中考英语书面表达写作技巧课件【精彩20篇】

如何写出有深度的作文呢?小编收集了中考作文写作技巧解析，欢迎阅读。

一、从人生的体会方面去思考，关注生活，写出个人生命体验。像我们所说的“责任”这个话题，不同的人在不同的年龄阶段的责任感是不同的。而这种话题更多地体现在针对学生这一个年龄层次来进行命题的，更多是关于学生的责任、学生的生活，不是空洞地喊口号式责任，而是注入了很多的人文精神的一种责任。

二、从哲理的思辨性方面去思考。比方说“优势与成败”这个话题，体现出成败和优势之间关系的辩证思考。具有优势的人并不一定就能成功，而在劣势下面他也并不一定就失败。这是一种辩证哲理思维，我们平时要多去仔细思索、思考，从理性的角度，从哲学的角度去理解它，特别要时刻提醒自己，作文内容要尽量贴近现实生活，注意用辩证眼光看问题。

三、结合我们时代的一些特点去思考。平时要多关注时事，看一些报刊评论等，有利于从时代的眼光去把握问题。

四、注意写作素材的积累。我们平时可以多准备一些素材，而且要按不同的类别分门别类。比如从自信心的角度去总结一些素材，从责任的角度又总结一些素材。可以按这样的类别整理情感、道德、科技、环境、自然、人生感悟、社会生活、文化问题等等。

一个作文题目下来，虽然嘴里对着老师说不，但其实不管是骑着车，吃着饭，聊着天，还是做着其它的事，满脑子都是那些华丽的词藻，是该把它们放在开头?中间?还是结尾?思前想后却又总觉不妥，心里也想着不允许自己再犯走题这种低级错误。通常一篇作文出来之后，感动了自己，却又开始想着是否能打动老师?改过来改过去，也逐渐失去了自我。

现在，面对作文，除了压力，竟满满的都是恐惧，就像刚学会飞翔的小鸟，离开了地面后只想着往更远的高处，没有想着累了也该停下来歇歇脚，我连“磨刀不误砍柴功”这个道理也忘了。有时候就是应该给自己一些写作思绪，把自己真正感受到的东西写出来，文字功夫是在这个过程之中，但不是写作的全部。

我所说的写作思绪，好比如海明威给人的启发：写景，要把自己真正看到的写出来，如此写出的往往不华丽。那些写得华丽的，其实是写自己认为应该看到的，而非真正看到的，是用词藻填补和掩饰自己没有看到的。华丽的语言不一定能拼凑出最优秀的文章，但内心的故事永远是最美丽的，最真实的。

翻翻那本上了锁为自己写的日记吧，也许你能从中找到我所说的写作思绪，那里面暴露无疑的心情，总是最真实的。这个本子里所写的东西，无时无刻不在袒露出真实心绪和想法，看着这些自己信笔涂鸦的文字，一种欣慰惊喜的感觉总会溢满心怀。

天上飘着小雨，站在雨中。你大可不必模仿琼瑶剧的情深深雨蒙蒙，诗性大发般煽情地告诉我“这是雨在为我哭泣，它在暗示我们秋天的到来。”我只想说“这雨很凉”。

一群鸭子叫唤着从我面前走过，跳进河里，也请不要跟我说它如何在水里嬉戏，有多么多么开心，我只想说“它们没有那么多心理知识，它们只是在游泳，目的也很简单——驱热。”

读书、写作，一切自己真正想做的事情，做的时候都是享受。但是，倘若限定了时间，用赶任务的心情去做，加上了许多不必要的目的，享受就变成了苦役。还是给自己一些写作的思绪，让自己随心所欲地想、随心所欲地写吧，这才是真正地提高自己写作水准的途径。

[关于中考话题作文：给自己一些写作思绪

初中毕业生参加中考，写作文是不是也要讲求语言的艺术。小编收集了2017年中考作文写作指导：作文简单辅导。欢迎阅读。

谁都知道，文学作品是语言的艺术。每个作家都有自己的语言风格，以至有的作品你即使不知道作者的名字，只要一读那语句的味儿，就足以使一个熟悉作家语言风格的读者知道是谁的作品了。你只要闭上眼睛回味一下，课本里读过的鲁迅、茅盾、老舍、巴金、冰心的作品不是可以领悟到吗?他们同样是使文字精确、简炼、生动、活泼，但是不一样---都表现出不同的语言风格。我们读它们，深受其熏陶，丰富了我们的语言仓库。

从中我们还可以进一步思考，这些名家的名作，都是倾注了自己的思想和感情，都是从血管里流出的血凝成的。用自己的语言，得心应手，一词一句地把复杂的事物描述出来，把独到的见解和认识搬到纸上来，是一件很费功夫的事。语文老师常常让同学们思考课文中某些词的表现力，某些句子丰富深刻的含义，就是在引导大家学会推敲，回味作家表情传意的语言风格。你有没有在复习和回忆这些名家名篇的时候想到一个词：“文如其人”。

作家的语言风格就是文如其人在遣词造句上的反映。写自己的话，写真情实感老实话，就会形成与别人不一样的语言风格，伟大的作家是这样，卑鄙的作家也是这样。当然后者语言的虚伪、雕饰、圆滑，以至下流，是登不上大雅之堂的，是不应该进课本的。

初中毕业生参加中考，写作文是不是也要讲求语言的艺术。我想，一篇中考作文能够表现出或者看得出是在追求表现语言的艺术，有什么不好呢?虽然他们不是作家，他们写的不一定是文学作品，但他们都应该写自己的话，写真情实感老实话，都应该努力使写出的文字精确、简炼、生动、活泼，尽管这些方面不一定能达到作家的水准，却是写作能力的考试一类卷的标准，不过是从初中毕业生这个层面去衡量罢了，如果这些方面有所欠缺，评卷也就等而下之了。 因此，请记住俄国大文豪托尔斯泰说的一句非常精辟的忠告：“一个人只有在他每次蘸墨水时都在墨水瓶里留下自己的血肉，才应该进行写作。”换言之，中学生作文，特别是参加中考作文，非用心血去浇铸语言不可，只有这样才能体现文如其人，让人读了觉得“像他说的话”，不是空话，大话、假话、矫揉造作的话、生搬硬套的话、甚至剽窃抄袭别人的话、人云亦云的话。

现在可以知道什么是你作文该用的最好的语言了吧?

请读读这样几段中考一类卷作文的语言：

一、进入初中后，我的阅读面更广泛了。我曾参加过“经院哲学”的无休论战，从保尔?柯察金身上得到了生活启示之后，又穿过骊山阿房宫去聆听秦俑的低语，之后又踏上了去埃及金字塔探幽寻胜的征程;在与拿破仑叱咤风云于欧洲战场的同时，也不忘与外星来客共同探讨人类文明的进程……愈读书，我愈发现自己的无知;愈读书，我愈来愈多地看到五彩缤纷的世界。

二、那天是我十四岁的生日，在熠熠烛光下，妈妈捧出了她珍藏多年的《雷锋日记》，并慎重地递给我：“十四岁了，该长大了!这是妈妈青年时代的良师益友，在那迷惘的年代里，它为我指明了方向。今天，把它送给你，希望它也能给你某些启迪。”……初二的时候，我自告奋勇，担当起了班级团支部黑板报的出版工作。一时间，议论颇多……我只是默默无闻，一期复一期，辛勤地耕耘着这小小的一方精神园地。出乎意料，期末，我竟被大家一致推选为校“三好”……是雷锋的思想给了我充实、快乐与友谊。

你看，同是写以书为“良师”，语言大不同。但都是自己的语言，谈读书的收获，从中我们可以看到两位性格思想很不一样的同学，都很可爱。愿你也在这次中考时，写出文如其人的最美的语言来!

如何提高中考作文分数?怎样才能在中考作文中拿高分，下面是小编整理的四种结尾技巧，欢迎阅读。

如果把开头比作“爆竹”，那么结尾就有如“撞钟”。古人说过：“好的结尾，有如咀嚼干果，品尝香茗，令人回味再三。”与开头一样，结尾也很重要。如果一篇主题鲜明，角度新颖的文章，读到最后，却被一个不妙的结尾扫了兴，岂不可惜!结尾除了要服务于文章的内容和中心外，还得受“开头”的制约，这样说来，结尾就更难写了。人们称好的文章的结尾为“豹尾”，从中考作文来看，虽然不一定要求篇篇文章的结尾都是“豹尾”，但也要求结尾简练、生动、恰到好处。一般说来，同学们的作文结尾易犯的毛病有：①画蛇添足。即全文已结束，本可耐人寻味，但作者仍不放心，偏要哆嗦几句，把无需交待的人物下落一一交待，把本可悟出的含义一语捅破。②空喊口号。在结尾处为表明自己的立场、态度，大喊着与文章内容无关的口喊，这种结尾大煞主题。③拖泥带水。结尾意思已经明了，却迟迟不肯收尾，冲突了文章的主题。

由此看来，中考作文的结尾显得特别重要，如何写好结尾，提高考场作文的质量呢?下面的结尾技巧，都是中考作文中常用的。

自然收束式。不论哪种文体的文章，在把内容表达完了之后，自然而然地收束全文，而不去设计蕴意深刻的哲理语句，不去雕琢丰富的象征形体，这样的结尾谓之“自然结束式”。它完全避免了文章画蛇添足、无病呻吟的结尾毛病，显得单纯明快、朴素无华，在中考作文中得到广泛运用。考场作文气氛紧张，竞争激烈，不可能过多地讲究什么“式”，什么“法”。只要富于激情，挥洒自如，写到哪里就是哪里，能充分地表情达意就是一篇好文章，但讲究“自然”并不意味着随心所欲，马虎草率，而是顺着文思发展的自然趋势结束全局。在所学的课文中，这样的例子较多，在此不加赘述。

1、首尾呼应式。结尾与开头要相呼应，写出既呼应开头，又不简单重复的语句，这种结尾方式是各类文章极常见的收束方法。这种收束方法能唤起读者心理上的美感，产生一种首尾圆合，浑然一体的感觉。如《一件珍贵的衬衫》，开头写了“在我的家里，珍藏着一种白色的确凉衬衫。”结尾写道：“四年来，这件珍贵的衬衫，我精心地收藏着，没有舍得穿它一次。”《白杨礼赞》结尾与开头呼应道：“我要高声赞美白杨树!”

2、卒章显志式。这种结尾方式，就是在文章结束时，以全文的内容为依托，运用简洁的语言，把主题思想明确地表达出来，或者在全文即将煞尾时，把写作意旨交待清楚，所以这种结尾方法又称“画龙点晴式”。如《枣核》结尾写道：“改了国籍，不等于就改了民族感情，而且没有一个民族像我们这么依恋故土的。”《记一辆纺车》结尾写道：“跟困难作斗争，其乐无穷。——记一辆纺车。”

3、名言警句式。用名言、警名、诗句收尾，着意于引申文章，揭示某种人生的真谛。它往往出现在散文、记叙文、杂文的结尾，用三言两语，表述出含意深刻的耐人寻味的哲理或警策性内容，使之深深地印在读者的心中，起到“言已尽，意无穷”的效果。《驿路梨花》结尾写道：“驿路梨花处处开。”

4、抒情议论式。用抒情议论的方式收束文章，能够表达作者心中的情愫，激起读者情感的波澜，引起读者的共鸣，有着强烈的艺术感染力。这种结尾方式主要用于写人记事的记叙文中，也可用于说明文、议论文的写作。抒情议论式结尾的形式是多种多样的，所以采取这种方式结尾比较自由，好的“抒情议论”式结尾必然油然而生真情，给读者以真实感、充足感。如《花市》的结尾写道：“她笑微微地站在百花丛中，也像一枝花，像一枝挺秀淡雅的兰花吧。”再如《回忆我的母亲》结尾的两个自然段就是很典型的抒情议论式的结尾。

作文要一气呵成，结尾与前面正文一线相生，不可缺痕。作文的结尾与开头一样，是篇篇各异的，但也有其规律可循。上面的几种结尾方式仅仅只是一些常用的结尾方式，切忌生搬硬套，真正好的结尾存在于考生的平时扎实的训练之中，存在于考生的临场发挥，存在于考生的“诗外之功”。

There’s no doubt that my mother gives all her love to me. I do believe she is a great person who makes my life beautiful and meaningful.

She is an easygoing and kind woman with bright eyes and a lovely smile. Although she is often busy, I still feel that I am taken good care of by her. It’s a great pleasure to chat with her when I get into troubles. She always encourages me not to give up and tries to cheer me up by coming up with good solutions. In addition, I am fascinated by her cooking and writing.

With her love, I feel like a fish swimming happily in a beautiful sea. I’ll cherish her love forever.

[我的母亲英语中考作文

(1)有些题目，命题者故意藏头去尾，使题目带有迷惑性，增加审题难度，用以考查考生思维的深刻性和敏捷性。如《心愿》这个题目，具有一定的迷惑性，审题有难度。对于这类题目，我们可以采用在原题的前面加上“我”、“妈妈”、“班主任”等因素，使题目成为《我的心愿》《妈妈的心愿》《班主任的心愿》等，这样，题目的意思就明确了，文章体裁也就很容易确定了。

(2)另一些带有比喻或象征性的题目，如《暖流》《春风》等，则应注意其本体与喻体之间的关系，挖掘出这些题目背后的象征意义。

(3)对于一些抽象性的题目，如《责任》《追求》《宽容》《合作》《友善》等，写成记叙文，你可以构思成“通过一个我看到(听到，读到)的有关人(负或不负)责任、(宽容或不)宽容、(友善或不)友善……的故事，告诉大家生活需要……”，这时，题目“责任(宽容……)”就是你的记叙文的中心思想所在。

如果你熟读古今中外书籍，拥有大量事例史实，擅长写议论文，你当然可以把它写成议论文或夹叙夹议式的散文。

话题作文是一个宽泛的作文命题，很多考生都不易把握，那么写好话题作文呢，下面整理了一些话题作文的写作技巧，希望对大家有所帮助!

一、化一为万

比如读书这个话题，有的同学尽管整日在书海中泛舟，但面对这一话题感觉还是有点单一，似乎无话可说。其实，只要打开思路，挖掘得法，有关读书的话题是一座取之不竭、掘之不尽的丰富宝藏。做到内容丰富是不难的，但你必须善于联想。围绕读书这个话题，你可以讲述读书的故事，奏响想书、买书、借书、偷书、读书中的小插曲;可以记叙读书的经历，见证读书陪伴成长的过程;可以介绍读书的方法，选书、精读与浏览，读书札记，经典诵读，读书与实践;可以品说读书的滋味，酸甜苦辣咸，味道各异，一一道来;可以漫谈读书的感受，读后感仁者见仁，智者见智;可以抒写读书的收获，书中自有为人之道、作文之法;可以渲染读书的陶醉，沉醉书海，自然如入仙境;可以推介所读的好书，或简叙书文内容，或罗列推荐理由;可以鉴评所读的书，赏析精彩片段，评价细小瑕疵;可以评价对书的态度，说长道短自有一番道理。如此等等，你尽可以选择其中一点进行作文

二、化浅为深

如我长大了这个文题，谁也不会在取材上发生困难，看样子真是浅得不能再浅了，但实际上，这个题的关键在于对长大的理解。如果在审题之中认为长大的含义只是生理、身体的变化或是学会了某种生活技能、能够料理自己、胆子变大了，或者能对付别人的欺负等等，那这种理解就很肤浅，写出来的文章在选材立意上也就上不了档次。如果说能够寓理于事，从不同的角度写出正处于花季年龄的初中生成长中的追求、向往、烦恼和困惑，以及对人生的初步认识，写出人生中的各种各样的责任感已经在心中出现，那么，这样的思考就是准确地把握了文题的含义。

三、化实为虚

如以风景为话题写作。写好这个话题，就要去拓宽思路，化实为虚。风景不仅指自然环境，还可指美好的人和事物。如生活中的风景随处可见;校园中寻求知识是一道富有诗意的风景;家庭中感受亲情是一道充满温馨的风景;社会上某一种新的、健康的气象是一道多彩多姿的风景;一个人冥思静想的意识中也会出现一种风景认真地想过这种种新风景后，我们再去构思自己的文章，显然就要高明得多。

四、化整为零

有一类作文命题先出材料再出题，所以必须先读后写。作为议论文，它可以是材料作文，但作为记叙文，它有时候只是暗示着一种作文的角度或者作文的方向，或者说是暗示要求表现的中心思想。请看下面这个作文试题：世界，充满七彩阳光，人生，充满美好向往，在通往理想的攀登之路上，每一步都弹奏着苦与乐的乐章。根据这首小诗的含义，以攀登为题写一篇不少于600字的文章，除诗歌以外文体不限。对这个文题，不论你写哪一种文体的文章，恐怕都得注意苦与乐这三个字，它是材料中暗示的方向。因此你在审题时必须先读懂材料，对材料进行化整为零，然后把材料中隐含的要点审出来。

五、化熟为生

有些看似很熟悉的题目，比如美在课余这个文题，可供取材的内容是不少的。其实这个题目有一个迷惑点，这个迷惑点在那个美字上。稍不注意，就会由于觉得这个文题似曾相识而忽视对美字的品读。由于没有抓住这个美字，就会写出丰富多彩的课余、好玩的课余、有趣的课余、热闹的课余等等内容，而就是没有突出这个美字。要记住，不管命题作文的形式多么复杂，你的眼睛要永远盯着它的题目。在熟悉的题目面前不要激动，不要以为它就是你做过的原题，仍要认真全面地审题。

六、化生为熟

先看试题：数百年前，一位聪明的老国王召集聪明的臣子，交代了一个任务：编一本《各时代智慧录》流传子孙。聪明的臣子工作了很长时间，完成了一本十二卷巨著。国王看后，认为书太厚，要求臣子把它浓缩一下。几经删减，浓缩为一本书。国王还认为太长。聪明的臣子把一本浓缩为一章，又把一章浓缩为一页，又把一页浓缩为一段，最后把一段浓缩为一句。国王看后，十分满意，说：这是各时代智慧的结晶，人们一旦知道了这个道理，我们担心的大部分问题就可以解决了。这句千锤百炼的话是：天下没有免费的午餐。请以天下没有免费的午餐为话题，自拟题目，自择文体，写一篇600字左右的文章。这个话题，是从材料中引出的，但是，材料不能作为作文的内容。原因是话题和材料没有因果关系。命题的这个特点，在审题时要明确，这样才能避免写作的失误。由于话题是一个比喻形式，所以在确定作文立意的时候，要明确比喻的具体含义。免费的午餐，这是西方人常用来说明没有付出就不会有收获的道理，即一切都要靠自己的奋斗才能获取。中国古代的寓言故事《守株待兔》也是说的这个意思。明确了话题的含义，就会化陌生为熟悉，就会有话可说。

这些年来，这类命题方式，已广泛而频繁地被语文老师运用到平时的作文训练中去了，诸如《——迷》、《我当——》、《我第一次——》、《我学会了——》、《请到——来》、《——给我温暖》、《我常常想起——》、《——，真有意思》、《——的一堂课》。《——见闻》、《——一角》、《怎样学——》、《读——后感》等等，都属这类作文命题。下面是小编为你带来的小学生命题作文写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

考试时遇上了这类命题样式，并要写好这类作文，必须注意以下两点：

一是认真审题。

大凡这类命题样式，命题者在题目的前后总会有比较具体的要求的，对横线上所填入的内容，更有明确的提示，而这些要求或提示正是正确、全面审题的前提，一定要仔细审清。比如《我学会了——》这个题目，命题者对横线上填人的对象作如下提示：“凡是你生活、学习实际中确实学会了的，都可以写。审题时，可以从这一提示中确定选材范围(是生活、学习中的)，确定写作对象(技能、方法)。这样审明白了，心中有谱了，还得注意前面的“我学会了”。所谓“学会”，“学”反映一个过程，是“会”的前提，“会”，则反映了这一过程的程度和结果，是“熟练”和“能运用”的体现。“会”可以说是题眼，如果忽视了这一题眼，必定不能很好地反映出文章的中心。认真审明“学会”的含义，对确定填人横线上的写作对象，很有作用。否则，你可能填人的写作对象只是“学了”或“会一点”，而不是“学会”。

二是认真选材。

这类作文的选材与在横线上填人的写作对象是一致的，只是前者具体后者概括而已。因而，要所选材料达到新颖独特，首先横线上填人的写作对象必须新颖独特，与众不同。怎样才能如此呢?要有发散性思维，或者要有求异性思维。这就是说。面对考题，先进行一番发散性思维，即跳出命题者提示的写作对象进行广泛的思考，想到很多很多。然后集中起来，分析比较，逐一筛选。筛选的原则是自己最熟悉、感受最深刻的，别人没有经历过，或根本想不到的。这样的写作对象一经确定，选择材料也就有依据了。有一年，一所初中的作文考试题目是《我第一次———》，面对这样的考题，我们应该怎样在认真审题的基础上，充分展开了求异思维呢?我们应该怎样写，才能得高分呢?题目：我第一次———审清题意这是半命题作文，题目所给出的一半“我第一次”是对内容的限制，要求写生活中的某种第一次经历，题目中所要补充的一半，是习作者的亲身经历，如第一次种花、买菜、做饭、洗衣服、坐飞。机、制做科技小制品等。确定文章中心记叙生活中的第一次经历的事情，说明从中所受到的教益或产生的欢乐心情。在生活中，我们经历的第一次太多了。但事情有大、小、好、坏之分，应该选择有意义的事情来写，第一次做事情做的成功，会产生喜悦;第一次做的失败，会留下深刻的教训。事情的成功与失败，都会对同学有教益。

为什么有的同学观察的非常细致，可写出的文章却有不少毛病呢?没有意义呢?主要是因为这些同学不会对材料进行加工、提炼。

1、加工提炼材料。我们知道，作文的材料来自于生活，但生活和文章之间不能划等号。生活不等于文章。文章是作者对生活的观察分析之后写出来的。所以，我们在观察生活，获得写作素材之后，还必须认真进行研究，哪些地方要补充细节，哪些内容应该舍弃，经过周密的思考，经过周密的分析，精心组织材料才能写出中心明确而又有意义的文章。

2、要学会在文中穿插写其他人物。写自己第一次经历的事情，要用第一人称，这样写真实可信亲切感人。为了避免叙述呆板，可以在故事中穿插有关的人物。我们发现不少的同学在作文中，常常只管写“我、怎样怎样做”，“我怎样怎样说”，忽视了有关的人和事，因市把故事写得呆板、枯燥。其实生活中，我做事情往往会涉及到其他的人和事。如果在作文里能够有选择地穿插写有关的人，可以使文章生动活泼。叙事当中穿插写人，不要节外生枝、画蛇添足。穿插写其他人物，要能帮助突出中一心。叙事中穿插其他人物，但仍以写“我”为主。巧妙地穿插可以使故事的情节曲折动人。

3、会用点题的方法。在写人叙事的过程中，要学会用简炼的语言点清题意，这是小学生写作文的基本功之一。学会点题加强文题和内容之间的联系，更好地突出中心思想，在何处点题应当根据故事情节的推进人物性格的发展而定。可以在篇首、篇末或篇中点题之法，落笔重在故事情节的关键之处。在篇首点题，重在开宗明义;在篇未点题，重在深化中心;在篇中点题，重在因势利导。点题之笔要精炼，富有概括力，具有启发性。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

俗话说“千里之行始于足下”。英语书面表达能力的形成不是一日之功，必须从平时的课堂学习一点一滴抓起，持之以恒。

一篇优秀的英语作文在内容和语言两方面应是一个统一体，任何一方面的欠缺都会直接影响到作文的质量。然而，很多考生在写作中或者由于粗心大意，或者由于基本功不扎实而经常出现名词不变复数、第三人称单数不加s，前后不一致，以及时态语态、句子完整性等方面的错误。

1. 审题不清

如2004年中考作文要求写一项最喜欢的课外活动，有些考生将作文的主题定位为“我最喜欢的活动”，偏离了“一项、课外活动”这一主题。依据作文的评分原则，若文章内容不切题，则不管语言如何规范、用词如何准确，都会被判为零分。

2.拼写错误

拼写是考生应该具备的最起码的基本功，但在考生的作文中却经常能发现很多拼写错误。有拼写错误的作文肯定会被酌情扣分，而且有大量拼写错误存在的作文不仅体现出语言基本功差，同时也直接影响内容的表达，通常会降低作文的档次。

3.名词单复数问题

误 my father and my mother is all teacher。

正 my father and my mother are both teachers。

[中考英语作文写作常见的三个错误

导语：写作练习对于英语能力的综合提高,特别是对高阶学习者而言有重要意义,不管做什么都需要技巧，写英语作文有什么技巧呢?下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的相关英语写作指导，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

如何写好一篇60字的作文，争取18分的最大值，显然已经引起了师生极大的重视。对于中考来说这可是个了不起的数字!那么如何提高作文得高分的能力?当然可以只回答一个字“练”。目标有了，最重要的就是方法了。至少我们应该注意作文的基本要求和基本技巧。

60字的作文，非常有限的文字里要说明白说清楚一件事或一个人物或者一个观点，并不是一件很容易的事情。所以更要注意结构、要求和技巧。

60字的作文最好先从结构上练起，一般要分这样五个层次：

1)开始句

2)向主体过度句

3)主体叙述

4)向结尾过度

5)结尾。

第一层开始句起着点题的作用，60字的作文一定要开门见山。也就是第一句就能让人感觉到你将要写什么。但是往往是概括性地笼统地指出。所以往往是一句话就解决问题。第二层往往是在第一层的基础上具体指出某人或某事。第三层就这个某人或某事进行详细的叙述或议论或描写。但一般以3至4句为宜。因为中考作文的字数是60至80字之间。不足和超过都要扣分。所以应该及时向结尾过渡，完成第四层，多半以谈感觉为主。在主体叙述和结尾之间起着承上启下的作用。但也应该一句话解决问题。过渡的梯子搭好了，也就能够圆滑地圆满地结尾了。结尾的一句话往往是感慨、感想、感叹之类的句子。这样6至8句的作文，每句平均10字左右(每个句子的字数根据含义的需要调整)，最后写好的作文就应该是在60至80字之间了。

说到这里我们只解决了层次清晰、符合字数要求的问题。其次注意没有把握的句子不写，拼写要准确，叙述中没有语法错误，时态要符合背景。我们学了含不同从句的复合句。所以作文中应该适当地出现复合句。一定要注意词汇上的不必要重复和句式的单一。巧妙地插入平时积累的格言警句，使作文生辉。设法满足“词汇和句型句式运用恰当自如;文中有值得肯定的好的句型和表达方式。”同时注意大小写、标点正确。

再次，一定注意作文的题内要求，往往是以问题形式出现为多，千万不可丢掉任何一个。

最后提醒大家注意的就是一定要打草稿，避免在卷面上涂抹。

以上这几点做到了，离满分作文也不远了。

01、构思

找准了作文的中心，接下来就要构思写作内容、安排文章的框架结构。构思的环节已经囊括了起题和立意，是作文不可或缺的前期准备。

1.从大到小，再以小见大。

材料作文题包含的内涵往往较大，但是文章立意要在对材料进行发散性思维的基础上缩小范围，明确论点。之后又要在这一点上深入，以小见大。

具体来说:

思考和分析材料时要善于多角度思考、换位思考，启发和感悟越多越好，并及时把启发和感悟记录在草稿纸上;

而后，再根据与主旨的贴近程度和自己熟悉的程度从中选择一个最易于自己发挥的话题(这两个步骤往往已经在起题阶段完成了);

选择切入点，再集中笔力加以突破，把你所选择的话题角度写细、写深、写透，做到以小见大。

2.文章立意的思想要健康、向上、积极，少一些愤世嫉俗。立意要明确，不要太隐晦。

作文的思想性很重要，看问题不能太尖刻悲观。基调可以，但一定要能体现健康积极，让读者看过有启迪，能够得到"正能量"。

(小编主观来说:阅卷老师也有生活/工作压力，阅卷那么多也会很疲惫。写消极的文字，无论是让人共鸣一起消极或是反之使人不屑一顾，都对于你的作文分数都没有好处。)

3.结构安排要心中有数、步步为营。

采取总分总的结构是常用的稳妥“套路”;是插叙、倒叙或者平铺直叙;在观点的表达上要循序渐进或是直入主题...这些都需要先做安排，打好腹稿。

02、表达

万事俱备，只欠东风。审题立意构思之后，如何通过文字语言表达思想，就是作文的主体内容。

1.文章的中心、主题要突出。

议论文要在中心句、观点句清楚交待文脉;记叙文要多在议论句、抒情句点睛，反复点题。

2.表达方式要考虑文体。

议论文要“深”，也即文章的分析阐述要有深度，要注意逐层深入分析，由表及里揭示本质，角度要小，挖掘要深。

记叙文要“细”，注意安排细节描写，在叙述中要避免记流水帐，可以适当运用倒叙、插叙等手法，以增加行文的波澜。

(特别注意：记叙文不是写网文小说，不要华而不实，修饰太过。

尤其是人名要朴实，古怪、非主流的名字千万不要用!”玛丽苏“、”龙傲天“活在幻想中就好!!!)

3.语言表达的逻辑严密，也要有文采。

作文有文采，才有高分。但是，作文也要有逻辑，感悟、道理或是事件才说得通。

如何体现文采，就要从用词、修辞、引用等多方面打磨。

(注：不要滥用网络语言!)

4.材料的运用要注意。

(1)例句、材料的使用一方面不要过于老旧无趣，使读者生厌，这样会失去文章的吸引力和说服力;另一方面，不要为了新颖而特地“另辟蹊径"，去胡编或是硬套。

(2)一方面要要慎重地区分其正面或反面的色彩，尤其是对于公认的事实材料，绝不能搀杂模糊的甚至是错误的观点。

另一方面对于时政、民族英雄和历史罪人等材料的引用和评价绝不可因自己的肤浅、片面认识而随意更改甚至是颠倒。

注：如果是出现“正例反用”或“反例正用”的情形，则不仅仅是观点问题，而是思想、原则问题!这样的作文，得分绝对最低档的!

5.要灵活采用合适的表现技巧。

(1)要活用(而不是滥用)反问句、排比句、感叹句等;

(2)积累名言名句和古诗词等材料，恰当选用能够成为亮点;

(3)全文要锤炼几句含有深意的语句，升华主题;

(4)合理安排文章段落。保证行文流畅，同时不要让文章过于冗长。

教案(Teaching Plan)是教师施教的课时计划或方案,是帮助教师有效地进行素质教育教学的依据.教案可以帮助教师有计划、有步骤地进行素质教育教学,充分利用课堂教学时间,高质量地完成教学任务.教案写得如何将直接影响教学效果的好坏.因此,在日常教学中,广大教师都非常注重写教案.那么写教案时应写什么呢?

一、写课题(Topic)和课型(Lesson Type)

课题相当于文章的标题,讲课时要首先告诉学生,并写在黑板上.因此要写得准确.课型是指该节课的讲授类型.初中英语的主要课型有:新授课(New lesson)、巩固课(Reinforcement Lesson)、复习课(Revision Lesson)、语音课(Phonetic Lesson)、听力课(Listening Lesson)、听说课(Aural-Oral Lesson)、阅读课(Reading Lesson)、语法课(Grammar Lesson)等.不同的课型应用不同的授课方式或方法,只有确定了课型,才能选择有效的素质教育教学方法.

二、写素质教育教学目标(Teaching Objective)

素质教育教学目标是教案的核心内容,是教师施教的准绳.教学目标要符合大纲对教材的要求.由于教学目标要在课堂上展示给学生,让学生明确,所以写素质教育目标时,要力求简明扼要,浅显易懂,便于操作和检测,一般3~4个目标为宜.

三、写素质教育教学的重点(Main Points)、难点(Difficult Points)和关键点(Key Points) 素质教育重点是课堂教学的主要任务;教学难点是师生顺利完成教学任务的障碍;素质教学关键是攻克教学难点的突破口.在教案中写清一节课的教学重点、难点和关键点,能提醒教师在讲课时注意突出重点、突破难点、抓住关键.

四、写教具(Teaching Tools)

课堂上需要什么教具要写清楚,如录音机、教材录音带、教学挂图、卡片、实物(或模型)、小黑板、刻印好的练习题、彩色粉笔、幻灯片等.

五、写素质教育教学过程(Teaching Procedure)

素质教育教学过程是教案的主要部分.写教学过程主要写以下几方面的内容:

1. 写教学环节.教学环节即教学任务是什么要写清楚,做到心中有数.目前有些教师采用"三阶段六环节"教学模式,即:准备阶段(自由交流、复习检查)、讲练阶段(导入课程、分层操练)和发展阶段(巩固发展、布置作业).

2. 写知识点和所用时间.写好知识点,教师使用教案时能一目了然,有的放矢.写好所用时间,能使教师从容掌握教学速度,合理安排每个教学环节所需的时间,充分利用课堂时间.

3. 写教师活动.不仅要写教师"教什么",还要写出教师"怎样教",即写清楚教师要教的内容,写出讲授这些内容的方法.写出课堂用语和各环节的过渡语.课堂用语要求简练、口语化,用学生已经学过的熟悉的、听得懂的英语来解释或表达新的教学内容.各环节之间的过渡语要自然流畅.写出使用教具的时机和方法,写板书内容等.

4. 写学生活动.写出学生学习的内容和学习方法,特别是怎样学应写清楚.不能简单地把学生活动写成听、读、思考、操练、做题等.

六、写课堂训练题(Exercises)

备课时精心设计的有针对性的随堂练习题和达标题要写在教案中.写清出示这些题的办法,如用小黑板、看刻印材料或学生已有材料等.写出这些题的答案和解题方法.

七、写课堂小结(Summing-up on Teaching)

课堂小结是教师帮助学生回顾和总结本节课的学习内容的重要环节.小结的方式和方法要在教案中写清楚,不论是教师引导学生总结,还是由教师归纳总结,都要注意把本节课的内容纳入知识系统之中,使学生在整体上把握知识.

八、写板书设计(Blackboard Designs)

板书是有声有色的教学语言,它具有直观性、形象性和启发性.因此,教师在课堂上要有计划

地使用黑板,板书什么内容、写在什么位置、用什么颜色的粉笔等要在备课时设计好,并写在教案中.避免课堂上东写一个句子、西写一个短语、一会儿写、一会儿擦、一会儿擦了又写的板书混乱现象.好的板书能使讲课的内容系统化、结构化,有利于学生复习本节课的知识. 写教案时要考虑的问题

1、如何开始备课

在教师着手备课之前，必须吃透课程标准（大纲）及教材，在此基础上，考虑学生的认知规律和实际的语言能力，以确定课题和教学目的，明确教学目标。从教学目标出发，确定重点和难点，考虑用哪些教学法来组织课堂。然后精心挑选、设计练习，确定要做、改、删、增的练习，列授课计划提纲，再逐步仔细预测各种教学技巧和教学手段的应用，特别是涉及可能修改计划、增删内容的教学步骤。

2. 思考几个问题

（1）教学技巧上，是否有足够的变化可以使课堂教学生动有趣？成功的外语课上总有不同的活动，使学生思维活跃，情绪高涨。

（2）不同教学技巧的应用和教学的组织有没有得到有序的、合乎逻辑的安排？理想化的课堂教学须朝着教学目标由易及难、循序渐进。建立在新知识之上的教学活动必须精心安排。

（3）整堂课的节奏设计得好吗？节奏的含义，可以有以下三个方面：第一，活动不能太短，也不能太长。如果课堂活动多而短，那么学生刚刚找到某活动的“感觉”，又得“跳到”下一个活动去了。这样不好。第二，教师应考虑如何把各种教学技巧、教学手段和教学组织形式揉合在一起。例如，一堂课上连续搞全班俩俩全班小组俩俩全班……的活动，每个活动五分钟，那么，这些活动是难以发挥其应有作用的。第三，控制好节奏也有利于各个教学活动之间的衔接。例如：

（4）整节课的时间有没有安排好？这是备课最难控制的因素之一。新教师往往容易提早授完所备内容，而后又易矫枉过正，不能完成课时计划。这里有两点值得提醒。预先准备一些“备用”的复习活动。如果提早授完已准备的内容，则进行复习巩固练习。

3. 学生的个体差异

随着教学过程的重心由教师向学生转变，学生的主体作用日益突出。课堂教学必须充分考虑学生的个体差异。我们主张，备课一般应以中等程度的学生为准，但也应适当照顾两头的学生。可以考虑以下五个方面：（1）教学内容适当包含一些较难或较易的项目，（2）针对不同水平的学生问不同难度的问题，（3）设计的教学活动尽可能让全体同学都参与。

4. 学生谈话与教师谈话

备课时要充分考虑教师与学生的谈话时间。一般的英语课上，总是教师说得多， 学生说得少。要注意让学生有较多的机会进行交际。

作文考察的是学生综合语文运用能力，有些考生会比较害怕作文，今天就和那些作文比较差的、害怕写作文的同学们分享一个高考作文的小技巧：

第1段150字左右

写出中心论点，首选单句形式，且是判断句或肯定句。绝对不用复句(复句容易走题，影响得分)，点出写作的由头，作文题中含有的提示性文字材料，一定要有所涉及。

第2段200字左右

段首讲述分论点一，如第一节的内容是几个分论点的简单组合，则“分论点一”适宜放在段尾。这样和分论点二、分论点三的位置区别开来，使行文有变化。“分论点一”论证不许举例，采用纯分析的说理论据展开。

第3段200字左右

段首讲述分论点二，采用举例论证，首选作文题提示中的例子来分析论证，同时也可辅助一个自己举的例子，自己举的例子要比前例文字少。如没有作文题提示中的例子，则自己举个典型的例子来分析论证，同样要求叙写例子的文字一定要比分析论证的文字少。否则对文体特征会产生重创，影响得分。

第4段200字左右

段首讲述分论点三。采用联系实际举例。这是写作本文的时代意义所在。联系的实际可以是学习、生活、社会任何一个方面，目的是或提高思想认识，或明确是非正邪，或提出解决的方法途径，或揭示某种疑难迷惑，总之要给人以启发。

第5段150字左右

要再现中心论点，扣住中心论点写出作用、意义、号召、展望等。

文化散文是应时代发展而生的新鲜事物。它没有文体与题材上的严格界限，但只要我们掌握了写作的一些基本要领和技巧，就能写出一手底蕴深厚、神韵灵动的好文章来。下面是小编为你带来的高考作文之散文写作技巧2017，欢迎阅读。

一、选取熟悉的题材，做个性化的分析。

文化散文最大的特征就是抒写文化名人、自然与社会风物或是从历史掌故中进行独到深刻的分析。它需要写作者支撑起较为广阔的时空背景，突出作品的文化意味和文化氛围。如果我们对所写内容不够熟悉，缺少较为独特的感悟，那么就很难写出新鲜的、富含生命气息的文化散文。

请看北京高考优秀作文《老舍与北京》的开头部分：“我看见祥子手里拨弄着现洋，心中盘算着买车，嘴里念叨着自己的小九九，身旁老北京洋车黑漆漆的车身、亮晶晶的瓦圈，闪着光;我看见王顺发忙着擦桌子码茶碗招呼客人，手里拎着老北京的大茶壶，壶嘴徐徐吐着水雾;我看见祁家正房的清水脊子旁石榴正红，天井的八仙桌上老北京的兔儿爷昂首挺胸，老太爷微笑点头;我看见沙子龙直视徒众一言不发，心中暗道：‘不传!不传!’，堂前老北京那只镖局长枪，静静倚立墙角，与主人遥相呼应……”从这个写作片断来看，作者对老舍先生的作品非常熟悉，因而，在谈及老舍与北京的关系时，作者是如鱼得水，事例信手拈来，分析独到深刻，巧妙地把这些早已植根于北京人脑海的形象和那段苦难的历史联系起来，情理交融，个性独具，是极富北京韵味的奇文佳作。

二、写历史，要富含时代气息。

文化散文通常以历史事件或与历史有关的风情事物为载体。但写历史如果仅仅停留于感怀和低沉的抒情层面，未免就使文章的主旨立意缺少高度。写历史，一定要把现实意蕴透露出来，做到以史写实，以事传情，用缥缈虚幻的情境抒写现实情感。

如高考山东某考生《梦想在现实中起舞》中的片断：“阮籍目睹世间的浑噩不堪和好友的身首异处，借醉酒逃避现实。他的一生一直在逃避、逃避、逃避，却终因一篇《为郑冲对晋王笺》被人唾弃。嵇康则完全生活在现实之中，不肯向生活做出任何妥协，最终一曲《广陵散》成为绝响。其实人生由阮籍的醉酒向前一步便是嵇康的《广陵散》，人生由嵇康的《广陵散》向后退一步便是阮籍的醉酒，殊途同归的境遇竟是如此迥异。若是两人各向中间迈出一步，将幻想与现实稍加中和，也许就不会落得生者隐入迷幻，死者融入苍穹，只留给后人无尽的怅惘。”文章最后的议论很能调和历史与现实的关系，最终使自己要表达的观点得到深刻的印证，将梦想与现实的取与舍说得含蓄又透彻，充分展示了写作者敏锐的观察和分析能力。

三、用细节表现全貌，现不尽之意于言外。

文化散文不应只是对古迹的凭吊，对有关历史事实的简单复述。它需要写作者精细的审美情趣与文化载体的巧妙融合。借助细节来抒写文化自身的魅力，或是通过想象的细节还原所写文化名人的生活真实，必能增加文章的厚重韵味，增添文化散文的真实性、可感性。

余秋雨的文化散文《道士塔》中有一段关于王道士生活起居的描写：“王道士每天起得很早，喜欢到洞窟里转转，就像一个老农，看看他的宅院。”接下去，作者用浓重的笔墨详细地描写了王道士对敦煌文物的毁坏。这样的细节描绘，未必是历史上真实的一幕。但我们都愿意倾向于相信它的真实，因为它写出了一个柔弱民族在那个痛苦年代里特有的愚昧与黑暗，正是这块遍地呻吟的老大帝国的疆土，才造就了这样一个时代的畸形儿——王道士。它勾起了我们对王道士的轻蔑和鄙视，更让我们的心底翻起滔滔不绝的仇恨的怒涛。没有细节的想象和描写，这种艺术效果是难以收到的。

导语：话题作文是今年来的中考作文的热点，下面小编带来话题作文的写作技巧，一起来看看吧!

话题作文要求宽松，没有审题障碍，看起来比较好写，但恰恰是因为这一点，往往易让学生走进误区。因此，以下几点尤其应该引起注意

1、不要把话题当文章。

话题作文的导语提供的是写作范围，并非作文题目。人家的话题是什么，你就以什么为题，否则就有可能出现不应有的失误，出力不讨好。

2、不要以为“文体不限”就是“不要文体”。

如果不管文体，信马由缰，文章就会不伦不类。所以一定要选定一种文体，然后按这一文体的有关要求写作。

3、不要摘录导语。

不少考生误将导语作为材料作文的“材料”，一开篇就“引”入文中，然后才开始或编述故事，或展开议论，这样的开篇自然也就成为文章的一大败笔。

4、不要泛泛而谈。

有些学生“拿”起话题就写，根本没考虑“大题小做”，浮光掠影，泛泛而谈，致使作文中充满了大话、假话、空话、套话，全文找不出明晰的中心。

5、不要游离“话题”。

少数同学对“话题”不假思索，写出来的文章根本没有触及话题，甚至与“话题有关的词眼也找不到，完全成了自由作文。因此，写作前一定要读懂“话题”，写作中一定要扣住话题。其实，有的文章只要在恰当的地方点示一下话题，文章就不担心离题了。

At our school , we have to wear uniforms every day. The problem is that all my classmates think the uniforms are ugly. We think young people should look smart and so we would like to wear our own clo

At our school , we have to wear uniforms every day. The problem is that all my classmates think the uniforms are ugly. We think young people should look smart and so we would like to wear our own clothes. Our teachers believe that if we did that. We would concentrate more on our clothes than our studies.We disagree. We should feel more comfortable and thate is good for studying. If we can’t do that, we should be allowed to design our own uniforms. We also think everyone should be different from others. That would be a good way to keep both teachers and students happy.

[中考英语作文欣赏：My view on school uniform

a.体育运动的好处

b. 体育运动可能带来的副作用

c. 我参加体育活动的体会

Sports do us good in many respects (TS). It goes without saying that taking exercises can build up our physical strength. In collective sports like basketball, volleyball, or football, we will learn the importance of cooperation. While taking part in sports game, we will try our best to win and arouse ourselves the competitive spirit. Sports can also help us relax after a period of exhausting work. However, as the saying goes, "there are two sides to everything", and sports is without exception. We may hurt other players or ourselves if we are not careful enough when participating in sports activities. Whats more, excessive or severe training can do harm to our health.

My participation in sports tells me that sports can make us healthy both physically and psychologically. It is also a good way for people to know each other and can promote friendship between people. So long as we are carefully enough, sports can do us nothing but good.

[中考英语的作文——体育运动的好处和坏处

1. We re often told that ......But is this really the case ?

我们经常被告知......但事实真是这样吗？

2. People used to ......however , things are quite different today .

过去，人们习惯......但,今天的情况有很大的不同。

3.some people think that ......Others believe that the opposite is true . There is probably some truth in both sides．But we must realize that ......

一些人认为......另一些人持相反意见。也许双方的观点都有一定道理。但是我们必须认识到......

4.Recognizing a problem is the first step in finding a solution .

认识到问题是找到解决办法的第一步。

5. It is another new and bitter truth we must learn to face .

这是一个我们必须学会面对的痛苦的新情况。

6. In short , we must work hard to make the world a better place .

简而言之，为了把世界变成更美好的地方，我们必须勤奋工作。

7.Lost time is never found again.

岁月既往，一去不回。

8.Everybody should have a dream.

每个人都该有个梦想.

9.Hope for the best, but prepare for the worst.

抱最好的愿望,做最坏的打算。

10.Failure is the mother of success.

失败乃成功之母。

11.Lets look on the bright side.

让我们往好处想吧。

[中考英语作文万能格式佳句

纵览全国历年优秀作文，不难发现，语言的出彩和深刻的文化思考就是大多数文章成功的主要原因。如何才能在作文中做到这两点呢?其中一个有效的方法就是巧妙地使用诗词，用诗词打扮自己作文的语言，用诗词为文章增加文化的厚度。

在作文中用好诗词的途径很多，或是利用诗词巧拟标题，或是妙用为题记，或是化用诗词故事、结构构思自己的作文。在这里我们重点来讲讲如何在文章语段中使用诗词增添文采。

一是直接引用诗词。

一般可以围绕话题，发散思维，搜寻相关的诗词，排比成文。比如下面关于“生命”主题的一段文字，就是引用了四位诗人的诗句对“生命”作了解释：

生命就是龚自珍“落红不是无情物，化作春泥更护花”的献身精神;生命就是文天祥“人生自古谁无死，留取丹心照汗青”的浩然正气;生命就是苏东坡“一蓑风雨任平生”的超脱与豁达;生命就是杜甫“感时花溅泪，恨别鸟惊心”的无奈与感伤。

直接引用诗词让我们亲切地感受到了这四位诗人的形象，而排比成文更显示了作者对语言的把握能力，使文章的文采“跃然纸上”。再比如作文《望月》中的一个片段：

“惟江上之清风，与山间之明月，耳得之而为声，目遇之而成色，取之不尽，用之不竭，是造物者之无尽藏也，而吾与子之所共适也。”月是我们应该珍惜的人人共享的天赐之福。“花间一壶酒，独酌无相亲。举杯邀明月，对影成三人。”月是我们招之即来，尽可倾诉的知己。“床前明月光，疑是地上霜。举头望明月，低头思故乡。”月是游子思乡念亲的一杯苦茶。“人生代代无穷己，江月年年望相似。不知江月待何人，但见长江送流水。”月又是我们参透历史，顿悟人生的一剂良药。

对诗句的引用和评价淋漓尽致地将作者对诗词的分析鉴赏和感悟能力展现在了我们面前，让那轮万古的明月高悬在我们的上空，使我们遥想百年、千年之前古人的梦想，使文章有了深刻的文化思考。

一是化用诗词。

所谓化用，就是截取诗词的某一部分直接变成我们作文语言或者是用自己的语言去演绎诗词的意境。比如下面这些语段：

乐观就是那直上青天里的一行白鹭;乐观就是那沉舟侧畔的万点白帆;乐观就是那鹦鹉洲头随风拂动的萋萋芳草;乐观就是那化作春泥更护花的点点落红。——话题“乐观”片段

在众人皆醉的麻木空气中，你选择了清醒;在众人皆浊的恶浊世道上，你选择了清白。褪去了华服，你选择了荷叶制的衣裳;逐出了京城，你选择了汨罗江的波涛。——《面对选择》片段

出自内心真诚的心灵选择，才能勾画鹦鹉洲上的萋萋芳草，才能点化二十四桥的清风明月，才能渲染香炉峰间的日照紫烟。——《美丽一次》片段

是的，摒除了浮华，去掉了雕饰，我们就像一枝出自清水的芙蓉，透着迷人的清香。——《简单》片段

天空中一丝云儿飘过，淡淡的、自由自在，你觉得真好，这就是语文;初升的朝阳光芒万丈，你觉得生机勃发，这就是语文;如血的残阳映红半边天，让人无限留恋，别忘了这也是语文。语文是那巍巍昆仑，是那草叶上久久不肯滴落的露珠，是古城旧都中国色天香的牡丹;语文是那无声的冷月，是那静谧的荷塘，是秦皇岛外滔天白浪里的打渔船，是那青天里的一行白鹭，是那沉舟侧畔的万点白帆，是那山重水复后的柳暗花明。——《冷香飞上语文》

这些文字没有直接引用杜甫、刘禹锡、龚自珍等的诗句，而是将他们诗句中的意象搬用过来作为自己作文语言中的一个成分或是作者用自己的语言对诗句的意境进行大胆的描写。这样的语段让我们联想起诗句的意境，带领我们进入似曾相似的诗歌意境，但是又能感受到作文创作者的心声。同样它也能增加文章的文采。

当然写作这样的语段，最重要的是作者对诗词的分析、感悟和概括能力。如果不明白诗的意境，随便套用，那便是“画虎不成反类犬”了。

导语：抗日战争对中国造成了巨大的人员和财产损失，战争过程中民众的国家观念得到了增强，战争的胜利极大的提高了中国在世界舞台上的地位。下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的中考作文素材，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

中国抗日战争，是1937年7月7日～1945年8月15日中国抵抗日本侵略的一场民族性的全面战争，战场主要在中国大陆。1931年9月18日，日本侵占中国东北三省;1937年7月7日，其发动全面侵华战争;中国人民奋起抗日，拉开了全面抗日战争的序幕。在战争初期，中国投入大量军队以遏制日军的进攻;随后交战双方即转入相持，中共领导的敌后力量逐渐发展壮大，1941年12月7日日本发动太平洋战争后，美国的罗斯福政府正式对日宣战，中国战场成为第二次世界大战的主战场之一。1945年8月15日，日本向包括中国在内的同盟国无条件投降。抗日战争对中国造成了巨大的人员和财产损失，战争过程中民众的国家观念得到了增强，战争的胜利极大的提高了中国在世界舞台上的地位。

战争阶段第一阶段

从1937年7月卢沟桥事变到1938年10月广州、武汉失守，是战略防御阶段。

卢沟桥事变揭开了全国抗战的序幕。当时，日本侵略者把国民党作为主要作战对象，所以由国民党军担负的正面战场是抗击日军进攻的主要战场。在全国抗战初期，国民党表现了一定的抗日积极性，先后进行了平津会战、淞沪会战、忻口会战、徐州会战、太原会战、武汉会战等重要战役，并取得了台儿庄战役的胜利，阻滞了日军的推进，粉碎了日军3个月灭亡中国的狂妄企图。但是，由于国民党在政治上实行单纯依靠政府和军队的片面抗战路线，在军事上则采取单纯防御的战略方针，所以，尽管国民党军队的许多官兵对日军的进攻进行了英勇的抵抗，但正面战场的战局仍非常不利，先后丢失了华北、华中的大片领土，国民政府亦迁都重庆。而中国共产党代表中华民族的根本利益，提出一条依靠人民群众的全面抗战的路线。1937年8月下旬，共产党领导的红军主力改编为国民革命军第八路军，开赴华北抗日前线;10月间，南方各省的红军游击队也改编为新四军，开赴华中前线。八路军和新四军深入敌后，开辟敌后战场，主要从战略上配合国民党军作战。

战争阶段第二阶段

从1938年10月至1943年12月，是战略相持阶段。

随着战局的扩大，战线的延长和长期战争的消耗，日军的财力、物力、兵力严重不足，已无力再发动大规模的战略进攻。敌后游击战争的发展和抗日根据地的扩大，使日军在其占领区内只能控制主要交通线和一些大城市，广大农村均控制在以八路军、新四军为主的中国军队手中。1938年9月，中国共产党召开了六届六中全会，毛泽东提出了中国共产党在民族战争中的地位问题，批判和克服了王明的右倾机会主义路线，坚持了独立自主的原则，保证了抗日战争的胜利进行。在此阶段，日本的侵华方针有了重大变化：逐渐将其主要兵力用于打击在敌后战场的八路军和新四军，而对国民党政府则采取以政治诱降为主的方针。日本侵略军集中了大部分兵力和几乎全部伪军，对中国共产党领导的敌后抗日根据地进行了残酷的“大扫荡”。抗日根据地军民开展了艰苦的斗争，坚决地进行反“扫荡”、反“蚕食”斗争，敌后战场逐渐成为抗日战争的主要战场。在日本政府的诱降下，国民政府内亲日派头子汪精卫公开投降。1940年3月，他在南京成立了伪国民政府，组织伪军，协同日本侵略军进攻抗日根据地。同时，国民党的反共倾向也日渐增长，蒋介石采取“消极抗日，积极反共”的政策，掀起了三次反共高潮，妄图消灭共产党和敌后抗日根据地。中国共产党坚持“发展进步势力，争取中间势力，孤立顽固势力”的方针，领导XX区军民一面抗击日伪军的“大扫荡”，一面打退了国民党的三次反共高潮，巩固和发展了抗日根据地。至1943年12月，日军在兵力严重不足的情况下，被迫收缩战线，华北方面军停止向抗日根据地的进攻。

战争阶段第三阶段

从1944年1月XX区战场局部反攻至1945年8月日本宣布无条件投降，是战略反攻阶段。

1944年，共产党领导的敌后军民在华北、华中、华南地区，对日伪军普遍发起局部反攻。与此同时，国民党正面战场却出现了大溃败的局面，先后丧失了河南、湖南、广西、广东等省的大部分和贵州省的一部。1945年，八路军、新四军向日军发动了大规模的春、夏季攻势，扩大了XX区，打通了许多XX区之间的联系。当时，由于国民党军队主力分散在中国的西南、西北大后方地区，日军占领的大部分城镇、交通要道和沿海地区都处在XX区军民的包围之中，因此全面反攻的任务，自然地主要由敌后抗日根据地的人民军队来进行。1945年5月，苏军攻克柏林，德军正式向盟军投降，第二次世世界大战欧洲战场的战争宣告结束。1945年8月，美国军队在太平洋战场上对日作战胜利，逼近日本本土。8月6日和9日，美国在日本的广岛、长崎投掷了两颗原子弹。

8月8日，苏联政府对日宣战，出兵中国东北。8月9日，毛泽东发表了《对日寇的最后一战》的声明，要求八路军、新四军及其他人民军队，在一切可能的条件下，对一切不愿投降的侵略者及其走狗实行广泛的进攻。1945年8月14日，日本政府照会美、英、苏、中四国政府，宣布接受《波茨坦公告》。8月15日，日本天皇裕仁以广播“终战诏书”的形式正式宣布日本无条件投降。9月2日，日本投降的签字仪式在停泊于日本东京湾的美国战列舰“密苏里号”上举行。9月9日，在南京陆军总部举行的中国战区受降仪式上，日本驻中国侵略军总司令冈村宁次代表日本大本营在投降书上签字，并交出他的随身佩刀，以表示侵华日军正式向中国缴械投降。至此，抗日战争胜利结束。

整个抗日战争期间，中国军队共进行大规模和较大规模的会战22次，重要战役200余次，大小战斗近20万次，总计歼灭日军150余万人、伪军118万人。战争结束时，接收投降日军128万余人，接收投降伪军146万余人。关于八年抗战中国的损失，抗战胜利后，抗战赔偿委员会作出的《中国责令日本赔偿损失之说贴》指出，沦陷区有26省1500余县市，面积600余万平方公里，人民受战争损害者至少在2亿人以上。自1937年7月7日至战争结束，我军伤亡331万多人，人民伤亡842万多人，其他因逃避战火，流离颠沛，冻饿疾病而死伤者更不可胜计。直接财产损失313亿美元，间接财产损失204亿美元，此数尚不包括东北、台湾、海外华侨所受损失及41.6亿美元的军费损失和1000多万军民伤亡损害。此外，七七事变以前中国的损失未予计算;中共敌后抗日所受损失也不在内。经过中国历史学家多年研究考证、计算得出，在抗日战争中，中国军民伤亡共3500多万人，中国损失财产及战争消耗达5600余亿美元。