英语写作基础教程课后题热门20篇

在写记叙文时，如果要使文字内容更具体，不空泛，一定要把叙述与描写结合起来。那么如何才能结合好呢？我们首先需要了解一下这两者的基本概念和作用。

叙述和描写。是作文中两种不同的表现方式。我们这里说的叙述是指把人的经历行为或事件的发生、发展变化表述出来的一种表达方式，它常常把分散的场景，片断的故事和人物的身世，地位，经历，事迹等贯穿起来。它要求做到头绪清楚，脉络分明，有条有理，重点突出。

在记事、写人、状物的文章中，叙述是不可少的，尤其是在介绍人或事物变化为主的文章中叙述的作用更大，甚至有的文章专以叙述为长。我们本讲选的优秀作文《男班长，女班长》就是一个很好的例子。文章中描写部分很少，介绍事件发展过程的叙述占了很大的篇幅，如开头对男女班长来自何方的介绍，女班长对男班长的观察，正副班长必须合作的现实，以及同学们的揶揄，思想的顾虑，同学开玩笑不断，“收到副班长纸条”，到结尾“男女班长仍然合作着处理班里的事务”。这篇文章用很短的篇幅，以叙述为主，把一波三折的事件按发展轨迹清晰有序地介绍出来。对发展过程虽是梗概地介绍，但文章的思想内涵却非常丰富，也可以说在写法上是比较巧妙的。

叙述在按事件发生发展、人物经历的时间来划分，可以有顺叙，倒叙、插叙、补叙等方式，我们在写文章时，可以根据表达的需要去选择叙述的方式。

描写是对人物，事物和环境所作的具体的描绘和摹写，描写是再现描写对象状态的一种表达方式。描写需要采用绘声绘色的办法，把事物的状貌、神采和动态，具体地、真切地饱含情意地勾画出来。写人要使其声可闻，其容可睹；写物要使之可见，可闻，可触，可感；写景要意境鲜明，使读者产生仿佛置身其间的幻觉。

在我们学过的课文中，传神的描写是很多的。如《天山景物记》中对天山深处的描写，“山色逐渐变得柔嫩，山形也变得柔和，很有一伸手就可以触摸到凝脂似的感觉。这里溪流缓慢，萦绕着每一个山脚，在轻轻荡漾着的溪流的两岸，满是高过马头的野花，红、黄、蓝、白、紫，五彩缤纷，像绵延的织锦那么华丽，象天边的彩霞那么耀眼，像高空的长虹那么绚烂。”这段描写抓住山色、溪流、野花这三种最能表现天山特点的事物，重彩浓墨，绘声绘色地把天山美景表现出来。既能使读者如身临其境，也增添了作品的文采。我们在作文时，如果能恰当地运用描写来表现形象，借以表达某种强烈的思想感情。文章的感染力就一定能有所增强。

叙述和描写在记叙性的文字中都是不可缺少的表现方式。叙述着重于一般情况过程的交待，描写则着重形象的描摹和刻画；如果说叙述是纵的绵延，那么描写便是横的扩展。一篇文字若无叙述，就会显得杂乱无章；没有描写，则会干瘪枯燥，毫无生气可言。

实际上，成功的作品中，常常是叙述与描写交错在一起的。我们所选优秀作文，《奶奶与花》就是叙述与描写交融在一起的，近似于一线串珠式的一篇记叙文。

文中以时间为序，先从小时候家门前有一个很大的“花园”叙述开始，然后再描写人物行为语言、花的形态、气味。从而表现我“深深地爱上花”的过程。接着叙述自己病中见到花的情景，描写花的形态，写出自己感受到“花能给人一种强盛的生命力”。接着是叙述“随着年龄的增长，这种认识愈来愈深”又通过对“死不了”“仙人球”的描写，感悟出“花，让我感到一种无尽的生命力，一种明亮的期望”。第五自然段叙述自己养花的过程。这里又运用描写的方式，描绘出花园的美丽，各种花的特点，表现出花可以陶冶情操的作用。这段描写是比较突出的，描写了花的各种色彩，各种形态，用排比、比喻的手法绘色绘形，有丰富的想象力。为了把文章写得曲折有致，第七段、第八段叙述搬进高层楼房前、后我与奶奶对花的珍爱，对小花园的怀念，这里又有对人物的心理、动作的描写，为“小花园”遭到破坏，我和奶奶沉痛心情做了铺垫。

这篇文章用叙述的方式。介绍了事件发展曲折过程，使文章头绪清楚，脉络分明，重点环节突出。这是文章的一条线。在每个重要环节上，作者都生动形象地描绘了人物的行为、场景、物态，内容丰满。叙述和描写有机地结合在一起，深刻地表达了文章的主题思想，增强文章的感染力。

在作文时，恰当地运用叙述与描写，做到有机结合，要注意以下几点。

一、要熟练掌握叙述与描写的功能，注意二者之间互相依存、互相交通的关系。根据作文内容和思想表达的需要，交错运用。

二、在描写范围比较大、内容比较丰富的地域景物或事物状貌时，（例如《天山景物记》等一些游记式的文章）需要有一条贯穿始终的线索，有一个逐步转移、推进的过程，那么这个线索或过程就要依靠叙述来表现。如我们常讲的“移步换景”的写法，其中对“移步”的交代，往往需要叙述。用时间推移来描写事物或人物的发展变化时，对每个阶段的交代，一般也是要运用叙述来完成的。在这种情况下描写的条理性要依靠叙述来体现。

三、在写故事情节比较强文章时，人物的语言，行动往往是构成情节的重要因素、情节又要依靠叙述来展开，这就需要描写人物语言行动与铺叙故事情节同时进行，也就是说要把叙述故事融化在描写中，或把描写融化在叙述情节中。我们仔细玩味一下作文《奶奶与花》，其中有些地方就是把描写与叙述这样融合在一起的。

我们就应当多选读一些优秀作文或名家的文章，刻意体味一下的相依关系，学习二者的结合形式。使自己的作文能更加条理清晰，情节曲折跌宕，内容丰富有致，更具有感染力。

图画作文是近年大学英语四级写作中出现频率较高的一类文体,考生要特别加以重视。众所周知，题目所给出的图画必然反映了一定的社会现实或者揭露出某种社会现象。相比其他的文体而言，这类作文难度较大，既要求考生通过文字形式分析出图画内容，又要将图中所包含的的思想内容准确地表达出来。为此，应届毕业生网就此类作文写作步骤予以如下几方面的指导和点拨。

一、审题立意

四级作文写作过程中最关键的步骤就是审题，不仔细审题就会很容易使作文跑题，因此这是必不可少的第一步。此步骤要注意两点：一是分析题目和图画，确定文章的命题类型，抓住中心思想，联想此作文要求的写作主题。二是进一步确定给定的题材及此作文要考查的重点内容。也就是说，通过审题，考生要对作文谈论的主要话题心中有数。

二、组织结构

审题之后，根据分析的结果草拟提纲并组织安排段落，确定文章的整体结构。一般而言，考生可将图画作文转化为三段式提纲作文。开始段描述图画内容；中间段解释图画所反映出来的深层意义；结尾段引出结论，总结全文。各段的主题句要条理清晰，以使自己要表达的内容有更好的把握。每段的重点都应集中于描述图画规定的内容。选用的词句应紧扣图画主题、突出重点、前后连贯、表达清楚。

三、检查修改

考试过程中，很多考生由于紧张、仓促等原因，很容易犯一些简单的错误。因此，最后留出几分钟时间来修改所写内容是很有必要的。然而，切忌大幅度地对作文惊醒修改，因为这样会破坏卷面整洁，影响阅卷老师对试卷的印象。修改时可以从两点着手：

语法方面。包括时态是正确、名词单复数是否对应、被动主动语态是否正确、主谓是否一致等。

词汇方面。包括连接上下句或段落的关联词、固定搭配、及物不及物动词的使用、习惯用语是否使用正确等。同时，单词拼写错误和标点误用都是扣分点，考生应尽量避免此类错误。

综上所述，四级写作需要遵循上述步骤，即审题立意、组织结构、检查修改。祝考生顺利通关！

话题作文这种新的命题形式使写作变得很容易，也很有创意，下面是小编给大家整理的如何写好话题作文，欢迎大家查看。

一、什么是话题作文

话题作文这种命题形式，最先出现在1999年的高考中。这种开放性的命题方式给学生提供了较充分的写作自由，因而受到考试命题者和广大考生的青睐;所以从1999年“假如记忆可以移植”，到2000年“答案是丰富多彩的”，从2001年“诚信”，又到2002年“心灵的选择”，连续4年全国高考作文都是话题作文的形式。由于其具有开放性强，比较符合现代选拔人才的需求的特点，因而一问世就受到社会各界的肯定。目前，话题作文正日益受到广大老师和同学的重视，已经成为高中生日常作文训练的一项重要内容。

1.话题作文命题的结构

话题作文的命题分三个部分：话题前的材料或提示语、话题、写作要求。材料或提示语用来引出话题，话题提供写作范围，写作要求是对内容、文体、字数等方面提出的具体要求。请看2001年全国高考作文题：

材料：

有一个年轻人跋涉在漫长的人生路口上，到了一个渡口的时候，他已经拥有了“健康”、“美貌”、“机敏”、“诚信”、“才学”、“金钱”、“荣誉”七个背囊，渡船出发时风平浪静，说不清过了多久，风起浪涌，小船上下颠簸，险象环生。艄公说：“船小负载重，客官须丢弃一个背囊方可安渡难关。”看年轻人哪一个都不舍得丢，艄公又说：“有弃有取，有失有得。”年轻人思索了一会儿，把“诚信”抛进了河里。

寓言中“诚信”被抛弃了，它引发你想些什么呢?

话题：请以“诚信”为话题，写一篇作文。

要求：

(1)这个话题的内容是很宽泛的，作文内容只要与这个话题相关，都符合要求。

(2)文体不限。可以记叙自己或他人经历的事情、编述故事(包括小小说、童话、寓言、戏剧)、发表议论、抒发感情等等。

(3)无论是写记叙文(包括小小说、童话、寓言、戏剧)还是写议论文不得少于800字。

2.话题作文的基本特点

自拟题目、自定立意、自选文体是话题作文的三个基本特点。这三个特点为话题作文的写作提供了广阔的空间。

(1)可以自由地选择自己熟悉的素材，从感受最深的一点出发确立主题，说出自己的心里话。比如“诚信”这个话题，可以围绕历史上有关诚信的故事来写，如古人一诺千金的故事;可以围绕现代社会中与诚信有关的事情来写，如国外的产品召回制度;可以围绕现实中不讲诚信的事情来写，如假冒伪劣产品;可以联系自己身边的事来写，如考试中的作弊问题。同学们请看，在话题作文这种命题形式下，你可写的东西是不是很多呢?可发挥的空间是不是很大呢?

(2)可以自由地选择自己擅长的文体，你不只可以写记叙文、议论文，还可以写一个童话、一个科幻故事，可以写一篇日记、一封书信，还可以写一个短剧、一则新闻、一篇采访记等等。在近两年的高考中，考生的文体选择可谓异彩纷呈，出现了不少很有创意的佳作。

(3)话题作文写作的自由度虽然很大，但也有其限制性，同学们必须在话题的范围内写作，超出范围就属跑题。比如“假如记忆可以移植”这个话题，就要求我们应该写在这一假定前提(“记忆可以移植”)下可能发生的事情或问题，如果你写记忆移植绝对不可能发生、或者写情感可以移植就属于跑题了。

二、话题作文不能忽视审题

话题作文的写作空间很大，降低了审题难度，有些同学就认为话题作文的审题不重要，不需要重视了。其实不然，每次考试话题作文都会有跑题、偏题的文章，而且题目审得好不好对能否写好作文至关重要。审题时我们自然要从话题作文命题的三个部分人手：

1.审话题

审话题要注意两点：审出话题丰富的内涵及审清话题中的限制。

(1)审内涵：有许多话题包含了很丰富的内涵，深刻理解话题内涵，对我们写作话题作文、打开思路有很大的帮助。一般来讲，内涵包括本义和引申义两层。

以话题“珍宝”为例，珍宝的本义指的是珠玉等宝物，如果单从这一点来立意，可写的东西很少;但我们若考虑到“珍宝”的引申义，思路一下子就打开了：对一个国家或一个组织来说，良好的制度是珍宝;对一个单位来说，人才是珍宝;对个人来说，珍宝的含义更是丰富多彩，有人把金钱视为珍宝;有人把时间视为珍宝;有人把品质视为珍宝;有人把事业视为珍宝;有人把家庭视为珍宝;有人把感情视为珍宝;有人把快乐视为珍宝……显而易见，从“珍宝”的引申义来立意，不仅容易写，而且文章还能写得有深度、有新意。

(2)审限制：知道哪些是话题范围以内的，哪些是话题范围以外的，这样我们在写作时才能扣紧话题，避免跑题、偏题。

下面是两条具体的注意事项：

①准确理解话题，才能把写作范围搞清楚。例如话题“诚信”，其含义是诚实守信，我们就不能只写诚实，如果写狼来了这种故事，或写同学犯错误后大胆承认显然就偏离了题意。

②抓住话题中的关键词语，有助于理解话题。例如话题“战胜自己”，其关键词是“自己”，我们就不能写成战胜困难，比如写做实验时缺乏器材，同学们如何在老师的指导下自制器材，终于战胜了困难，这样写无疑就跑题了。

2.审材料或提示语

认真审读话题前的材料或提示语，有助于我们理解话题和打开思路。

比如一道作文题目“偶像”，话题前有这样一段材料：

人们往往崇拜自己不熟悉的人和远离自己的人，因为这会有一种神秘感。而神秘感一旦消失，崇拜的情绪就可能淡化。

据说，耶稣在外游历了很长时间后，返回家乡布道。起初，人们为他的学问和智慧所叹服。当大家仔细一瞧，发现眼前这个口若悬河的人，原来不过是本地一个木匠的儿子，诚服钦敬之心顿减，立即变得不恭不敬起来。耶稣还是刚才的耶稣，乡邻却已不是刚才的乡邻了。

这段材料能帮助我们理解话题，找到思路。耶稣的故事说明偶像是靠距离、神秘感等维系的，而这些维系条件一旦消失，可能偶像就不复存在了。同学们可以顺着材料提示的观点去进一步阐述，也可以逆向思考进行反驳，还可以挖掘其原因或结果进行深入分析。

3.审要求

看清话题后的写作要求，弄清在内容、文体、字数方面有哪些具体的限制再下笔作文。

三、打开思路是关键

话题作文的开放性决定了一个话题下可以有多种思路和多种表达，如果同学们能从这多种思路中找到一个自己最熟悉或最有创意的思路来写，肯定能完成一篇佳作，所以思路开阔对于写作话题作文非常重要。但不少同学因为习惯了命题作文和给材料作文，对这种开放性的命题形式反而不适应，拿到话题后脑中茫然一片、无从下笔，下面我们就给大家介绍几种打开思路的方法。

1.打开思路从话题开始

脑中空白时好好看看话题和话题前的提示语，从话题的内涵和提示语中就能受到启发，这一点在前面讲审题时已经讲得很清楚了。

2.打开思路的方式

(1)可以回忆：闭上眼睛回忆自己的所见、所闻、所感，从生活实际中寻找与话题相关的素材。

(2)可以推理：考虑与话题相关的各种观念和各种说法，加进自己的思考和判断，形成一种观点，然后在此观点的统摄之下寻找合适的事例，这种方法适合找到议论文的思路。

(3)可以想像和虚构：打开头脑的宝藏，展开想像的翅膀，可以虚构一个童话，可以编一个故事，也可以对头脑中已有的故事原型进行重新演绎，还可以变换一下视角，从物或动植物的视角看待评价一件事情。比如“考试”这个话题，就可以从一只宠物狗的视角来看小主人的中考，小主人每天都要学到很晚，妈妈还不许她给“我”洗澡、陪“我”玩耍，她很痛苦。

3.从四个范畴出发打开思路

掌握了打开思路的方式，如果同学们还是找不到思路怎么办，这里再结合话题“成长”给大家介绍几个范畴，从这几个范畴考虑，相信同学们会很快找到思路。

(1)时间：过去、未来、现在、一段时间、某一时刻。

过去的成长和现在的成长，比如父母过去的成长条件与“我”现在的成长条件相对比;某个时间段的成长，比如“我”是如何在父母的关怀下从蹒跚学步长成一个又蹦又跳的小女孩儿的;某一时刻的成长，比如“我”今年十四岁了，突然觉得自己长大了，有了许多新的感悟。

(2)空间：领域、场所。

不同场所中的成长，比如自己在家庭中的成长，或者同学们在学校中的成长;不同领域中的成长，比如随着年龄的增长，自己对美的认识越来越深入，或者对大自然的感悟越来越丰富。

(3)因果：原因、结果。

成长的原因，例如“我”为什么能够健康地长大，离不开家长、老师的关怀，离不开良好的社会条件;成长的结果，即成长的收获是什么，比如经过了妈妈生病住院一段艰苦的日子，“我”长大了，体会到了父母的辛劳，明白了什么是责任。

(4)对象：

①自己是很重要的对象，是重要的资源，因此可以写写自己的成长经历及感受。

②其他人，包括周围的人、古人、名人。比如爸爸的成长、同学的成长;李白的成长;比尔·盖茨的成长、乔丹的成长等。

③文艺作品中的主人公比如蜡笔小新的成长，林黛玉的成长。

④动物、植物。比如一只小狗的成长，一棵小草的成长。

⑤群体等。比如，一个小区的社会公德的成长，原来小区脏、乱、差，玻璃经常被砸坏，邻里之间经常吵架，现在干净整洁、窗明几净、邻里和睦。

四、文体选择天地宽

文体不限是话题作文的一个重要特点，但不限文体绝不意味着同学们用不着谙熟各种文体。不同文体各有特点，多掌握几种文体，就可以从容选择最适宜的文体来表情达意，可以选择新鲜的文体更有创意地表达内容。

1.常规文体的选择

(1)文体概念要清晰，不能写成四不像。

记叙文，应以记叙、描写为主，要形象具体。

议论文，应以说理为主，做到观点鲜明、有理有据。

以话题“理解”为例，思路是家长应对孩子读课外书、参加课外活动给予理解。若写记叙文，就应通过具体的一两件事来体现，比如写这样两件事：A.妈妈支持我打乒乓球;B.妈妈支持我演讲比赛。若写议论文，就应有充足的道理，可以有以下分论点：A.仅仅死学课本的人往往缺乏创造力;B.创造力的获得需要主动地研究自己喜欢的问题;C.创造力的获得还需要接触实际生活;D.学好功课让父母放心。

(2)根据自身特点、特长选择文体：形象思维较好的同学可以写记叙文;擅长讲道理、逻辑思维较好的同学可以写议论文;脑子灵活善于讲故事的同学可以写童话寓言、故事新编、小小说等。

(3)结合具体话题和思路选择文体：对某一话题有生动事实和独特感受的同学最好写记叙文，有鲜明观点的同学最好写议论文。

2.特殊文体的选择

特殊文体指的是应用文体和文艺性文体，应用文体包括日记、书信、演讲搞、辩论稿、会议纪要、实验报告、新闻报道、广告等;文艺性文体包括小说、戏剧、童话寓言、故事新编、散文、诗歌等。

(1)使用特殊文体可以更有创意地表达观点，表现素材。

比如“缺陷”这个话题，思路是“维纳斯的断臂是一种缺憾美”。这个思路写成议论文完全可以，但比较平，若写成一篇想像文章就比较新奇了，比如设想维纳斯当初双臂齐全时默默无闻，偶然失去双臂后却一举成名，成为美的化身;或者设想维纳斯的双臂被发现并修复。

再比如话题是“环保”，思路是批判人类对环境的破坏，这思蹄可以写议论文;也可以具体以某个地区为例，记叙它被逐渐破坏的经过，写成一篇记叙文。但这两种文体写成的文章可能比较一般，如果我们以童话这种形式来写，让各种动植物具有人的思想感情，纷纷到法庭来状告人类，文章就很精彩了。

(2)特殊文体还可以扬长避短。请看下面几种文体：

①日记、书信：

扬长：可记叙、可议论、可抒情，可以自由地表达。

避短：结构自由，不需要复杂的过渡承接;写作时文体不太规范的同学也能写好。

②戏剧、对话体：

扬长：思路活跃、善于写对话的同学很容易写好。

避短：不需要什么叙述、描写，文章结构也较灵活。

③童话、寓言、科幻故事：

扬长：善于想象的同学可以借这种文体发挥特长。

避短：素材缺乏的同学可以通过这类文体弥补。

④故事新编：

扬长：有大量故事原型、头脑灵活的同学运用这种文体容易使文章出彩。

避短：素材缺乏的同学可以通过这种文体弥补。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

综观2004年各地中考作文试题，半命题作文占有相当的比例。下面是小编为你带来的写作基础知识：半命题作文，希望对你有帮助。

一、什么叫半命题作文

半命题作文就是指作文题目只出现一半或一部分，另外一半或一部分由考生自己去补充的一种作文。

二、半命题作文的特点

有一半或一部分的命题权握在了作者手里，选材有较大的自由度，在一定范围内考生有一定的自主权，与全命题作文相比，有利于考生发挥自己的写作水平，可以较灵活自由的进行写作;与话题作文相比，适当作些限制，既可使评卷更准确，也可避免考生千题一文的套文现象。

三、半命题作文的写作方法

1弄清题意

半命题作文从形式上看，它由文字部分和填空部分组成，有的题目前还有一段提示语，后面还有具体要求。我们在拿到题目后，先要分析已有文字部分所表达的意思。如：“善待(亲人、生命、自己……)”(2004年四省国家课改实验区中考作文题)。从这个题目现有的文字部分即可看出，“善待”即好好地对待的意思，“善待”的对象可以是亲人、生命、自己……也可以是你觉得应该好好地对待的人、物或精神、品质等。再如：“讲给的事儿(爸爸、妈妈、老师、同学……)”(2004年辽宁大连市中考作文题)。从这个题目的已有文字可看出，本文应写事，而且是向别人叙说的口吻，叙说的对象是“爸爸、妈妈、老师、同学……”中的一员即可。

再看2004年江西省中考作文试题：

芊芊芦苇，触动了文人的心灵;巍巍“神舟”，触动了国人的心灵;眷眷亲情，触动了游子的心灵;殷殷师恩，触动了学子的心灵……同学们，相信五彩斑斓的大千世界里，一定也会有许多触动你心灵的人或事。

请以“，触动了我的心灵”为题，写一篇文章。

从该题的提示语中可以看出，触动了“我“的心灵的应该是一件很重要的事情或是特殊的人或情感。

此外，在几乎所有的文题后面都有具体要求，如“将题目补充完整”，“有真情实感”，“不少于600字”等等，这些在审题时也应引起重视，否则会影响作文的质量和得分。

2选好材料

补写好了文题，也就成了命题作文了，那我们就要按照命题作文的要求，对已经补好的文题进行审题，审人称、审体裁、审题眼、定选材范围。要将选择的材料进行认真的筛选，选出最有代表性的材料，用恰当的表现手法和生动的语言文字来表达文章的主题。

3补好文题

弄清了题意之后，就要考虑补充文题了。补充文题就是将半命题作文变为命题作文。补写文题时应注意以下几点：

1.要易写作。我们要充分利用半命题作文选材自由的特点，填上自己认为较容易写的内容。如“我和(小草、春天、智者、母亲……)的对话”(2004年河南省中考作文题)，你觉得所供选择的词语中哪个最好写，你就补上哪个，若觉得这几个都不怎么好写，你还可以另选词语。总之，应在题目要求的范围内，选择自己认为好写和有东西可写的内容填在横线上。

2.要确定体裁。在补充题目时要考虑你所写文章的体裁。一般考场作文对文体都没有要求，所以应根据自己的特长考虑是写记叙文，还是写说明文，或是议论文;是写人记事，还是写景状物，或是阐述某个道理。如“珍惜所拥有的”(2004年安徽省中考作文题)，文题对记叙、议论或书信、日记几种文体都适合，但是，你只能根据自己的特长，抓住一种文体，补题时应扣住文章体裁和写作对象。上文若作记叙文写，则可补上母爱、亲情、友谊等;若作议论文写，则可补上青春、生命、智慧等。

3.要内容健康。半命题作文给我们以自由选择材料的余地，但同时也放宽了题目本身的一些要求。有的考生往往填上一些消极、不健康的内容，给半命题作文带来了一些负作用，自然也降低了作文的品位。如“的滋味”(2004年云南省中考作文题)，就有考生在横线上填了“打麻将”、“抽烟”、“喝酒”、“自杀”等词语，让阅卷者瞠目结舌，甚为困惑。因此，我们在这方面应引起注意，不能凭一时的感情冲动，或是标新立异，填写上了一些消极、不健康的内容，应填写积极向上，反映青少年时代风貌的健康内容。

概念：  记叙文是以记叙、描写为主要表达方式，以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主要内容的文章。中学阶段，为了教学的方便，常常把消息、通讯、人物传记、回忆录、寓言、童话、小说等，都划归到记叙文教学中。

分类：  从写作内容与方式看，可分为两类：简单记叙文和复杂记叙文。从写作对象的不同，可分为写人、叙事、写景 (散文)、状物四类。

特点：  通过生动形象的事件来反映生活、表达作者的思想感情，文章的中心思想蕴含在具体材料中，通过对人、事、物的生动描写来表现。

要素：  时间、地点、人物、事件（起因、经过、结果）。

人称：  一般采用第一人称或第三人称，个别时候使用第二人称。

线索：  时间线索、地点线索、人物线索、事件线索、事物线索、情感线索。

顺序：  顺叙、倒叙、插叙、补叙、分叙（平叙）。

句式：  陈述句、疑问句、感叹句、祈使句。

插叙：  在记叙过程中，插入另一些有关的情节，再接着叙述后来的事情。 插入的内容对主要情节起补充衬托、解释说明作用，使文章脉络清晰，结构紧凑。

补叙：  行文中用三两句话或一小段话对前边说的人或事作一些简单的补充交代。运用补叙，有助于更好地表达主题，使文章结构完整，行文跌宕起伏，收到出人意料的效果。

分叙：  也叫平叙法，叙述几件同一时间内不同地点发生的事情。

语言特点：  形象、生动、具体。

表达方式：  叙述、描写、议论、抒情、说明。

表现手法：  描写、烘托、渲染、对比、伏笔、铺垫、照应、象征、联想、想象、

欲扬先抑、借景抒情、心理刻画。

修辞手法：  比喻、拟人、拟物、排比、对偶、夸张、反问、设问、反复、反语、双关、借代、顶针。

中心把握：  整体感知，分析材料与中心的关系，理解材料的详略安排，准确把握文章中心。

人物描写：  外貌、语言、神态、细节、动作和心理描写。

环境描写：  自然环境和社会环境描写。

结尾作用：  照应开头，总结全文，揭示中心，深化主题。

结尾特点：  如果把开头比作爆竹，那么结尾就有如撞钟。 好的结尾，有如咀嚼干果，品尝香茗，令人回味再三。作文结尾易犯的毛病有：画蛇添足、空喊口号、拖泥带水。

结尾方式：  自然收束式、首尾呼应式、抒情议论式、卒章显志式、名言警句式。

新闻必须是新近发生和新近发现的事实;新闻所报道的事实必须是有价值的;新闻必须是对事件的“报道”。下面是小编为你带来的 最新新闻写作基础知识 ，欢迎阅读。

把新闻作为一门科学进行研究，从1845年德国学者普尔兹所著《德国新闻事业》算起，迄今不过一百多年。若以美国新闻教育和研究事业的兴起为标志，也仅为一个世纪左右。我国的新闻学研究迟于欧美国家，于二十世纪二十年代开始进行。由于该学科作为一门专门的研究对象起步较晚，所以，我们在学习新闻的过程中，有时会发现一些著作的提法或者分类并不统一，但它们的基本要求和基本原理都是相通的。我国的新闻理论主要借鉴了西方国家的新闻学理论，但又有所不同。

(一)新闻的定义

新闻有很多定义，在不同的国家，不同的研究者对它有不同的定义。比如，在西方，对新闻的严肃定义有：“新闻就是变迁的记录”——英国《泰晤时报》，“新闻就是新鲜报道”——英国《牛津字典》等等，在国外对新闻的幽默定义也有许多，比如:“狗咬人不是新闻，人咬狗才是新闻”——美国《纽约太阳报》博加特等。

我国学者对新闻也有一些定义，比如：“新闻就是广大群众欲知、应知而未知的很重要事实”——范长江;“新闻的定义，就是新近发生的事实的报道”——陆定一。

我们一般指的新闻，可以理解为：新闻是对新近已经发生和正在发生、或者早已发生却是新近发现的有价值的事实的及时报道。

这一定义体现了三个要点：新闻必须是新近发生和新近发现的事实;新闻所报道的事实必须是有价值的;新闻必须是对事件的“报道”。

新闻都是以事实为依据，真实性是新闻的生命，也是第一要素。

凡是新闻文体，不论消息报道，还是通讯、特写，在写作上都应当做到新、快、短、活。

(二)新闻的分类

新闻按体裁分类，大致可以分为：消息、通讯、新闻特写、以及新闻边缘体裁。新闻边缘体裁主要包括：报告文学、调查报告、采访札记、工作研究、来信等。

新闻分广义的新闻与狭义的新闻，上段的分类是按广义的新闻进行分类的，它们是报纸、广播、电视等媒体中常见的报道体裁。狭义的新闻专指消息，又称电讯(通过电报、电传、电子计算机传输的消息)。它是报纸上最经常、最大量运用的一种新闻报道体裁，也是最直接、最简练、最迅速地向读者传播新闻信息的报道方式。

(三)新闻的六要素

新闻要素，是指新闻构成的主要因素。交待新闻要素，是把事实报道清楚的起码条件。一般来讲，在传统的新闻学讲义中，我们常提到的是五要素，所谓五个W(When，Where，Who，What，Why——何时，何地、何人、何事、何故)。在西方新闻学有一个观点，认为新闻学除了五个W外，还应增加一个H(How——怎么样，何果)，也称新闻六要素。新闻六要素近年来在国内一些教材中得到认可。

(四)新闻语言

在写新闻时，有的作者常用写散文或者写评论的方式写新闻，其实，它们之间的语言要求是不一样的。文学语言是艺术的语言，评论语言是说理性语言，新闻语言则是表述事实的语言。

新闻语言作为一种独立的书面语体，它服务于事实的报道，具有质朴、实用的语言形态，明快而富有表现力的语言风格，讲求信息的运载量，使之适宜于社会的广泛传播。

新闻语言的特色可以概括为：客观、确切、简练、朴实和通俗。

1、客观。新闻语言的主要功能用于表达客观事实，而主观认识和感情的强烈外露，势必干扰读者(听众、观众)对事情原貌的了解和把握。比如说，我们讲某某员工工作认真，某某领导身先士卒，则不如用一些事情把它反映出来，让读者去品味，而不一味去下结论。

新闻语言的客观性，通常表现为：

1)中性词多于褒贬词，即客观地描述，而不随便下结论，或者评论;新闻中一般不使用评议性的语言，即使是评述性消息，作者的评述语言也极少，多讲究分析对比，然后自然将极其精练的评述语言自然落笔。

2)修饰语的限制性多于形容性，举例：昨日气温已开始回暖，最高温度已达15℃，这是用数字进行限制;如果写成：昨日气温已开始回暖，大家感到比前些日暖和很多，这就成了形容词性，不宜用作写新闻。

3)句子的陈述口气多于感叹口气。把一些事件或者现象以第三者身份客观描述出来，而不是以第一人称或第二人称去下结论或发表感叹。

2、确切。确切，就是准确，贴切。在新闻语言的使用上，要求精确性较高，力除消除语言的含混性，但并不完全排斥语言的模糊性。新闻的模糊语言不是语言含混不清，而是相对于精确语言来说，其精确度较低，但又不失之确切。比如，“近200吨”比“几百吨”，“30多厘米”比“几十厘米”要精确。

3、简练。新闻以简练为贵，以烦冗为病。新闻语言应简洁、洗练，干净利落，切忌拖泥带水。正如鲁迅说过，“简洁的文字，有着穿透读者心胸的力量”。写新闻提倡写短句，说短话，强调简捷直叙，少曲迂回，尤其忌语言杂质，不要让复杂的结构和修辞手段、表情语言淹没事实。比如，“在……的大好形势下，在……鼓舞下，在……的基础上”等等繁冗的句子都应避免。

4、朴实。质朴无华，具体实在，这是新闻语言的又一特色。新闻语言讲究朴实，就要“有真意，去粉饰，勿卖弄”。

5、通俗。新闻语言的通俗，要求从读者(听众、观众)的认识水平出发，运用群众熟悉的语言形式，即接近口语的书面语。在写新闻时，用语不以作者的认识标准为准，也不以行业内的认识为标准，而应是最广大的读者认识为标准，对一些特殊用词，或者专有名词，应加必要的注释。

一、了解高分作文的特点

要想作文获得高分，必须了解高分作文具有的特点，才有助于我们朝之而努力。高分作文一般具有以下特点：

1、书写工整，书面整洁，很少有涂改痕迹。

2、分段合理。全文分段一般不止一个自然段，让阅卷老师很容易就能找到作文所要求写的要点和重要句子。

3、要点齐全，不缺要点。

4、首尾呼应，自然成一体。

5、使用了大量的高级词汇和句型。阅卷老师一看就知道这个同学的功底非不一般，自然就给打高分了。

6、开头言简意赅，不啰嗦，不偏题，迅速引入主题。

7、段与段之间，自然过渡。有合适的连接词。

8、句与句之间，有恰当的连接词，使之自然成一体。

9、全文中同一个意思，基本没有重复使用某一个词、短语或者句型等，说明这个同学的词汇量不同寻常。老师自然就对该作文有好感了。

10、能够恰当使用谚语、格言等给文章添彩。

二、勤积累，巧准备

要想作文得高分，除了了解以上的特点外，还要在平时的学习中注意一下方面：

1、牢记课标词汇是基础

一篇作文多数是由积极词汇写出来的，这些词汇主要来源于课标。因此，牢记课标词汇是写好作文的基础。

2、掌握课标词汇和短语的用法

要想作文不扣分或者少扣分，有个要求是作文的语病少。怎么能够减少语病呢?这就要求我们在平时的学习过程中反复通过练习，掌握课标词汇和短语等的用法。例如，对于assoonas、stopsomebodyfromdoingsomething、other、another等的用法很多学生就经常出错。

3、高度重视同一个意思的多种表达方式

高分作文有个特点是：让老师发现你拥有丰富的词汇量，你的水平高人一筹。这由何而来?靠我们在平时学习过程中，逐步积累起来的。比如：今年的中考作文，谈的就是帮助他人的问题。同一个意思“帮助”，假如你就用一个动词“help”，岂不显得你词汇贫乏?假如你在作文中不断地变换方式，用help、givesomebodyahand、giveahandtosomebody、beinneedof等以表达“帮助”同一个意思，岂不更好呢?

像这样的例子很多，比如：大家都觉得很简单又很基础的“表示姓名的方式”就有：MynameisJim.I’mJim.I’mcalled/namedJim.I’maboycalled/named/withthenameofJim.等等。

表达年龄的方式有：Sheis12.Sheis12yearsold.Sheisaged12.Sheisagirlof12(yearsold)。Sheisagirlaged12.等等。

很显然，使用高级一点的更好。

4、加强练习，积累经验

学习语言最好的方法是运用，作文也不例外。我们要想作文得高分，必须经常练习，才能提高水平。

5、充分利用作文范文

很多资料书上都有作文范文。诚然，他们有很多值得借鉴的地方。

我们怎么利用它们呢?首先，我们先不要看文章，自己先思考一下：假如你来写，你会怎么去写，会用到哪些词或者句子等。然后去比较，勾出其中的好词佳句，并且把它摘录在专门的作文册子上。供写作时选用。

另外，背一些范文也是很有必要的。

6、背诵一些谚语和警句

作文中如果出现恰当的谚语和警句，会有锦上添花的效果。

三、精心审题，沉着写初稿

很多同学看到作文后，下笔就写。这是不对的。一则很容易写偏题、写出病句，涂改后书面又不整洁，影响得分。

其实，会写作文的同学都知道，审题非常的重要，可以防止很多毛病，提高得分。那么我们审题要做些什么呢?

审题主要要做一下事情：

1、审人称、时态、体裁等

审题时，要求我们要弄清楚这篇文章主要使用的人称是第几人称，什么时态、什么体裁。这些问题解决后至少不会犯很严重的错误：全文皆错。例如，如果一篇文章，本来应该一般过去时，你的每句话却用了一般现在时态。你想想，那还能得高分吗?

2、明确必须表达的要点

高分作文有个特点是要点齐全。如果漏掉一个要点，则要扣分。因此我们必须认真细读其要求，把必须表达的要点勾出来。保证不漏掉任何一个要点。

3、罗列出可能会用到的短语、句型，确定好使用哪个?

4、确定好如何分段

1. What is language for? Some people seem to think its for practicing grammar rules and learning lists of words--- the longer the words the better. Thats wrong. Language is for the exchange of ideas, for communication。

语言到底是用来干什么的呢?一些人认为它是用来操练语法规则和学习一大堆单词--而且单词越长越好。这个想法是错误的。语言是用来交换思想，进行交流沟通的!

2. The way to learn a language is to practice speaking it as often as possible。

学习一门语言的方法就是要尽量多地练习说。

3. A great man once said it is necessary to drill as much as possible, and the more you apply it in real situations, the more natural it will become。

一位伟人曾说，反复操练是非常必要的，你越多的将所学到的东西运用到实际生活中，他们就变的越自然。

4. Learning any language takes a lot of effort. But dont give up。

学习任何语言都是需要花费很多努力，但不要放弃。

5. Relax! Be patient and enjoy yourself. Learning foreign languages should be fun。

放松点!要有耐性，并让自己快乐!学习外语应该是乐趣无穷的。

6. Rome wasnt built in a day. Work harder and practice more. Your hard- work will be rewarded by god one day. God is equal to everyone!

冰冻三尺，非一日之寒。更加努力的学习，更加勤奋的操练，你所付出的一切将会得到上帝的报答，上帝是公平的。

7. Use a dictionary and grammar guide constantly. Keep a small English dictionary with you at all time. When you see a new word, look it up. Think about the word-- use it, in your mind, in a sentence。

经常使用字典和语法指南。随身携带一本小英文字典，当你看到一个新字时就去查阅它，想想这个字---然后去用它，在你的心中，在一个句子里。

8. Try to think in English whenever possible. When you see something think of the English word of it; then think about the word in a sentence。

一有机会就努力去用英文来思考。看到某事时，想想它的英文单词;然后把它用到一个句子中去。

9. Practice tenses as much as possible. When you learn a new verb, learn its various forms。

尽可能多的操练时态。学习一个动词的时候，要学习它的各种形态。

10. I would also like to learn more about the culture behind the language. When you understand the cultural background, you can better use the language。

我想学习和了解更多关于语言背后的文化知识，当你理解了文化背景，你就能更好地运用语言。

财富，指具有价值的东西就称之为财富，包括自然财富、物质财富、精神财富等。下面是语文迷为大家整理的关于财富的英语名言，希望对你写作文有帮助。

Betrand Russell, British philosopher 乞丐并不羡慕百万富翁，尽管他们一定会羡慕比他们乞讨得多的乞丐。

英国哲学家罗素.B.

He that has a full purse never lacks a friend. Even in a busy market, nobody cares to know a poor person.

Anonymors 富在深山有远亲;贫在闹市无人识。

无名氏

All good things are cheap, all bad things are very dear.

Henry David Thoreau, Ameican writer 一切好的东西都是便宜的，所有坏的东西都是非常贵的。

美国作家梭罗。H.D.

Apply yourself to true riches; it is shameful to depend upon silver and gold for a happy life.

Lrcius Annaeus Seneca, Ancient Roman Philosopher 要争取真正的财富，靠金银谋取幸福是不光彩的。

古罗马哲学家西尼加.L.A.

I would rather have my people laugh at my economies than weep for my extravagance.

Oscar ll, Swedish king 我宁愿让我的人民嘲笑我的的小气也不愿让他们为我的挥霍而哭泣。

瑞典国王奥斯卡二世

A penny saved is a penny gained.

Richard Brckminster Fuller.American srchitect 省下一分钱等于得到一分钱。

美国建筑师富勒.R.B.

Beggars cannot be choosers.

Du Bose Heywood, American writer 乞丐不能挑肥拣瘦。

美国作家海伍德.D.B.

Creditors have better memories than debtors.

Benjamin Franklin. American president 放债的比借债记性好。

美国总统富兰克林。B.

Economy is in itself a source of great revenue.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Ancient Roman Philosopher 节约本身就是最大的收入 .

罗马哲学家 西尼加，L.A.

Economy is the poor man s mint; and extravagance the rich man s pitfall. 节约是穷人的造币厂，浪费是富翁的陷阱。

英国作家 塔泊.M

Few rich men own their property.The property owns them.

Robert Green Ingersoll. American Iawyer 极少富人拥有他们的财产，是财产拥有他们。

美国律师英格索尔.R.G.

If you would know the value of money, go and try to borrow some.

Benjamin Franklin, American presudent 要想知道钱的价值，就想办法去借钱试试。

美国总统富兰克林.B.

I finally know what distinguishes man from the other beasts:financial worries.

Jules Renard, French playwright 我终于明白人与野兽的区别在于：人为钱而担忧。

法国剧作家勒纳尔.J.

If rich, it is easy enough to conceal our wealth, but, if poor, it is not so easy to conceal our poverty. We shall find it less difficult to hide a thousand guineas, than one hole in our coat.

Charles C. Colton, British clergyman 如果富有，藏富很容易;如果贫穷，掩饰贫穷却很难。我们不难发现隐藏1000个金币比遮盖衣服上的一个破洞来得容易。

英国画妆师科尔顿.C.C

An ounce of prudence is worth a pound of gold.

Tobias Smollett, British writer 一盎司谨慎抵得上一磅黄金。

英国作家 .斯摩莱特 .T.

All the splendor in the world is not worth a good friend.

Voltaire, French thinker 人世间所有的荣华富贵不如一个好朋友。

法国思想家伏尔泰

关于财富的英语谚语

A bashful dog never fattens.害羞的狗养不胖。(bashful:害羞的)

A beggar can never be bankrupt,乞丐永远不会破产。

A beggar s purse is a I ways empty.乞弓存不住钱。

A borrowed loan should come laughing home.向人借贷应微笑返还。(借钱乐还，再借不难)。 读书笔记

A clear fast is better than a dirty breakfast.宁为清贫，不为法富。 内容来自

A covetous man does nothing that he should till he dies,贪娶之人，死后方尽其义务。

A covetous man is good to none, but worst to himself,贪娶之人，对人无益，对己更损。 读后感

A covetous woman deserves a swindling gallant,贪娶女郎的绝配就是负心汉。

A fool and his money are soon parted,傻子存不了钱。 内容来自

A heavy purse makes a light heart,钱袋沉甸甸，人就轻飘。

A lamb is as dear to a poor man as an ox to the rich,的黑羊比富人的牛更珍贵。

A light purse makes a heavy heart.?中无钱心事重。

A man does not wander far from where his corn is roast i ng.人不会远离财富的来源。 内容来自

A man has no more goods then he has good of.只有享用财富，才算真正拥有财舍田。 读后感

A man may love his house we I I without riding on the ridge.有宝何必人前夸。

A man without money is a bow without an arrow.人无钱，犹如弓无箭。 读后感

A man without money is no man at all. 一分钱难倒英雄汉。

A man’ s wealth is his enemy,财富是人之患也。

写作是考研英语的第二大重头戏，仅次于阅读。但是这部分又经常被考生忽略，考前不动手，依赖临考模板，很难写出高分作文。那么，如何准备2018考研英语写作呢?一起来看下。

对于考研英语写作，最基本的要求是考前必须动笔写出35篇文章，其中十篇应用文，二十五篇图画作文。注意：动笔写的文章最好是有范文的题目。写作应分为五步：

NO.1 写作

写作写作，第一步首先是写!一定要动手写，你看多少，背多少，都没有动手写来得实在，建议同学们拿考题多加练习。

NO.2 仔细对比

第二个就是仔细对比，写完后对照范文从三个方面去研究：第一个是内容，也就是构思和原文有何区别;第二个是语言，也就是用词、用句和原文有何区别?第三个是结构，就是你的行文思路和原文有什么区别?这是第二个步骤，写作的区别其实就是写作的弱点。

NO.3 背诵

第三步骤就是背诵：也就是可以去背诵一些范文。有的同学说了，范文我背过了，但是写作的时候还是不会写。有两个原因，第一个原因是你背得不熟，背得结结巴巴，还不如不背;第二个原因是没有练过，只是死记硬背。

所以为什么背了还不会用，有两个原因，第一背不熟，第二没有练过。背到什么程度，有12个字“滚瓜烂熟、脱口而出、多多益善。”要背到不需要去想，不需要去动脑子!如果背一篇文章还需要去想，那就证明还背得不熟。大家上考场，如果能想起平时的70%，那已经是相当不错了。所以一定要背熟，这就是第三个步骤。

NO.4 默写

第四个步骤就是默写：背熟后把书合上，把这篇文章默写下来。默写后，做一个工作：仔细对比原文发现写作弱点，你会发现你默写的文章和原文会有一些出入，包括拼写、语法、标点等，这种错误就是你写作的弱点，最好能够把这些错误用红笔标出来。大家为什么写作拿不到高分，根源只有一个——错误太多。很多错误自己都不知道。

NO.5 仿写

第五个步骤就是仿写：什么叫仿写?就是模仿你背过的文章再写出一篇新文章。在背完一篇文章后，要想想这篇文章有什么精彩的词组、词汇和句型可以使用。然后换一个话题，把这篇作文用一下，用里面词汇、词组和句型去构思另一篇文章。

写作的注意点和技巧：写作首要的是，一、不跑题;二、字数达到要求;三、字迹整洁工整;四、少有语病。

这些是很基本的要求，考试的时候就要好好落实。比如，拿到作文题目后要审题。在写的过程中注意字数的限制，不要写太多，会扣分的，字数不够也会扣分。所以实在不行就写完一段话，停下来数一数字数。字迹工整可能短期内提高不了。只要你比平时稍慢一点写字母，就会写得比较整洁。要知道老师的印象分是很重要的。病句的避免技巧就是，凡是你想的过程中感觉别扭的句子，多半就是病句。干脆不要写出来，换一种形式去表达。不要追求好词，要追求准确性。

在考前，小作文的提高是非常快的。方法就是分析小作文的类型。应用文写作部分(小作文)考查内容包括投诉信、咨询信、道歉信、求职信等信函类应用文，而且涵盖报告、通知、海报等告示类应用文。不同类型的作文，要自己总结模版。小作文是完全可以准备模版的，其作用也是常明显。一定要注意：总结出自己的模板。

一、 主题句原则

国有其君，家有其主，文章也要有其主。否则会给人造成“群龙无首”之感!相信各位读过一些破烂文学，故意把主体隐藏在文章之内，结果造成我们稀里糊涂!不知所云!所以奉劝各位一定要写一个主题句，放在文章的开头(保险型)或者结尾，让读者一目了然，必会平安无事!

特别提示：隐藏主体句可是要冒险的!

To begin with, you must work hard at your lessons and be fully prepared before the exam(主题句).

Without sufficient preparation, you can hardly expect to answer all the questions correctly.

二、 长短句原则

工作还得一张一驰呢，老让读者读长句，累死人!写一个短小精辟的句子，相反，却可以起到画龙点睛的作用。而且如果我们把短句放在段首或者段末，也可以揭示主题：

As a creature, I eat; as a man, I read. Although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy the intellectual need of mind, they are in a way quite similar.

如此可见，长短句结合，抑扬顿挫，岂不爽哉?牢记!

强烈建议：在文章第一段(开头)用一长一短，且先长后短;在文章主体部分，要先用一个短句解释主要意思，然后在阐述几个要点的时候采用先短后长的句群形式，定会让主体部分妙笔生辉!文章结尾一般用一长一短就可以了。

三、 一二三原则

领导讲话总是第一部分、第一点、第二点、第三点、第二部分、第一点…如此罗嗦。可毕竟还是条理清楚。考官们看文章也必然要通过这些关键性的“标签”来判定你的文章是否结构清楚，条理自然。破解方法很简单，只要把下面任何一组的词汇加入到你的几个要点前就清楚了。

1)first, second, third, last(不推荐，原因：俗)

2)firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally(不推荐，原因：俗)

3)the first, the second, the third, the last(不推荐，原因：俗)

4)in the first place, in the second place, in the third place, lastly(不推荐，原因：俗)

5)to begin with, then, furthermore, finally(强烈推荐)

6)to start with, next, in addition, finally(强烈推荐)

7)first and foremost, besides, last but not least(强烈推荐)

8)most important of all, moreover, finally

9)on the one hand, on the other hand(适用于两点的情况)

10)for one thing, for another thing(适用于两点的情况)

建议：不仅仅在写作中注意，平时说话的时候也应该条理清楚!

四、 短语优先原则

写作时，尤其是在考试时，如果使用短语，有两个好处：其一、用短语会使文章增加亮点，如果老师们看到你的文章太简单，看不到一个自己不认识的短语，必然会看你低一等。相反，如果发现亮点—精彩的短语，那么你的文章定会得高分了。其二、关键时刻思维短路，只有凑字数，怎么办?用短语是一个办法!比如：

I cannot bear it.

可以用短语表达：I cannot put up with it.

I want it.

可以用短语表达：I am looking forward to it.

这样字数明显增加，表达也更准确。

五、 多实少虚原则

原因很简单，写文章还是应该写一些实际的东西，不要空话连篇。这就要求一定要多用实词，少用虚词。我这里所说的虚词就是指那些比较大的词。比如我们说一个很好的时候，不应该之说nice这样空洞的词，应该使用一些诸如generous, humorous, interesting, smart, gentle, warm-hearted, hospital 之类的形象词。再比如：

走出房间，general的词是：walk out of the room

但是小偷走出房间应该说：slip out of the room

小姐走出房间应该说：sail out of the room

小孩走出房间应该说：dance out of the room

老人走出房间应该说：stagger out of the room

所以多用实词，少用虚词，文章将会大放异彩!

六、 多变句式原则

1)加法(串联)

都希望写下很长的句子，像个老外似的，可就是怕写错，怎么办，最保险的写长句的方法就是这些，可以在任何句子之间加and, 但最好是前后的句子又先后关系或者并列关系。

比如说： I enjor music and he is fond of playing guitar. 如果是二者并列的，我们可以用一个超级句式：Not only the fur coat is soft, but it is also warm. 其它的短语可以用：besides, furthermore, likewise, moreover

2)转折(拐弯抹角)

批评某人缺点的时候，我们总习惯先拐弯抹角说说他的优点，然后转入正题，再说缺点，这种方式虽然阴险了点，可毕竟还比较容易让人接受。所以呢，我们说话的时候，只要在要点之前先来点废话，注意二者之间用个专这次就够了。

The car was quite old, yet it was in excellent condition.

The coat was thin, but it was warm.

更多的短语：despite that, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, not with standing

3)因果(so, so, so)

昨天在街上我看到了一个女孩，然后我主动搭讪，然后我们去咖啡厅，然后我们认识了，然后我们成为了朋友…可见，讲故事的时候我们总要追求先后顺序，先什么，后什么，所以然后这个词就变得很常见了。其实这个词表示的是先后或因果关系!

The snow began to fall, so we went home.

更多短语：then, therefore, consequently, accordingly, hence, as a result, for this reason, so that

4)失衡句(头重脚轻，或者头轻脚重)

有些人脑袋大，身体小，或者有些人脑袋小，身体大，虽然我们不希望长成这个样子，可如果真的是这样了，也就必然会吸引别人的注意力。文章中如果出现这样的句子，就更会让考官看到你的句子与众不同。其实就是主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句的变形。

举例：This is what I can do.

Whether he can go with us or not is not sure.

同样主语、宾语、表语可以改成如下的复杂成分：

When to go, Why he goes away…

5)附加(多此一举)

如果有了老婆，总会遇到这样的情况，当你再讲某个人的时候，她会插一句说，我昨天见过他;或者说，就是某某某，如果把老婆的话插入到我们的话里面，那就是定语从句和同位语从句或者是插入语。

The man whom you met yesterday is a friend of mine.

I don’t enjoy that book you are reading.

Mr liu, our oral English teacher, is easy-going.

其实很简单，同位语--要解释的东西删除后不影响整个句子的构成;定语从句—借用之前的关键词并且用其重新组成一个句子插入其中，但是whom or that 关键词必须要紧跟在先行词之前。

6)排比(排山倒海句)

文学作品中最吸引人的地方莫过于此，如果非要让你的文章更加精彩的话，那么我希望你引用一个个的排比句，一个个得对偶句，一个个的不定式，一个个地词，一个个的短语，如此表达将会使文章有排山倒海之势!

Whether your tastes are modern or traditional, sophisticated or simple, there is plenty in London for you.

Nowadays, energy can be obtained through various sources such as oil, coal, natural gas, solar heat, the wind and ocean tides.

We have got to study hard, to enlarge our scope of knowledge, to realize our potentials and to pay for our life. (气势恢宏)

要想写出如此气势恢宏的句子非用排比不可!

七、 挑战极限原则

既然是挑战极限，必然是比较难的，但是并非不可攀!

原理：在学生的文章中，很少发现诸如独立主格的句子，其实也很简单，只要花上5分钟的时间看看就可以领会，它就是分词的一种特殊形式，分词要求主语一致，而独立主格则不然。比如：

The weather being fine, a large number of people went to climb the Western Hills.

Africa is the second largest continent, its size being about three times that of China.

如果您可一些出这样的句子，不得高分才怪!

下面是由语文迷网小编精心为大家整理提供的英语句子，供大家写作参考。

1、Time flies.

时光易逝。

2、Time is money.

一寸光阴一寸金。

3、Time and tide wait for no man.

岁月无情;岁月易逝;岁月不待人。

4、Time tries all.

时间检验一切。

5、Time tries truth.

时间检验真理。

6、Time past cannot be called back again.

光阴一去不复返。

7、All time is no time when it is past.

光阴一去不复返。

8、No one can call back yesterday;Yesterday will not be called again.

昨日不复来。

9、Business neglected is business lost.

忽视职业便是放弃职业。

10、One today is worth two tomorrows.

一个今天胜似两个明天。

11、The morning sun never lasts a day.

好景不常;朝阳不能光照全日。

12、Christmas comes but once a year.

圣诞一年只一度。

13、Pleasant hours fly past.

快乐时光去如飞。

14、Happiness takes no account of time.

欢娱不惜时光逝。

15、Time tames the strongest grief.

时间能缓和极度的悲痛。

16、The day is short but the work is much.

工作多，光阴迫。

17、Never deter till tomorrow that which you can do today.

今日事须今日毕，切勿拖延到明天。

18、Have you somewhat to do tomorrow,do it today.

明天如有事，今天就去做。

19、To him that does everything in its proper time,one day is worth three.

事事及时做，一日胜三日。

20、To save time is to lengthen life.

节省时间就是延长生命。

21、Everything has its time and that time must be watched.

万物皆有时，时来不可失。

22、Take time when time cometh,lest time steal away.

时来必须要趁时，不然时去无声息。

23、When an opportunity is neglected,it never comes back to you.

机不可失，时不再来;机会一过，永不再来。

24、Make hay while the sun shines.

晒草要趁太阳好。

25、Strike while the iron is hot.

趁热打铁。

26、Work today,for you know not how much you may be hindered tomrrow.

今朝有事今朝做，明朝可能阻碍多。

27、Punctuality is the soul of business.

守时为立业之要素。

28、Procrastination is the thief of time.

因循拖延是时间的大敌;拖延就是浪费时间。

29、Every tide hath ist ebb.

潮涨必有潮落时。

30、Knowledge is power.

知识就是力量。

31、Wisdom is more to be envied than riches.

知识可羡，胜于财富。

32、Wisdom is better than gold or silver.

知识胜过金银。

33、Wisdom in the mind is better than money in the hand.

胸中有知识，胜于手中有钱。

34、Wisdom is a good purchase though we pay dear for it.

为了求知识，代价虽高也值得。

35、Doubt is the key of knowledge.

怀疑是知识之钥。

36、If you want knowledge,you must toil for it.

若要求知识，须从勤苦得。

37、A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.

浅学误人。

38、A handful of common sense is worth a bushel of learning.

少量的常识，当得大量的学问。

39、Knowledge advances by steps and not by leaps.

知识只能循序渐进，不能跃进。

40、Learn wisdom by the follies of others.

从旁人的愚行中学到聪明。

41、It is good to learn at another man’s cost.

前车可鉴。

42、Wisdom is to the mind what health is to the body.

知识之于精神，一如健康之于肉体。

43、Experience is the best teacher.

经验是最好的教师。

44、Experience is the father of wisdom and memory the mother.

经验是知识之父，记忆是知识之母。

45、Dexterity comes by experience.

熟练来自经验。

46、Practice makes perfect.

熟能生巧。

47、Experience keeps a dear school,but fools learn in no other.

经验学校学费高，愚人旁处学不到。

48、Experience without learning is better than learning without experience.

有经验而无学问，胜于有学问而无经验。

49、Wit once bought is worth twice taught.

由经验而得的智慧，胜于学习而得的智慧;一次亲身的体会，胜过两次的教师教导。

50、Seeing is believing.

百闻不如一见。

拓展阅读：段首万能句子

1. 关于……人们有不同的观点。一些人认为……

There are different opinions among people as to ____ .Some people suggest that ____.

2. 俗话说(常言道)……，它是我们前辈的经历，但是，即使在今天，它在许多场合仍然适用。

There is an old saying______. It"s the experience of our forefathers，however，it is correct in many cases even today.

3. 现在，……，它们给我们的日常生活带来了许多危害。首先，……;其次，……。更为糟糕的是……。

Today, ____, which have brought a lot of harms in our daily life. First, ____ Second,____. What makes things worse is that______.

4. 现在，……很普遍，许多人喜欢……，因为……，另外(而且)……。

Nowadays，it is common to ______. Many people like ______ because ______. Besides，______.

5. 任何事物都是有两面性，……也不例外。它既有有利的一面，也有不利的一面。

Everything has two sides and ______ is not an exception，it has both advantages and disadvantages.

6. 关于……人们的观点各不相同，一些人认为(说)……，在他们看来，……

People’s opinions about ______ vary from person to person. Some people say that ______.To them,_____.

7. 人类正面临着一个严重的问题……，这个问题变得越来越严重。

Man is now facing a big problem ______ which is becoming more and more serious.

8. ……已成为人的关注的热门话题，特别是在年青人当中，将引发激烈的辩论。

______ has become a hot topic among people，especially among the young and heated debates are right on their way.

9. ……在我们的日常生活中起着越来越重要的作用，它给我们带来了许多好处，但同时也引发一些严重的问题。

______ has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life.it has brought us a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.

10. 根据图表/数字/统计数字/表格中的百分比/图表/条形图/成形图可以看出……。很显然……，但是为什么呢?

According to the figure/number/statistics/percentages in the /chart/bar graph/line/graph，it can be seen that______ while. Obviously，______，but why?

导语：古人云："不积跬步，无以致千里，不积小流，无以成江河。"要写好作文，语言材料和生活感悟的积累是基础。下面是高中生写作基础指导，欢迎参考！

一，阅读与摘记

这里的阅读不仅仅是指语文课内的阅读，更不等同于语文课本的学习，还包括大量的课外阅读。只凭借语文课内的阅读，是难以满足积累语言材料的需要的。早在50多年前，叶圣陶先生就指出："国文课本为了要供同学试去理解，试去揣摩，分量就不能太多，篇幅也不能太长;太多太长了，不适宜做细琢细摩的研讨工夫。但是要养成一种习惯，必须经过反复的历练。单凭一本语文书，是够不上说反复的历练的。所以必须在国文教本以外再看其他的书，越多越好。" 要进行大量的课外阅读，首先要有阅读的条件，同学们可在图书室借书，也可以自己订课外书，或者同学之间互相交流。对于一本好书，反复诵读，在读中自悟，在读中自得，记住其中的要点，自己的感受以及好词佳句，古诗名句和名人名言等，分门别类地摘在笔记本上。再对这本书其他内容进行快速的浏览，得到想要的要点或具体的信息，就停下来，把它们记下。读完全书以后，回顾全文内容，根据要点列成提纲，从而整体把握。而我校的读书笔记，这个时候是最能派上用场的了。

二，观察与思考

作文源于生活。我们身边每天都在发生着不计其数的新鲜事，可惜，有些同学对此视而不见，听而不闻。可见，无材可写的根源是不善于观察。同学们观察时应调动一切感官，充分运用视觉，听觉，触觉，味觉，嗅觉，进行细致的观察。对观察到的现象，要给自己多提几个问题，多问几个为什么，并勇于向别人请教，要进一步分析，综合，比较，判断，以获取更全面更深刻的认识，觉得很有收获的就记下来。 同学掌握了大量的语言材料与生活素材，就为写作做好了准备。剩下要做的，就是实践，实践，再实践，也就是反复多次地进行习作训练。

三，每日一忆，每周一记

坚持写日记确实能有效地提高同学的作文能力，但也会给同学造成较重的课业负担。"每日一忆"改"记"为"忆"，只要求同学在入睡前，把一天中经历的事回想一下，把有意义的事情挑选出来，想想可以写成什么作文。第二天在课堂上交流，比比谁是生活中的有心人，最有"慧眼"，最会发现。如果碰到自己特别感兴趣又有把握写好的素材，就写成周记。 同时还要注意，积累要持之以恒，锲而不舍。英国著名科幻小说作家儒勒·凡尔纳为了积累写作材料，曾写了几百本读书笔记，摘录了两万多张卡片。

四，作文的修改

作文自己改，进步更显著。好作文是改出来的，"改错先于求美"，作文之道总是"先求其通次求其美"，同学学会自改作文则更是有益一生的事。 写作上必须努力通过各种途径，培养同学的主体意识，提高同学自主作文的能力和创新能力。兴趣是最好的老师，同学一旦对作文产生了浓厚的兴趣，就会"乐此不疲"。自由是作文的生命，让同学敞开自己的心怀，拥抱自己的天空，写出感情，写出个性。通过写作，从现实走向未来，从未知走向已知。

语言和内容是评判一篇英语论文质量高低的重要依据;但是,写作格式规范与否亦是一个不可忽略的衡量标准。小编收集了英语论文的格式与写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、英语论文的标题

一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:Dr./Prof.C.Prager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English 734或British Novel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需double space,即隔行打印,行距约为0.6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。

就学生而言,如果英语论文篇幅较短,亦可不做标题页(及提纲页),而将标题页的内容打在正文第一页的左上方。第一行为作者姓名,与打印纸顶端距离约为2.5cm,以下各行依次为教师学衔和姓、课程编号(或名称)及日期;各行左边上下对齐,并留出2.5cm左右的页边空白(下同)。接下来便是论文标题及正文(日期与标题之间及标题与正文第一行之间只需隔行打印,不必留出更多空白)。

二、英语论文提纲

英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为2.5cm左右)的始端打上 Thesis 一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母;处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。

三、英语论文正文

有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约1.5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码;阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。

四、英语论文的文中引述

正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节;既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式 (即英语论文参考文献)的规范性。引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。目前美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。现针对文中引述的不同情况,将部分规范格式分述如下。

1.若引文不足三行,则可将引文有机地融合在论文中。如:

The divorce of Arnolds personal desire from his inheritance results in “the familiar picture of Victorian man alone in an alien universe”(Roper9).

这里,圆括弧中的Roper为引文作者的姓(不必注出全名);阿拉伯数字为引文出处的页码(不要写成p.9);作者姓与页码之间需空一格,但不需任何标点符号;句号应置于第二个圆括弧后。

2.被引述的文字如果超过三行,则应将引文与论文文字分开,如下例所示:

Whitman has proved himself an eminent democratic representative and precursor, and his “Democratic Vistas”

is an admirable and characteristic

diatribe. And if one is sorry that in it

Whitman is unable to conceive the

extreme crises of society, one is certain

that no society would be tolerable whoses

citizens could not find refreshment in its

buoyant democratic idealism.(Chase 165)

这里的格式有两点要加以注意。一是引文各行距英语论文的左边第一个字母十个空格,即应从第十一格打起;二是引文不需加引号,末尾的句号应标在最后一个词后。

3.如需在引文中插注,对某些词语加以解释,则要使用方括号(不可用圆括弧)。如:

Dr.Beaman points out that“he [Charles Darw in] has been an important factor in the debate between evolutionary theory and biblical creationism”(9).

值得注意的是,本例中引文作者的姓已出现在引导句中,故圆括弧中只需注明引文出处的页码即可。

4.如果拟引用的文字中有与论文无关的词语需要删除,则需用省略号。如果省略号出现在引文中则用三个点,如出现在引文末,则用四个点,最后一点表示句号,置于第二个圆括弧后(一般说来,应避免在引文开头使用省略号);点与字母之间,或点与点之间都需空一格。如:

Mary Shelley hated tyranny and“looked upon the poor as pathetic victims of the social system and upon the rich and highborn...with undisguised scorn and contempt...(Nitchie 43).

5.若引文出自一部多卷书,除注明作者姓和页码外,还需注明卷号。如:

Professor Chen Jias A History of English Literature aimed to give Chinese readers“a historical survey of English literature from its earliest beginnings down to the 20thcentury”(Chen,1:i).

圆括弧里的1为卷号,小写罗马数字i为页码,说明引文出自第1卷序言(引言、序言、导言等多使用小写的罗马数字标明页码)。此外,书名 A History of English Literature 下划了线;规范的格式是:书名,包括以成书形式出版的作品名(如《失乐园》)均需划线,或用斜体字;其他作品,如诗歌、散文、短篇小说等的标题则以双引号标出,如“To Autumn”及前面出现的“Democratic Vistas”等。

6.如果英语论文中引用了同一作者的两篇或两篇以上的作品,除注明引文作者及页码外,还要注明作品名。如:

Bacon condemned Platoas“an obstacle to science”(Farrington, Philosophy 35).

Farrington points out that Aristotles father Nicomachus, a physician, probably trained his son in medicine(Aristotle 15).

这两个例子分别引用了Farrington的两部著作,故在各自的圆括弧中分别注出所引用的书名,以免混淆。两部作品名均为缩写形式(如书名太长,在圆括弧中加以注明时均需使用缩写形式),其全名分别为 Founder of Scientific Philosophy 及 The Philosophy of Francis Baconand Aristotle。

7.评析诗歌常需引用原诗句,其引用格式如下例所示。

When Beowulf dives upwards through the water and reaches the surface,“The surging waves, great tracts of water, / were all cleansed...”(1.1620-21).

这里,被引用的诗句以斜线号隔开,斜线号与前后字母及标点符号间均需空一格;圆括弧中小写的1是line的缩写;21不必写成1621。如果引用的诗句超过三行,仍需将引用的诗句与论文文字分开(参见第四项第2点内容)。

五、英语论文的文献目录

论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为 Works Cited, 其格式须注意下列几点:

1.目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。

2.目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码;如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码(但必须计算页数),其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。标题Works Cited与打印纸顶端的距离约为2.5cm,与第一条目中第一行的距离仍为0.6cm;各条目之间及各行之间的距离亦为0.6cm,不必留出更多空白。

3.各条目内容顺序分别为作者姓、名、作品名、出版社名称、出版地、出版年份及起止页码等;各条目应严格按各作者姓的首字母顺序排列,但不要给各条目编码,也不必将书条与杂志、期刊等条目分列。

4.各条目第一行需顶格打印,回行时均需缩进五格,以将该条目与其他条目区分开来。

现将部分较为特殊的条目分列如下,并略加说明,供读者参考。

Two or More Books by the Same Author

Brooks, Cleanth. Fundamentals of Good Writing: A

Handbook of Modern Rhetoric. NewYork: Harcourt, 1950.

---The Hidden God: Studies in Hemingway, Faulkner, Yeats,

Eliot, and Warren. New Haven: Yale UP,1963.

引用同一作者的多部著作,只需在第一条目中注明该作者姓名,余下各条目则以三条连字符及一句点代替该作者姓名;各条目须按书名的第一个词(冠词除外)的字母顺序排列。

An Author with an Editor

Shake speare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. Ed. Louis B.

Wright. New York: Washington Square, 1959.

本条目将作者 Shakespeare 的姓名排在前面,而将编者姓名(不颠倒)放在后面,表明引文出自 The Tragedy of Macbeth;如果引文出自编者写的序言、导言等,则需将编者姓名置前,如:

Blackmur, Richard P.Introduction. The Art of the Novel:

Critical Prefaces. By Henry James. New York: Scribners,

1962.vii-xxxix.

如果引言与著作为同一人所写,则其格式如下例所示(By后只需注明作者姓即可):

Emery, Donald. Preface. English Fundamentals. By Emery.

London: Macmillan, 1972.v-vi.

A Multivolume Work

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. 4 vols. London: Faber, 1928.

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. Vol.2. London: Faber, 1928. 4 vols.

第一条目表明该著作共4卷,而论文作者使用了各卷内容;第二条目则表明论文作者只使用了第2卷中的内容。

A Selection from an Anthology

Abram, M. H.“English Romanticism: The Spirit of the Age.”

Romanticism Reconsidered. Ed. Northrop Frye. New

York: Columbia UP,1963.63-88.

被引用的英语论文名须用引号标出,并注意将英语论文名后的句点置于引号内。条目末尾必须注明该文在选集中的起止页码。

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers

Otto, Mary L.“Child Abuse: Group Treatment for Parents.”

Personnel and Guidance Journal 62(1984): 336-48.

报刊杂志名需划线,但其后不需任何标点符号。62为卷号或期号,如既有卷号,又有期号,则要将二者以句号分开。如:(3.3);1984为出版年份,应置于圆括弧中。

Arnold, Marilgn.“Willa Cathers Nostalgia: A Study in

Ambivalance.”Research Studies Mar.1981:23-24,28.

月刊或双月刊须同时注明出版年月;23-24,28表示该文的前一部分刊于第23和24两页,后一部分则转至第28页。

Gorney, Cynthia.“When the Gorilla Speaks.”Washington Post

31 July,1985:B1.

引用日报上的英语论文必须同时注明报纸出版的年、月、日。B1为该文在报纸中的版面及页码。参考文献(略)

1.individuals,characters, folks替换(people ,persons)

2: positive, favorable, rosy (美好的)，promising

(有希望的)，perfect, pleasurable , excellent, outstanding, superior替换good

3:dreadful, unfavorable, poor, adverse, ill (有害的)替换bad

如果bad做表语，可以有be less impressive替换

eg.An army of college students indulge themselves in playing games, enjoying romance with girls/boys or killing time passively in their dorms. When it approaches to graduation ,as a result, they records are less impressive.

4.(an army of, an ocean of, a sea of, a multitude of ,a host of, many, if not most)替换many.

注：用many, if not most 一定要小心，many后一定要有词。

Eg. Many individuals, if not most, harbor the idea that….同理 用most, if not all ,替换most.

5: a slice of, quiet a few , several替换some

6:harbor the idea that, take the attitude that,

hold the view that, it is widely shared that,

it is universally acknowledged that)替think

(因为是书面语，所以要加that)

7:affair ,business ,matter 替换thing

8: shared 代 common

9.reap huge fruits 替换get many benefits )

10:for my part ,from my own perspective 替换 in my opinion

11:Increasing(ly),growing 替换more and more( 注意没有growingly这种形式。所以当修饰名词时用increasing/growing.修饰形容词，副词用increasingly.

Eg.sth has gained growing popularity.

popular with the advancement of sth.

12.little if anything, 或little or nothing替换hardly

13..beneficial, rewarding替换helpful,

14.shopper,client,consumer,purchaser, 替换customer

15.exceedingly,extremely, intensely 替换very

16.hardly necessary, hardly inevitable ... 替换 unnecessary, avoidable

17.sth appeals to sb, sth exerts a tremendous fascination on sb 替换sb take interest in / sb. be interested in

18.capture ones attention替换attract ones attention.

19.facet,demension,sphere代aspect

20.be indicative of ,be suggestive of ,be fearful of代 indicate, suggest ,fear

21.give rise to, lead to, result in, trigger 替换cause.

22. There are several reasons behind sth 替换..reasons for sth

23.desire 替换want.

24.pour attention into 替换pay attention to

25.bear in mind that 替换remember

26. enjoy, possess 替换have(注意process是过程的意思)

27. interaction替换communication

28.frown on sth替换 be against , disagree with sth

29.to name only a few, as an example替换 for example, for instance

30. next to / virtually impossible,替换nearly / almost impossible

一、说明文的含义和分类

所谓说明文，就是以说明为主要表达方式来解说事物、阐明事理而给人以知识的文章，它通过对实体事物的解说，或对抽象整理的阐释，使人们对事物的形态、构造、性质、种类，成因、功能，关系或对事理的概念、特点、来源、演变、异同等有所认识，从而获得有关的知识。以说明为主是说明文与其他文体从表达方式上相区别的标志。

在各种文章样式中，说明文体是一种相对独立的类别。在人们的社会生活中，说明文越来超越显示出它的重要作用和实用价值。现实生活充分表明，说明文不是一种无足轻重的文章形式，而是运用范围极为广泛的常用文体，它与人们的生产、工作和生活的关系相当密切，而且由于社会生活的需要，说明文写作正在大量涌现。

关于说明文的分类，现在人们从不同的角度，根据各自的标准，对说明文有不同的分法。我们根据说明文的表现手法，大体上把它分为三类：一、阐释性说明文;二、述说性说明文;三、文艺性说明文。

从几个不同侧面来解说事物、阐释事理的说明文叫阐释性说明文。有关历史、地理、物理、化学、动物、植物、科学卫生、语言文艺等方面的知识性文字或教材、科学实验报告、器物使用说明等都属于这一类。

通过简述概况或情节来介绍事物的说明文叫述说性说明文。电影、电视剧各戏曲的剧情简介，小说和其它文学作品心的内容提要、连环画或某些摄影照片的解说词等都属于这一类。

运用形象化的手法来介绍事物、阐述事理的说明文叫文艺性说明文。这类说明文具有较多的文学色彩。知识小品(或叫科学小品)、名胜古迹、文物的说明简介等都属于这一类。

一般说来，前两类的写法比较平实，重在对事物或事理的条分缕析的解说。后一类的写法活动活泼，富有情趣，多采用文艺笔调。

二、 说明文的特点

说明文有如下特点：

1、 说明性

所谓说明性，是指说明文主要运用说明的表达方式，侧重对客观事物或事理作如实的介绍、简要的解说，力求使人有所知。就整个文体而言，说明文与记叙文、议论文的特点有显著的区别。记叙文记叙人物的活动，事情的经过，景物的状态，以及作者对人物、事件、景物的观感，主要用记叙和描写的表达方式，重在使人有所感;议论文通过逻辑论证形式，分析事物的本质、规律和特点，提出主张，发表见解，主要用议论的表达方式，重在使人有所悟;比如，同是写读书学习这件事，高尔基在《我的童年》里描述了一段读书的具体情景，把人物读书时的画面绘声绘色地表达出来了，这是记叙性的;毛泽东在《中国共产党在民族战争中的地位》里写了一节“学习”，论述了学习的重要性和学习的任务以及必须采取正确的学习态度等问题，阐述了观点，论证了事理，这是议论性的;《读书笔记》用简洁的文字介绍做读书笔记的几种常用方法：“第一种是在书上画记号”;“第二种方法是摘录，就是把书中的重点、重要的材料、精彩的句子或段落，抄录在笔记本上”;“第三种方法是写出全篇或全书的提要”;“还有一种是写心得体会(读后感)”;“除了上述方法之外，还可以使用卡片”。全文既没有具体描述，也没有分析论证，主要是运用了说清事理的表达方式，条分缕析地介绍了作读书笔记的具体方法，读后使人获得学习经验。这是说明性的。由于写作目的不同，由于表达内容的方式不同，文章的特点自然也就不同了。正如记叙文具有形象性、抒情性，议论文具有说理性、逻辑性一样，说明文具的说明性。当然，一篇说明文由于表达内容的需要，部分地使用记叙或议论的表达方式，也是常见现象，但是这只能说它含有记叙或议论的成分，并不会因此而改变它的说明性质。

2、 知识性

一般说来，记叙文、议论文都或多或少地含有各种知识，能给人以教益，但是在传授知识方面，都比不上说明文那样直接、集中和强烈。这是因为说明文写作，其直接目的就给人以知识或技能。说明文的内容以知识为核心，不管是哪一篇说明文，它的内容不外乎是自然科学知识，社会科学知识，人们日常生活、工作、学习所需要的知识，从宏观世界到微观世界，从基础学科到尖端科学，从奇妙的微生物到人类社会，从石器到电脑，从沙漠到海洋，从地层变化到天体运行，……漠漠宇宙，大千世界，无一不是说明文内容所涉足的领域，知识性是说明文写作的出发点，也是它的落脚点。

说明文既然要给人传授知识，就必须具有高度的科学性(包括阐释事理的合理性)。不管是对实体事物的说明，还是对非实体事物的说明，都必须如实地反映客观事物，做到内容真实可靠，反映准确恰当，解说清楚明白。如果说明文违反知识的科学性，则是一个致使的伤。说明文主要对客观事物或事理予以冷静地解说阐释，一般不需要带上强烈的感情色彩或表示作者的倾向，具有客观性的特点。

《辞海》是这样介绍银杏的：

银杏亦称“白果树”、“公孙树”。银杏科。落叶乔木。叶扇形。雌雄异株。种子椭圆形或倒卵形。系孑遗植物，我国普遍栽培;日本亦产生长较慢，寿命较长，可达千余年。种仁供食用，多食中毒，外种皮可提栲胶。木材浅黄色，细致，轻软，供建筑、家具，雕刻及其他工艺品用。又为庭园树、行道树。中医学上以种子入药，性平、味苦涩、有小毒。功能敛肺定喘，主治痰哮喘咳、遗精、带下、小便频数等症。种子含有氢氰酸、组氨酸、蛋白质等。

这段关于银杏的说明文只是对银杏的名称、特点、产地，用途等作客观的如实的介绍，全是解说式的语言，把它与郭沫若的散文《银杏》对比，其客观性就显而易见了。

3、 实用性

从说明文的社会功用看，它具有广泛的实用价值。诸如法律条文的撰写、典章制度的编纂，天文历法的修著，生产知识的记录，工作经验的介绍等等，从卷帙浩繁的百科条目到一种产品的使用说明，说明文的触角，探伸到社会生活、生产的各个领域，起着巨大的作用，成为人们交换思想、交流经验的工具，沟通文理学科的桥梁。

三、 说明文的写作

写说明文和写其它文章一样，必须明确写作意图，确立文章中心;充分占有材料，力求做到言之有物、言之有序。除了这些一般性的要求之外，说明文的写作还有如下要求：

(一) 抓住事物特征，把握说明中心

任何事物都具有自身的质的规定性，一个事物的特征是区别于其它事物的标志。写说明文只有抓住事物的特征，才能把被说明的事物准确清晰地介绍给读者，让人们对事物有确切的了解。事物往往有方面的特征，介绍事物时，不可能在一篇说明文里面面俱到;只能根据需要，一次谈一两个特征。因此，要写好说明文，还必须把握说明文的中心。如：《漫活圆周率》是一篇介绍数学基础的说明文。文章题为“漫话”，并没有漫无边际地随意堆砌关于圆周率的材料，而是围绕求出圆周率的更精确的数值这个中心，向人们介绍了古今中外数学家对圆周率的数值所做的贡献。

抓住事物特点，把握说明中心，这是写说明文的一个重要要求，要做到这一点，写作者必须在写作前对被 说明的事物作深入细致的研究。必须懂得只有熟悉被说明的事物，认识并掌握被说明事物本身的规律性，才能做到这一点。

(二) 针对具体情况，选好写作角度

写说明文也是要求有的放矢的。写什么、怎样写，要从读者的实际情况考虑，使文章具有针对性，切合读者的知识水平、职业特点和年龄大小。往往读者对象不同，写的角度也不同。如阐述吸烟有害的说明文很多，有的是针对老年人的，有的是对妇女而言的，的有是对青少年而言的，角度不同，说明的内容则各有侧重。《青少年吸烟害处大》这篇文章从青少年是国家的未来和希望的高度介绍吸烟对青少年的危害，突出分析青少年的生理特征，说明青少年接触毒性物质比成年人吸收快、排除慢、毒害大的情况，指出“吸烟对青少年是绝对有害而无一利的”。这样说明目的清楚，针对性强。

写说明文选取什么角度要依实际情况而定。比如，介绍牛的知识，如果是为饲养者写的，要侧重介绍牛的生活习惯和特性;如果是为使用者写的，要侧重介绍牛的功能和力气;如果是为兽医写的，则主要介绍它的身体构造;如果是为食用者写的，可以主要介绍它的营养价值。当然，作为科普知识介绍，不妨全面一点为好。

(三) 务求解说清楚、做到条理分明

写说明文的目的就是让人获得知识的技能，只有解说清楚，才能达到这个目的。说明说明，一说即明，如何解说清楚，要讲究说明的方法，注意结构的安排，着力语言的运用。关于说明的方法，这里就不详细介绍了。这里着重讲讲结构安排的条理性问题。

文章的条理性是客观事物、事理本身的特点、规律在文章结构上的反映。说明文解说事物、阐释事理要按其本身的条理来安排说明的次序，使之层次清楚，主次分明，安排说明文的结构首先要注意条理性。如何具体安排结构，不同类型的说明文有不同要求，介绍产品制作过程的说明文，往往按照产品生产工序来安排结构，如叶圣陶的《景泰蓝的制作》是一篇介绍手工工艺品景泰蓝的说明文。它按照制作工艺的程序，抓住“做胎”、“掐丝”、“涂色”、“烧制”、“打磨”五道关键工序依次作了详细具体的说明，全篇言之有序，给人的印象十分鲜明。这一类安排，以时间变化为序，着重写事物的过程。

(四)语言准确简明，文字通俗浅显

选用准确的语言，精当地解说事物的事理，是说明文语言的基本要求。说明文是以介绍知识性内容为主的，只有如实反映被说明内容的客观情况，才能保证知识的科学性。相反，语言不准确就会失去知识的科学性。

明代学者徐光启笔译古数学家欧几里得的《几何原理》，其中的一节：

凡论度必始于一体。自点引之而为线，自线广之而为面，自面积之而为体，各自三大纲。是心有长而无阔者谓之线，有长与阔而无厚者谓之面，长与阔厚俱全者谓之体。唯点无长阔厚薄，其间不能容，不可以数度，然线之两端即点，而线面体皆由此生。点虽不入于数，实为从数之本。

这节解说数学基本概念的说明文，把什么是点、线、面、体，点与数度的联系和区别作了确切的阐释，语言也很精当。

此外，在说明文中往往有些内容是带有专门化的科学知识，涉及一些专门名词和专业术语，在说明中特别要求把它们运用得准确无误，使读者便于领会。如：“航空”与“航天”是两个不同的概念，有篇文章作了这样的解说：“飞机在大气层内飞行，称为航空;卫星、飞船在大气层外飞行，称为航天。它们是采用不同的飞行器在不同的空间来完成飞行任务的”。这种解说是十分准确的，使人对什么叫“航空”、什么叫“航天”得到了科学的了解。

说明文的语言必须简要精当。看下面的这段文字：

“蝉的幼虫脱皮是从背上开始的。先出来的一层旧皮从背上裂开，露出淡绿色的蝉来。先出来的是头，接着是吸管和前腿，最后是后腿和折叠着翅膀，只留下尾边尖儿还在那层旧皮里。这时候，它腾起身子，往后翻下来，头部倒挂着，原来折叠着的翅膀打开了，竭力伸直。接着，用一种几乎看不清的动作尽力把身体翻上去，用前脚的爪子钩住那层旧皮。这个动作使它的尾巴尖儿从那层旧皮里完全脱出不了。那层旧皮就只剩下空壳，成了蝉蜕，。从开始到完全脱出来，大约要半个钟头。

这段文字不到二百个字，具体说明了蝉的幼虫脱皮的整个过程。用简明的语言把幼虫脱皮的复杂动作细致而真切地写出来了。文字不枝不蔓，语言富有表现力，给人很清晰的印象。、

说明文要介绍一些科学知识和一些内容，往往是一般人所不熟悉的内容人，要把专门化的科学知识解说清楚，让人易于了解，必须做到深入浅出，通俗易懂，生动活泼，富有趣味。如，《洲际导弹自述》是一篇介绍洲际导弹知识的科技小品。文章用拟人化手法把洲际导弹问世、分类、构造、特点及其威力和弱点都解说得十分清楚，文章把它赋予假定的人类行为，读起来生动风趣，易于理解。为了把说明文写得生动活泼、通俗易懂，人们常常运用各种修辞手法，增强文章的形象性、趣味性。

在说明文的写作中，应该注意克服几种常见的毛病。这就是：

第一，防止知识性的差错。如有篇写“牛”的习作这样写道：“牛有水牛、黄牛两种，牛是反刍动物，只吃青草，不必喂料。牛都两只角，体强力大，是世界各国普遍使用的耕作工具。”由于写作者对有关牛的知识了解不够，有些只是一知半解。所以写起来造成知识性的错误。世界上牛的品种不只水牛、黄牛两种，杂交品种的牛并不长角;除了青草外，还必须给牛喂其它饲料;世界上也不是普遍使用牛作为耕作工具，牛还有专供食用、奶用或运输用,甚至作为神物崇拜的。

第二避免文体性的错误。如有篇说明文题为《蚯蚓》，其中写道：“……别看这小动物不惹眼，它可天天在松土、干活，它不讲究吃穿，不讲究休息，不讲住的，不讲报酬，整天埋头苦干，为人们劳作耕地，让作物生长茂盛。我不禁想起我们的老师，他们也有蚯蚓精神。

我愿作一条辛勤劳动的蚯蚓。”

显而易见，这篇习作把一篇说明文写成了一篇借物咏志的抒情散文了。

第三，克服片面性的论述。如，有篇题为《青蛙》的知识小品，介绍青蛙时写道：“青蛙是两栖、变温的动物，营养价值很高，……”这样定是片面的，青蛙能捕捉害虫，有益于庄稼的生长，只写它营养价值高，不宣传要保护它，饲养它，必然会造成不良社会影响。片面性是不利普及科学知识的。

影视评论是艺术评论中一个重要组成部分，是根据某种思想原则和审美标准对影视艺术进行理性分析和科学评价的一种艺术研究活动。小编收集了影评的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

一、影视评论的含义及功能

(一)、影视评论的含义:

影视评论是艺术评论中一个重要组成部分，是根据某种思想原则和审美标准对影视艺术进行理性分析和科学评价的一种艺术研究活动。它以具体影片创作为其研究对象，评美审丑，褒优贬劣，探索揭示其成败得失的规律。正如苏轼的诗歌所说的“杜陵评书贵瘦硬，此论未公吾不凭。短长肥瘦各有态，玉环飞燕谁人憎。”

(二)、影评的功能及意义

(1)影视评论它能够阐释作品深刻意蕴，挖掘作品内在价值。

“一个批评家的职务就在于惹起作品与读者之间的反应。”——门肯〈美〉 导游意识

①正确阐释作品深刻意蕴。

“有思想有学术水平的评论家要力求向读者提供关于作者的技巧和目的的有益见解，导引读者去把握作品中富有意义和特别值得注意的那些元素。”——李R.波布克

②优秀影片本身是多义性的，模糊难传的，应该给作品以正确的价值评估,揭示或解释艺术品各种解释的可能性。层次感

③国情、民族欣赏心理不同造成的误读。包容、知识、审视

(2)引导鉴赏，培养和提高观众的审美趣味与艺术鉴赏水平。

(3)总结创作经验，探索艺术的发展规律，给艺术以正确的理论导向。

具体过程是，在考试时放映一部影片，然后要求考生当堂写一篇对该影片的评论文章。这是一项考查你综合素养的考试。要想写好一篇影评，不仅需要有较好的理解力，还需有较高的艺术修养;不仅要有一定的电影理论知识，还要对电影的创作情况有相当的了解。所以，“临时抱佛脚” 是不会有太大的效果的。

在考试的时候，你首先要学会如何看片子。比如：它的选材、主题立意、人物塑造、情节构思、结构设计、细节运用、环境选择等等方面有何特点?你没有必要将过多的注意力放在演员的表演、导演的手法或摄影的画面上。在看片子同时，一篇影评的主要内容应该己经在自己的脑海中形成了。如果看完了影片还没有什么想法，拿起笔来才开始构思，十有八九是要失败的。

二、影评的特征及内涵

1、与政治评论相比，突出审美判断。

文人之笔，劝善惩恶也。——王充〈〈论衡〉〉

书之载道，文以经世。——魏及翁 切忌把影评写成观后感，注重对电影的审美分析。

①、影视艺术反映生活有自己特殊的规律，影视批评也应遵照影视艺术美的规律和美的特征进行评论。它首先必须给人以美感，让观众在美的享受中潜移默化的得到陶冶。

②、影视评论不等同于从政治观念出发，把政治观念现行政策变成衡量艺术的唯一标准，用政治价值观念取代艺术真善美价值的综合，用对艺术的政治鉴定代替对艺术做出全面的审美判断。使艺术批评脱出美学范畴，把艺术的审美判断蜕变为政治评论。

③、真正的影评，作为一种艺术实践活动，应在审美上多做文章，在“寓”字上见功力，即寓教育于审美之中，寓娱乐认识于审美中。

2、与姊妹艺术评论相比，重画面语言分析

真正的影评是对银幕造型时空的认识，是对电影运动本性独特欣赏，是对电影色彩、音乐、剪辑的领会和完善。

“电影艺术的基础既然是视觉的形象的言语，那么电影艺术家应该用绘画的表象的方法，来表现和传达一切的感情和思想。” ——夏衍

论述方式：评是文的主体，叙评结合，评析结合。

叙事：来自电影的情节(打包举例)

评：拍得成功与否?--要用“专业、书面的语言”表述对电影的价值判断。

析：导演用了哪些艺术表现手法?(视听语言)

这些艺术手法分别起到什么样的作用?

对本片成功起到什么帮助性作用?

哪些镜头、场面是点睛之笔?做具体分析。具体化原则

3、①、评是剖析：所谓剖析就是对影片的画面构图、色彩、音乐、摄影、人物性格刻画、主题思想展示、艺术种种表现手法等诸种因素作用由浅及深的分析。

②、评是判断：也就是对作品的思想、流派及艺术家作出中肯的评价，或者肯定或者否定或者兼而有之。

③、评是选择：就是在影评中有所侧重的进行分析，避免“看似面面俱到，实则空洞无聊”的问题。立意要单一，小而精，不要大而全。什么都写，什么都写不深刻，流于表面、蜻蜓点水，必败。

④、评是创造：评论是一种独立的具有自我价值的创造性劳动，它要挖掘作品的内在价值，赋与作品未完成的艺术形象的新创造。“六度创作”

第三节 影评写作的基本要求

一、先有所感悟，后发而为文

有所感悟是写作的动因，也是写作的首要条件。这种“感觉点”就是思想和感情引起的触动、感觉和领悟，乃至强烈的共鸣触发点。古人云：“景乃诗之胚，情乃诗之媒”。做一个热爱生活的人。

“影片在什么地方激动你，或者相反，使人不耐烦甚至毛骨悚然，这些鲜明之处不要轻易错过，如相信自己感情是真实的，就把它当作一滴墨水滴在白纸上，让它慢慢湮开去，由实而虚，讲出点道理来。”——钟惦棐

1、“感”并不是观后感。有很多初学者仅仅在评论文章中描写自己看完电影后的内心感受，没有什么分析更没有什么评论和见解。当然就不会在考试中有竞争力，因为不够深刻。要立论与分析相结合，叙述与评论相结合。

2、感觉点要准。有很多影片从主题意蕴到人物性格都是丰富变化的，当考生在考场上面对一部陌生的影片时，慌忙中随意拼凑自己的文章，这绝对不可取。要抓住影片的“母题”所在，要有所选择的写作。

二、新颖的角度，独特的构思

1、文章要有立意和角度。

所谓立意，即文章的评论对象及作者对该评论对象所持的见解和观点。杜牧在《答庄充书》中这样说道：“意，犹帅也，无帅之兵，谓之乌合。凡为文以意为主，以气为辅，以辞彩章句为之兵卫。”可见文章立意的重要性。角度就是给所表现的事物选择一个最理想的着眼点和突破点。回扣主题。

2、立意要新颖，要勇于探索和创新。

“人所易言，我寡言之;人所难言，我易言之，自不俗”——姜夔《白石诗话》

“学诗先除五俗，一曰俗体，二曰俗意，三曰俗句，四曰俗字，五曰俗韵”——严羽《沧浪诗话》

所以，要抓住读者的注意力就要在新奇上做文章。

3、角度要小，立意要单一集中。

从电影的基本元素中选择你所最感兴趣的，最具有表达力的切入点。从主题、镜头、画面、人物、光色、声音等等角度中选择一个最有审美意义的角度，立意要集中，不可盲目强调面面俱到。

三、结构严谨，起落有致

1、结构要严谨。

国学大师王国维先生曾经这样说过：“一切优美皆形式之美也。就美之自身言之，则一切优美皆存在于形式之对称、变化及调和。”可见，结构严密、整齐、有序，有体式、有质感。影评文章也要在行文上注意段落层次和行文逻辑。

2、结构要错落有致+详略得当。

夏衍在其作品《夏衍论创作》中谈到“没有波澜、没有曲折、没有起伏，正象一座房屋、一个园林，一进门就可以一览无余，这是文章的大忌。” 评“悬念”。因此，面对创作性的评论文章，一定要在谋篇布局中下心思。可以尝试小标题的巧妙运用，但是不提倡“首先，其次，再次，最后” 、“一，二，三，四”等粗俗的分层方法。

第四节 正文行文写作超级思路

1分层分段：首先写出几个小标题

2每层(分论点)：观点、理论、案例、论证

⑴观点：中心句(得分意识)

⑵理论：引用名言、名家理论、课本理论

⑶案例：来自剧情、打包举例

⑷论证：感 析 评 论

①感：感想，感性的思想，与电影有关，基调是理性的(观众)。

②析：分析，即现象到本质、个体到整体、分析到综合

what(2-3个视听段落)

which

how 《常用词汇》

③评：评论角度主要有

A观众的心声——看片体会

B笔者——电影本身

C专家、大师的“权威评论”

——价值(商业 审美 社会)、地位、流派、导演风格、哲学+美学+心理学

④论：论电影的本体，“电影拍得好不好”，而不是论电影讲述的“故事”或者“人物”。

3注意过渡：过渡句、过渡段。

4排列段落的“逻辑顺序”：先后、因果、并列、顺承、递进、转折、总分、……也写成“小标题”的形式。

5层次之间的关系：1最好是“递进”，“顺承”也可以，最低级写“并列”。

2“层次字数长度、论证方式、语言特点”要相似，有整体性。

3运用连词连接段落

6注意回扣主题：主题：影评的中心论点(副标)

1重复，在不同的段落中多次写“主题词”。

2使用近义词、变形词，变相回扣主题。

3引用名家的名言，权威回扣主题。

4侧面回扣主题，用观众反映说话。

7注意标点： ， 。 ? ! ……

《》 ： A;B;C ( ) A、B、C、D A-B-C

8独词、独句成段：可以作为“过渡句”、“分界线”、“点题，升华主题的句子”2/3、3/5处

9转折段：常见的有“感情荒漠化”、“细节处理不到位”、“人物塑造不生动”、“剧情不合逻辑”、“硬伤”。

10行文总结段：电影的真谛……→人性……→人文关怀、人文气息、人文情怀……→普世价值。共鸣

(五)结尾点题

如果说整篇影片评论文章有题目、副标、题引、正文(开头、分层论述、批判如：情感荒漠化)、结尾、后记等构成元素的话，一定要在文章的结尾部分强调自己的观点或抒发内心最真挚的情感。当然，也要注意语言和辞藻的生动和层次的递进，从而达到

① 总结全文，②深化文章主题(副标)，③发出呼吁(多拍像这样的好电影)，④引导审美方向(导演风格、艺术特色)，⑤提升到“人性”、“人文关怀”、“普世价值”的高度的目的。

《手机》：人际关系冷漠---信任危机—社会问题—电影关注现实当下人的生存状态—人文关怀

导语：在英语作文中，运用一些成语或者俗语能够给作文加分哦，下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的优秀英语素材，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

1. 瞒天过海crossing the sea under camouflage

2. 围魏救赵relieving the state of Zhao by besieging the state of Wei

3. 借刀杀人killing someone with a borrowed knife

4. 以逸待劳waiting at one’s ease for the exhausted enemy

5. 趁火打劫plundering a burning house

6. 声东击西making a feint to the east and attacking in the west

7. 无中生有creating something out of nothing

8. 暗渡陈仓advancing secretly by an unknown path

9. 隔岸观火watching a fire from the other side of the river

10.笑里藏刀covering the dagger with a smile

11.李代桃僵palming off substitute for the real thing

12.顺手牵羊picking up something in passing

13.打草惊蛇beating the grass to frighten the snake

14.借尸还魂resurrecting a dead soul by borrowing a corpse

15.调虎离山luring the tiger out of his den

16.欲擒故纵letting the enemy off in order to catch him

17.抛砖引玉giving the enemy something to induce him to lose more valuable things

18.擒贼擒王capturing the ringleader first in order to capture all the followers

19.釜底抽薪extracting the firewood from under the cauldron

20.混水摸鱼muddling the water to catch the fish; fishing in troubled waters

21.金蝉脱壳slipping away by casting off a cloak; getting away like the cicada sloughing its skin

22.关门捉贼catching the thief by closing / blocking his escape route

23.远交近攻befriending the distant enemy while attacking a nearby enemy

24.假途伐虢attacking the enemy by passing through a common neighbor

25.偷梁换柱stealing the beams and pillars and replacing them with rotten timbers

26.指桑骂槐reviling/ abusing the locust tree while pointing to the mulberry

27.假痴不癫feigning madness without becoming insane

28.上屋抽梯removing the ladder after the enemy has climbed up the roof

29.树上开花putting artificial flowers on trees

30.反客为主turning from the guest into the host

31.美人计using seductive women to corrupt the enemy

32.空城计presenting a bold front to conceal unpreparedness

33.反间计sowing discord among the enemy

34.苦肉计deceiving the enemy by torturing one’s own man

35.连环计coordinating one stratagem with another

36.走为上decamping being the best; running away as the best choice

一、表达方式：记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论

二、表现手法：象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、联想、想象、衬托（正衬、反衬）

三、修辞手法：比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互文、对比、借代、反语

四、记叙文六要素：时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果

五、记叙顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙

六、描写角度：正面描写、侧面描写

七、描写人物的方法：语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌

八、描写景物的角度：视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉

九、描写景物的方法：动静结合（以动写静）、概括与具体相结合、由远到近（或由近到远）

十、描写（或抒情）方式：正面（又叫直接）、反面（又叫间接）

十一、叙述方式：概括叙述、细节描写

十二、说明顺序：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序

十三、说明方法：举例子、列数字、打比方、作比较、下定义、分类别、作诠释、摹状貌、引用

十四、小说情节四部分：开端、发展、高潮、结局

十五、小说三要素：人物形象、故事情节、具体环境

十六、环境描写分为：自然环境、社会环境

十七、议论文三要素：论点、论据、论证

十八、论据分类为：事实论据、道理论据

十九、论证方法：举例（或事实）论证、道理论证（有时也叫引用论证）、对比（或正反对比）论证、比喻论证

二十、论证方式：立论、驳论（可反驳论点、论据、论证）

二十一、议论文的文章的结构：总分总、总分、分总；分的部分常常有并列式、递进式。

二十二、引号的作用：引用；强调；特定称谓；否定、讽刺、反语

二十三、破折号用法：提示、注释、总结、递进、话题转换、插说。

二十四、其他：

导语：英语写作能力作为体现语言交际能力至关重要的一个方面,写作测试是对学生书面交际水平及能力进行检验最有效的途径。以下是yjbs作文网小编为您收集整理的写作技巧，希望对您有所帮助。

要想获得高分就应在“正确”表达的基础上写出自己的特色，写出自己的“亮”点。

一、词汇选择——标新立异

在写作中“较高级词汇”的使用主要是指使用《大纲》上没有的词语、使用通过构词法变化来的新词、使用同(近)义词或反义词等来代替常见词语。

1)这栋房子在芳草街的一栋楼上。

A: The flat is in a building on Fangcao Street.

B: The flat situates in a building on Fangcao Street.

分析:is in是常见词语，而situates in则是《大纲》上没有的，属于高级词汇。

2)在周末我们做很多作业。

A: At weekends, we have a lot of homework to do.

B: At weekends, we have endless homework to do.

分析:B句在表达时没有使用过于直接的a lot of，而是使用了endless。endless就是由《大纲》词汇end加后缀-less变化来的。

3)洗澡间和厨房都很好。

A: The bathroom and the kitchen are good.

B. The bathroom and the kitchen are well-furnished.

在表达要点时，B句使用了well furnished,这比good语气强，也显得生动。

在造句时,“较高级词汇”如能运用贴切自然，哪怕整篇文章只用上一个，也会使你的作文显示出与众不同。

二、结构造句——与众不同

在造句时,既要使句子生动，又要使其简明扼要。

1、使用与人不同的表达方式，特别是提倡打破汉语句子结构的束缚而重组的句子更受欢迎。

1)唐山曾在二十世纪八十年代发生过一次大地震。

A: There was a strong earthquake in Tangshan in the 1980s.

B: A terrible earthquake hit/struck Tangshan in the 1980s.

大多数同学使用了there be结构，这是对的，但是B句却摒弃了常见句式。另辟蹊径而使用了“主语+谓语+宾语”结构，且使用了terrible,hit/strike这样的词汇，更是难能可贵的。

2)你八月十五日的来信我今天早晨收到了。

A:I received your letter which was written on August 15th this morning.(多数人使用的方式)

B: Your letter of August 15th reached/ got to me this morning.(与多数人使用的方式不同,简洁)

2.使用一些强势句式，如强调句、感叹句、倒装句等，增强语句的表现力。如：

3)阿福救了我妹妹。

A: Ah Fu saved my sister.(一般句式)

B: It was Ah Fu that saved my sister.(强调句式)

4)我们看到庄稼和蔬菜长势喜人很是高兴。

A: We were glad to see crops and vegetables growing well.(一般陈述句)

B: How glad we were to see crops and vegetables growing well.(感叹句)

3、句式多样,复杂得体。在写作中应避免使用相同长度的相同句型，而应注意句式的变化，如长短句结合，简单句、并列句与复合句共用，还可使用简化句等;一些较复杂的结构如独立主格，分词结构等也可使用。下面的表达中A句简单句多，而且多处使用there be结构，显得单调、乏味，而B句就有自己的特色(请同学们自己分析)。

5)这是一套25平方米的住房，住房里面有卧室、有洗澡间、有厨房;卧室里有床、沙发、桌子和椅子等。

A: Its a flat of 25 square metres. There is a bedroom in the flat. There is a bathroom and a kitchen in it, too. In the bedroom, there is a bed; there is a sofa, a desk and a chair as well.

B: Its a flat of 25 square metres, with a bedroom, a bathroom and a kitchen. In the bedroom there is a bed, a sofa, a desk and a chair.

三、布局谋篇——独具匠心

在写作中，我们可按时间、空间或其它逻辑顺序来安排各要点，同时为使主题突出,结构严谨，我们应注意学习和使用交代句以及段落的主题句等。在布局谋篇上，NMET2002范文堪称典范。请看：

Opinions are divided on the question.

60% of the students are against the idea of entrance fees. They believe a public park should be free of charge. People need a place where they can rest and enjoy themselves. Charging entrance fees will no doubt keep some people away. What is more, it will become necessary to build gates and walls, which will do harm to the appearance of a city.

On the other hand, 40% think that fees should be charged because you need money to pay gardens and other workers, and to buy plants and young trees. They suggested, however, fees should be charged low.

1)该文使用Opinions are divided...作交代句，开门见山，随后两个段落均使用了主题句(见黑体字部分)，使全文结构紧凑，表达严谨。

2)在表述要点时范文还对要点出场顺序作了调整，如“40%的同学认为应收门票，但不宜过高。”前部分作为主题句放在句首，而后部分另起一句放在句末：They suggested, however, fees should be charged low.这样就分清了轻重缓急，主题突出，条理清楚。

3)范文使用了and, what is more, however等连词，在段落之间使用了on the other hand(说明前后两个观点是相悖的)，这些连接手段的运用加强了句子之间、段落之间的联系，使文章表达连贯，浑然一体。

4)范文在第二段为说明不收门票的“原因”时增加了Charging entrance fees will no doubt keep some people away.等细节，这也是解决句与句之间缺少连贯性的常见方法。

写作技巧：

一、要善于模仿

对大多数学习英语的同学来说，英语的词汇量、句式的积累还极其有限，远不能达到用英文流畅表达，挥洒自如的境地。在这一阶段进行创作是不合时宜的，如果非要创造，只能写出“long time no see”这样的文字来。因此，模仿是这一阶段的必经途径。

谈到模仿，一些同学的办法就是背一堆范文，然后再到考场上进行一个“剪切”、“粘贴”的工作，效果可想而知。这不是真正意义上的模仿，充其量算是默写课文。如何模仿呢?

首先，模仿的目标要明确。模仿的重点永远要放在一定的句式结构上，而非个别的词汇。道理很简单：一个词，随着文章内容的变换，可能就不能用了;而句式结构是放置四海而皆准的东西，适用的范围广，学来对写作的帮助也就明显。

其次，模仿的材料要地道。像新概念英语这样的教材就提供了很多原汁原味的英语表达法。盲目选择文章学习，记一些不中不洋的句子，以讹传讹，浪费时间。

最后，模仿要体现在实际动笔上。比如说，新概念第三册有一个句式说：“…for the simple reason that…”表示某种现象的原因是什么，用在大学英语考试中，我们就可以拿来解释为什么自行车在中国如此的流行，表达为：“the bicycle is very popular in china for the simple reason that…”。然而，很多同学经常背了这些句式不用，一谈到原因仍然是“…because…”，等等。

二、要灵活变通

在批改英语作文的过程中，经常能发现一些将中文生硬地翻译成英文的表达法。由于中英文之间的差异和词汇量、表达法积累的不足，出现难于表达的情况是十分正常的。关键问题在于如何处理。有一句话叫做“立志如山，行道如水”，套用在这个问题上就很合适。写英文作文，一定要有决心把它写好，有信心把意思表达清楚，这是“立志如山”;但关键是遇到问题时要有个灵活的态度，能像流水一样变通解决问题。

有个翻译界的故事说：在某大型国际会议的招待会上，一道菜是用鸡蛋做的。与会的客人问翻译：“what is it made of?”本来是非常简单的一个问题，结果翻译太紧张，忘了“egg”这个词，但是他急中生智，回答：“it is made of miss hen’s son.”这里，就是一个灵活变通的范例。绕道表达，是写作中应该常常运用的一种方法。

三、要细心观察

要写好英语作文，还要带着敏锐的目光细心地观察，注意英语中一些表达上的习惯。

比如说，在正式文体的写作中，很少用 “it isn"t”这样的略缩形式，而往往是一板一眼地写作 “it is not”。同理，在正式文体中的日期一般不缩写，阿拉伯数字一般会用英文表达(特别长的数字除外)。

再比如说，翻翻新概念第三册所有的课文，会发现凡是一段文章的段首句出现转折时，转折词however都放在句子结构中的第二部分，以插入语的形式出现。分析原因，是因为段落一开始就用转折词，会时转折显得较生硬、突兀。

最后，许多同学在写作文时，习惯于把 “since” “because” “for”这样的词放在句首引导原因状语从句。事实上，在我们见到的英语报刊杂志文章中，这样的从句一般都是放在主句之后的。另外, “and”也常常被误放在一句话的开头，表示两个句子之间的并列或递进关系。其实，经常留心地道的英语文章能发现，如果是并列关系，完全可以不用连词;如果是递进关系，用 “furthermore” “what is more”更为普遍。