它有感受，都可能写成读后感，你需要把你所知道的都表示出来，这样才能写好读后感。

第三、选准感点

一篇文章，可以排出许多感点，但在一篇读后感里只能论述一个中心，切不可面面俱到，所以紧接着便是对这些众多的感点进行筛选比较，找出自己感受最深、角度最新，现实针对性最强、自己写来又觉得顺畅的一个感点，作为读后感的中心，然后加以论证成文。

第四、叙述要简

既然读后感是由读产生感，那么在文章里就要叙述引起“感”的那些事实，有时还要叙述自己联想到的一些事例。一句话，读后感中少不了“叙”。但是它不同于记叙文中“叙”的要求。记叙文中的“叙”讲究具体、形象、生动，而读后感中的“叙”却讲究简单扼要，它不要求“感人”，只要求能引出事理。初学写读后感引述原文，一般毛病是叙述不简要，实际上变成复述了。这主要是因为作者还不能把握所要引述部分的精神、要点，所以才简明不了。简明，不是文字越少越好，简还要明。

第五，联想要注意形式

联想的形式有相同联想(联想的事物之间具有相同性)、相反联想(联想的事物之间具有相反性)、相关联想(联想的事物之间具有相关性)、相承联想(联想的事物之间具有相承性)、相似联想(联想的事物之间具有相似性)等多种。写读后感尤其要注意相同联想与相似联想这两种联想形式的运用。

编辑本段如何写读后感

格式

一、格式和写法

读后感通常有三种写法：一种是缩写内容提纲，一种是写阅读后的体会感想，一种是摘录好的句子和段落。题目可以用《读后感》;还可以用自己的感受(一两个词语)做题目，下一行是——《读有感》，第一行是主标题，第二行是副标题。

二、要选择自己感受最深的东西去写，这是写好读后感的关键。

三、要密切联系实际，这是读后感的重要内容。

四、要处理好“读”与“感”的关系，做到议论，叙述，抒情三结合。

五、叙原文不要过多，要体现出一个“简”字。

六、要审清题目。

在写作时，要分辨什么是主要的，什么是次要的，力求做到“读”能抓住重点，“感”能写出体会。

七、要选择材料。

读是写的基础，只有读得认真仔细，才能深入理解文章内容，从而抓住重点，把握文章的思想感情，才能有所感受，有所体会;只有认真读书才能找到读感之间的联系点来，这个点就是文章的中心思想，就是文中点明中心思想的句子。对一篇作品，写体会时不能面面俱到，应写自己读后在思想上、行动上的变化。

八、写读后感应以所读作品的内容简介开头，然后，再写体会。

原文内容往往用3～4句话概括为宜。结尾也大多再回到所读的作品上来。要把重点放在“感”字上，切记要联系自己的生活实际。

九、要符合情理、写出真情实感。

写读后感的注意事项

①写读后感绝不是对原文的抄录或简单地复述，不能脱离原文任意发挥，应以写“体会”为主。

②要写得有真情实感。应是发自内心深处的感受，绝非“检讨书”或“保证书”。

③要写出独特的新鲜感受，力求有新意的见解来吸引读者或感染读者。

④禁止写成流水账!

编辑本段要写关于学习的读后感应该读什么有感

(1)引——围绕感点 引述材料。简述原文有关内容。

(2)概——概括本文的主要内容 ,要简练,而且要把重点写出来。

(3)议——分析材料，提练感点。亮明基本观点。在引出“读”的内容后，要对“读”进行一番评析。既可就事论事对所“引”的内容作一番分析;也可以由现象到本质，由个别到一般的作一番挖掘;对寓意深的材料更要作一番分析，然后水到渠成地“亮”出自己的感点。要选择感受最深的一点，用一个简洁的句子明确表述出来。这样的句子可称为"观点句"。这个观点句表述的，就是这篇文章的中心论点。"观点句"在文中的位置是可以灵活的，可以在篇首，也可以在篇末或篇中。初学写作的同学，最好采用开门见山的方法，把观点写在篇首。

(4) 联——联系实际，纵横拓展。围绕基本观点摆事实讲道理。写读后感最忌的是就事论事和泛泛而谈。就事论事撒不开，感不能深入，文章就过于肤浅。泛泛而谈，往往使读后感缺乏针对性，不能给人以震撼。联，就是要紧密联系实际，既可以由此及彼地联系现实生活中相类似的现象，也可以由古及今联系现实生活中的相反的种种问题。既可以从大处着眼，也可以从小处入手。当然在联系实际分析论证时，还要注意时时回扣或呼应“引”部，使“联”与“引””藕”断而“丝”连这部分就是议论文的本论部分，是对基本观点(即中心论点)的阐述，通过摆事实讲道理证明观点的正确性，使论点更加突出，更有说服力。这个过程应注意的是，所摆事实，所讲道理都必须紧紧围绕基本观点，为基本观点服务。

中国民间的传统节日，在夏历五月初五，也叫“端阳”、“蒲节”、“天中节”、“大长节”、“沐兰节”、“女儿节”、“小儿节”。它是汉族的传统节日之一此外，端午节还有许多别称，如：午日节、重五节，五月节、浴兰节、女儿节，天中节、地腊、诗人节、龙日、艾节、端五、夏节、重午、午日等等。虽然名称不同，但总体上说，各地人民过节的习俗还是同多于异的。 时至今日，端午节仍是中国人民中一个十分盛行的隆重节日。

A traditional Chinese Folk Festival, in the fifth day of the fifth lunar month lunar calendar in May, also called the "Dragon Boat Festival", "Dragon Boat Festival", "day day", "long day", "Mu Lan day", "daughter Festival", "childrens day". It is one of the Chinese traditional festival the Dragon Boat Festival and many another name, such as: Good afternoon, section, section five, May Festival, bath Festival, daughter of festival, festival days, to LA, poet Festival, dragon day, AI Festival, at the end of five, the summer festival, afternoon, afternoon and so on. Although the names are different, but generally speaking, people around the custom of the feast or more than the same. Today, the Dragon Boat Festival is the Chinese people is still a very popular in the grand festival.

端午节是全年四大节之一。五月是毒月，五日是毒日，五日的中午又是毒时，居三毒之端。端午节又叫“五月端”。五月是整个热天的开端，五毒蛇开始活跃，鬼魅魍魉也会猖獗，这些都会给人特别是会给无所顾忌又无抵抗能力的孩子带来灾难，必须在五月端这天集中地为孩子消灾防毒，因此，人们又把五月端午节说成是“小孩节”或“娃娃节”。

The Dragon Boat Festival is one of the four major festivals throughout the year. May is the month of five days is poison, poison, five noon is poison, poison ranks three in the end. The Dragon Boat Festival is also called "the end of the May". May is the beginning of summer, the beginning of the five active snakes, ghosts and monsters are rampant, these will give people in particular will give no children and no resistance to bring disaster, must focus on that day in May at the end of anti disaster for the children, therefore, the people and the Dragon Boat Festival in May as a "childrens Day" or "doll festival".

过端午节，是中国人二千多年来的传统习惯，由于地域广大，民族众多，部分蒙古、回、藏、苗、彝、壮、布依、朝鲜、侗、瑶、白、土家、哈尼、畲、拉祜、水、纳西族、达斡尔、仫佬、羌、仡佬、锡伯族、普米、鄂温克、裕固、鄂伦春等少数民族也过此节，加上许多故事传说，于是不仅产生了众多相异的节名，而且各地也有着不尽相同的习俗。其内容主要有：女儿回娘家，挂钟馗像，迎鬼船、躲午，帖午叶符，悬挂菖蒲、艾草，游百病，佩香囊，备牲醴，赛龙舟，比武，击球，荡秋千，给小孩涂雄黄，饮用雄黄酒、菖蒲酒，吃五毒饼、咸蛋、粽子和时令鲜果等，除了有迷信色彩的活动渐已消失外，其余至今流传中国各地及邻近诸国。有些活动，如赛龙舟等，已得到新的发展，突破了时间、地域界线，成为了国际性的体育赛事。

The Dragon Boat Festival, is a traditional Chinese habits of more than two thousand years, because of the vast territory, numerous nationalities, part of Mongolia, Hui and Tibetan, Miao, Yi, Zhuang, Buyi, Dong, Yao, Bai, North Korea, Tujia, Hani, Yu, Lahu, water, Naxi, Daur, Mulao, Qiang, Gelao, Xibe, Pumi, Ewenki, Yugur, E Lunchun and other ethnic minorities also have this day, plus many stories, not only have so many different section, but also has the same throughout. The main contents are: his daughter back home, the clock up like, welcome the ghost ship, hide afternoon, with midday leaf character, hang calamus, wormwood, travel sickness, Sachet, prepared sweet wine offerings, dragon boat race, tournament, batting, swing, give the child Tu Xionghuang, drinking realgar wine, sweet wine, eat a cake, salted eggs, dumplings and seasonal fruits, in addition to a superstitious activities have gradually disappear, the other has spread throughout China and neighboring countries. Some activities, such as dragon boat racing, has been the development of new, breakthrough time and geographical boundaries, become an international sporting event.

端午祭正式被韩国申请为非物质文化遗产，并已获得成功，这对我们中国人本国文化遗产的保护也是一次深刻的教训。

The Dragon Boat Festival was officially apply for non-material cultural heritage of Korea, and has been successful, which is the Chinese people to protect their cultural heritage is also a profound lesson.

商务有文而成长，管理因案而规范

和说相比，写是更见真功夫的，也是要下更多功夫的。商务文案写作向来是让职场人士头疼的难事，也是很多稳健者、成功者、腾达者的强项优势。读了李玉珊老师的《商务文案写作》，很为如今的大学生高兴，为他们有了如此实用的职场实用工具而高兴，我相信青岛滨海学院的学生们就更是幸运了，因为和其他的读者相比，他们还能在李老师的课上感受到更生动的精彩与细节！ --- 国家商务策划师资质认证管理专家委员会副主任 万钧

第一章商务文案写作基础

学习目标

主要内容

本章小结

自学目标：了解商务文案的概念、作用、特点

掌握商务文案写作规范

了解商务文案写作的基本要素及思路

能力目标：自学《有限责任公司章程》，能够设立“模真”公司----×ד有限责任公司”。