英语写作基础教程课后题（最新20篇）

一、表达方式：记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论?

二、表现手法：象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、联想、想象、衬托（正衬、反衬）

三、修辞手法：比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互文、对比、借代、反语?

四、记叙文六要素：时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果

五、记叙顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙?六、描写角度：正面描写、侧面描写?

七、描写人物的方法：语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌

八、描写景物的角度：视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉?

九、描写景物的方法：动静结合（以动写静）、概括与具体相结合、由远到近（或由近到远）?

十、描写（或抒情）方式：正面（又叫直接）、反面（又叫间接）

十一、叙述方式：概括叙述、细节描写

十二、说明顺序：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序

十三、说明方法：举例子、列数字、打比方、作比较、下定义、分类别、作诠释、摹状貌、引用?

十四、小说情节四部分：开端、发展、高潮、结局

十五、小说三要素：人物形象、故事情节、具体环境

十六、环境描写分为：自然环境、社会环境

十七、议论文三要素：论点、论据、论证

十八、论据分类为：事实论据、道理论据

十九、论证方法：举例（或事实）论证、道理论证（有时也叫引用论证）、对比（或正反对比）论证、比喻论证

二十、论证方式：立论、驳论（可反驳论点、论据、论证）

二十一、议论文的文章的结构：总分总、总分、分总；分的部分常常有并列式、递进式。

二十二、引号的作用：引用；强调；特定称谓；否定、讽刺、反语

二十三、破折号用法：提示、注释、总结、递进、话题转换、插说。

精彩的文章开头能一下子打动读者的心。古人说，文章的开头要像“凤头”。这种说法形象地说明文章的开头要短小漂亮。好文章的开头应具备哪些标准呢？

1．简洁流畅。

简洁是议论文开好头的保证，尤其是复述材料时更是只能对材料进行简要概括，切不可详细叙述。

2．表达主题鲜明，给人印象深刻。

议论文的开头一定要让读者一下子就知道你要说什么，即一定要向读者亮出你的论点。所谓开宗明义就是这个意思。

3．使用一定的表现手法，使开篇富有文采。

写议论文的开头，可以运用修辞手法，如比喻、引用、设问、排比等，使其焕发出夺目的光彩。

能写出议论文“凤头”的方法有那些呢？

1．引用名言。

就是议论文一开篇就直接引用一句名言作为全文的中心论点。比如，《说勤》的开头：

中国有句俗话叫“一勤天下无难事”。唐代大文学家韩愈也说过“业精于勤”。这都是说学业方面的深厚造诣都来源于勤奋好学。

2．开门见山。

即在文章的开头就不是亮出论点就是导出论点。比如，《谈骨气》一开篇就开门见山地提出中心论点——“我们中国人是有骨气的”，既简洁明了，又中心突出。再如，毛泽ze东在《改造我们的学习》中，一开篇就写道：“我主张将我们全党的学习方法和学习制度改造一下，其理由如下。”这一开篇，既提出了问题，又表明了中心论点，非常直接。

3．故事导入。

4．设问开篇。

就是在文章的开头先就要议论的问题提出自己的疑问，然后再在回答问题中提出自己的观点。例如，毛泽ze东的《人的正确思想是从哪里来的》的开头：

人的正确思想是从哪里来的？是从天上掉下来的吗？不是。是人的头脑里固有的吗？也不是。人类的正确思想只能从社会实践中来。

再如，《愚昧比富有更可怕》的开头：

有人说，愚昧比贫穷更可怕。难道富有了愚昧就不可怕了吗？无数事实已经证明，愚昧比富有更可怕。

议论文采用设问开头，不仅能引起读者的注意，启发读者思考，还能在自问自答中自然亮出全文的中心论点，真可谓水到渠成。

5．解释概念。

就是在文章的开头明确地解释与论点有关的概念的含义，从而点出文章的中心论点。例如，《自强、自负、自卑》的开头：

自强，就是自己努力向上。一个人要有所作为，就应该具备这样的品质：既不自卑，也不自负，而是要自强。

这种开头的好处是可以通过诠释概念挖掘论点的深意，明确论述的方向，给人清晰明确的印象。

6．对比开头。

7．设喻开篇。

就是先在文章的开头写一个故事、一则寓言或者一个笑话，然后以其设喻引出中心论点。例如，《哨子》就是先写自己小时候为得到一个哨子付出了很大的代价，现在很后悔，然后把哨子比作“权势”“名望”“财产”“寻欢作乐”“远远超出自己生活水平的享受”等引出自己的观点：许多人遭受悲苦，都是由于自己对事物的价值作出错误估价造成的。

以设喻开篇能够借助形象说理，使文章生动活泼，并增强文章的表现力和感染力。

8．欲进先退。

议论文的论点与传统观点相对时，可以在文章的开头先提出传统观点，然后再提出自己的见解。例如，写《近墨者未必黑》，就可以先提出传统的观点——“近朱者赤，近墨者黑”，然后再提出自己的观点——“近墨者未必黑”。

这种欲进先退的开篇方法往往可以使读者体会到作者观点的独到、新颖，从而使文章与众不同。

9．树立靶子。

写驳论文，最好是在文章的开头就先亮出对方的谬论，并将其当做靶子深入批驳。例如，《个人与集体》这篇文章，作者就是先提出“有人提出这样一种人生哲学，叫‘人人为自己，也就是人人为大家’”，接着便具体分析这种错误的人生观，并进行了抨击。

总之，议论文的开头方法多种多样，每种开头的方式都有其优势，学生只要多练习，多思考，就一定能找到适合作文与自己的开头方法。

一、~~~ the + ~ est + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + haveever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

~~~ the most + 形容词 + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

例句：

Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

海伦是我所看过最美丽的女孩。

Mr. Chang is the kindest teacher that I have ever had.

张老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。

二、Nothing is + ~~~ er than to + V Nothing is + more + 形容词 + than to + V

例句：Nothing is more important than to receive education.

没有比接受教育更重要的事。

三、~~~ cannot emphasize the importance of ~~~ too much.(再怎么强调...的重要性也不为过。)

例句：

We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。

四、There is no denying that + S + V ...(不可否认的...)

例句：

There is no denying that the qualities of our living have gone from bad to worse.

不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。

五、It is universally acknowledged that + 句子~~ (全世界都知道...)

例句：

It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable to us.

全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。

六、There is no doubt that + 句子~~ (毫无疑问的...)

例句：

There is no doubt that our educational system leaves something to be desired.

毫无疑问的我们的教育制度令人不满意。

七、An advantage of ~~~ is that + 句子 (...的优点是...)

例句：

An advantage of using the solar energy is that it wont create (produce) any pollution.

使用太阳能的优点是它不会制造任何污染。

八、The reason why + 句子 ~~~ is that + 句子 (...的原因是...)

例句：

The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air./ The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can supply fresh air for us.

我们必须种树的原因是它们能供应我们新鲜的空气。

九、So + 形容词 + be + 主词 + that + 句子 (如此...以致于...)

例句：

So precious is time that we cant afford to waste it.

时间是如此珍贵，我们经不起浪费它。

十、Adj + as + Subject(主词)+ be, S + V~~~ (虽然...)

例句：

Rich as our country is, the qualities of our living are by no means satisfactory. {by no means = in no way = on no account 一点也不}

虽然我们的国家富有，我们的生活品质绝对令人不满意。

十一、The + ~er + S + V, ~~~ the + ~er + S + V ~~~

The + more + Adj + S + V, ~~~ the + more+ Adj + S + V ~~~(愈...愈...)

例句：The harder you work, the more progress you make.

你愈努力，你愈进步。

The more books we read, the more learned we become.

我们书读愈多，我们愈有学问。

十二、By +Ving, ~~ can ~~ (借着...，..能够..)

例句：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy.

借着做运动，我们能够始终保持健康。

十三、~~~ enable + Object(受词)+ to + V (..使..能够..)

例句：Listening to music enable us to feel relaxed.

听音乐使我们能够感觉轻松。

十四、On no account can we + V ~~~ (我们绝对不能...)

例句：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge.

我们绝对不能忽略知识的价值。

十五、It is time + S + 过去式 (该是...的时候了)

例句：It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems.

该是有关当局采取适当的措施来解决交通问题的时候了。

十六、Those who ~~~ (...的人...)

例句：Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished.

违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。

十七、There is no one but ~~~ (没有人不...)

例句：There is no one but longs to go to college.

没有人不渴望上大学。

十八、be + forced/compelled/obliged + to + V (不得不...)

例句：Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports.

既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃做运动。

十九、It is conceivable that + 句子 (可想而知的)

It is obvious that + 句子 (明显的)

It is apparent that + 句子 (显然的)

例句：It is conceivable that knowledge plays an important role in our life.

可想而知，知识在我们的一生中扮演一个重要的角色。

二十、That is the reason why ~~~ (那就是...的原因)

例句：Summer is sultry. That is the reason why I dont like it.

夏天很燠热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。

二十一、For the past + 时间，S + 现在完成式.(过去...年来，...一直...)

例句：For the past two years, I have been busy preparing for the examination.

过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。

二十二、Since + S + 过去式，S + 现在完成式。

例句：Since he went to senior high school, he has worked very hard.

自从他上高中，他一直很用功。

二十三、It pays to + V ~~~ (...是值得的。)

例句：It pays to help others.

帮助别人是值得的。

二十四、be based on (以...为基础)

例句：The progress of thee society is based on harmony.

社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。

二十五、Spare no effort to + V (不遗余力的)

例句：We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

我们应该不遗余力的美化我们的环境。

二十六、bring home to + 人 + 事 (让...明白...事)

例句：We should bring home to people the valueof working hard.

我们应该让人们明白努力的价值。

二十七、be closely related to ~~ (与...息息相关)

例句：Taking exercise is closely related to health.

做运动与健康息息相关。

二十八、Get into the habit of + Ving= make it a rule to + V (养成...的习惯)

We should get into the habit of keeping good hours.

我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。

二十九、Due to/Owing to/Thanks to + N/Ving, ~~~(因为...)

例句：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream.

因为他的鼓励，我终于实现我的梦想。

三十、What a + Adj + N + S + V!= How + Adj + a + N + V!(多么...!)

例句：What an important thing it is to keep our promise!

How important a thing it is to keep our promise!

遵守诺言是多么重要的事!

三十一、Leave much to be desired (令人不满意)

例句：The condition of our traffic leaves much to be desired.

我们的交通状况令人不满意。

三十二、Have a great influence on ~~~ (对...有很大的影响)

例句：Smoking has a great influence on our health.

抽烟对我们的健康有很大的影响。

三十三、do good to (对...有益)，do harm to (对...有害)

例句：Reading does good to our mind.读书对心灵有益。

Overwork does harm to health.工作过度对健康有害。

三十四、Pose a great threat to ~~ (对...造成一大威胁)

例句：Pollution poses a great threat to our existence.

污染对我们的生存造成一大威胁。

三十五、do ones utmost to + V = do ones best (尽全力去...)

例句：We should do our utmost to achieve our goal in life.

我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标。

小作文测试并不新鲜，从上世纪80年代到现在，小作文已经多少见诸于高考试卷，比如1990年要求描写进入玫瑰园的一对孪生小姑娘的肖像，表现她们的同和异;1991年要求把“圆”想象成除一轮满月之外的另一个“圆”的物体，描写有陪衬物但以圆形物体为主的画面和场景;1993年要求写一段关于圆规的功能、构造和使用方法的说明性文字;1997年上海卷要求考生推荐一部电影(电视剧或戏剧作品);1998年要求根据给出的开头和结尾补写《妈妈只洗了一只鞋》相关内容，综合考查学生对心理、动作、语言等描述能力以及想象能力;2005年重庆卷要求考生以“筷子”为对象写一篇说明文。

微写作字数不是太多，也就二三百字，可以是应用文也可以是说明性、议论性的文段。

纵观高考曾出现的小作文，无论是事理说明文、情境记叙文，还是事物评论文，都有文体的要求，有写作对象(即具体内容)的要求，有表达方式的要求，有表现手法的要求，字数一般是200至350，但都属于“规定动作”，而非“自选动作”，这是高考的公平性所决定的，是考试性质的难度、信度、效度及区分度所决定的，在同一个尺度下，检测考生语文学习的综合能力与素质。

从本质上看来，小作文，其实就是一种语言综合运用题。语言运用题往往又是语基题方面的各种新题型的试验基地，是最值得广大考生关注和训练的。

研究已出现过的小作文，其命题特点是非常明确的，就是字数限定在200字左右，注重单项训练，比如说明训练、描写训练、对话训练、想象训练……具体说来，高考小作文的种类大概有如下一些：

一是说明类：就是要求考生能写简短的

说明文，能够采用说明的表达方式对事物进行简单说明和介绍。具体又可以包括：介绍日常实用物品、介绍一部影视作品、介绍说明漫画的画面内容、介绍一处场所或一种建筑、介绍时令特征等等。介绍日常实用物品，如1993年要求写一段关于圆规的功能、构造和使用方法的说明性文字;2005年重庆卷要求以“筷子”为对象写一篇说明文。介绍一部影视作品，如1997年上海卷要求考生推荐一部电影(电视剧或戏剧作品)。介绍说明漫画的画面内容，如1983年为漫画《这下面没有水》写一段说明性文字，向没有看过这幅画的人介绍画面内容;1996年介绍《给六指做整形手术》和《截错了》两幅漫画的内容。介绍一处场所或一种建筑，如1994年上海卷要求介绍一家街头(或乡间)小店。介绍时令特征，如1996年上海卷要求考生从三个方面介绍初夏的时令特征。

二是描写类。

就是要求考生能够进行各种各样的描写、描述、描绘、描摹等等，能够进行各种各样的想象，和对想象作出描绘等等。具体又可以包括：心理描写、肖像描写、动作描写、语言对话描写、想象联想描写、场景画面描写和综合性的描写等等。心理描写，如1999年上海卷要求以“开考时刻”为题，描写当年高考开考时的心情。肖像描写，如1990年描写进入玫瑰园的一对孪生小姑娘的肖像，要求符合人物的年龄和性格，显示出她们的同和异。动作或行动描写，如1997年描写小新背双腿瘫痪的同学小牧上学的情景，要求以行动描写为重点。语言对话描写，如1995年描写两种小鸟的对话，要求想象合理，必须以对话的方式写。

场景画面描写，如1991年要求把圆想象成除一轮满月之外的另一个物体，然后加上陪衬物，再用文字描述出以圆形物体为主的画面、场景、镜头;1991年“三南”(湖南、云南、海南)卷描述漫画《我从小就知道》的两幅画面的内容，要求内容具体，描写生动;2000年上海卷以“节日小景”为题写一篇短文，要求考生主要采用描写的表达方式来展示节日的一个小场景。综合性描写，如1998年要求根据给出的开头和结尾补写《妈妈只洗了一只鞋》的有关内容，综合考查对肖像、语言(包括对话语气)、神态、心理、动作、细节、景物等的描述能力、想象能力等等。

三是赏析评价类。

就是要求考生能够对某一事物、某种现象、某篇文章等发表评论或加以赏析。具体又可以包括：诗文漫画等赏析、思想评价、事物名称评价、某种活动评价等等。诗文漫画等赏析，如2005年湖南卷将小作文变成了现代文阅读的赏析题目：“从下列题目中任选一个，写一篇300字左右的赏析短文。思想评价，如1992年要求选择所提供材料中的一个或几个人物(包括”我”)的思想行为，进行分析，展开议论，写一篇小议论文。事物名称评价，如1988年上海卷列出几个拟用的文学社名——“新潮”、“阿波罗”、“丑小鸭”、“浅草”，要求写出喜欢其中一个的理由。某种活动评价，如1989年上海卷要求考生就中学生各式各样的竞赛发表自己的看法等等。

四是应用类：就是要求考生们熟悉各种各样的

应用文体，能够拟写各种各样的应用文，如请柬、书信、短信、通讯、消息、广告、通知、摘要、聘书、海报、解说词、

申请书、讲话稿、留言条、欢迎辞、欢送辞、广播稿等等，如1987年要求根据提供的材料写一篇通讯，1990年上海卷要求考生写出在班级举行的一位老教师光荣退休欢送会上自己的欢送辞，1995年上海卷要求就学校里最近举行过的一次活动(运动会、艺术节或主题班会)写一则简短的消息等等。

五是扩缩改写类。

就是要求考生们能够对一些文字或文段进行扩展或压缩，或改写成其他形式的短文等等，如1998年上海卷的小作文是，将冰心的小诗《春水》“墙角的花!你孤芳自赏时，天地便小了”改写成短文，要求根据这首诗的诗意，展开想象，从周围环境、花的性格、全诗寓意等方面，去进行改写。

今后的小作文，会如何命题，命题的走势如何呢?我们的判断是，有继承，也有创新。一方面，将继承以往的形式和内容，具体地说就是，以上所列举的五大类的小作文命题形式，仍然会继承，这是毫无疑问的;另一方面，也会在继承的基础上进行一些创新，比如，创拟哲理笑话、写趣味小品文、写微型小小说、提供情景、氛围等，要求转述;根据中间，补写首尾;把记叙文、散文等转换成诗歌，或把诗歌转换记叙文、散文……

此外，在小作文的备考中，一定要加强各种表达方式的训练。如说明方式，要弄清对象是具体事物、抽象事理，还是事物的形成过程;顺序是以空间、时间为序，还是以逻辑事理为序;语言是平实性说明，还是文艺性说明。如描写方式，要懂得按照对象分为，写景、写人、状物;按手法又可分为，工笔细描和粗笔勾勒;按顺序可，由远到近、由高到低、由大到小、由静到动、由整体到局部等。单就写人而言，要会运用语言描写、肖像描写、神态描写、心理描写、动作描写、细节描写等;单就写景而言，要能充分调动人的感觉器官，从人的听觉、视觉、味觉、嗅觉等方面表现景物的特点，要能充分运用拟人、比喻、对比、夸张、通感等修辞方法，要善于使用对比烘托、动静结合、虚实相生、情景交融等写作技巧。记叙、议论、抒情这几种表达方式，也都应做到分门别类，了如指掌才行。

中国是一个散文大国。古今的散文大家和作品，享誉很高，下面是小编收集了关于散文的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

中国是一个散文大国。古今的散文大家和作品，享誉很高。新时期以来，我国的散文创作出现了前所未有的好势头，散文创作持续热闹火爆，涌现了一批专事散文的作家，一些学者、诗人、小说家、评论家、艺术家也跻身其中，众多的大学生也喜爱读写散文。“‘五四’以来的中国散文史，无疑是继先秦、两汉、魏晋、唐宋、明清散文这一座座峰峦之后的又一个高峰。它最为重大的意义是企图号召整个民族，彻底地走向人性的解放，树立科学和民主、平等和自由的现代文明观念。多少散文家都通过自己洋溢着独特个性的笔角，在不同的领域之内，从种种不同的视角，程度不等地完成着这个神圣的使命。”(林非《傅德岷主编〈中国现 代散文发展史〉序》)

1998年6月，中国当代散文创作研讨会认为：我国当代散文发展到今天，取得了很大的成绩，发表、出版了一大批优秀的散文，它们坚持对人生的始终关怀，坚持文学应该有益于人心世道，应该净化、美化和慧化人心，艺术上坚持众美并具、雅俗共赏的原则，成为色、香、味俱全的文化品位的精神食粮。同时，当代散文也面临创新与发展的问题。如今的读者对各类散文家及其作品褒贬不一，文坛上存在多种声音，表明散文创作同样是“没有最好，只有更好”。散文作者认识到这一点才能正确对待他人和自己。散文作者应该顺应时代的潮流，关注社会人生，要以自身的人格力量打动读者。散文属于高雅的精神产品，在经济大潮的冲击下，应当有一个清醒的对抗“商品”的精神。散文的开放是精神的开放、境界的开放，对于境界的把握，应比读者高出一个层次。中外散文名家的成功经验证明，散文创作必须讲究风格和形式，没有风格的写作最终会失去创作的个性。

学习散文写作有两条途径，其一是从摹仿入手，跟在他人后面亦步亦趋。这种没有理论的盲目实践，往往事倍功半。其二是在阅读了一些散文，有了些感性认识，然后学习散文写作理论，使感性认识上升到理性认识的阶段，再阅读名家范文，然后从事写作实践，这样就可以事半功倍。我们应取第二条途径，即：阅读→研究→阅读→写作。

首先，要明白散文的定义。什么是散文呢?有广义和狭义两种概念。广义的散文，在古代指的是一切不押韵的文章。刘勰在《文心雕龙》的《总术》篇写道：“今之常言，有‘文’ 有‘笔’，以为无韵者‘笔’也，有韵者‘文’也。”所谓“笔”，就是指韵文以外的一切记叙性和议论性的文体，这些文体就散文。不过，古代没有“散文”这一个名称;“散文”这个名称是“五四”时期才有的。在现代，广义的散文包括了除去诗歌、小说、戏剧、影视文学之外的一切叙事性、议论性、抒情性的文体，如秦牧在《海阔天空的散文领域》中说，“不属于其他文学体裁，而又具有文学味道的一切篇幅短小的文章，都属于散文的范围”。这样，就有了抒情散文，叙事散文和议论散文等的分类。

狭义的散文则专指抒情散文。这是因为随着文体的发展，叙事散文中的通讯特写、传记文学、报告文学等，已经发展成为独立的文体，各成一类;议论散文则有了专门的名称—— 杂文，也从散文中分了出来，剩下的只有抒情散文，这就是狭义的散文。

我们这里要学习的主要是抒情散文，也涉及叙事散文和其它类型的散文。习作者可以根据自己的人生阅历、文化素养和爱好，或写作抒情散文，或作叙事散文，或写文化散文，或作智慧散文，或写游历散文，或作其它类型的散文。

其次，要认清散文的写作特点。散文是一种内容丰富、题材广泛、篇幅短小、体裁多样、形式灵活、文情并茂的文体。在写作上，它有以下六个特点：

(一)内容丰富，题材广泛散文的内容涉及自然万物、各色人等、古今中外、政事私情……可以说是无所不包、无所不有的。可以写国内外和社会上的矛盾、斗争，写经济建设，写文艺论争，写伦理道德，也可以写文艺随笔，读书笔记，日记书简;既可以是风土人物志、游记和偶感录，也可以是知识小品、文坛轶事;它能够谈天说地，更可以抒情写趣。凡是能给人以思想启迪、美的感受、情操的陶治，使人开阔视野，丰富知识，心旷神怡的，都可选作散文的题材。

(二)思想警辟，诗意盎然散文多是真情实感的产物，那些优秀的篇章，都有思想火花的闪耀，表现着作者对时代和人生的深刻认识与精辟见解。徐迟说：“文学作品，应该有思想。散文也不例外。它要求有特别锐利的思想。即使是抒情散文，也要求有不但是锐利的，而且是特别锐利的思想。不到五百字的《岳阳楼记》，‘先天下之忧而忧，后天下之乐而乐’是一个光辉灿烂的思想。抒情散文固然很多，写到这样的境界就并不很多。然而，这正是散文、抒情散文所应追求的境界。”“凡掷地作金石声的作品差不多总是包含着鲜明的思想、结结实实的思想。有闪光的思想之焦点，飞跃着不灭的思想之火焰的。”(《说散文》)我们读鲁迅的《雪》，可以学到鲁讯从飞雪和雪罗汉身上探索到的美好、光明以及与冷酷现实进行顽强斗争的革命精神;读茅盾的《白杨礼赞》，可以看出茅盾怎样从平凡的白杨树身上联想到北方农民的坚强不屈和英勇豪迈的形象;读袁鹰的《井冈翠竹》，可以领悟作者从普通的毛竹思考到井冈山人民的献身革命与建设的精神品质。秦牧说得好：“思想像一根线串起了生活的珍珠，没有这根线，珍 珠只能够弃散在地。” 散文的优秀作品还每每是诗意盎然的。杨朔说过：“好的散文就是一首诗。”苏联作家巴 乌斯托夫斯基也指出：“真正的散文是充满诗意的，就像苹果饱含着果汁一样。”因此，高尔基对青年作者说：“我们的青年是否也可以试一下，热情地用散文来写人们，使得散文也自然而然地变成为诗。”(引自《回忆高尔基》)杨朔的散文之所以写得那样好，原因之一就他“总是拿着当诗一样写。”他告诉我们：“不要从狭义方面来理解诗意两个字。杏花春雨，固然有诗，铁马金戈的英雄气概，更富有鼓舞人心的诗力。你在斗争中，劳动中，时常会有些东西触动你的心，使你激昂，使你欢乐，使你忧愁，使你深思，这不是诗又是什么?凡是遇到这样动情的事，我就要反复思索，到后来往往形成我文章里的思想意境。”(《东风第一枝?小跋》)他的名篇《荔枝蜜》、《茶花赋》、《海市》…… 都是诗意盎然之作，既是散文， 又是诗篇。

(三)短小精悍，自由灵活有人称散文是文艺战线上的“轻骑兵”，就是因为它具有篇章短小精悍、形式灵活自由的特点。我国古代散文的名篇多数是很短的，如韩愈的《马说》150字，柳宗元的《小石潭记》193字。现代散文的名篇多数也是很短的，如许地山的《落花生》482字，茅盾的《白杨礼赞》1074字。当然，较长的优秀散文也是有的，但它与一般记叙文相比，仍是精悍之作。所以散文写作要求做到短小精悍，以小见大，言近旨远。从形式上来看，散文较其它的文学体裁更为自由活泼、灵活多样。鲁迅在《怎么写》中指出：“散文的体裁，其实是大可以随便的。”冰心在《谈散文》中说：“散文比较自由”。当然，这里说的“随便”、“自由”不是毫不经心、信手乱写。自由灵活的散文写作，是“装着随便的涂鸦模样，其实却是用心雕心刻骨的苦心的文章。”(厨川白村：《出了象牙之塔》)散文写作自由、灵活这一特点，在写作上，首先指的是表达方式灵活自如，不局限于某一种表达方法。因而，散文写作可以记人、叙事、状物、写景、抒情、说理、呐喊、怒吼、抨击、赞颂、幽默、讽刺、高歌、浅唱、漫谈、絮语、嘻笑怒骂、妙语解颐……各式各样、应有尽有。其次，写作者可以自由、灵活地选用各种体裁来写，赋铭、速写、游记、书信、日记、序跋、偶感、随笔、回忆录、读后感……，任人选择，因人而异，都能写成佳作。 (四)形散神收，博而不杂宋代大散文家、诗人苏轼在《文说》中说：“吾文如万斛泉涌，不择地而出。在平地，滔滔汩汩，虽一日千里无难。及其与山石曲折，随物赋形而不可知也。所可知者，常行于所 当行，常止于不可不止，如是而已矣。”

“形散神不散”，这是许多散文作家的经验之谈。散文必须“散”，必须“博”，也就是说从表面上看，从形式上看，它运笔如风，不拘成法，似乎散漫无章，行文时断时续，时而勾勒描绘，时而倒叙联想，时而感情迸发，时而侃侃议论，既有天文地理，又有伦理人情，这段写甲地，那段却写乙地。但是，它的“神”却是始终不散的，是首尾一贯的，是表现作者一定的思想、感情的。“神收”、“不杂”，就指的是文章始终紧紧围绕一个中心，贯穿一条红线，做到结构紧凑，层次分明，详略得当，重点突出。例如秦牧的散文《社稷坛抒情》，是既“散”又“博”的，然而，尽管它天上地下，古今中外，包罗万象，却始终围绕着“歌颂赞美养育我们的土地和创造我们伟大民族文化历史的劳动人民”这一主题思想。因此，从形式上说，散文贵“散”，而在构思上、组织上，则散文忌“散”。散文写作具有的这一辩证统一的特点，使得它与其它文体区别开来。

(五)直抒胸臆，自具风格文学作品都是带有感情的，但小说、戏剧的作者，往往把自己强烈的感情倾注在人物形象的塑造上，作者对生活的感受、对人物的爱憎褒贬，一般是通过间接的方式表现出来的。而散文则不一样，它常常象诗歌一样，每每用直接抒情的方式抒写胸臆，不仅使读者知其理、晓其事，而且悟其心、感其情，因此，散文要求作者写真情实感。真情是散文的生命，只有直抒胸臆，把真情实感捧给读者，才会赢得读者的喜爱。作家贾平凹在回答“散文创作要不要绝对真实”的问题时说：“这个问题争论很多，又都没有一定结论。我个人的体会，还是倾向于‘绝对真实’四个字。所谓真实，主要是指在感情以及运用环境和事件上。古人写的散文，题材也是很广泛的，但古人写散文，都是有感而发。今人写散文，多多少少存在着一些为写而写的现象，所以在绝对真实问题上就出现了所谓‘理论与实践上的不一致。’也正因为如此，这些散文就写得不那么成功了。当然，作为文学作品应该生活化，生活也应该作品化，散文尤是这样。”(《怎样写好散文》)

写作要“文如其人”，散文更是这样。名家都有自己的风格，他们的作品即使不署名，读者也能从风格上看出作者。如鲁迅的散文深刻、精炼、峭拔，虽然他写文章经常改换笔名，然而“何家干”的文章，明眼人一看就看出是鲁迅。郭沫若的散文气势浩荡，又清丽、缠绵。茅盾的散文与郭沫若的浩荡相反，表现为深刻而细微。还有，老舍的散文诙谐，冰心的散文慈爱，叶圣陶严谨畅达，方纪潇洒俊逸，等等。初学写作者一时不可能形成自己的散文风格，但是必须向这些各有风格的散文作家学习，经过多次的实践、创造，努力形成自己的散文风 格。

(六)惨淡经营，文采斐然优秀的散文不可能是“掉以轻心”写出来的，它们都是作者惨淡经营、刻意加工的结晶。秦牧指出：“一篇小小的散文也许写作时间仅仅是一两个小时，但却要求作家深厚的素养，而且不断扩大和丰富这种素养。把散文当作是‘小功夫’，‘掉以轻心’的写作态度，是很不利于我们散文创作的繁荣发展的。即使是怎样熟练的名作家，我们也要求他们在写作一篇小文章时，采取‘大象搏狮用全力，搏兔也用全力’的态度。”有些散文家提倡散文的“整体 美”，也是要求作者在内容和形式上都“惨淡经营”。整篇文章是惨淡经营、刻意加工写成的，它的语言就是精炼的，文采斐然的。这是由于作者运用的是散文笔调。那么什么是“散文笔调”呢?可以说，散文笔调一方面表现在它的行文灵活自如，另一方面则表现在它十分讲究文采。散文的文采不仅有华丽的，而且有朴素的。

学习散文写作，既要掌握华丽的文采，也要掌握朴素的文采。写得华丽并不容易，写得朴素更难。徐迟的文章是很有文采的，他常用赋的方法兼用比、兴修辞，使得文采华美。但是他说：“只有写得朴素了，才能显出真正的文采来。古今大散文家，都是这样写作的。越是大作家，越到成熟之时，越是写得朴素。而文采闪耀在朴素的篇页之上。”我们还要看到，不管是华丽的还是朴素的，散文的富有文采的语言都是从新鲜、活泼的口语中来的，也是对优秀的古代散文创造性的继承，也是作者仔细选择、锤炼和加工的结果。

第二节 散文的写作

一、精于立意

“凡文以意为主”。散文的“意”是存在于深厚的生活土壤和浩瀚的生活海洋中的。要获得它，必须依靠我们对生活的深入观察、感受、理解。因此，散文立意只要从生活实际出发，凭着鲜明的感受，锋锐的观察能力，同人民同时代共同跳动的脉博，深厚的感情，丰富的想象，深沉的思索，就会感到我们生活中洋溢着的诗意。这诗意，就是使我们心灵受到触动的东西，使我们眼睛豁然开朗的东西，思想突然升华的东西，感情更为纯洁的东西，它就诗的灵感。我们要为自己的散文立意就要赶紧捕捉住它。因为这里面有心灵的颤动，思想的闪光。刘白羽说：“哪怕是微弱的闪耀也比没有闪耀要好，这才不是一般的照相，这才是文 学。”(《早晨的太阳》序)

譬如，一个作家去看茶花，品种繁多，美不胜收的茶花引起了他的思索：“茶花是美啊。凡是生活中美的事物都是劳动创造的。是谁白天黑夜、积年累月，拿自己的汗水浇着花，象抚育自己儿女一样抚育着花秧，终于培养出这样绝色的好花?应该感谢那为我们美化生活的人。”这就是思想的闪耀，作家十分宝贵它，就及时把这个意思记下来。后来，他听一位花匠介绍一种茶花说：“这叫童子面，花期迟，刚打开骨朵，开起来颜色深红，倒是最好看的。” 并没有引起思索，但他是记住这种茶花的名称的。过了一会，恰巧一群小孩也来看茶花，这事引起了作家的注意，他看见孩子们一个个仰着鲜红的小脸，甜蜜蜜地笑着，唧唧喳喳叫个不休，心灵猛然一颤，不禁脱口说出：“童子面茶花开了。”而花匠听了这话省悟后说：“真的呢，再没有比这种童子面更好看的茶花了。”这话使得一个念头突然跳出他的脑海，他说：“我得到一幅画的构思。如果用最浓最艳的朱红画一大朵含露乍开的童子面茶花，岂不正可以象征着祖国的面貌?”于是，作家就把看茶花引起的感受、思索写成一篇文情并茂的散文《茶花赋》。这个作家就杨朔。而读者、评论者通过阅读就可以悟出作家写此文的立意：歌 颂如花的祖国，歌颂美化祖国的劳动人民。

二、善于构思

构思是写作者对生活素材进行去粗取精、去伪存真、由此及彼、由表及里的加工、提炼的过程。写作者要在构思中为散文的思想内容寻找尽量完美的艺术形式，使思想性与艺术性达到和谐的统一。因此，构思要解决立意、选材、创造意境、确定体裁、基本手法、布局谋篇等问题。这里着重讲讲确定体裁、寻找线索、创造意境三个问题。

第一、确定体裁。散文的体裁灵活多样。我们有了一个好的意思(思想)，并且选取了表现这一意思(思想)的材料，那么就要考虑：是写成书信体，还是写成日记体?是写成随笔，还是写成偶感?是写成游记，还是写成回忆录?是写成序或跋，还是写成读后感?确定具体体裁的原则是内容决定形式，形式为内容服务。譬如到苏州旅游之后，你感到要向父母报告一下自己的游踪和观感，你就可以写成书信;你在游玩中遇到一些使你感动的人或事，你就可以写随笔、漫录;你在游玩虎丘、狮子林、寒山寺、西园、留园等地之后，觉得寒山寺的钟特别吸引人，并引起你的遐思，你就可以写成如《社稷坛抒情》那样诗意浓郁的抒情文;你如果是旧地重游，吃到苏州某种土特产而忆起往事，则可以偏重于回忆，写成《小米的回忆》那样的回忆式的散文……总之，要根据立意内容来确定表现形式——具体的体裁。

第二、寻找线索。散文的材料应该是很“散”的，每一个材料都是一颗珍珠，但这些珍珠互相之间有内在的联系，我们写作者要寻找一根线，用笔作针，将这些散乱的珍珠穿起来，成为一串光彩夺目的珠圈、项链。那末，有哪些东西可以作为线索呢?一是感情线索。我们的感情在生活中发生变化，如由厌恶到喜爱，或从喜欢到厌恶，就可以用这条感情的线索把一些似乎没有关联的材料联结起来。如杨朔写《荔枝蜜》就是利用感情线索，才把儿时记忆、从化疗养、荔枝树林、苏轼诗词、喜尝蜂蜜、参观蜂场、赞扬蜜 蜂、农民劳动和夜晚梦蜂等事串连起来的。

二是事物线索。如曹靖华在日常生活中感受到：今天仍然需要发扬延安时期“小米加步枪”的艰苦奋斗精神，就搜罗记忆中有关小米的往事，用小米把发生在不同地点、不同时间、不同情况下的事件组合在一起。许多托物咏志的散文也是以物为线索的，如冰心的《樱花赞》。

三是人物线索。如写某一个人物在不同时间、不同地点的活动，可以用这个人物作为线索串连起来，也可以用另一个人物把不同时间、不同地点、不同人物、不同内容的事物串连起来。这个人物还可以是写作者本人——“我”。

四是思绪线索。如面对某一事物、景物沉思遐想，“鹜趋八极，心游万仞”，“观古今于须臾，抚四海于一瞬”，“笼天地于形内，挫万物于笔端”。就能通过联想与想象，把有关的材料组织在一起，表达原定的主题思想。如秦牧的《土地》、杨朔的《海市》、贾平凹的《丑 石》等。

五是景物线索。“一切景语皆情语也”。通过景物描写，在写景中融进写作者的思想感情。

如《天山景物记》、《西湖即景》。

六是行动线索。如游记以游程行踪为线索。刘白羽写《长江三日》就以游程为主线来写，当然，全文还有一条哲理性的思绪线索：“战斗——航进——穿过黑夜走向黎明”。

“文无定法”，散文的线索很多，以上六种线索是较为人们常用的。

第三、创造意境。散文的意境是情和景的交融，是意和境的统一，是作者浸透了时代精神的主观感情、意志与自然环境和社会环境的统一。意是灵魂，境是血肉。意高则境深，意低则境浅。散文的这种意境应是诗的意境，即所谓“诗情画意”。它是可以捉摸的，可以感受的，是物质的，形象的，但它又是动人心弦的，震颤魂魄的，是精神的，性灵的。如朱自清写《荷塘月色》，全篇着力于“淡淡的情趣”，顺着沿路走来、伫立凝想的线索，通过描绘使小路、荷塘、花姿、月色、树影、雾气、灯光……色彩斑烂，可见可感，而叶香、蛙鸣、蝉声，又可味可闻。更加上心情的抒写，巧妙的譬喻，创造出一种淡雅、闲静、情景交融的意境。这种优美的意境，正是散文写作者要努力追求、刻意创造的。

构思方法可以向前人借鉴，更需自己创新。过去就有一个青年作者发明出一种“散文快速构思法”，为《青春》、《采石》等刊物的编辑所重视。

三、巧于布局散文一般篇幅短小，布局有方便的地方，但要布局得好，却因篇幅短小而有其难处。这犹如一座大山上有小堆的乱石，常常无损大山的壮观。但是一个小园中有一堆乱石，就很容易破坏园林之美。因此，散文的布局——结构十分重要。参观苏州园林，从它精巧的建筑布局上，我们可以得到启示，可以借鉴它的园林建筑布局来考虑散文的布局。叶圣陶在《苏州园林》中写道，苏州园林建筑的设计者和匠师们“讲究亭台轩榭的布局，讲究假山池沼的配合，讲究花草树木的映衬，讲究近景远景的层次。总之，一切都要为构成完美的图画而存在，决不容许有欠美伤美的败笔。”作为散文的写作来说，也要这样讲究材料的布局、配合、映衬、层次。苏州园林不讲究对称，但散文布局有时则需讲究对称，或对比。叶圣陶又说：“苏州园林在每一个角度都注意图画美。”那么，散文的整体布局要讲究艺术性，它的局部的布 局不是同样要讲究艺术性吗?至于布局的具体方法是很多的，前面讲的线索问题也与布局有关。这里可以着重提一下的是：不少散文的布局都要巧设“文眼”，开头往往似谈家常，结尾则加以深化，画龙点睛， “卒章显其志”，并且首尾呼应，通体一贯，有机结合。初学散文写作，不妨学习这种布局 的方法。

四、明于断续散文要“散”得起来，除了选材要有技巧之外，就是在叙写上要注意断续的技巧。明于断续，才能使散文的行文上挥洒自如。贾平凹说：“记住：越是你知道多的地方，越要不写或者写得很少;空白，这正是你要写的地方呢。”他认为，“讲究了‘空白’处理，一是散文可以散起来，断续之，续断之，文能‘飞起’，神妙便显也。二是散文可以含蓄起来，古人也讲过：意在笔先，故得举止闲暇，看似胡乱说，骨子里却有分数。”(《怎样写好散文》)我们要多阅读古人优秀的散文作品，学习他人的断续技巧，在写作实践中多次运用之后就必然 熟能生巧。

第三节 散文写作的模式

记人散文模式

【开头】①感情化语言概括叙述。我和该人，重点在后。介绍该人，如肖像描写。②两者关系及该人精神特质的议论。

【中间】▲一种情况：一件事。从开头、发展到结尾，细致叙述和描写。

▲另一种情况：几件事。每件事即每层次前，可以用对该人精神特质的一个因素领起。 以对该人的感情体验及整体议论来贯穿几件事。

【结尾】①重申特质，照应开头。②深化感情关系，发出感慨。

抒情散文模式

【开头】1叙述自己与景物的关系。2议论景物和自己。

【中间】1描写景物，分出层次，细致动人。2联想发挥，更大意义。

【结尾】感慨

散文写作--构思

散文，往往通过生活中偶发的、片断的事象，去反映其复杂的背景和深广的内涵，做到“一粒沙里见世界，半瓣花上说人情”。要达到这种境界，构思是关键。

构思，是作者对一篇作品的整个认识过程，从他对外界事物的最初感受到成篇的全过程。就是进入下笔阶段，也仍然在思考，在探索，在继续认识所要描写的对象，深入发掘其底蕴和内涵。这是一种复杂的、艰辛的、严肃的精神活动，是对作家人格、修养、功力的考验。由于事物间的联系是深邃而微妙的，作家要善于由表及里，从纷繁错综的联系里，发现其独特而奥妙的联系点，才能够从“引心”到“会心”，由“迎意”到“立意”。构思的奥妙，不同的作家有不同发现。于是就出现了种种不同的构思方法──秦牧的构思方法，有人叫做“滚雪球”。他写散文，起初的感受只是一点点，如一片小雪花，随着题材的增加，体会的深入，联想的开展，那感觉一步步膨胀起来，就象滚雪球一样。这里可贵的是最初的感觉，照秦牧的话说，它是事物的“尖端”部分，最富有“特征”的部分，一旦被作家抓住，就象一粒饱满的种子，落到肥沃的土壤里，作家用思想、感情的阳光雨露恩泽它，使它萌发成丰富的果实。这是一个核心，越滚越大，形成统一的构思。他的名篇《土地》、《社稷坛抒情》就是很好的例子。

徐迟的构思方法，叫“抓一刹那”。这“一刹那”他认为是事物的“精华”部分，最有“光彩”部分。抓住这“一刹那”，就抓住了头绪，抓住了中心，零散杂乱的材料才得以集中，才有了归宿。如他的《在湍流的涡漩中》的创作，正反两方面的教训都可以说明这个问题。

总之，一篇散文的谋篇、构思，不同的作家有不同的方法，因人而异，不可强求一律，更不能照猫画虎，每人应有每人的独特方法，但讲究构思，则对每一个作家而言，都是极重要的。

--语言

散文笔调的魅力，固然来自作家的真知、真见、真性、真情。但要将其化作文学和谐的色彩、自然的节奏、隽永的韵味，还必须依靠驾驭文字的娴熟，笔墨的高度净化。

文采，不在于文字的花哨和刻意雕饰，而在于表情达意，朴实真挚。如堆砌词藻，就象爱美而又不善于打扮的女人一样，以为涂脂抹粉，越浓越好，花花绿绿，越艳越好，其实俗不可耐，令人见了皱眉。

散文作者，要有特别敏锐的眼光和洞察力，能看到和发现别人所没有看到的事物，还需有异常严密而深厚的文字功夫。创作时，不能心浮气躁，要静下心来，挖空心思找到准确的词句，并把它们排列得能用很少的话表达较多的意思。这就是古人所说的“言简意繁”。要使语言能表现出一幅生动的画面，简洁地描绘出人物的音容笑貌和主要特征，让读者一下子就牢牢记住被描写人物的动作、步态和语气。

散文的语言美，作家们有不少独到精辟的见解。秦牧说：“文采，同样产生艺术魅力和文笔情趣。丰富的词汇，生动的口语，铿锵的音节，适当的偶句，色彩鲜明的描绘，精采的叠句……这些东西的配合，都会增加文笔的情趣。”佘树森说：“散文的语言，似乎比小说多几分浓密和雕饰，而又比诗歌多几分清淡和自然。它简洁而又潇洒，朴素而又优美，自然中透着情韵。可以说，它的美，恰恰就在这浓与淡、雕饰与自然之间。”

散文篇幅小，容量大，行文最忌拉拉杂杂，拖泥带水，容不得老王婆裹脚布，又长又臭。简洁，并不是简境，而是简笔;笔既简，而境不简，是一种高度准确的概括力。杜牧《阿房宫赋》开头写道：“六王毕，四海一。蜀山兀，阿房出。”仅仅十二字，就写出了六国王朝的覆灭。秦始皇统一了天下，把蜀山的树木砍光了，山顶上光秃秃的，就在这里，修建起阿房宫。短短十二个字，写出了这么丰富的历史内容，时空跨度又很大，真可谓“言简意繁”了。

潇洒，对人来说，是一种气质，一种风度。对散文来说，是语句变化多姿。短句，促而严;长句，舒而缓;偶句，匀称凝重;奇句，流美洒脱。这些句式的错落而谐调的配置，自然便构成散文语言特有的简洁而潇洒的美。

散文语言的朴素美，并不排斥华丽美，两者是相对成立的。在散文作品里，我们往往看到朴素和华丽两副笔墨并用。该浓墨重彩的地方，尽意渲染，如天边锦缎般的晚霞;该朴素的地方，轻描淡写，似清澈小溪涓涓流淌。朴素有如美女的“淡扫蛾眉”，华丽亦非丽词艳句的堆砌，而是精巧的艺术加工，不着斧凿的痕迹。但不论是朴素还是华丽，若不附属于真挚感情和崇高思想的美，就易于像无限的浮萍，变得苍白无力，流于玩弄技巧的文字游戏。

像生活的海洋一样，语言的海洋也是辽阔无边的。行文潇洒，不拘一格，鲜活的文气，新颖的语言，巧妙的比喻，迷人的情韵，精采的叠句，智慧的警语，优美的排比，隽永的格言，风趣的谚语，机智的幽默，含蓄的寓意，多种多样艺术技巧的自如运用，将使散文创作越发清新隽永，光彩照人。

--联想

一篇优秀的散文，几乎难以离开联想。所谓联想，是指对事物由此及彼、由表及里的想象活动。由一事物过渡到另一事物的心理过程。当人们由当前事物回忆起有关的另一事物，或者由想起的一件事物又波及到另一件事物时，都离不开联想。在这种联想活动中，事物的特征和本质，更容易鲜明和突出，作者的思想认识也能不断提高和深化。

一个作者的知识积累，储藏愈厚实，则对生活的感受愈敏锐，易于触类旁通，浮想联翩，文思泉涌。联想，在心理活动中占有重要地位。回忆常以联想的形式出现，联想还有助于举一反三的推理过程。特别是在散文创作及其它样式的文艺创作中，联想有着增强作品艺术魅力的功效。散文家的灵感，看似偶然，实则必然，迁思妙得，得自长期积累。积累愈厚，愈发敏感。散文不是贵在触发吗?由此及彼是触发，对于目前所经历的事物，发现旁的意思，既是触发，也是联想。

深厚的积累，有助于触发的深化。要将“诗魂”变为诗，要从触发达到构思，还必须发挥联想和想象。要将许多旧经验溶化、抽象、加以重新组织，假若没有一定生活积累做凭依，想象、联想的翅膀则是飞不起来的。

客观事物总是相互联系的，具有各种不同联系的事物反映在作者的头脑中，便形成了各种不同的联想── 有空间或时间上相接近的事物形成接近联想(如由水库想起水力发电机);

有相似特点的事物形成的类似联想(如由鲁迅想起高尔基);

有对立关系的事物形成对比联想(如由光明想起黑暗);

有因果关系的事物形成因果联想(如由火想到热)。

散文的联想，总是同精细的观察、细微的描述相结合。散文的画面，首先力求真实、具体，使人读之如身临其境，同时也要做到含蓄、深邃，使人读之能临境生情。作者给读者想象空间、回味余地愈大，则诗意的芬芳愈浓，这就离不开丰富而活跃的联想。

联想，实质上是观察的深化，是此时此地的观察，与彼时彼地观察的融会贯通。没有这种融会贯通，便没有感受的加深、思想的升华、诗意的结晶。如果说，精细的观察，为作者采集了丰富的矿石，那活跃的联想，则是对这些矿石的冶炼和加工。联想不是凭着个人的闪念所得，漫无边际地胡思乱想。一个作家要想让联想的翅膀飞起来，没有广博的学识，不掌握事物之间内在的联系和底蕴，没有个人的创造性和激情，没有个人爱好的广大空间，思想和幻想、形式和内容的广大空间，是高飞不起来的。只能象蓬间雀那样在草稍上徘徊，而不能象大鹏那样展翅万里，海阔天空自由飞翔。

文体写作理论知识应由定义出发，定义中的要素可以衍生出写作的各种要求和方法。但是，不论诗歌，还是散文，传统认识集中体现在一般写作教材上，对其定义的认识既不准确统一，又片面地强调社会属性。 不合乎文体本质属性的传统文学体裁定义在本书中一概不提。需要的是最终表现作者个体生命本真的文体定义。散文是一种作者写自己经历见闻 中的 真情实感的灵活精干的文学体裁。

作者在散文中的形象比较明显，常用第一人称叙述，个性鲜明，正象巴金所说“我的任何散文里都有我自己”，总之可以说是表现自我。这就需要大胆无忌。正如鲁迅所说“任意而谈，无所顾忌”，他还推崇曹操及魏晋散文的“力主通脱”。又如刘半农所说，散文要“赤裸裸地表达”。还如一些人所说，“我是怎样一个人， 就怎样写”，“心口相应，信口直说”， “反正我只是这样一个我”。写真实的“我”是散文的核心特征和生命所在。 这是定义的最大要素。

散文语言十分重要。首要的一条是以口语为基础，而文语(包括古语和欧化语)为点缀。其次是要清新自然，优美洗练。此外，还可以讲究一些语言技法，如句式长短相间，随物赋形，如多用修辞特别是比喻，如讲音调、节奏、旋律的音乐美等。

必须明确一个散文写作观念，这就是散文的唯一内容和对象是作者的感情体验。所有教材都提出了散文要写感情，但却是作为一种必备因素和一种内在线索。应当强调指出，感情不是片面的因素，也不仅仅是线索，而是散文的对象。散文写人写事都只是表面现象，从根本上说写的是感情体验。感情体验就是“不散的神”，而人与事则是“散”的可有可无、可多可少的“形”。朱自清的《背影》不是要记录回家和父子离别的琐事，而是要吐露一种对父亲及失败了的父辈的怜惜和敬爱。刘真的《望截流》，重点不是顺理成章的工程本身或建设者业绩，而是一种回归历史进步主流的内心感受。散文一开始就使自己沉浸在一种突如其来的悲喜交集的感情体验中，由此生发联想——小时候跟着妈妈赶集差一点丢失，四十年代初一度离开部队，“文革”中被迫放下笔等。最后又面对横江截流的宏伟场面，激情满怀。感情体验，是散文的内在结构。有了它，就可以天马行空地起草。这一点，不能不明朗和确定。有了散文的内在结构——感情体验，只要再明确外在结构的核心就可以写好散文。外在结构的核心是细节。散文和小说一样，建立在细节的描写和叙述的基础上，但细节的排列组合方式不同。可以说，小说组合细节是“以盘盛珠”，而散文则是“以线穿珠”。小说的“盘”是一个社会的横切面，具备冲突，各种阶层、力量的人物或隐或显。而细节只能在这样的“盘”中有机地展开。散文的“线”，就是感情体验，或多或少，随手拈来，任情挥洒——以感情体验的表现为准。由此，我们说散文(应称艺术散文)，是最自由的文体，散漫如水，手法灵活。只要弄清以上四点，写真实自我及由此生发的个性口语、感情体验和细节描写，就掌握了散文写作的要领，什么意、章法(如文眼)、意境等等一般化认识都不必过于拘谨地学习，其它文体理论知识和写作基础理论都会讲到。

散文可以主要分为记叙散文和抒情散文(仍按传统的不明确的说法)两种。下面将两种散文的模式列出，供初学者和高等教育应试者选择使用。

记人散文模式

【开头】①感情化语言概括叙述。我和该人，重点在后。介绍该人，如肖像描写。②两者关系及该人精神特质的议论。

【中间】▲一种情况：一件事。从开头、发展到结尾，细致叙述和描写。

▲另一种情况：几件事。每件事即每层次前，可以用对该人精神特质的一个因素领起。 以对该人的感情体验及整体议论来贯穿几件事。

【结尾】①重申特质，照应开头。②深化感情关系，发出感慨。

抒情散文模式

【开头】1叙述自己与景物的关系。2议论景物和自己。

【中间】1描写景物，分出层次，细致动人。2联想发挥，更大意义。

【结尾】感慨

散文如何有所突破

现在散文写作比较“混乱”，谁也把握不住，好像也没有具体标准。在新时期文学中，最早诗歌曾经比较混乱，其实，换言之，最早出现百花齐放的局面。现在散文也有点百花齐放了，因此，我觉得这种混乱对写作者非常好!春秋战国，乱世出英雄，新人可以借机而出，出了诸子百家，百家争鸣，最终形成了一批大家。而孔子思想统治天下后，天才英才一代又一代，却只能是注解其思想。

一要努力在题材上有新的突破--题材

文坛已有的模式很难打破，但新的生活方式和社会的变迁，给我们的写作者提供了许多新的题材和写作机会，做“第一只早叫的公鸡”，挖掘新的体裁可以创造新的可能性，决不可拿着前人的范文来描红。我提倡个性化人生体验的表述，每个人都在与前人不同的时代与生活空间里活动，强化了个性，就也写出了新的时代特色，同时也找到了与前人的差别。

二要特殊的语言表达--语言

文学是用文字符号来表情达意的，现在的作家生在一个开放的好时代，可以随心所欲地写，要勇于推翻前人的套子。鲁迅等的成功是由于“无障碍运行”--旧的文言文刚退出了舞台，新文化运动就像一片处女地，谁先播种长出的就是谁的苗。我最初创作处于“文革”时期，言论都很受限制，又加上“三突出”、“样板戏”，文坛死气沉沉，“文革”结束后，作家首先就是“说真话”，只要说一些自己的话，很新鲜，于是，被人们记住了。现在有的年轻人不服气，说他们写的什么呀，其实，说真话也曾是很不容易的事，是一种推动社会进步的大革命。如今也是这样一种情况，中国文学在思想上、在艺术上都进入一个全面开放的时期，比方说，散文界就没有什么别人动不得的大师，也许可以说，散文的又一个“百家争鸣”的时代到来了。每个想成“大家”的人就是创造语言的人。说自己的话，把自己的话说得最个性，最艺术的人就是“一家”。

三是跨文体和新文体写作--形式

很多年轻人有自觉的意识，从事一种“另类写作”，要区别于前人的思想是存在的。网络上的语言是很多的，还出现了《计算机辞典》现在类似UP、VCD、WTO等，都是更为直接的语言方式。因此，如果完全真正保持纯洁性，散文很难写了。要尽可能地保持自己语言表述的特征。现在自由文体的写作在《人民文学》等文学杂志表现得很突出，《人民文学》版面上以小说为主转为以散文类作品为主了。《青年文学》的广义散文比例也很大，这种写作的扩张也拓展了固有的“美文”模式，这也是值得借鉴的。书本是个人思想的体现，而杂志则是在读者和作者中的一种价值取舍，所以，我请大家从杂志面貌的变化了解文坛动向。散文创作在形式上提供了类似“诸子百家”的局面和自由的空间，但写作者要明白自己在混乱中的选择和位置。

英语作文如何才能得高分呢?以下几种手段是增加句子复杂性的常见方法,也是得高分的“亮点”。

1. 改变句子的开头方式,不是一味地都是主语开头,接着是谓语、宾语,最后再加一个状语。可以把状语置于句首,或用分词作状语等。试比较:

(原文) My brother and I went to the cinema by bicycle the other day.

(修正) The other day my brother and I went to the cinema by bicycle.

(原文) The young man couldn’t help crying when he heard the bad news.

(修正) Hearing the bad news, the young man couldn’t help crying.

2. 在整篇文章中,避免只使用一两个句式,要灵活运用诸如强调句、主从复合句、分词短语、倒装句、省略句等。例如:

(1)强调句

(原文) The dog has saved my little sister bravely.

(修正) It is the dog that has saved my little sister bravely.

(2)主从复合句

(原文) We had to stand there to catch the offender.

(修正) What we had to do was to stand there, trying to catch the offender.

(3)分词短语、由with或without引导的短语

(原文) The driver escaped and didn’t stop, he left the old man lying on the road.

(修正) The driver escaped without stopping, leaving the old man lying on the road.

(4)倒装句

(原文) I went to bed at 11:30.

(修正) Not until 11:30 did I go to bed.

(5)省略句

(原文) While you are crossing the street, you should be careful.

(修正) While crossing the street, you should be careful.

3. 通过分句和合句,增强句子的连贯性和表现力。例如:

(原文) He stopped us an hour ago. He made us catch the next offender.

(修正) He stopped us half an hour ago and made us catch the next offender.

(原文) We had a short rest. Then we began to play happily. We sang and danced.

(修正) After a short rest, we had great fun singing and dancing.

4. 注意连接词与句子的运用。

以2001年高考作文为例,在信的开头,可加上“You want to know something about what is going on in schools in China?”这句话起承上启下的作用,使文章过渡自然;再如,用“What was worse?”引出减负前,晚上还要做作业,就寝时间11:30等要点。又如,“Now I have more free time...” 可引出减负后的情况。另外,在信的结尾,可用“How about you? I’m looking forward to hearing from you.”来自然地结束这封信。

5. 使用过渡词语。

写好了每个句子,并不一定就是一篇好文章,因为作为一篇文章,还必须行文连贯。那么,如何使文章行文连贯呢?这就要求我们在组成篇章时,要用好过渡性词语,过渡性词语就像是我们组装机械时使用的润滑剂一样,起着润滑的作用。常用的过渡词语主要有:

并列递进:and, also, as well as, besides, what’s more, furthermore, moreover, etc.

转折:but, yet, however, although, nevertheless, in spite of, after all, etc.

因果:because, as, for, since, for this reason, because of, so, therefore, thus, as a result, etc.

对比:or, otherwise, like, unlike, on the contrary, while, on the other hand, instead of, etc.

总结:in all, in brief, on the whole, in short, in general, in one word, etc.

总之,要使文章的层次高,可读性强,考生应增加些较高级的词汇与复杂的结构,并运用恰当的连接词和复合句,只有这样,才能在考试中取得理想的成绩。

1.爱屋及乌 Love me, love my dog.

2.百闻不如一见 Seeing is believing.

3.比上不足比下有余 worse off than some, better off than many; to fall short of the best, but be better than the worst.

4.笨鸟先飞 A slow sparrow make an early start.

5.不眠之夜 whe night

6.不以物喜不以己悲 not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personnal losses

7.不遗余力 spare no effort; go all out; do ones best

8.不打不成交 No discord, no concord.

9.拆东墙补西墙 rob Peter to pay Paul

10.辞旧迎新 bid farewell to the old and usher in the new; ring out the old year and ring in the new

11.大事化小小事化了 try first to make their mistake sound less serious and then to reduce it to nothing at all

12.大开眼界 open ones eyes; broaden ones horizon; be an eye-opener

13.国泰民安 The country flourishes and people live in peace

14.过犹不及 going too far is as bad as not going far enough; beyond is as wrong as falling short; too much is as bad as too little

15.功夫不负有心人 Everything comes to him who waits.

16.好了伤疤忘了疼 once on shore, one prays no more

17.好事不出门恶事传千里 Good news never goes beyond the gate, while bad news spread far and wide.

18.和气生财 Harmony brings wealth.

19.活到老学到老 One is never too old to learn.

20.既往不咎 let bygones be bygones

21.金无足赤人无完人 Gold cant be pure and man cant be perfect.

22.金玉满堂 Treasures fill the home.

23.脚踏实地 be down-to-earth

24.脚踩两只船 sit on the fence

25.君子之交淡如水 the friendship between gentlemen is as pure as crystal; a hedge between keeps friendship green

26.老生常谈陈词滥调 cut and dried, cliché

27.礼尚往来 Courtesy calls for reciprocity.

28.留得青山在不怕没柴烧 Where there is life, there is hope.

29.马到成功 achieve immediate victory; win instant success

30.名利双收 gain in both fame and wealth

31.茅塞顿开 be suddenly enlightened

32.没有规矩不成方圆 Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. 33.每逢佳节倍思亲 On festive occasions more than ever one thinks of ones dear ones far away.It is on the festival occasions when one misses his dear most.

34.谋事在人成事在天 The planning lies with man, the outcome with Heaven. Man proposes, God disposes.

35.弄巧成拙 be too smart by half; Cunning outwits itself

英语写作中如果运用了相关的名言句子可以为作文带来亮点。下面是语文迷为大家整理的励志唯美句子，希望对你有帮助。

一)Life is not measured by the number of breaths we take, but by the moments that take our breath away.千万记住：度量生命的不是呼吸的次数，而是那些最最难忘的时刻。

二)Children in backseats cause accidents. Accidents in backseats cause children. 后排座位上的小孩会生出意外，后排座位上的意外会生出小孩。

三)Don’t take guilt trips. Take a trip to the mall, to the next country, to a foreign country, but NOT to where the guilt is.别踏上犯罪的道路。你可以去逛街，可以到邻县去，可以出国旅行，但就是别踏上犯罪的道路。

四)Nothing is impossible!没有什么不可能!

五)Success is a relative term. It brings so many relatives. 成功是一个相关名词，他会给你带来很多不相关的亲戚(联系)。

六)The tears happen. Endure, grieve, and move on. The only person who is with us our entire life, is ourselves. Be ALIVE while you are alive.有泪就流。在忍耐和伤心过后，要继续前行。陪伴我们度过此生的只有一人--那就是我们自己。让生命鲜活起来。

七)The wise never marry, And when they marry they become otherwise. 聪明人都是未婚的，结婚的人很难再聪明起来。

八)While there is life there is hope.一息若存，希望不灭。

九)Love is photogenic. It needs darkness to develop. 爱情就象照片，需要大量的暗房时间来培养。

十)Never put off the work till tomorrow what you can put off today. 不要等明天交不上差再找借口，今天就要找好。

十一)Never underestimate your power to change yourself!永远不要低估你改变自我的能力!

十二)Nothing for nothing.不费力气，一无所得。

十三)Tell the people you love that you love them, at every opportunity.把你的爱告诉你所爱着的人们，把握住每一个表达机会。

十四)Never put off the work till tomorrow what you can put off today. 不要等明天交不上差再找借口，今天就要找好。

十五)Never underestimate your power to change yourself!永远不要低估你改变自我的能力!

十六)The man who has made up his mind to win will never say "impossible ". 凡是决心取得胜利的人是从来不说“不可能的”。

十七)Enjoy the simple things.享受简单事物的乐趣。

十八)I am a slow walker,but I never walk backwards. 我走得很慢，但是我从来不会后退。

十九)很多我们想要的东西都是价格不菲的。但是，真正能让我们感到满足的东西，比如爱、欢笑还有工作中的激情，却都是不需要花钱的。 Many of the things we desire are expensive. But the truth is, the things that really satisfy us are totally free –love, laughter and working on our passions.

二十)我们无法在这个世界上做什么伟大的事情，可我们可以带着伟大的爱做一些小事。 We cannot do great things on this Earth, only small things with great love.

二十一)你无法真正忘掉那个打动你内心的人，无论他是那个伤害你的人，还是治愈你的人。 You never really forget the ones who touched your heart; regardless whether its the ones who broke it or the ones who healed it.

二十二)不要祈祷生活的舒适，祈祷自己变得更加坚强。 Do not pray for easy lives. Pray to be stronger men.

二十三)所有人都想得到幸福，不愿承担痛苦，但是不下点小雨，哪来的彩虹? Everybody wants happiness, nobody wants pain, but you cant have a rainbow without a little rain.

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

通过对近些年英语作文出题的趋势来看，中考对英语写作的考察更偏重于交际情景设置和不同体裁的要求，但是由于客观和种种主观原因，很多同学的作文容易走入种种误区，这些误区主要体现在以下方面：

构思、准备不充分，匆忙下笔。任何一篇作文出题都是有它独特的道理的，所以提前审题和构思就显得必不可少了。文新学堂教学专家提醒，很多学生目 前存在一个情况，想到哪写到哪，这也造成了作文杂乱无章，毫无条理，同时容易出现写错单词和用错句型的情况。针对这种情况可以从以下几个方面予以解 决：

1、认真审题，审题的重点放在写作体裁、格式、字数方面，确保第一遍审题就能保证得到基本分。

2、确定文体和时态，因为不同的文体要求的写作格式也是 不同的

3、列提纲，打草稿，然后修改。这样可以保证错误降低至最少或者没有错误，同时也能保持卷面整洁。

中心重点不突出，切题不准确。英语写作不是语文散文(形散神不散)，写英语作文，尤其是在中考大压力下短时内写出高分作文一定要注意这一点。造 成这种情况的主要原因是动笔前并没有认真审题和思考，对出题者希望得到的预期尚未揣摩透彻，这也就造成了一些同学虽然语言功底非常不错，但是最终的结果还 是没有拿到一个自己预期的心理分数，最大的问题就出在切题不准确或者不够突出中心上了。

忽视文化差异。要时刻牢记一点，中英文表达方式有很大的差异，所以体现在作文表达上也常常会出现生硬的中国式作文表达，降低了作文质量。所以注重中英语言差异，并努力找到两者之间的表达方式上的共通点，并且有意识的运用就能避免类似的问题。

忽视细节，无谓失分。很多学生在写作文时常常感觉"下笔如有神"，但最终结果出来后大惑不解。这方面的问题主要体现在忽视标点、书写、段落安排、大小写的问题，所以只要更加注重细节，这些无谓失分就可以解决。

小升初是小学当中非常关键的一年，那么我们在小升初的时候怎么去把写作写好呢?升初作文怎么写，怎么才能构思一篇好作文。那么在2015年小升初的作文中，孩子们到底该从哪些方面去着手准备呢?

一、素材的多角度立意

意大利着名画家达·芬奇的老师对达·芬奇所说的自己画蛋的体会：即使是同一只蛋，只要变换一下角度，形状便立即不同了。这告诉我们对生活中发生的事件我们可以多角度分析。文章源于生活，它的立意亦应多角度进行。

我们以一个发生在同学们身边的事件为例。

今年春天，我和爸爸来到高尔夫球场，第一次学打高尔夫球。看教练做很简单，我按照教练的要求去做，却发现和想象的不同，要么杆碰不上球，要么球出去就偏离了方向，经历了一次次失败，我终于成功了。

就这一事例，我们可从如下角度立意：

1、最大的敌人是自己，战胜自己就会走向成功;

2、一招一式，看似简单，做起来难，失之毫厘，谬以千里;

3、成功需要方法;四、运动带来快乐……

这样，一个素材，可以根据命题的不同，确定立意，设置情节，确定描写重点。但无论从哪个角度立意，打球的动作细节是不能丢的。

二、练习写好文章的细节

学生练习作文的过程中，很多孩子注意了情节的起伏，语言的流畅，但总感觉文章空泛，这是为什么呢?忽视了细节描写。

怎样写好细节，简单地说，细节描写要还原生活，去发现场景细节、服饰细节、语言细节、动作细节、心理细节等，按照生活本来的面目去描摹。一篇文章，恰到好处地运用细节描写，能起到烘托环境气氛、刻画人物性格和揭示主题思想的作用。

如何将“陌生叔叔帮我把车修好”写细，我们首先要还原生活场景，在头脑中勾勒出雪中修车图，再从这一图画中去寻找描写的细节。

这是一位同学的作文片断：“叔叔迅速地摘下手套，用右手拿着链条，左手帮着把链条搬过去，链条一点点地扣上去了，一节一节地扣住了后轮的齿轮。‘咣当’一声，链条滑了出来，这一次努力前功尽弃。我的心咯噔一下，万一叔叔告诉我修不好，我该怎么办呀!可事情并非如我想象，只见叔叔向拢起的双手呵了呵气，又蹲下了身子。他为了不让链条弹开，用右手把链条往前面齿轮上套住，然后右手拉住链条往后齿轮上移，左手护住链条不让它再滑出来。后来，他看到位置有些偏，就用左手把它移正再装，洁白的雪花落在了他冻得通红的满是油污的手上，我知道他的手一定很冷，很冷，可他的心一定很热，很热。终于，链条一节一节地和齿轮扣住了。他猛一转脚踏板，车子居然又完好地转动起来。”文章中最直观的细节是叔叔修车的动作细节，摘、拿、套、拉、护、移、转等动词的使用，写出了叔叔雪中修车的不容易，突出了人物精神。其次应当是外貌细节和心理细节的描写衬托了人物美好的心灵。

每个人观察生活的角度和经历不同，再现的生活场景也就不同，但无论采用怎样的方法，我们达到这样一种境地为最好——做到写人则如见其人，写景则如临其境。

三、整理生活中的素材

努力回忆六年来的校园生活，家庭生活中记忆尤为深刻的小事，哪怕是一次单手磕鸡蛋的经历都不要放过。因为孩子有对生活的观察、积累，有真实的体验、感受，他的表述一定会具体而生动，他所表达的情感一定是真实的。翻翻过去的作文、周记，从多个角度，搜集这样的素材，将细节完整地记录下来，进行分类整理。

有些家长大量地看作文选、杂志，想帮助孩子从上面搬些素材下来。我不大同意这样的做法，因为那不是孩子的生活，他很难像成人一样具有缜密的思维，进行合理的想象情节，他也很难描摹当时的细节，这样的作文不能打动读者。不如让作文选、杂志成为勾起孩子回忆生活的媒介，从与作者相似的经历中挖掘写作素材。如：从作文选上看奶奶为我掖被子的细节，想到冬天，妈妈买药回来，为我滴眼药时怕我嫌凉而搓手的动作，这样一来写母爱的文章就有了素材。

四、努力锤炼文章的语言

佳酿总是经过酿造才有它独特的芳醇，文章也是一样，经过锤炼的语言才是有生命力的语言，孔子说“言之无文，行而不远。”说的就是这个道理。

我们可尝试这样的几种方式，让语言焕发色彩。

在句式变换上下工夫。在表达强烈的情感时，可以将陈述句用反问、设问或感叹句的形式表达。

在准确地运用词汇上下工夫。在文章中可以用一些拟声词来丰富表达;另外，可使用叠词使描绘更加准确，而且能使语言具有节奏感，从而让语言富有音乐美。再有，四字词语和成语的使用，会使语言表达更为简练。 在恰当地运用修辞上下工夫。修辞不但使文章语言生动活泼，而且能调节音节，增强语言的音乐美，提高语言的表达效果。例如：“风追着雨，雨赶着风，风和雨联合起来追赶着天上的乌云，整个天地都处在雨水之中”一句，意思是说“大雨来了”。但是作者使用了拟人的手法，把风、雨当作正在奔跑的人，飞快地追赶天空的乌云，这样一说比“大雨来了”更能表现出雨来的之快、之急、之大。当然，修辞方法还有引用、夸张、排比、设问、反问等等，我们应根据需要采用。

书信是日常生活中广泛应用的一种文体。它是一种特殊的实用文体。长期以来，它形成了自己独有的固定的书写格式：一般包括称呼、正文、结尾、署名、日期五部分。所以，如果你想要写好书信，那么，必须要掌握以下有关书信写作的基础知识。

称呼：第一行顶格写收信人的名字和称呼(或只写称呼)，有时还要加上“敬爱的、亲爱的”等词，表示对收信人的亲热和尊敬;接着加个冒号，表示下面的话是对他说的。

正文：另起一行空两格开始写正文，也就是书信的内容。正文部分通常先写问候的话。问候是一种礼节，问候语很多，有节日的问候，如“新年好”“春节快乐”等;有季节性的问候，如“夏安”“冬安”等。也有开头问候身体健康，工作和学习情况的，如“近来身体可好”“近来的学习好吗?”等等。问候语可以独立成为一个段落。

正文是书信的主体部分，是写信的目的之所在，写信人要说的话，要办的事都写在这里。正文的内容在问候语下一行空两格写起，转行时要顶格写起。如果要说的话，要办的事多，应该分段写，每段写一件事，写完一件事，再写另外一件事。每段开头都要空两格写起。

结尾：正文写完后，要写上表示祝愿、尊敬或勉励的话，也叫致敬语。致敬语要根据对象不同而不同。如果写给长辈，可以写“敬祝健康”等;如果写给平辈，可以写“祝学习进步!”等。而“此致敬礼”是比较通用的，适合一般人的结束语。结尾的“此致”“祝”等可以紧接正文写，也可以独占一行，空两格写。“敬礼”“健康”等祝愿之情，要另起一行顶格写。

署名：写在正文结尾后的右下方。可以根据信纸剩下的多少，决定署名与致敬语的距离。署名时根据与收信人关系的亲疏，可带姓，可不带姓。习惯上，还按与收信人的关系，在名字前面加上“孙”、“弟”“老朋友”等称谓写在名字的左上角，字体小一点。

日期：一般写在署名的下边。日期最好是把年月日都写出来，便于收信人了解写信时间。

英语写作的开头结尾是写作的重点。下面语文迷为大家带来了经典的句型，供大家阅读参考。

一.开头句型

1.As far as ...is concerned 就……而言

2.It goes without saying that... 不言而喻，...

3.It can be said with certainty that... 可以肯定地说......

4.As the proverb says， 正如谚语所说的，

5.It has to be noticed that... 它必须注意到，...

6.Its generally recognized that... 它普遍认为...

7.Its likely that ... 这可能是因为...

8.Its hardly that... 这是很难的......

9.Its hardly too much to say that... 它几乎没有太多的说…

10.What calls for special attention is that...需要特别注意的是

11.Theres no denying the fact that...毫无疑问，无可否认

12.Nothing is more important than the fact that... 没有什么比这更重要的是…

13.whats far more important is that... 更重要的是…

二.衔接句型

1.A case in point is ... 一个典型的例子是...

2.As is often the case...由于通常情况下...

3.As stated in the previous paragraph 如前段所述

4.But the problem is not so simple. Therefore 然而问题并非如此简单，所以……

5.But its a pity that... 但遗憾的是…

6.For all that...对于这一切...... In spite of the fact that...尽管事实......

7.Further, we hold opinion that... 此外，我们坚持认为，...

8.However , the difficulty lies in...然而，困难在于…

9.Similarly, we should pay attention to... 同样，我们要注意...

10.not(that)...but(that)...不是，而是

11.In view of the present station.鉴于目前形势

12.As has been mentioned above...正如上面所提到的…

13.In this respect, we may as well (say) 从这个角度上我们可以说

14.However, we have to look at the other side of the coin, that is... 然而我们还得看到事物的另一方面，即 …

三.结尾句型

1.I will conclude by saying... 最后我要说…

2.Therefore, we have the reason to believe that...因此，我们有理由相信…

3.All things considered,总而言之 It may be safely said that...它可以有把握地说......

4.Therefore, in my opinion, its more advisable...因此，在我看来，更可取的是…

5.From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that….通过以上讨论，我们可以得出结论…

6.The data/statistics/figures lead us to the conclusion that….通过数据我们得到的结论是，....

7.It can be concluded from the discussion that...从中我们可以得出这样的结论

8.From my point of view, it would be better if...在我看来……也许更好

新闻必须是新近发生和新近发现的事实;新闻所报道的事实必须是有价值的;新闻必须是对事件的“报道”。下面是小编为你带来的 最新新闻写作基础知识 ，欢迎阅读。

把新闻作为一门科学进行研究，从1845年德国学者普尔兹所著《德国新闻事业》算起，迄今不过一百多年。若以美国新闻教育和研究事业的兴起为标志，也仅为一个世纪左右。我国的新闻学研究迟于欧美国家，于二十世纪二十年代开始进行。由于该学科作为一门专门的研究对象起步较晚，所以，我们在学习新闻的过程中，有时会发现一些著作的提法或者分类并不统一，但它们的基本要求和基本原理都是相通的。我国的新闻理论主要借鉴了西方国家的新闻学理论，但又有所不同。

(一)新闻的定义

新闻有很多定义，在不同的国家，不同的研究者对它有不同的定义。比如，在西方，对新闻的严肃定义有：“新闻就是变迁的记录”——英国《泰晤时报》，“新闻就是新鲜报道”——英国《牛津字典》等等，在国外对新闻的幽默定义也有许多，比如:“狗咬人不是新闻，人咬狗才是新闻”——美国《纽约太阳报》博加特等。

我国学者对新闻也有一些定义，比如：“新闻就是广大群众欲知、应知而未知的很重要事实”——范长江;“新闻的定义，就是新近发生的事实的报道”——陆定一。

我们一般指的新闻，可以理解为：新闻是对新近已经发生和正在发生、或者早已发生却是新近发现的有价值的事实的及时报道。

这一定义体现了三个要点：新闻必须是新近发生和新近发现的事实;新闻所报道的事实必须是有价值的;新闻必须是对事件的“报道”。

新闻都是以事实为依据，真实性是新闻的生命，也是第一要素。

凡是新闻文体，不论消息报道，还是通讯、特写，在写作上都应当做到新、快、短、活。

(二)新闻的分类

新闻按体裁分类，大致可以分为：消息、通讯、新闻特写、以及新闻边缘体裁。新闻边缘体裁主要包括：报告文学、调查报告、采访札记、工作研究、来信等。

新闻分广义的新闻与狭义的新闻，上段的分类是按广义的新闻进行分类的，它们是报纸、广播、电视等媒体中常见的报道体裁。狭义的新闻专指消息，又称电讯(通过电报、电传、电子计算机传输的消息)。它是报纸上最经常、最大量运用的一种新闻报道体裁，也是最直接、最简练、最迅速地向读者传播新闻信息的报道方式。

(三)新闻的六要素

新闻要素，是指新闻构成的主要因素。交待新闻要素，是把事实报道清楚的起码条件。一般来讲，在传统的新闻学讲义中，我们常提到的是五要素，所谓五个W(When，Where，Who，What，Why——何时，何地、何人、何事、何故)。在西方新闻学有一个观点，认为新闻学除了五个W外，还应增加一个H(How——怎么样，何果)，也称新闻六要素。新闻六要素近年来在国内一些教材中得到认可。

(四)新闻语言

在写新闻时，有的作者常用写散文或者写评论的方式写新闻，其实，它们之间的语言要求是不一样的。文学语言是艺术的语言，评论语言是说理性语言，新闻语言则是表述事实的语言。

新闻语言作为一种独立的书面语体，它服务于事实的报道，具有质朴、实用的语言形态，明快而富有表现力的语言风格，讲求信息的运载量，使之适宜于社会的广泛传播。

新闻语言的特色可以概括为：客观、确切、简练、朴实和通俗。

1、客观。新闻语言的主要功能用于表达客观事实，而主观认识和感情的强烈外露，势必干扰读者(听众、观众)对事情原貌的了解和把握。比如说，我们讲某某员工工作认真，某某领导身先士卒，则不如用一些事情把它反映出来，让读者去品味，而不一味去下结论。

新闻语言的客观性，通常表现为：

1)中性词多于褒贬词，即客观地描述，而不随便下结论，或者评论;新闻中一般不使用评议性的语言，即使是评述性消息，作者的评述语言也极少，多讲究分析对比，然后自然将极其精练的评述语言自然落笔。

2)修饰语的限制性多于形容性，举例：昨日气温已开始回暖，最高温度已达15℃，这是用数字进行限制;如果写成：昨日气温已开始回暖，大家感到比前些日暖和很多，这就成了形容词性，不宜用作写新闻。

3)句子的陈述口气多于感叹口气。把一些事件或者现象以第三者身份客观描述出来，而不是以第一人称或第二人称去下结论或发表感叹。

2、确切。确切，就是准确，贴切。在新闻语言的使用上，要求精确性较高，力除消除语言的含混性，但并不完全排斥语言的模糊性。新闻的模糊语言不是语言含混不清，而是相对于精确语言来说，其精确度较低，但又不失之确切。比如，“近200吨”比“几百吨”，“30多厘米”比“几十厘米”要精确。

3、简练。新闻以简练为贵，以烦冗为病。新闻语言应简洁、洗练，干净利落，切忌拖泥带水。正如鲁迅说过，“简洁的文字，有着穿透读者心胸的力量”。写新闻提倡写短句，说短话，强调简捷直叙，少曲迂回，尤其忌语言杂质，不要让复杂的结构和修辞手段、表情语言淹没事实。比如，“在……的大好形势下，在……鼓舞下，在……的基础上”等等繁冗的句子都应避免。

4、朴实。质朴无华，具体实在，这是新闻语言的又一特色。新闻语言讲究朴实，就要“有真意，去粉饰，勿卖弄”。

5、通俗。新闻语言的通俗，要求从读者(听众、观众)的认识水平出发，运用群众熟悉的语言形式，即接近口语的书面语。在写新闻时，用语不以作者的认识标准为准，也不以行业内的认识为标准，而应是最广大的读者认识为标准，对一些特殊用词，或者专有名词，应加必要的注释。

写人的英语作文在高考中不少见，什么样的作文更能吸引人呢?下面请看语文迷为大家带来的技巧。

写人记叙文，一般为肖像描写、行动描写、语言描写、心理描写以及对细节的描写，应根据要求，灵活掌握，突出重点。

【几点注意】

1.使用正确人称和时态。

①时态：

一般现在时--描写人物外貌、性格、兴趣等

一般过去时-- 描写人物出生、教育背景、经历、事迹

②人称：第一人称或第三人称

2.介绍人物的姓名、年龄、外貌、学历、经历、专业、爱好、特长、事迹、性格等，包括所给的全部信息点，不能遗漏或随意添加。

3.对所给的信息进行适当重组，安排好写作顺序，突出重点信息。

4.正确运用描写人物的词汇和句型。

【常见词语】

①外貌特征：

pretty, beautiful, good-looking，handsome,ordinary-looking, with a big nose, with a big

smile, short, tall,thin, strong, white-haired，1.80 metres tall, …

②性格特点：

absent-minded, charming, attractive, bright, wise smart, confident, naughty，talkative, diligent,

lazy, friendly, generous, be ready to help others,kind-hearted, warm-hearted, patient, humorous,

have a good/ bad temper, independent,narrow-minded, …

③童年情况：

as a boy of 15, be born on, during his childhood, live a happy/hard life, the son of a poor family,

spend his childhood in, ...

④兴趣爱好： be delighted in doing, be good at , be interested in , be fond of , be crazy about, be pleased with, do well in, enjoy doing, have a strong desire to do, long for/long to do), take a pleasure in doing,…

⑤教育背景： be admitted to Beijing University, be enrolled in, fail in the test, get a master’s

degree, get on well with one’s lessons, go abroad to further one’s study, graduate from,major in, receive a doctor’s degree, pass the examination, take an active part in, …

⑥ 成就或事迹：

become a member of the team, encourage sb to do sth, give up one’s life for sth, receive the

Nobel Prize for physics, set a new world record of,win the first prize in, win a gold /silver/ bronze

medal, have a talent for, make up one’s mind to do sth., put one’s heart into, work hard at,

concentrate oneself to, devote oneself to,do sth.with great determination and perseverance, ...

⑦他人评价：

an inspiring leader, a model worker, an advanced teacher, be respected by , be honored as, be

considered/regarded as, be famous/known as,his hard work brought him great success, make

great contributions to our country, set a good example for , be highly spoken of for, ...

例文

你班要举办以“Ordinary but Great”为题的英语主题班会。

请根据下列信息准备一篇发言稿，介绍赵郁的成长经历。

注意： 1、词数不少于60。

2、文章的题目和开头已经给出。

3、可以适当增加细节，以使行文连贯。

提示词：首席技师 chief technician

Ordinary but Great

We are all ordinary people, but following what we are interested in and doing what we are good

at can help us make great achievements for society and go far. Here’s a convincing and inspiring example.

______________________________________

【范文】

Zhao Yu, the chief technician in the Benz Company,is regarded as a great success. However, his success is no accident. As a young boy with a sense of creativity, he was eager to learn and to make a lot of inventions. Being an ordinary worker in the Benz Company for 17 years, not only did he do well in his job, but he also made efforts to teach himself English and to learn how to use computers. Now it is easy for him to read English materials about cars. Besides, he became expert at solving various technical problems.Because of his great contribution, he has received awards many times.

Zhao Yu has set a good example that ordinary people can stand out by doing their jobs with interest and enthusiasm.

【评析】

1.作者运用了所给出的全部信息：姓名、职务、经历。对所给的信息进行了适当重组，突出了重点信息(赵郁的经历)，内容完整、详略得当，体现了话题“Ordinary but great”所表达的内容。

2. 正确使用人称(第三人称)，灵活使用时态(一般过去时、一般现在时);合理使用过渡词，使文章层次分明、结构紧凑。

3. 语言规范，表达准确。文章运用了一些高级句式，如同位语、介词短语、分词短语、倒装句、同位语从句等，增加了文章的亮点。

导语：听说读写是构成英语语言交际能力的重要组成部分，其中要求较高的是“写”的能力。下面是yjbys作文网小编为您收集整理的资料，希望对您有所帮助。

一、学生写作过程中出现的现状

1.词汇量太少

词汇是英语写作必不可少的基本要素，要写好一篇作文以表达自己的思想，必须以足够的词汇量为基础，但实际上大多数学生掌握的词汇量都达不到规定的要求，因而在写作时也就不能随心所欲地表达自己的思想。出现的问题往往有拼写错误，影响理解;词语误用，表达不准确;某一词语反复使用，语言表达缺乏变式，文章显得单调乏味;文章中出现大量“造词”，让人看了啼笑皆非等。

语法规则和句型句式是英语写作涉及的另一基本要素。学生英语写作中出现的“大错”又多半是由语法错误引起的，学生在写作中语法不规范、句子结构混乱、含义不清等情况屡见不鲜，Chinese English现象更是不乏其中，所以词汇量和语法问题是中学生英语写作时首先要解决的问题。

2.词汇错误较多

学生在写作的时候，中式英语Chinglish ：如There are many people would like to go on a vacation. I by bike to school every day. 2、词汇错误：错别字、近义词混淆、词性误用3、词组、句型使用不正确，缺乏重点句型的使用：如I spent one hour to read the book yesterday. 4、时态、语态、人称把握不正确(审题不正确)。思维模式总是先汉语，后转化为英语，可能他想到了句子该怎样写，句型也知道的，但却有个别单词不会。如：“对我来说学英语是困难的”这个句子可能他想到了，句子结构“it is+adj for sb to do sth”也知道，但里面的形容词difficult不会写，导致句子表达含糊，以至于整篇文章错词百出，面目全非。

3.写出的长句达不到表达效果

一般的英语应试作文，总会给出汉语提示，学生写作也是从提示上入手，有的提示意思较长，所以学生写的时候会直接翻译，但对太长的句子又没有驾驭的能力，导致整个句子错误。

4.听力较弱影响写作能力

我们所面临的是一群农村学生，他们没有特别好的条件练习听力，每次的练习时间仅仅是每节英语课上，听听力的时间是在太少。有位作家说过：“不写没有读过的语言，不读没有说

的语言，不说没有听过的语言”。很明显，通过听的渠道获得语言信息及语言感受在英语学习中基础的基础。听不来也就写不上。

5.单词书写不规范，卷面书写较乱

对于大多数学生来说，格式、大小写、标点，书写不规范：句首字母大写不注意，使用从句时不会使用标点、大小写等)。如：After he went back home. He cooked supper.，考试时把单词写整齐的很少，学生普遍认为只要把单词写正确就可以得分，虽然觉得自己写的作文还可以，但卷子发下之后却没有得到期望的分数，而有的同学写作能力较差但书写整齐，写作得分也不是很低。

二、提高写作的方法

1.词汇的积累

初中学生在阅读理方面最大的障碍就是词汇量的缺乏，而扩大词汇量绝非死记硬背就能做到。最有效的方法就是大量接触各种不同体裁的英语文章，利用“在句中记，在文中记”的方法来积累词汇。因此我们指导学生依据英语报刊的特点，按栏目、话题、题材、体裁归类收集常用词，将出现频率较高的常用词汇积累到单词本子上，查字典写例句，初步学会这些单词的运用，放在身边，利用零散时间反复记忆，加强印象。

同时拟定时以单选、完型、阅读等形式考察学生对这些单词的掌握情况，通过测试和竞赛的方式进一步激发大家学习词汇的热情。不过，由于课程的时间安排问题，测试的工作开展较少，这也是实验工作中的一个不足。

2.熟练记住单词

( 1.) 巩固单词拼写，培养组句能力。 词汇匮乏是妨碍英语写作的最大障碍之一，有话想说，无词可写是大部分学生的苦恼。因此，我要求学生坚持每天听写、默写、循环记忆单词，掌握巩固词汇。还要求学生给出与单词有关的同义、近义、反义和词形相似的词，使词汇量得到最大限度的复现。如：反义词appear/disappear, crowded/uncrowded, polite/impolite/rude. 词形相似的词except/expect, chance/change/challenge. 还以某一词为中心，写出该词的不同形式或词性，组成典型的句型，从而不断丰富词汇和句型。如拼写单词die 时，不但要写出其过去式过去分词died，而且要写出其他词性(death, dead, dying), 再分别组句，如：The old man died two years ago. He has been dead for two years. His death made his dog very sad. It is dying.又如写到易混淆的词pay, spend, cost, take 时，可以多种方式表达句意。He paid 20 yuan for the book. He spent 20 yuan on the book. He spent 20 yuan buying the book. The book cost him 20 yuan. It takes him 20 minutes to read the book every day.等等。这样,通过大量的词汇练习不仅仅能有效地积累词汇，还为组句打下了基础，同时还能训练学生的发散性思维和总结、归纳、比较的能力，为学生正确使用词句奠定了良好的基础。以上这些机械操练虽然枯燥，但很有必要，它是能力培养的基础。在词句落实的基础上，可向学生提出稍高的要求，如写出高质量的句子： What a happy family I have ! (I have a happy family.) The story is so interesting that everyone likes it.( The story is very interesting. Everyone likes it. ) He didn’t come to school, because he was ill. (He was ill. He didn’t come to school.) I am good at not only English but also math.(I am good at English and I am good at math ，too. )( 2、) 阅读背诵精彩段落，围绕单元话题设计书面表达。 阅读是写作的 熟练记住每一话题的单词。熟记单词后让他们能够熟练的运用，能够把重点单词用来造句。然后熟记词组，特别是能够熟练的运用词组，能够用词组熟练造句。用词组和单词连成简单句，只要学生将句子表达清楚，语意连贯，就是一篇好的英语文章。

3.熟练使用简单句

简单句对学生来说相对好掌握些，可以要求学生们能够熟练划分主语、谓语、宾语。 正确掌握并列连词andbutor等词。在写作中要求学生不能随意发挥，也不能逐字逐句的翻译所给的文章，要求学生能抓住题中所给的条件，只要考生能将题中所给的要点全部表达清楚，而没有遗漏，在写作中并且注意到语言的连贯，那么就是一篇很好的英语文章。

4.加强听力训练，促进写作

目前英语听力教材使用的具体做法是：事先提出每课生词，教师领读几遍。排除生词障碍后，第一遍学生主让学生在课后反复听课文内容，并逐字逐句写下。每周星期五布置，星期一用课堂时间，教师将该文念一、二遍，让学生听写，教师收上来查阅，加以评讲。通过这种训练，提高学生的听力水平和表达能力。

5.书写规范，促进写作

关于书写的卷面整洁与否，字体如何，是老生常谈话题。可是由于印象分数的一分半分之差，很可能影响一生。在此处丢分纯属不值得，这也是笔者把它放在第一位的原因。在教学过程中，应坚持要求学生书写规范，写好匀笔斜体行书，注意连写，以及文面美观。可以采用出专刊的形式，让全班同学都参加英语书法评比，从而激发学生练习英语书写的兴趣，养成良好的书写习惯。

综上所述，在英语写作中听、说、读、写应同步发展。写作是一种语言输出形式，只有语言输入大于语言输出，语言输出才有可能。英语写作训练作为英语综合能力训练之一，是与英语的听说读是不可分割的，它们是相互影响、相互作用的有机统一体，必须注重听、说、读、写能力的同步发展。

比如笔者实施多年的“五分钟课前训练”：在上正课前五分钟里，要学生用英语讲述一个故事(积累素材);或者课前朗读一篇短小精悍的文章，让大家课后模仿;或者就大家平时关心的话题写一个发言稿或演讲稿进行课前发言;或者让学生自立主题，围绕自己喜欢的主题写一段话。这种课前训练取得了很好的效果。

美国作家舒伯特指出:“Reading is writing”，即：阅读能够促进写作，因为对学生而言,他们对生活的体验、对人生的认识大多是从书本上获得，从大量的阅读中获取的，阅读不仅能帮助学生积累思想,也能帮助他们积累语言素材。“You ought to read very carefully. Not only very carefully，but also aloud，and that again and again till you know the passage by heart and write it as if it were your own.” 这就清楚地说明了熟读成诵对写作是多么重要。所以要想写出好文章,就必须大量读书，它是写作的基础。

阅读对写作固然重要，但其它形式写作训练同样不可忽视，英语写作实践是英语写作理论转化为写作能力的“中介”。英语写作要突出实践，正如学习游泳一样，写作的能力是练出来的。课外练笔是课堂写作训练最有益的补充，因为课堂时间有限，仅靠课堂写作训练培养学生的写作能力是不够的。作文不是“学”出来的，而是“写”出来的。学生必须进行大量的写作练习才能掌握并且灵活运用各种写作技能，而且写作技能只有在不断写作的过程中才能逐步得到提高和完善。

此外,学生的英语语言意识和英语思维能力的培养也需要大量的练习。可见,课外练笔非常必要，应该给予重视。课外练笔的形式多种多样，可采用让学生写英语日记、写英语周记，教师也可有意识地给学生提供一些尽量贴近生活的时尚话题，如奥运会、环境保护等，让学生在课外习作。

总之，学生要提高写作能力应在教师有计划、有组织的引导下进行，开展多种形式的写作实践，努力扩大学生的生活面和知识面，以提高学生的写作能力。

下面是由小编收集的关于初中英语写作的基础，欢迎阅读。

一、找到学生写作中存在的问题

1.汉语思维的影响。学生在写作中经常用汉语思维，忽略了英汉语序之间是有差别的，导致出现了大量的式英语，尽管洋洋洒洒一大篇，却没有得分点。

2.词或词组的用法及搭配出现错误。如enjoy，finish等单词后面只能接v-ing形式;“forget to do”和“forget doing”在意思上存在着显著的差异等。学生在做选择题或用所给词的适当形式填空时，大多数学生能做对，但在作文中，学生往往忽略了其用法，出现了不必要的错误。

3.时态、语态的构成及使用错误。例如，一般过去时的否定句中，助动词didn’t后的动词用原形，而完成时的句子中往往用动词的过去分词，在这方面，学生的拼写容易出现错误。

4.单词的拼写错误，标点使用不当，不注意大小写，遗漏冠词，介词的误用等。

5.结构松散。关联词的使用可使上下句和段落合理衔接，承上启下，使表达合乎逻辑，同时使文章结构严谨、紧凑，部分考生的作文虽然内容和语言还不错，但是由于过于执着于表格所给内容的顺序，没有进行灵活的处理，整篇文章看起来就象是句子翻译，并且句与句之间关系松懈，缺乏连接，以至于文章毫无流畅、优美之感。

二、如何培养学生英语写作能力

1.从单词入手。单词是英语学习的基础，单词过不了关，写作就无从谈起，因为单词是写作的基本单位。但是单词记忆又是学生学习英语的最薄弱环节，因此我们必须时刻告诫学生，单词的学习过程，实际上就是人与遗忘作斗争的过程，要长期坚持下去。 志和必胜的信心。

2.由“句式”到“段落”的训练阶段。从七年级开始就对学生进行书写小段落的训练，做到口笔同步。随着教学的不断深入，写作内容也不断丰富，八年级就要注意段落中的时态差异、句型变化以及过渡句的使用等。到了九年级就要注意文章的体裁、格式、写作方法、复句的正确性以及中外文化的差异性。

3.课前几分钟进行Free Talk。学生可以准备谜语、笑话、小故事、即兴演讲等。之后向听的学生进行提问，其他学生只有认真听才能回答出问题。Free Talk为学生提供了很好的实践机会。

4.在课堂上，我们要注重听说的训练，给学生提供大量的口语练习材料，从句子到对话，从对话到文章，以培养学生的语感。同时，加强写的训练，利用所学的句型大量翻译句子，使学生能够真正做到举一反三。此外，还要让学生在练习时注意区分英汉语序的不同。

5.要求学生多写多练。教师按照每个单元呈现的重点内容为学生规定文题或写作范围，指导学生写一些代表性的文章，并结合学生比较优秀的作文进行讲评，取其精华，去其糟粕，完成一篇优秀的范文。使学生在讲评的过程中领略这些文章的优缺点，教会学生如何自己修改作文，并将范文抄写在固定的作文本上，不断积累，并随知识的不断扩展对已写的文章根据需要不断进行修改或扩充，使其更加完美。

6.加强背诵。看了好文章，不单是理解就够了，还应该在理解的基础上多多背诵，才能达到融会贯通、据为已有的效果。英语宜多诵多背，把一些句型、短语，一些文章的片段或全篇，背得滚瓜烂熟，让这些材料在你的脑袋里扎根，当你要用的时候，它们便会而然地冒出来。背诵可以培养正确使用语言的习惯，增强语感，这样就可以避免生搬硬套地写一些式的。加强背诵能变难为易，变费力为省力，能有效地帮助学生提高写作能力。现在背诵和熟记一些语言材料，对中学生来说将会受用无穷。

7.通过缩写和改写课文，培养学生的概括能力。缩写课文会激励学生去认真钻研课文内容，有助于加深学生对课文的理解，提高学生归纳和进行简要表达的能力。缩写课文一般应该用自己的话来写，不能只停留在拼凑原文的词句上。这样既可以使学生熟练掌握英语表达方法，也是对知识进行再创造的一个过程。

记叙文是以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主，以写人物的经历和事物发展变化为主要内容的一种文体形式。下面是小编为大家整理的关于记叙文的六要素的写作基础，欢迎大家阅读!

1.记叙文一般都具备六要素，但有的记叙文，如果其中某些要素是读者熟知的，或者某些要素不交代不影响表达效果，是可以省略的。

2.记叙的人称有第一人称和第三人称。以“我”的口吻或角度来叙述的是第一人称，如《小桔灯》《孔乙己》等。采用第一称来写，便于直抒胸臆，读起来有一种亲切感和真实感。以第三人称的角度来叙述文章中的人物、事件、场景等，如《皇帝的新装》。其优点在于不受空间和时间的限制，能从更多的方面自由地叙述。

3.记叙文的线索形式有：1以时间转移为线索2以一人3以一事4以一物为线索。多数记叙文存在着两条或两条以上的线索。如《藤野先生》，文章除了以作者与藤野先生交往为叙事线索(明线)外，还有作者爱国主度思想感情这一暗线。

4.记叙的顺序要求掌握的是顺叙、倒叙、插叙三种。顺叙指记叙的时候按照事情发生、发展、和结局的顺序来写，前因后果、条理很清楚。如《一面》;倒叙，指记叙的时候把后发生的事情写在前面，把先发生的事情写在后面。先把结局说出来，吸引读者了解其起因和过程，如《背影》;插叙，指在记叙过程中，需要插入另一些有关的情节，再接着叙述后来的事情，如《驿路梨花》。

5.记叙文常用的层次划分方法有以下几种：

(1)按事件和发展过程来划分《皇帝的新装》

(2)按空间转换来划分，如《老山界》

(3)按内容变化来划分，如《从百草园到三味书屋》

(4)按人物、场景变化来划分，如《分马》

(5)按感情变化来划分，如《荔枝蜜》不太喜欢蜜蜂—想去看蜜蜂—赞美蜜蜂—想变成蜜蜂。

(6)按表达方式的变换来划分，如《一件珍贵的衬衫》，抒情—记叙—抒情、议论。

6.理解和分析记叙文中叙述、描写、议论、抒情等多种表达方式综合运用的特点和作用。理解和分析记叙文中常用的表现手法(象征、对照、衬托等)和修辞手法(比喻、拟人、排比等)，理解记叙性语言准确、生动的特点。

7.记叙文虽然以叙述、描写为主要表达方式，但常常借助议论、抒情、说明来开拓意境，深化主题。很多是各种表达方工综合运用。

(1) 叙述：把人物的经历和事物的发展变化过程表达出来的一种表达方式。它是写作中最基本、最常见、也是最主要的表达方式。

(2 )描写：是对人物的外形、动作、事物的性质、形态和景物的状貌，变化所作的具体刻画和生动描摹。

(3 )说明：是用简明的语言、客观而准确地解说事物或阐述说事理的一种表达方式。

(4)抒情：是作者通过作品中心人物表达主观感受，倾吐心中情感的文字表露，可分为直接抒情、间接抒情两种。直接抒情即直抒胸臆。间接抒情是在叙述、描写、议论中流露出爱憎感情。

(5)议论:根据作品写出自己的见解或道理.

8.记叙文的语言的特点：准确，生动。

小结：

1.记叙文的要素

2.记叙文的人称

3.记叙文的线索：1以时间转移为线索2以一人3以一事4以一物为线索

4.记叙文的顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙三种

5.记叙文的划分

6.记叙文的表达方式：叙述、描写(语言，动作，外貌，心理，神态，环境等或正面，侧面)、议论、抒情、说明等

7.记叙文的语言的特点：准确，生动

8.记叙文的表现手法：白描、衬托、渲染、对比、伏笔、铺垫等。

总结：

1.关于记叙文和文学作品阅读题的解答主要从两主面着手：

一是概括文章的内容，抓住以下几个要点：

(1)把握记叙文的要素，以写事为主的应明确写什么事，写人为主的应明确写什么样的人。

(2)把握关键性语句，揣摩作者为什么要写这些人、事。

(3)分析层与层之间的关系，理清文章脉络，然后概括。

二是弄清记叙文和文学作品的结构特点及表现形式。掌握以下划分段落的方式：

(1) 以时空变化划分 (2) 以作者思想感情的变化来划分 (3) 按记叙内容的变化来划分 (4) 按描述角度的变化、事情发展的阶段来划分

2.文段在内容上：以中心、意思相联系(思想感情)来答

在结构上：

文段在开头：总起全文

文段在中间：承上启下

文段在结尾：总结全文或照应主题或首尾呼应。

记叙文的阅读，要明确有关的知识点，把握其文体特征。

一、记叙文的概念：记叙文是以记叙、描写为主要表达方式，以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主要内容的文章。中学阶段，为了教学的方便，常常把消息、通讯、人物传记、回忆录、寓言、童话、小说等，都划归到记叙文教学中。

二、记叙文的分类：从写作内容与方式看，可分为两类：简单的记叙文和复杂的记叙文。从写作对象的不同，可分为四类：

1.写人的记叙文;2.叙事的记叙文;3.写景的记叙文(即散文);4.状物的记叙文。

三、记叙的要素：记叙文有六要素——时间、地点、人物、事件的起因、经过、结果。

四、记叙的顺序：常用的有三种——顺叙、倒叙、插叙。

五、记叙的线索：一般有以下几种——人线、物线、情线、事线、时线、地线。

六、记叙的人称：一般采用第一人称或第三人称，个别时候使用第二人称。

七、记叙的中心与详略：整体感知，准确把握文章中心。分析材料与中心的关系，理解材料的详略安排。

八、记叙文所用的表达方式：常见的是五种——记叙、描写、说明、议论和抒情。比较复杂的记叙文，往往几种表达方式综合运用。

(一)屈原投江

(one) Qu Yuan River

为了纪念爱国诗人屈原，居民为了不让跳下汨罗江的屈原尸体被鱼虾吃掉，所以在江里投下许多用竹叶包裹的米食(粽子)，并且竞相划船(赛龙船)希望找到屈原的尸体。

To commemorate the patriotic poet Qu Yuan, residents in order not to let Qu Yuans Miluo River jumped by fish and shrimp to eat, so in the river for the rice wrapped in bamboo leaves with many (dumplings), and race (rowing Dragon Boat Race) to find Qu Yuans body.

(二)曹娥寻父尸

(two) case of seeking father.

东汉孝女曹娥，因曹父溺江而亡，年仅十四岁的她沿江豪哭，经十七日仍不见曹父尸首，乃在五月一日投江，五日后两尸合抱而浮起的感人事迹， 乡人群而祭之。

The Eastern Han Dynasty filial daughter Cao E, drowned himself in a river because Cao father died, only fourteen years old, she cried along the ho, after seventeen days still do not see Cao father body, but in May 1st the river, five days from two dead and floating deeds, people group and sacrifice.

(三)白蛇传

(three) the legend of white snake

传说白蛇白素贞，为了报答许仙的恩惠，与许仙结为夫妻的凄美的爱情故事，传说端午节当天白蛇喝了雄黄酒，差点现出蛇形，加上法海白蛇及水淹金山寺的情节，都是脍炙人口的民间戏曲的曲目。

The legend of white snake and Bai Suzhen, in order to repay the grace of Xu Xian, and Xu Xianjie married the beautiful love story, the legend of the White Snake Legend of the Dragon Boat Festival a male Yellow Wine, almost a snake, white snake and flooded with sea Jinshan Temple of the plot, is a folk opera music win universal praise.

(四)伍子胥的忌日

(four) the anniversary of the death of Wu Zixu

传说伍子胥助吴伐楚后，吴王阖闾逝世，皇子夫差继位，伐越大胜，越王句践请和，伍子胥主战，夫差不听，却听信奸臣言，赐伍子胥自杀，并于于五月五日将尸体投入江中，此后人们于端午节纪祀伍子胥。

Legend has it that Wu Zixu will Fachu Wu, Wu helv Prince died, his successor, the victory of the king, and Wu Zixu battle, the king, do not listen, but listen to a word, give Wu Zixu Dutch act, and on May 5th the bodies into the river, then people in the Dragon Boat Festival worship Wu Zixu ji.

一、议论文写作三要素

议论文主要包括三要素：论点、论据和论证方法。论点必须正确。论据是为说明论点服务的，既要可靠又要充分，事实胜于雄辩，是最好的论据。论据也可以是人们公认的真理，经过实践考验的哲理。论证的方法多种多样，常用的方法有：

1. 归纳法

从分析典型，即分析个别事物入手，找出事物的共同特点，然后得出结论。

2. 推理法

从一般原理出发，对个别事物进行说明、分析，而后得出结论。

3. 对照法

对所有事实、方面进行对照，然后加以分析，得出结论。

4. 驳论法

先列出错误的观点，然后加以逐条批驳，最后阐明自己的观点。

二、议论文的特点

议论文的结构一般有引子、正文和结论句三部分。一般在引子部分提出论点，即文章的主题，在正文部分摆出有利的事实，对论点进行严密的论证，最后根据前面的论证得出结论。

三、议论文的写法

要写好议论文，必须注意以下几点：

1. 确定论点

论点通常在文章的第一段提出。

2. 要有足够的论据，可以列举生活的实例

3. 论证要有严密的逻辑性

所有事实、原因、理由应紧密地同结论连接起来。

4. 层次要清楚

5. 态度诚恳、友好，因为议论文重在说理，以理服人

议论文在写作手法上以议论为主，但有时也要运用说明、叙述、描写等手法。议论中的说明常为议论的开展创造条件，或是议论的补充;议论文中的叙述和描写应是为论点提供依据的因此，叙述应该是概括的，描写应该是简要的。

6. 论据要充分

欲证明自己的观点必须有充分的证据。作者可以列举事实、展示数据、提供事例、借助常识或利用亲身经历。

议论文尽管有多种写法，但中学生的英语作文都有提示，因此，论点、论据一般都是确定的，我们首先应准确找出论点、论据及其间的相互关系，也即是要找出要点;然后考虑如何组织材料，也即是论证的方式，短文的写法;还应考虑文章的时态、语态等。议论文常用一般现在时，但述说过去的事实时，可用过去时态;预测将来时，要用将来时态;也经常使用被动语态;有时假设一种虚拟情况时，还需要用上虚拟语气。在考虑了短文的写法、时态、语态等后，可根据行文的需要，使用恰当的连接词，按适当的顺序将写好的句子组合成短文。

一. 肯定不如否定好

修辞的使用在书面表达中算作很大的亮点，在高中阶段很少有学生会注重修辞的应用。

双重否定也是种修辞，而且对于考生来说，只要稍加注意，可以在文章中设计双重否定的句子。

例如想表达“邮递员天天准时到”，如果写成The postman comes on time every day，就不如变成双重否定，The postman never fails to come on time，就变成了亮点句，起到强调作用。

“几乎每个人对生活的态度都不同程度受到地震的影响”，写成双重否定There was hardly a man or a woman whose attitude towards life had not been affected by the earthquake.

应用类似的修辞会在中为同学们加分。

二. 陈述不如倒装妙

在书面表达中阅卷老师喜欢看到的高级语法共有五种：倒装，强调，从句，独立主格和分词结构，以及虚拟语气。

倒装是一种最简单易行的使句子呈现亮点的方法。在高中阶段只需掌握倒装的四种形式，就足以应对书面表达。