0

自考英语写作基础教程(最新20篇)

导语:我就是我,是有颜色不一样的烟火。哈哈哈。以下是小编为大家收集的几篇这就是我英语作文。供大家参考阅读。希望喜欢。

浏览

6016

作文

670

记叙文的写作基础

全文共 2893 字

+ 加入清单

记叙文是以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主,以写人物的经历和事物发展变化为主要内容的一种文体形式。小编收集了描写记叙文的写作基础,欢迎阅读。

一、记叙文的概念和特点

[记叙文的概念]

记叙文,是叙述、描写人物、事件、景物的文章。

即通过人物的言行、事情的经过,来表达一定的中心思想。

或者说,记叙文是通过记叙人物、事件,来表明作者思想感情的一种文体。

记叙文不是狭义的文体概念,它是泛指以叙述、描写为主的写人、记事、写景、状物等文章。写人、记事、摹景、状物均属广义的记叙,以这些表达方式为主的文章,叫记叙文。

[ 记叙文的特点]

1、以人、事、物、景为写作对象;

2、以叙述、描写为主要表达方式;

3、通过对事物的描述,用来反映现实生活,表达作者的思想感情。

4、记叙文的主题,一般是通过对人事物的描述表现出来煌,而不是由作直接讲出来的。

【记叙文·写作】二、记叙文的类型

A、一般来说, 记叙文分为两种:

第一种是“简单记叙文”:只记一人一事,篇幅比较短小;

另一种是“复杂记叙文”:所记的人和事件,不限于一个或一件;写作方法也比较复杂。

记叙文包括范围很广 ,童话、故事、散文、游记、参观记、消息、通讯、报告文学、人物传记、回忆录、家史、短篇小说、长篇小说,都属于记叙文的范畴。

B、记叙文本身也较复杂,它又可公为四种类型:

写人、记事、写景、状物。

写人、记事,只是侧重不同,二者密不可分。写人要叙事;记事要有人。只是人、事在不同的文章里描述的程度不同:

写景、状物有密切关系,其实质是咏物抒情,“情景作文”是二者合一之体现。景也是物(是有观赏价值的物),关键在“情”,然“情”之依托物,乃景、物及表达方式(叙述、描写、议论等)。

【记叙文·写作】三、记叙文的表达方式

记叙文的主要表达方式是记叙和描写,但它并不排斥议论、说明和抒情。

复杂的记叙文,往往是叙述、描写、议论、和抒情相互结合。

为什么会这样来表达呢?

1、因为在记叙文中,所写的人、所记的事、所描摹的事物,总要有作者的看法,总要表达自已的感情。

这种对人或事物发表看法,进行评论——这就是“议论”;

这种对人或事物,表达自已的爱憎感情——这就叫“抒情”。

2、一篇好的记叙文,,不能单纯叙述、描写,而要在叙述、描写过程中,夹以议论、抒情。

3、写记叙文 ,除了运用主要表达方式(记叙和描写)外 ,为了突出形象、加深主题,常常用到到议论、抒情和说明;但议论、抒情应恰到好处使文章更形象生动,更富有感染力,起到画龙点睛的作用。

从上述可见:叙述、描写——是记叙文的主要表达方式;

议论、抒情——是记叙文常用的表达方式。

【记叙文·写作】四、记叙文的“六要素” (上) (上)">

1、记叙文的“六要素”

所谓“六要素”,就是人物、时间、地点、事件发生的原因、经过、结果。

任何一篇完整的记叙文字,都不能缺少其中任何一项,否则,叙述就会出现疑窦,出现悬念;或者有头无尾,线索中断;或者来路不明,无中生有。

2、记叙文的“六要素”也是叙述、记事的“六要素”。

3、怎样理解 “六要素”?

因为一件事情,都要发生在一定的时间、一定的环境(地点)里,有一定的人物参加。凡事情都有其起因(原因)、经过、结果。这些都是写记叙文的主要内容,必须写具体,重点内容要写详细、写充实,才能达到一篇记叙文的写作目的。

要想把一件事情说清楚,只有将与这事情有关的主要因素,交代清楚,就能把这个故事(事情、事件),即文章,显得完整、有条理。

也只有把六要素,交代清楚了,才能更好地表现主题思想。

四、记叙文的“六要素” (下):灵活运用“六要素

在文章中,如何处理 “六要素”呢?

——要根据文章的实际情况,灵活地加以运用。

A、用三个“要素”,就能写成文章。

写一篇文章,对所写的人物、事件,都要有所侧重。只要能抓住其中三个要素,就可以写出一篇好篇文章。

在“六要素”中,时间、地点是最主要的要素。

因为 ,一切事物都存在一定的时间、地点(空间)里;一切事物又都是在一定的时间、空间内发生,发展,进行演变的。

所以, 时间、地点,必须交代清楚(交代即可,不等要详写)。

在一篇文章里,只要抓住不同的时间、地点的变化,就能突出典型环境、典型人物,就能写同很有特色的记叙文章来。

B、“六要素”的位置。

时间、地点——通常在文章前面作简要交化;

人物——随事件发展,陆续登场;

吸引人结果——作倒叙方法描述;

还可以最后交代原因——以作悬念。

C、有时,有的要素,可不用出现。

“六要素”,是否在文中都得出现?——这要从实际情况而定。

若,时间、地点,是人所共知的;或由其他之描述也能反映出来的;或不交代也没有多大影响的要素——则可省略不写。

如果事件的结果是显而易见的——结局可以不写,以给人留下回味之余地。

D、以时间为例,看“六要素”的交代方法可灵活多样。

□ 一般的交代:

×年×月×日

早晨、中午、傍晚

○ 代替法:

通过“太阳升起来了”、“烈日当空”、“夕阳西下”“夜幕降临”、“天边染上了红霞”等来代替时间的变化。

◎ 精确到:

时、分、秒

※ 大概:

“以前”、“古时候”、“前不久”、“最近”。

【记叙文·写作】五、记叙文的写作要略(一)、定要素

记叙文的写作,要从三个方面入手:

定要素;

搭架子;

会表达。

【定要素】

[相同点]

时间、地点——这是写文章的共同要素,一般都应写入文章。

[不同点]

一是,对人物和事件,在每篇目文章里的“侧重点”不同,所以各类文章的主体部分(主要内容)的重点内容也不同(或人、事、物、景)。

写人=时间+地点+人;

记事=时间+地点+事(原因、经过、结果);

写景=时间+地点+景(过去、现在、未来);

状物=时间+地点+物;

抒情=时间+地点+情(见景生情、睹物思人)。

【记叙文·写作】五、记叙文的写作要略(二)、搭架子

记叙文的写作,要从三个方面入手:

定要素;

搭架子;

会表达。

(二)、搭架子

搭架子——这是记文的结构安排问题。

开头——要简明、要点题。

中间——有“六定”:

1、定(分)段;

2、定各段详略;

3、定事——记一事或几事(一详,余略);

4、定人——写一人或几人(一主,余从);

5、定表达——以叙述为主,兼议论或抒情;;

6、定过渡、照应——使文章曲折、波澜。

结尾——要扣题;收束有力、发人深省、令人回味。

【记叙文·写作】五、记叙文的写作要略(三)、善表达

要善于运用各种表达方式,写好记叙文。

这就必须知道各种表达方式的作用和表现方法。这也是写作中的大事。

叙述、描写——是记叙文的主要表达方式;

[叙述]

叙述是作者对人物、事件、环境作一般交代和说明,不作细致刻画。

一般用在:具体情节,事情因、果、经过的叙述。

[描写]

描写是对人物、事件、环境所作的绘声绘色、细致入微的描写和刻画。要用生动富有感情的、形象的语言,着重刻画人、事、物的具体状态和细节特征。

议论、抒情——是记叙文兼用的表达方式。

[议论]

记叙文的议论,是为了直接点明和加深所写事物的意义,即文章的中心思想。

在记叙文中穿插的议论,可起到画龙点睛作用;有的在段落之间加上一两句议论,还可起到承上启下作用。

记叙文中的议论,可先叙后议,也可先议后叙;有的是不直接对人、事、物发表议论,而是由文中的人物去发议论、作评价

展开阅读全文

更多相似作文

篇1:应用文写作基础知识

全文共 2898 字

+ 加入清单

立意

立意的含义:

应用文写作的目的性:1、阐明写作者的主张、观点、意图。2、下达指示、传达政策、布置工作、通知事项。3、传递信息、交流情况、总结经验。

应用文的主旨:应用文的主旨就是写作者(或个人单位)通过全篇内容表达出来的贯穿全文的写作意图、观点和公务活动的行为意向。它具体表现在以下几个方面。

1、应用文的主旨是写作者通过全篇内容表达出来的贯穿全文的写作意图。

2、应用文的主旨是写作者通过全篇内容表达出来的观点。

3、应用文的主旨是写作者通过全篇内容表达出来的公务活动的行为意向。

应用文的立意:立意就是确立应用文的主旨。立意是写作者酝酿、斟酌的过程,主旨就是立意的结果。主旨在应用文写作中的地位决定了立意的重要性。立意直接影响主旨的质量优劣和成败。

立意的特点:

1.客观性:主观性:观念性:时代性:

立意的要求:

1.准确:深刻:鲜明:

2.集中:

3.新颖:

4.立意的依据:

1.具体工作的需要:客观实际需要:以材料为基础

2.立意的方法:大体有以下几种

1、对比筛选:分析归纳:

2、集思广益:

第二节 选准角度:

谋篇的含义:是指作者组织材料,设计、安排结构的过程。通常,谋篇又叫安排文章的篇章结构。

谋篇的内容

一、材料的组织

1.材料的含义:材料是指为写作而搜集。准备的具有一定意义和价值的资料。

原始材料:平时有意识采撷和积累而未写入文章的材料,称原始材料。 资料:可以为应用文写作服务的那些文书、档案、报刊、图书、文献材料,称为资料。

(1)、材料是提出问题的依据

(2)、主旨依靠材料加以说明和支撑

2.、材料的搜集

.直接材料和间接材料

直接材料是作者在深入生活、工作实践中亲自观察、体验、感受和经历所得到的第一手材料。

间接材料是作者从现成的书面文字材料和别人转述的材料中得到的又称二手资料。

(1).历史材料和现实材料

(2).正面材料和反面材料

(3)具体材料和概括材料

具体材料是多指反映局部问题、个别事例、特殊情况的个别性材料。

概括材料是指反映全局的问题、整体概貌、一般情况的综合材料。 3、搜集出来的方法

(1).观察与体验。

观察就 体验是

.调查研究。

即使指综合运用观察、体验、查询、阅读等手段,采用开座谈会、个别访问、现场了解、蹲点调查、问卷调查等方法获取所需材料,从中探求事物的性质、特点和规律。

(2)积累、查阅资料。

内容包括报刊资料、图书资料、档案文献资料,单位、部门在工作中形成的各种书面文字质料,各种文件、法规汇编、统计报表、音像资料,个人笔记、日记等。 4、材料的选择

(1).以主旨为中心:鉴别真伪,选取真实准确的材料挑选能反映事物本质与特点的材料:、要选择新颖的材料:所谓新颖材料,一是指新近发生的事实;二是虽非新近发生却为新近发现而鲜为人知的事实;三是虽为人知因被变换视角而具有新意的材料;

新颖的材料,是具有新鲜性和感染力,能增强文章的可读性。

5、材料的组织

(1).要主次有序:直接说明表现主旨的重要材料,应置于主要核心地位;配合或间接说明、表现主旨的材料,应置于次要。 (2).要详略得当:骨干材料、核心材料,要注意详尽;过度材料、交待性材料或意义有所重复的材料要相应从略。

(3)要归类使用:所谓材料的组合,即根据材料的性质及相互关系将材料归类使用。

二、结构的安排

1、结构的含义:“结构”这个词,原来是建筑学中的术语,指建筑物的骨架或内部构造。后人借用来称文章的组织构造,又称谋篇布局。

应用文的结构内容包括:一是确定文章的基本格式。二是安排好正文的组织结构。

结构具有两方面的作用:(1)可以根据主旨的需要,把全部内容纳入恰当的结构形式中,使主旨得到正确体现,材料有所依附,文章构成一个有机整体。(2)可以按照作者的思路,把观点和材料加以适当地组织,使文章有条理、有层次,纲举目张,和谐有序。

2、结构的特点:(1)格式化:(2)单一化:(3)条理化:(4)严密化:

3、结构的安排:写文章必须讲究结构,因为只有按照主题的需要,对材料加以精心的组织,妥帖的安排,文章才能条理清楚、层次分明、前后连贯、主旨鲜明,才能有好的表达效果,使文章发挥应有的作用。

开头:结尾:结尾

应用文的结尾又几种形式:

1.总结式:。

2.强调式:

3.呼应式:。

4.请求式:。

5.展望式:。

层次:又叫意义段,它是应用文章思想内容的有序体现。其层次间的结构形式不外乎有并列式、总分式、递进式、主从式等几种形式。

应用文的段落表现形式有两种:条款式和提行式。

应用文的过度方式主要有三种,即词语过渡、句子过渡、段落过渡。

4、结构的形式

常见的应用文结构的形式主要有:纵式结构、横式结构、纵横式结构、条款是结构、一段式结构。

三、谋篇的原则

1、服从文章主旨的需要:

2、反映客观事物的发展规律和内部联系:适应不同文体的要求:文体不同,结构的样式和要求也会不同。

3、为读者着想:

语言含义:是思想的载体,是人类最重要的交际工具,是使应用文文章内容得以完美表达的文字符号。

应用文语言的特点:

一 规范性:应用文语言应符合社会的、时代的、科学的语言标准。其中最重要的一条是,应用文语言要符合现代汉语普通话的语言标准。

1 .文字必须用简化字

2.词汇必须遵守现代汉语普通话词语规范

二 专门性:应用文在长期实践中逐渐成为人们所沿用的规范性的语言。

1.事务性词汇:

2.专业术语:

三 平实庄重:是指应用文语言的平直朴实。

应用文语言的要求

1.精确:

2.正确:

3.简练:

4.平易:

应用文语言的表达方式

应用文的写作过程中,当主旨已确定,材料已齐备,结构已安排好,接着就是运用语言文字的手段以及不同的方法,将它们充分、具体、完美地表达出来。这个手段和方法就称为表达方式。

叙述:以具体说明事物的特征等等。

叙述六要素:即何人、何事、何时、何地、何因、何果。

(1)叙述要客观:应用文是客观事物的真实反映,因此,表达事物时,要作客观的叙述,力求真实、准确,不带主观感情色彩。

(2)叙述要完整:

说明:是对客观事物进行解释、阐述的表达方式。它具有解说、剖析事物的状态、性质、内容、成因、规律、关系、功能等作用。

1.常用的说明方法

(1).介绍说明法:。

(2).定义说明法:

(3).解释说明法:

(4).分类说明法:。

(5).比较说明法:

(6).举例说明法:

2.在运用说明的方法时的注意事项

(1).要注意内容的科学性。

(2).要注意表达的客观性。

(3).要注意语言的简洁、明晰。准确、朴素、通俗易懂。

3.议论:

议论三要素:1、论证: 2、论据:3、论点:(1).议论的基本形式有以下两种: 立论:

驳论:

(2).议论的类型又以下两种:

述评性议论:

证明性议论:

修改

修改的含义:修改是立意的深化和继续,也是运用增、删、调、补等手段,加工初稿,完善文章的过程。

修改的范围

修改文章可以从内容和形式两个方面入手。在内容方面,可以从标题。主旨、材料方面进行修改;在形式方面,可以从结构、语言、以及行款格式、标点符号等方面进行修改。

1.标题的修改 2.主旨的修改 3.材料的修改 4.结构的修改

5.语言的修改 6.性款格式的修改 7.标点符号的修给

修改的方法

1.出头梳理,理清思路 2.注意细节,字斟句酌 3.冷处理法

展开阅读全文

篇2:浅谈高中话题作文的写作基础

全文共 804 字

+ 加入清单

导语:如何写好高中作文,对于学生作文的写作基础也要好好的训练,话题作文的基本要求:话题作文还是要审题,所写内容必须在话题范围之内。“立意自 定”,关键要读懂话题关键词的意旨,若给出导语提示,还应划出导语中包含归结的关键语词。一般初学者,首先要注意让这些关键词贯穿在自己作文的始终,统帅 自己的文意。更多作文写作基础尽在。

如何写好高中作文,对于学生作文的写作基础也要好好的训练,实际效果又发现学生完全没有一般思想认识的基础,真正可见现在所谓合格教育的成效,和高中教学要求的“架空作业”。

一、文章形式的革命——夹叙夹议

尽快脱离初中只重记叙,笼统归结的写法。高中的作文记叙只向最高水平开一条缝,你得复杂记叙,融情思与哲理于一炉,有最动人的细节和最精美的表达,巧妙蕴 含深刻的思辨和无穷的回味,这不是一般人能做到的,更不是学不会议论抒情的同学的避难所。所以,比自己多练议论,远比固守初中记叙的窠臼要有前途。高中的 记叙必须简约,只提炼能说明自己观点的内核,而尽量舍弃叙述的完整过程与细节。叙,惜墨如金;而起始学写议,应力求具体多点分析阐述。

二、文章立意的升华——深入浅出

叙完笼统归结是初中模式作文的又一通病,常常文章的结尾具有宽泛的普适性,而缺乏对文章应有之义作具体针对性的挖掘阐发,常常文章的“穿鞋戴帽”大到可以 套在无数篇文章上,却没什么真正的思考。高中作文倘使还用夹叙夹议,也要对叙的材料反复推敲,找出几例可以统一在一个观点里的材料,就材料的不同侧面来评 析议论,最后上升归结出恰当切题、言之有物的中心。

三、文章表达的提高——点睛生花

好的文笔追求更高效率、更多意蕴。描述中就渗透情思与评析,这是较高水平的表达。一般的叙议分段,也应注意所叙材料紧贴自己的议论,议论应采取逐层推进, 前后分界,避免相互缠绕。但又必须前后连贯,形成一个整体。在文章中一定写好精心组织的关键议论,努力使文章多处呈现运用一定修辞的文采。

展开阅读全文

篇3:公共基础写作知识

全文共 2654 字

+ 加入清单

一、公共基础知识写作知识——公布性文件的特点

公布性公文的一般特点是:公文一经形成即直接公之于众,无保密要求;受文者不仅包括各种机关团体等社会组织,而且包括个人甚至主要是个人;所涉及事项性质重要且具有普遍意义或重复发生的特点;除少部分公文为重要消息只需国内或国内国外各方面广泛知晓外,大部分公文对有关方面的行为具有强制约束力,要求严格遵守施行;有关规范多为 政策且是反复适用的,所涉及的是多数人和普遍性事务而非特定具体的人或事,有效适用期限虽不如规范性公文长,但比一般的领导指导性公文要长远;公文公布形式多样,可直接张贴、广播,可在报刊上发表。

二、公共基础知识写作知识——公告

公布性文件的一种,用于向国内外宣布重要事项。在我国政府机关,凡重要人物逝世;党和国家重要领导人出访;召开重要会议;颁行重要法律;形成重要决议或决定;出现重要人事变动;出现一些为世界瞩目的重要事件;形成关涉国内外有关方面的重要政策或决策并需要直接向国内外宣布时,都可使用公告。

公告的正文大都比较简短,通常只说明:何时,何地,为了什么或根据什么,已经或将要发生或形成什么即可。只有少数文件涉及细节(如注意事项,详尽的政策规定等)。 公告常以“现予公告”作结,文末成文日期之后应标注“于××(地名)”。

三、公共基础知识写作知识——通告

公布性文件的一种,用于在一定范围内公布需由有关人员遵守或周知的事项。

公布需有关人员周知的事项的通告,主要是使受文者了解重要情况、重要消息,因此,文中不提出直接的执行要求,这种通告的正文一般包括:行文的根据或目的、有关消息、情况的具体内容(对象、过程、结果、原因、主张、有关政策的内容及实施的时间、范围等),结语,常用结尾词“特此通告”等表达。

公布需有关人员遵守的事项的通告,主要是向受文者交代需要其遵照执行的政策、措施及其他有关的行为规范。这些事项不仅需广泛知晓同时还以强制力令其遵行。应遵事项通告的正文主要包括:行文根据或目的;应遵事项的具体内容(一般为条文式);对遵行有关事项的基本要求和对违反者的处置办法,以及公文正式实施的时间。有时也以“特此通告”等结尾词作结。

四、公共基础知识写作知识——公文的格式主体部分

主体部分又称行文部分,这一部分是指红色反线(不含)以下至主题词(不含)之间各要素的统称。主体部分由公文标题、主送机关、公文正文、附件、成文时间、公文生效标识、附注等要素组成。

(1)标题。公文标题一般由发文机关名称、事由、文种三部分构成。它位于公文首页红色反线下空2行,用2号小标宋体字,可分一行或多行居中排布;回行时,要做到词意完整,排列对称,间距恰当。公文标题除法规、规章名称等可加书名号外,一般不用标点符号。在撰写公文标题时,发文机关名称要写全称或规范化简称,如果文件首页有发文机关标识,其标题可省略发文机关名称。事由是标题的主题部分,应准确、简炼地概括公文的主要内容。文种是公文的种类名称,用以概括揭示公文的性质与制发的目的。公文的标题通常有四种形式:一是发文机关名称、事由、文种三个要素全部具备的公文标题。二是事由和文种两个要素构成的公文标题。三是发文机关名称和公文文种两个要素构成的公文标题。四是只标明文种的公文标题。

(2)主送机关。主送机关是负有公文主要处理责任的受文机关。主送机关名称应当使用全称或规范化简称、统称。上行文一般只写一个主送机关,如需要同时报送另一上级机关,可用抄送形式。下行文可以有若干机关。有些公文,如周知性公文可以省略此项。主送机关的书写位置是:标题下空1行,左侧顶格用3号仿宋字标识,回行时仍顶格;最后一个主送机关名称后标全角冒号。如主送机关名称过多而使公文首页不能显示正文时,应将主送机关名称移至版记中的主题词之下,抄送之上,标识方法同抄送。

(3)正文。正文是公文的核心部分,用来表达公文的具体内容,体现发文机关的意图。

正文的结构一般由开头、主体和结尾三部分组成。开头部分用简洁的语言写明发文的依据、目的或原因等。主体部分是正文的核心,主要写明公文的内容或事项,做到重点突出,意见具体、明确,叙述有条理。结尾部分根据文种和行文关系的不同有不同的写法。这一部分后面将结合具体文例加以介绍。公文正文的书写位置是:主送机关名称下一行,每自然段左空2字,回行顶格。数字、年份不能回行。

(4)附件。附件是公文的附属材料。有的附件是一些文字材料,有的附件是实物如照片、图表等,应当注明所附材料的名称,件数。附件是为了避免正文过长的内容隔裂而附,对正文起说明、注释、补充、证明和参考作用。有的公文,附件是文件的主体内容,正文仅起批准、发布和按语的作用。许多法规性文件就是这样。公文如有附件,在正文下一行左空2字用3号仿宋体字标识“附件”,后标全角冒号和名称。附件如有序号使用阿拉伯数码;附件名称后不加标点符号。附件应与公文一起装订,并在附件左上角第1行顶格标识“附件”,有序号时标识序号;附件的序号和名称前后标识应一致。如附件与公文正文不能一起装订,应在附件左上角第1行顶格标识公文的发文字号并在其后标识附件(或带序号)。

(5)成文日期。公文成文日期一般以机关负责人签发的日期为准;法规、规章类公文以依法批准的时间为准;联合行文,以最后签发机关负责人的签发日期为准。

成文日期要用汉字标注,并将年、月、日标全,“零”写为“O”。

(6)公文生效标识。公章是公文生效的标志。单一机关制发的公文在落款处不署发文机关名称,只标识成文时间。成文时间右空4字;加盖印章应上距正文2㎜~4㎜,端正、居中下压成文时间,印章用红色。当印章下弧无文字时,采用下套方式,即仅以下弧压在成文时间上;当印章下弧有文字时,采用中套方式,即印章中心线压在成文时间上。当联合行文需加盖两个印章时,应将成文时间拉开,左右各空7字;主办机关印章在前;两个印章均压成文时间,印章用红色。只能采用同种加盖印章方式,以保证印章排列整齐。两印章互不相交或相切,相距不超过3mm。当联合行文需加盖3个以上印章时,为防止出现空白印章,应将各发文机关名称(可用简称)排在发文时间和正文之间。主办机关印章在前,每排最多排3个印章,两端不得超出版心;最后一排如余一个或两个印章,均居中排布;印章之间互不相交或相切;在最后一排印章之下右空2字标识成文时间。

(7)附注。附注是指需要附加说明的事项。如需解释的名词术语,或者是公文发送范围和阅读、传达对象等。公文如有附注,用3号仿宋体字,居左空2字加圆括号标识在成文时间下一行。

展开阅读全文

篇4:2024年雅思考试写作基础

全文共 1705 字

+ 加入清单

1.先进的科学技术advanced science and technology.

2.经济的快速发展the rapid development of economy

3.人民生活水平的显著提高/稳步增长the remarkable improvement/ steady growth of people’s living standard .

4.面临新的机遇和挑战be faced with new opportunities and challenges.

5.人们普遍认为It is commonly believed/ recognized that…

6.社会发展的必然结果the inevitable result of social development

7.引起了广泛的公众关注arouse wide public concern/ draw public attention.

8.不可否认It is undeniable that…/There is no denying that …

9.热烈的讨论/争论a heated discussion/ debate

10.有争议性的问题a controversial issue

11.完全不同的观点a totally different argument

12.一些人…而另外一些人… Some people… while others…

13.就我而言/就个人而言As far as I am concerned, / Personally,

14.就…达到绝对的一致reach an absolute consensus on…

15.有充分的理由支持be supported by sound reasons

16.双方的论点argument on both sides

17.发挥着日益重要的作用play an increasingly important role in …

18.对…必不可少be indispensable to …

19.正如谚语所说As the proverb goes:

20.…也不例外…be no exception

21.对…产生有利/不利的影响exert positive/ negative effects on …

22.利远远大于弊the advantages far outweigh the disadvantages.

23.导致,引起lead to/ give rise to/ contribute to/ result in

24.复杂的社会现象a complicated social phenomenon

25.责任感/成就感sense of responsibility/ sense of achievement

26.竞争与合作精神sense of competition and cooperation

27.开阔眼界widen ones horizon/ broaden ones vision

28.学习知识和技能acquire knowledge and skills

29.经济/心理负担financial burden / psychological burden

30.考虑到诸多因素take many factors into account/ consideration

31.从另一个角度from another perspective

32.做出共同努力make joint efforts

33.对…有益be beneficial / conducive to…

34.为社会做贡献make contributions to the society

35.打下坚实的基础lay a solid foundation for…

36.综合素质comprehensive quality

37.无可非议blameless / beyond reproach /above (或beyond) reproach

39.致力于/投身于be committed / devoted to…

40.应当承认Admittedly

展开阅读全文

篇5:写作基础:写景作文

全文共 1870 字

+ 加入清单

你会写描写风景的作文吗?下面是小编整理的写景作文的写作方法,希望对你有帮助!

一、写春夏秋冬和晨午暮夜的作文类型

1.描绘一年四季的景色,表达自己对大自然的热爱;

2.描绘某个地方的四季景色,表达自己对这个地方的喜爱和向往之情;

3.描绘早晚景色的变化,锻炼对自然和生活的观察能力,培养热爱生活的情感。

二、写春夏秋冬和晨午暮夜的参考题目

1.《秋天的雨》

2.《家乡的秋天》

3.《池塘春景》

4.《春在我家》

5.《校园的春天》

6.《春天的小花园》

7.《夏天的傍晚》

8.《清晨》

9.《冬天的夜晚》

10.《我爱___》(填一个季节)

11.《校园春早》

三、写春夏秋冬和晨午暮夜的参考开头

1.《家乡的秋天》的两种开头

第一种开头:在四季之中,我最爱秋天。家乡的秋天是金色的,是沉甸甸的。

第二种开头:在我们的家乡,秋天是最美好的,大街上到处都飘溢着桂花的幽香。

2.《夏天的傍晚》的两种开头

第一种开头:吃过晚饭,我和爸妈一起去平门桥上走走。

第二种开头:平门桥的傍晚是很迷人的。

3.《冬天的夜晚》的两种开头

第一种开头:妈妈有事外出了,家里只剩了我一个人。外面的北风呼呼地刮着,像一只怪兽在吼叫。

第二种开头:冬天的夜晚是那样地寒冷,那样地使人感到害怕。

四、写春夏秋冬和晨午暮夜的参考段落

1.春天来了,天气渐渐地暖和了。大地披上了绿色的新装,地上长满了嫩绿的小草,树木也发出了嫩芽,花儿在春风的吹拂中展开了花瓣,燕子在天空一边飞一边欢快地叫着,仿佛在祝贺春天的到来。

2.初夏季节,各色野花都开了,有红的,有紫的,有粉的,有黄的,就像绣在一块绿地毯上的绚丽的斑点。成群的蜜蜂在花丛中忙碌着,吸着花蕊,辛苦地飞来飞去。

3.秋天是收获的季节。柿子树上缀满了小红灯笼似的柿子,沉甸甸的,把枝头都压弯了。枫树的叶子火红火红的,像一堆正在燃烧的火焰。那梧桐树的枯叶在秋风中纷纷飘落下来,像翩翩起舞的金色蝴蝶。

4.校园里的梧桐树的叶子都落光了,只剩下枝枝杈杈伸向天空,寒风一吹,颤颤抖抖;院子的水池也结了冰。下了早读课,太阳出来了,发出淡淡的光,好像害怕寒冷似的,躲得老远老远的,不肯把暖意给我们。

5.清晨,公园里空气清新,鲜红的太阳跳出了地平线,把柔和的阳光均匀地洒在绿树草地上。花草散发出香气,绿叶散发着清新的气息。那棵枝叶繁茂的榕树,又是一派欣欣向荣的景象。

6.一个无风的中午,天气十分炎热。耀眼的阳光显得格外威严,照到人的身上就像火烤一样。地上升起的热气,仿佛划一根火柴就会点着。

7.夏夜的星空是多么的美丽啊!那些闪烁的星星是那么地平静安详,既像一只只明亮的眼睛,又像一盏盏亮晶晶的银灯,在看着我,照着我,使我产生了许许多多的遐想。

8.正当我们在天文台参观快要结束的时候,老天突然变了脸,一阵阵乌云压了下来,接着竟下起了霏霏细雨。老师催促我们快步下山。在下山时,我又注意到了佘山的绿。那密密的细雨,好像是给佘山洗了一次淋浴,满山遍野的树叶,被冲洗得翠绿闪亮,还挂满了晶莹的小水柱,这佘山雨中的绿,是闪光的绿,透明的绿,是迷人的绿,醉人的绿……

9.寒冷的冬天,雪花飘飘,校园披上了一件银白色的外衣。操场上,像铺上了一条白色的地毯。老槐树的树枝上,银白雪条闪着道道白光,校园变成了一个银妆素裹的世界。

10.晚饭后,夜幕还未把天宇完全遮盖起来,人群已经开始流向区庄。卖东西的,买东西的,逛街凑热闹的,越是入夜,越是见得人头济济。电灯亮了,一盏,十盏,百盏,千万盏,高楼大厦与地摊大排档,从高到低,从下到上,一片灯海,整个区庄又迎来了一个黑夜的白天!

11.因为云块不断流动,天边的色彩也不断变幻;因为云块形状不断变化,天边也不断出现各种各样的形象,瞬间又消退:飞禽走兽啦,花草树木啦,古今人物啦……好像是哪位伟大的画家用饱蘸夕阳余辉的彩笔,在天边这块幕布上精心描绘着一幅迷人的画卷。

12.现在已是初冬了,立冬已过了半个月。初冬的早晨和晚上,冷风中略带有一分寒意,而中午,气温又升高了,早晚与中午的温差可达十度以上。苏州的初冬,跟北方的秋天差不多,人们还没有感觉到冬天已经到了,身上还只穿了两件毛衣。

13.晨风迎面吹来,像一只大手抚摸着我们。刚刚苏醒的小草,在风中跳起了舞蹈,一颗颗晶莹的露珠纷纷从叶片上滚落了下来。一片片树叶伸了伸懒腰,吮吸了一颗颗清凉的朝露,便像小姑娘似的活跃了起来。朵朵白云如仙女一般,悠悠然飘过来。树上的小鸟唧唧喳喳地叫着,好像在向太阳,向大地,向人们问好。早晨,这是多么美好的时刻!我的每一天都是从这最美好的时刻开始的;大地上的一切也都是由这最美好的时刻开始的……

展开阅读全文

篇6:事物文书的写作基础

全文共 4219 字

+ 加入清单

事务文书是机关、团体、企事业单位在处理日常事务时用来沟通信息、安排工作、总结得失、研究问题的实用文体。小编收集了事物文书的写作基础,欢迎阅读。

第一节 事务文书的概述

事务文书是机关、团体、企事业单位在处理日常事务时用来沟通信息、安排工作、总结得失、研究问题的实用文体。

由于这类管理类文体处理的日常事务亦为公务,所以事务文书属于广义的公文范畴。它与狭义公文(行政机关12类13种,党内机关14种)的区别在于:一是无统一规定的文本格式;二是不能单独作为文件发文,需要时只能作为公文的附件行文;三是必要时它可公开面向社会,或提供新闻线索(如简报)或通过传媒宣传(如经验性总结、调查报告等)。

第二节 简报的写作

简报是机关、团体、企事业单位内部,或者是某项中心工作、某次重要会议中用的沟通信息、交流经验、反映情况、汇报工作的期刊式文字载体。其特点是文字短、内容新、反应快、形式活。

一、简报的类别

简报的名称很多,常见的有《××简报》、《××简讯》、《××信息》、《××动态》、《××通报》、《××通讯》及《内部参考》、《情况反映》等。 从不同角度对简报有不同的分类,按内容来分,可分三种。

1、综合简报

它全面、综合反映编发单位工作进展、思想动态、成绩缺点等概况。综合简报多常年定期编发,例某高校党委、校长办公室编《××工作动态》。

2、中心工作简报

它主要是为配合、推动当前某项中心工作,掌握思想动态、交流推广经验而编发。中心工作简报多在一定时期内不定期制发。例某市委路线教育工作领导小组编发《路教工作简报》。

3、会议简报

它报道会议概况,反映会议交流经验和探讨的问题,传达和贯彻会议精神和决议。会议简报用于大中型会议,视会期长短及规模在会议期间可只编发一期或多期。例某校学代会秘书组编发的《××学代会简报》。

二、简报的编写

(一)报头

简报首页上端1/3处由分割线将报头与文稿部分分开,报头由以下四个必备要素构成:①、简报名称,一般套红、居中、字体稍大印刷;②、期数,印于简报名称正下方;③、编印机关,一般为制发简报单位的办公部门或中心工作领导小组及会议的秘书处(组),要求用全称或规范化简称印于分割线左上方;④、编印日期,印于分割线右上方,要求年月日齐全。除以上四个要素,视简报内容,保密要求,还可以增加简报编号、密级(或使用范围和要求)等要素。

(二)文稿

根据文体性质和文稿来源,简报的体式可分四种:一是报道体,它及时、简明、准确地叙述、报告部门、行业、系统、领域内最新发生的新情况、新动态。其文体十分类似动态消息、动态信息;二是汇篇体,这是在众多稿源基础上剪辑而成的类似综合消息的简报文体,其信息量大面广,能做到点面结合反映全局性情况;三是总结体,其文章即一般意义的总结,但内容有典型性有推广价值,编入简报能发挥其指导一般的作用;四是转引体,即将他单位有参考借鉴意义的材料完整地或篇段地摘编转引。

1、按语

按语是代简报编制机关立言,是对文稿及使用作出说明、评价,如说明材料来源、转引目的、转发范围,表明对简报内容的倾向性意见及表示对所提问题引起讨论研究的希望等等。按语的位置在报头下,标题前。它视需要而使用,并非每篇必有。一般在转引体、总结体及重要的报道体、汇篇体简报文章前才配用按语。

按语可分三种类型:一是题解性按语,它类似前言,主要对文稿产生过程、作者情况、主体内容作简要介绍;二是提示性按语,它侧重于对简报内容的理解揭示或是针对当前实践应注意事项的提醒;三是批示性按语,它往往援引领导人原话或上级机关指示结合简报内容对实际工作提出批示性意见。

2、标题

根据简报的体式,标题也有不同写法。动态性较强的内容多采用单行式新闻标题,简短明快地交待事实、揭示中心,在总结体简报和其他体式简报中,一般使用文章化标题。

3、目录

简报文稿通常是一期一篇,根据需要也可以是一期为一组性质接近的文章。如是一组文章,则须在报头下设计“目录”一栏,将各篇文章标题先印于此,然后依次刊出每篇文章。

4、正文

因体式各异,简报正文格式相去甚远。报道体、汇篇体类消息结构往往前有导语,后有主体、背景等;总结体可完整地将“总结”刊于简报;转引体则因所引文章不同,正文或可能是片断章节,也可能是整篇文稿。

(三)报尾

在简报末页下1/3处用分割线与文稿部分分开,分割线下与之平行的另一横线间内标本期简报的“报、送、发”单位名称,右侧注明本期印数。

第三节 计划与总结的写作

一、计划的写作

计划是单位或个人对未来一定时间内要做的工作从目标、任务、要求到措施预先作出设计安排的事务性文书。

(一)计划的种类

从性质、内容、时间等角度可划分出不同种类的计划。从形式分有以下三种:文件式计划,分目标、要求、措施、步骤等环节,写作严谨具体,内容重大并有一定篇幅;条文式计划,以列出任务为主,较少涉及措施、步骤等;表格式计划,通常用于项目较多又具共性的内容,有时辅之适当文字说明,使计划简洁明了。

计划是个统称,像规划、纲要、设想、打算、要点、方案、意见、安排等都是根据计划目标远近、时间长短、内容详略等差异而确定的名称。

规划 是一种时间跨度长(三年以上),范围广,内容较为概括的计划。例:《××市城市建设总体规划》。

纲要 和规划相同,它们都是各级领导机关根据战略方针,为实现总体目标对某个地区或某一事项作出长远部署。不同的是纲要比规划更为原则和概括,一般只对工作方向、目标提出纲领式要求和指导性措施。例:《××市2000年经济发展纲要》。

设想 是一种粗线条的、初步的、预备性的非正式计划。相对来讲,其适用时限较长。例:《××市拓展就业安置门路的设想》。

打算 也是一种粗线条的、其想法不太成熟的非正式计划。相对设想,它的内容范围不大且考虑近期要做的。例《××学校争创文明校园的打算》。

要点 是将计划的主要内容择要摘编,使之简明突出,它适用于时间相对较短的计划。例:《××局19××年工作要点》。

方案 从目的、要求、方式、方法、进度等都部署具体周密有很强可操作性的计划。方案一般适合专项性工作,其实施往往须经上级批准。例:《××市住房分配制度改革实施方案》。

意见 属粗线条计划,它适用于上级向下级布置工作任务并提供基本的思路、方法,交待政策,提出要求等。例:《××公司关于下属企业19××年扭亏增盈全面提高经济效益的意见》。

安排 是短期内要做的,且范围不大、内容单一、布置具体的一类计划。例:《××系第×周工作安排》。

(二)计划的写法

1、标题 计划标题一般由四个部分组成:计划的制订单位名称、适用时间、内容性质及计划名称。视计划文本的成熟程度,有可能出现第五个部分,即在标题尾部加括号注明:草案、初稿、征求意见稿、送审稿等。如《××市19××年再就业工程实施方案(讨论稿)》。

2、引言 计划通常有一个“前言”段落,主要点明制订计划的指导思想和对基本情况的说明分析。前言文字力求简明,以讲清制订本计划的必要性、执行计划的可行性为要,应力戒套话、空话。

3、主体 如果说引言回答了“为什么做”的问题,那么主体要回答“做什么”、“怎么做”、“何时做”等问题。

目标与任务 首先要明确指出总目标和基本任务,随后应根据实际内容进一步详细、具体地写出任务的数量、质量指标。必要时再将各项指标定质、定量分解,以求让总目标、总任务具体化、明确化。

办法与措施 以什么方法,用什么措施确保完成任务实现目标,这是有关计划可操作性的关键一环。所谓有办法、有措施就是对完成计划须动员哪些力量,创造哪些条件,排除哪些困难,采取哪些手段,通过哪些途径等心中有数。这既需要熟悉实际工作,又需要有预见性,而关键在于有实事求是的精神。唯有这般,制订的措施、办法才是具体的,切实可行的。

时限与步骤 工作有先后、主次、缓急之分,进程又有一定的阶段性,为此在计划中针对具体情况应事先规划好操作的步骤、各项工作的完成时限及责任人。这样才能职责明确、操作有序,执行无误。

4、落款 在正文右下方署名署时即可。

二、总结的写作

总结是单位或个人对过去一个时期内的实践活动作出系统的回顾归纳、分析评价,从中得出规律性认识用以指导今后工作的事务性文书。

(一)总结的种类

从性质、时间、形式等角度可划分出不同类型的总结,从内容分主要有综合总结和专题总结两种。综合总结又称全面总结,它是对某一时期各项工作的全面回顾和检查,进而总结经验与教训。专题总结是对某项工作或某方面问题进行专项的总结,尤以总结推广成功经验为多见。 总结也有各种别称,如自查性质的评估及汇报、回顾、小结等都具总结的性质。

(二)总结的写法

1、标题

文件式标题 一般由单位名称、时限、内容、文种名称构成。例:《××局19××年度拥军优属工作总结》。

文章式标题 以单行标题概括主要内容或基本观点,不出现总结字样,但对总结内容有提示作用。例某企业的专题总结《技术改造是振兴企业之路》和某高校的专题总结《我们是如何实行教学与科研相结合的?》。

双行式标题 即分别以文章式标题和文件式标题为正副标题,正题揭示观点或概括内容,副标题点明单位、时限、性质和总结种类。例:《知名教授上讲台 教书育人放异彩——××大学德育工作总结》。

2、正文

前言 一般介绍工作背景、基本概况等,也可交待总结主旨并作出基本评价。开头力求简洁,开宗明义。

主体 应包括主要工作内容、成绩及评价、经验和体会、问题或教训等。这些内容是总结的核心部分,可按纵式或横式结构形式撰写。所谓纵式结构,即按主体内容从所做的工作、方法、成绩、经验、教训等逐层展开。所谓横式结构即按材料的逻辑关系将其分成若干部分,标序加题,逐一写来。

结尾 作为总结的结束语可以归纳呼应主题、指出努力方向、提出改进意见或表示决心信心等语作结,要求简短利索。

3、落款 一般在正文右下方署名署时。如是报刊杂志或简报刊用的交流经验的专题总结,应在标题下方居中署名。

第四节 调查报告的写作

人们在完成了调查工作之后,为了使调查的成果形成为文字,就要撰写调查报告。那么调查报告是怎样一种文章体裁呢?调查报告是根据调查研究的成果写出的反映客观事实的书面报告。由于调查报告是调查与分析、实践与理论、客观与主观相结合的实用性文体,是从调查目的通向社会效益和经济效益的桥梁和工具,它在社会生活、经济活动和人类的其他实践活动中具有十分重要的作用。

一、调查报告的类别

调查报告亦有别称,像考察报告、调研报告及××调查等都是常见的。

展开阅读全文

篇7:关于英语论文的写作格式和规范

全文共 5936 字

+ 加入清单

规范英语论文的格式,使之与国际学术惯例接轨,对从事英语教学,英语论文写作,促进国际学术交流都具有重要意义。下面是小编为你带来的关于英语论文的写作格式和规范,希望对你有帮助。

一、英语论文的标题

一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:Dr./Prof.C.Prager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English 734或British Novel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需double space,即隔行打印,行距约为0.6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。

就学生而言,如果英语论文篇幅较短,亦可不做标题页(及提纲页),而将标题页的内容打在正文第一页的左上方。第一行为作者姓名,与打印纸顶端距离约为2.5cm,以下各行依次为教师学衔和姓、课程编号(或名称)及日期;各行左边上下对齐,并留出2.5cm左右的页边空白(下同)。接下来便是论文标题及正文(日期与标题之间及标题与正文第一行之间只需隔行打印,不必留出更多空白)。

二、英语论文提纲

英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为2.5cm左右)的始端打上 Thesis 一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母;处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。

三、英语论文正文

有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约1.5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码;阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。

四、英语论文的文中引述

正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节;既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式 (即英语论文参考文献)的规范性。引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。目前美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。现针对文中引述的不同情况,将部分规范格式分述如下。

1.若引文不足三行,则可将引文有机地融合在论文中。如:

The divorce of Arnolds personal desire from his inheritance results in “the familiar picture of Victorian man alone in an alien universe”(Roper9).

这里,圆括弧中的Roper为引文作者的姓(不必注出全名);阿拉伯数字为引文出处的页码(不要写成p.9);作者姓与页码之间需空一格,但不需任何标点符号;句号应置于第二个圆括弧后。

2.被引述的文字如果超过三行,则应将引文与论文文字分开,如下例所示:

Whitman has proved himself an eminent democratic representative and precursor, and his “Democratic Vistas”

is an admirable and characteristic

diatribe. And if one is sorry that in it

Whitman is unable to conceive the

extreme crises of society, one is certain

that no society would be tolerable whoses

citizens could not find refreshment in its

buoyant democratic idealism.(Chase 165)

这里的格式有两点要加以注意。一是引文各行距英语论文的左边第一个字母十个空格,即应从第十一格打起;二是引文不需加引号,末尾的句号应标在最后一个词后。

3.如需在引文中插注,对某些词语加以解释,则要使用方括号(不可用圆括弧)。如:

Dr.Beaman points out that“he [Charles Darw in] has been an important factor in the debate between evolutionary theory and biblical creationism”(9).

值得注意的是,本例中引文作者的姓已出现在引导句中,故圆括弧中只需注明引文出处的页码即可。

4.如果拟引用的文字中有与论文无关的词语需要删除,则需用省略号。如果省略号出现在引文中则用三个点,如出现在引文末,则用四个点,最后一点表示句号,置于第二个圆括弧后(一般说来,应避免在引文开头使用省略号);点与字母之间,或点与点之间都需空一格。如:

Mary Shelley hated tyranny and“looked upon the poor as pathetic victims of the social system and upon the rich and highborn...with undisguised scorn and contempt...(Nitchie 43).

5.若引文出自一部多卷书,除注明作者姓和页码外,还需注明卷号。如:

Professor Chen Jias A History of English Literature aimed to give Chinese readers“a historical survey of English literature from its earliest beginnings down to the 20thcentury”(Chen,1:i).

圆括弧里的1为卷号,小写罗马数字i为页码,说明引文出自第1卷序言(引言、序言、导言等多使用小写的罗马数字标明页码)。此外,书名A History of English Literature 下划了线;规范的格式是:书名,包括以成书形式出版的作品名(如《失乐园》)均需划线,或用斜体字;其他作品,如诗歌、散文、短篇小说等的标题则以双引号标出,如“To Autumn”及前面出现的“Democratic Vistas”等。

6.如果英语论文中引用了同一作者的两篇或两篇以上的作品,除注明引文作者及页码外,还要注明作品名。如:

Bacon condemned Platoas“an obstacle to science”(Farrington, Philosophy 35).

Farrington points out that Aristotles father Nicomachus, a physician, probably trained his son in medicine(Aristotle15).

这两个例子分别引用了Farrington的两部著作,故在各自的圆括弧中分别注出所引用的书名,以免混淆。两部作品名均为缩写形式(如书名太长,在圆括弧中加以注明时均需使用缩写形式),其全名分别为Founder of Scientific Philosophy 及 The Philosophy of Francis Baconand Aristotle。

7.评析诗歌常需引用原诗句,其引用格式如下例所示。

When Beowulf dives upwards through the water and reaches the surface,“The surging waves, great tracts of water, / were all cleansed...”(1.1620-21).

这里,被引用的诗句以斜线号隔开,斜线号与前后字母及标点符号间均需空一格;圆括弧中小写的1是line的缩写;21不必写成1621。如果引用的诗句超过三行,仍需将引用的诗句与论文文字分开(参见第四项第2点内容)。

五、英语论文的文献目录

论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为 Works Cited, 其格式须注意下列几点:

1.目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。

2.目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码;如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码(但必须计算页数),其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。标题Works Cited与打印纸顶端的距离约为2.5cm,与第一条目中第一行的距离仍为0.6cm;各条目之间及各行之间的距离亦为0.6cm,不必留出更多空白。

3.各条目内容顺序分别为作者姓、名、作品名、出版社名称、出版地、出版年份及起止页码等;各条目应严格按各作者姓的首字母顺序排列,但不要给各条目编码,也不必将书条与杂志、期刊等条目分列。

4.各条目第一行需顶格打印,回行时均需缩进五格,以将该条目与其他条目区分开来。

现将部分较为特殊的条目分列如下,并略加说明,供读者参考。

Two or More Books by the Same Author

Brooks, Cleanth. Fundamentals of Good Writing: A

Handbook of Modern Rhetoric. NewYork: Harcourt, 1950.

---The Hidden God: Studies in Hemingway, Faulkner, Yeats,

Eliot, and Warren. New Haven: Yale UP,1963.

引用同一作者的多部著作,只需在第一条目中注明该作者姓名,余下各条目则以三条连字符及一句点代替该作者姓名;各条目须按书名的第一个词(冠词除外)的字母顺序排列。

An Author with an Editor

Shake speare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. Ed. Louis B.

Wright. New York: Washington Square, 1959.

本条目将作者 Shakespeare 的姓名排在前面,而将编者姓名(不颠倒)放在后面,表明引文出自 The Tragedy of Macbeth;如果引文出自编者写的序言、导言等,则需将编者姓名置前,如:

Blackmur, Richard P.Introduction. The Art of the Novel:

Critical Prefaces. By Henry James. New York: Scribners,

1962.vii-xxxix.

如果引言与著作为同一人所写,则其格式如下例所示(By后只需注明作者姓即可):

Emery, Donald. Preface. English Fundamentals. By Emery.

London: Macmillan, 1972.v-vi.

A Multivolume Work

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. 4 vols. London: Faber, 1928.

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. Vol.2. London: Faber, 1928. 4 vols.

第一条目表明该著作共4卷,而论文作者使用了各卷内容;第二条目则表明论文作者只使用了第2卷中的内容。

A Selection from an Anthology

Abram, M. H.“English Romanticism: The Spirit of the Age.”

Romanticism Reconsidered. Ed. Northrop Frye. New

York: Columbia UP,1963.63-88.

被引用的英语论文名须用引号标出,并注意将英语论文名后的句点置于引号内。条目末尾必须注明该文在选集中的起止页码。

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers

Otto, Mary L.“Child Abuse: Group Treatment for Parents.”

Personnel and Guidance Journal 62(1984): 336-48.

报刊杂志名需划线,但其后不需任何标点符号。62为卷号或期号,如既有卷号,又有期号,则要将二者以句号分开。如:(3.3);1984为出版年份,应置于圆括弧中。

Arnold, Marilgn.“Willa Cathers Nostalgia: A Study in

Ambivalance.”Research Studies Mar.1981:23-24,28.

月刊或双月刊须同时注明出版年月;23-24,28表示该文的前一部分刊于第23和24两页,后一部分则转至第28页。

Gorney, Cynthia.“When the Gorilla Speaks.”Washington Post

31 July,1985:B1.

引用日报上的英语论文必须同时注明报纸出版的年、月、日。B1为该文在报纸中的版面及页码。参考文献(略)(摘自《外语与外语教学》1999年第8期,原文:“英语论文写作规范”作者 刘新民)

展开阅读全文

篇8:把叙述与描写结合的写作基础

全文共 2159 字

+ 加入清单

在写记叙文时,如果要使文字内容更具体,不空泛,一定要把叙述描写结合起来。那么如何才能结合好呢?我们首先需要了解一下这两者的基本概念和作用。

叙述和描写。是作文中两种不同的表现方式。我们这里说的叙述是指把人的经历行为或事件的发生、发展变化表述出来的一种表达方式,它常常把分散的场景,片断的故事和人物的身世,地位,经历,事迹等贯穿起来。它要求做到头绪清楚,脉络分明,有条有理,重点突出。

在记事、写人、状物的文章中,叙述是不可少的,尤其是在介绍人或事物变化为主的文章中叙述的作用更大,甚至有的文章专以叙述为长。我们本讲选的优秀作文《男班长,女班长》就是一个很好的例子。文章中描写部分很少,介绍事件发展过程的叙述占了很大的篇幅,如开头对男女班长来自何方的介绍,女班长对男班长的观察,正副班长必须合作的现实,以及同学们的揶揄,思想的顾虑,同学开玩笑不断,“收到副班长纸条”,到结尾“男女班长仍然合作着处理班里的事务”。这篇文章用很短的篇幅,以叙述为主,把一波三折的事件按发展轨迹清晰有序地介绍出来。对发展过程虽是梗概地介绍,但文章的思想内涵却非常丰富,也可以说在写法上是比较巧妙的。

叙述在按事件发生发展、人物经历的时间来划分,可以有顺叙,倒叙、插叙、补叙等方式,我们在写文章时,可以根据表达的需要去选择叙述的方式。

描写是对人物,事物和环境所作的具体的描绘和摹写,描写是再现描写对象状态的一种表达方式。描写需要采用绘声绘色的办法,把事物的状貌、神采和动态,具体地、真切地饱含情意地勾画出来。写人要使其声可闻,其容可睹;写物要使之可见,可闻,可触,可感;写景要意境鲜明,使读者产生仿佛置身其间的幻觉。

在我们学过的课文中,传神的描写是很多的。如《天山景物记》中对天山深处的描写,“山色逐渐变得柔嫩,山形也变得柔和,很有一伸手就可以触摸到凝脂似的感觉。这里溪流缓慢,萦绕着每一个山脚,在轻轻荡漾着的溪流的两岸,满是高过马头的野花,红、黄、蓝、白、紫,五彩缤纷,像绵延的织锦那么华丽,象天边的彩霞那么耀眼,像高空的长虹那么绚烂。”这段描写抓住山色、溪流、野花这三种最能表现天山特点的事物,重彩浓墨,绘声绘色地把天山美景表现出来。既能使读者如身临其境,也增添了作品的文采。我们在作文时,如果能恰当地运用描写来表现形象,借以表达某种强烈的思想感情。文章的感染力就一定能有所增强。

叙述和描写在记叙性的文字中都是不可缺少的表现方式。叙述着重于一般情况过程的交待,描写则着重形象的描摹和刻画;如果说叙述是纵的绵延,那么描写便是横的扩展。一篇文字若无叙述,就会显得杂乱无章;没有描写,则会干瘪枯燥,毫无生气可言。

实际上,成功的作品中,常常是叙述与描写交错在一起的。我们所选优秀作文,《奶奶与花》就是叙述与描写交融在一起的,近似于一线串珠式的一篇记叙文。

文中以时间为序,先从小时候家门前有一个很大的“花园”叙述开始,然后再描写人物行为语言、花的形态、气味。从而表现我“深深地爱上花”的过程。接着叙述自己病中见到花的情景,描写花的形态,写出自己感受到“花能给人一种强盛的生命力”。接着是叙述“随着年龄的增长,这种认识愈来愈深”又通过对“死不了”“仙人球”的描写,感悟出“花,让我感到一种无尽的生命力,一种明亮的期望”。第五自然段叙述自己养花的过程。这里又运用描写的方式,描绘出花园的美丽,各种花的特点,表现出花可以陶冶情操的作用。这段描写是比较突出的,描写了花的各种色彩,各种形态,用排比、比喻的手法绘色绘形,有丰富的想象力。为了把文章写得曲折有致,第七段、第八段叙述搬进高层楼房前、后我与奶奶对花的珍爱,对小花园的怀念,这里又有对人物的心理、动作的描写,为“小花园”遭到破坏,我和奶奶沉痛心情做了铺垫。

这篇文章用叙述的方式。介绍了事件发展曲折过程,使文章头绪清楚,脉络分明,重点环节突出。这是文章的一条线。在每个重要环节上,作者都生动形象地描绘了人物的行为、场景、物态,内容丰满。叙述和描写有机地结合在一起,深刻地表达了文章的主题思想,增强文章的感染力。

在作文时,恰当地运用叙述与描写,做到有机结合,要注意以下几点。

一、要熟练掌握叙述与描写的功能,注意二者之间互相依存、互相交通的关系。根据作文内容和思想表达的需要,交错运用。

二、在描写范围比较大、内容比较丰富的地域景物或事物状貌时,(例如《天山景物记》等一些游记式的文章)需要有一条贯穿始终的线索,有一个逐步转移、推进的过程,那么这个线索或过程就要依靠叙述来表现。如我们常讲的“移步换景”的写法,其中对“移步”的交代,往往需要叙述。用时间推移来描写事物或人物的发展变化时,对每个阶段的交代,一般也是要运用叙述来完成的。在这种情况下描写的条理性要依靠叙述来体现。

三、在写故事情节比较强文章时,人物的语言,行动往往是构成情节的重要因素、情节又要依靠叙述来展开,这就需要描写人物语言行动与铺叙故事情节同时进行,也就是说要把叙述故事融化在描写中,或把描写融化在叙述情节中。我们仔细玩味一下作文《奶奶与花》,其中有些地方就是把描写与叙述这样融合在一起的。

我们就应当多选读一些优秀作文或名家的文章,刻意体味一下的相依关系,学习二者的结合形式。使自己的作文能更加条理清晰,情节曲折跌宕,内容丰富有致,更具有感染力。

展开阅读全文

篇9:中考英语阅卷老师看写作主要有三个标准

全文共 390 字

+ 加入清单

1)结构2)内容要点 3)语言(词组搭配、句型、句式变化、过渡词)看结构和内容要点定分数档,看语言给成绩。这是中考英语阅卷的潜规则。 三段四步法——中考英语满分杀手锏 知己知彼,方能百战不殆,既然中考阅卷流程和内部标准已经明朗化,相对的策略也就顺利成章的形成了。现在和大家分享,笔者教学和阅卷过程中总结创立的写作满分秘诀。

1 “三段”(三个段落)——针对的阅卷老师先看文章结构和内容要点,让阅卷老师不得不给你定位一类文。 中高考情景是作文,无论是那种文体,都可以用三段法来表示。这个方法的起源是来自美国的“高考”SAT考试,(SAT是美国或它国学生想要申请美国大学必须参加的考试,故被叫过美国的高考)。 我们管这样的文章叫做HamburgerWriting(汉堡写作)

顾名思义,就是无论是记叙文、还是议论文、或者08年中考以及09一模西城的夹叙夹议文章,都可以通用。简单解释如下:

展开阅读全文

篇10:公共基础知识经典写作句式

全文共 1422 字

+ 加入清单

写作中,考生能够适当运用一些专业性的句子,可以提升文章的专业性。下面是小编收集整理的公共基础知识经典写作句式,希望对您有所帮助!如果你觉得不错的话,欢迎分享!

经典句式一:

坚持以人为本、确保安全,明确职责、加强监管,全程控制、信息公开,健全制度、完善标准,依法行政、责任追溯的原则

一要精心组织,妥善做好善后处理工作。

二要查清原因,严肃追究相关人员责任。

三要全面整顿,恢复奶制品市场的正常秩序。

四要制定并落实好促进奶业振兴和持续健康发展的政策措施。

五要明确职责,严格食品安全监管。

六要健全法制,为食品安全监管提供法律保障。

经典句式二:

紧紧抓住国家大力促进中部地区崛起的宝贵机遇

以昂扬向上的斗志、坚忍不拔的毅力、求真务实的作风,

全力以赴保增长,千方百计保民生,加大力度保稳定

不断迈出富民兴赣新步伐,以优异成绩迎接新中国成立60周年。

经典句式三:

既肯定成绩、总结经验,又正视问题、查找不足

全面推进社会主义经济建设、政治建设、文化建设、社会建设以及生态文明建设和党的建设

增强宏观调控的预见性、针对性、有效性,着力转变发展方式、调整经济结构,努力保障和改善民生。

我国经济下行压力加大,企业经营困难,就业问题突出。

从长期看,发展方式粗放和结构性矛盾仍然突出,产业结构不合理,自主创新能力不强,保持农业稳定发展、农民持续增收难度加大,经济增长的资源环境代价过大,安全生产和食品药品质量安全形势严峻,关系群众切身利益的问题需要加大解决力度。

关键是要把科学发展观转化为自觉行动,转化为推动科学发展的坚强意志、谋划科学发展的正确思路、领导科学发展的实际能力、促进科学发展的政策措施。

要坚定信心、迎难而上、狠抓落实

不断提高党的执政能力、保持和发展党的先进性,把党的政治优势和组织优势转化为推动经济社会又好又快发展的强大力量

真正达到党员干部受教育、科学发展上水平、人民群众得实惠的目标,努力把各级党组织建设成为贯彻落实科学发展观的坚强堡垒、把干部队伍建设成为贯彻落实科学发展观的骨干力量。

经典句式四:

深入分析形势,认真总结经验,着力查找问题,研究改进措施

使党的政治优势和组织优势转化为推动军队建设科学发展的强大力量

使工作指导体现时代性、把握规律性、富于创造性

经典句式五:

要学会“正听”——发扬民主、广开言路;学会“侧听”——通过间接渠道听到不同意见,包括反对意见;学会“兼听”——听取各个层次、各个方面的意见。只有这样,才能真正听到“原生 态”的民声,并针对不同的问题对症下药,收到药到病除之效。

乐于听,才能放下架子、认真听取;善于听,才能学会兼听、辩证分析;敢于听,才能排除阻力、听取真言。

经典句式六:

迎难而上,锐意进取, 共克时艰

发展,是我们党执政兴国的第一要务。越是在经济发展面临困难的时候,我们越要坚持发展是硬道理的战略思想。

越是在困难的时候,我们越要高度关注民生、切实保障民生、积极改善民生。

权为民所用、情为民所系、利为民所谋

时刻保持那么一种越是困难越向前的气概,那么一种攻坚克难促发展的劲头

经典句式七:

保增长、扩内需、调结构、促改革、惠民生

必须把保持经济平稳较快发展作为20xx年经济工作的首要任务。要着力在保增长上下功夫。

把扩大内需作为保增长的根本途径。

把加快发展方式转变和结构调整作为保增长的主攻方向。

把深化重点领域和关键环节改革、提高对外开放水平作为保增长的强大动力。

把改善民生作为保增长的出发点和落脚点。

其中,促进就业成了20xx年的最大民生考题。

展开阅读全文

篇11:英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

全文共 45713 字

+ 加入清单

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言,考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章,然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分,特别建议你熟读,背诵,因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白,表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累,潜移默化。从某种意义上说,提高英语写作能力无捷径可走,你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关,没有任何人能代替你过。

因此,建议你下点苦功夫,把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况,并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心:你可以这个星期背,下个星期忘。这没有关系,相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后,你会惊讶的发现:I can think in English now!

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

展开阅读全文

篇12:高考英语写作句型素材汇总

全文共 4515 字

+ 加入清单

一.开头句型

1.As far as ...is concerned 就……而言

2.It goes without saying that... 不言而喻,...

3.It can be said with certainty that... 可以肯定地说......

4.As the proverb says, 正如谚语所说的,

5.It has to be noticed that... 它必须注意到,...

6.Its generally recognized that... 它普遍认为...

7.Its likely that ... 这可能是因为...

8.Its hardly that... 这是很难的......

9.Its hardly too much to say that... 它几乎没有太多的说…

10.What calls for special attention is that...需要特别注意的是

11.Theres no denying the fact that...毫无疑问,无可否认

12.Nothing is more important than the fact that... 没有什么比这更重要的是…

13.whats far more important is that... 更重要的是…

二.衔接句型

1.A case in point is ... 一个典型的例子是...

2.As is often the case...由于通常情况下...

3.As stated in the previous paragraph 如前段所述

4.But the problem is not so simple. Therefore 然而问题并非如此简单,所以……

5.But its a pity that... 但遗憾的是…

6.For all that...对于这一切...... In spite of the fact that...尽管事实......

7.Further, we hold opinion that... 此外,我们坚持认为,...

8.However , the difficulty lies in...然而,困难在于…

9.Similarly, we should pay attention to... 同样,我们要注意...

10.not(that)...but(that)...不是,而是

11.In view of the present station.鉴于目前形势

12.As has been mentioned above...正如上面所提到的…

13.In this respect, we may as well (say) 从这个角度上我们可以说

14.However, we have to look at the other side of the coin, that is... 然而我们还得看到事物的另一方面,即 …

三.结尾句型

1.I will conclude by saying... 最后我要说…

2.Therefore, we have the reason to believe that...因此,我们有理由相信…

3.All things considered,总而言之 It may be safely said that...它可以有把握地说......

4.Therefore, in my opinion, its more advisable...因此,在我看来,更可取的是…

5.From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that….通过以上讨论,我们可以得出结论…

6.The data/statistics/figures lead us to the conclusion that….通过数据我们得到的结论是,....

7.It can be concluded from the discussion that...从中我们可以得出这样的结论

8.From my point of view, it would be better if...在我看来……也许更好

四.举例句型

1.Lets take...to illustrate this.2.lets take the above chart as an example to illustrate this.3. Here is one more example. 4.Take … for example. 5.The same is true of….6.This offers a typical instance of….7.We may quote a common example of….8.Just think of….

五.常用于引言段的句型

1. Some people think that …. 有些人认为…To be frank, I can not agree with their opinion for the reasons below. 坦率地说,我不能同意他们的意见,理由如下。

2. For years, … has been seen as …, but things are quite different now.多年来,……一直被视为……,但今天的情况有很大的不同。

3. I believe the title statement is valid because…. 我认为这个论点是正确的,因为…

4. I cannot entirely agree with the idea that ….我无法完全同意这一观点的… I believe….

5. My argument for this view goes as follows.我对这个问题的看法如下。

6. Along with the development of…, more and more….随着……的发展,越来越多…

7. There is a long-running debate as to whether….有一个长期运行的辩论,是否…

8. It is commonly/generally/widely/ believed /held/accepted/recognized that….它通常是认为…

9. As far as I am concerned, I completely agree with the former/ the latter.就我而言,我完全同意前者/后者。

10. Before giving my opinion, I think it is essential to look at the argument of both sides.在给出我的观点之前,我想有必要看看双方的论据。

六 表示比较和对比的常用句型和表达法

1. A is completely / totally / entirely different from B.2. A and B are different in some/every way / respect / aspect.3. A and B differ in…. 4. A differs from B in….5. The difference between A and B is/lies in/exists in….6. Compared with/In contrast to/Unlike A, B….7. A…, on the other hand,/in contrast,/while/whereas B….8. While it is generally believed that A …, I believe B….9. Despite their similarities, A and B are also different.10. Both A and B …. However, A…; on the other hand, B….11. The most striking difference is that A…, while B….

七 演绎法常用的句型

1. There are several reasons for…, but in general, they come down to three major ones.有几个原因……,但一般,他们可以归结为三个主要的。

2. There are many factors that may account for…, but the following are the most typical ones.有许多因素可能占...,但以下是最典型的。

3. Many ways can contribute to solving this problem, but the following ones may be most effective.有很多方法可以解决这个问题,但下面的可能是最有效的。

4. Generally, the advantages can be listed as follows.一般来说,这些优势可以列举如下。

5. The reasons are as follows.

八 因果推理法常用句型

1.Because/Since we read the book, we have learned a lot. 2. If we read the book, we would learn a lot. 3. We read the book; as a result / therefore / thus / hence / consequently / for this reason / because of this, weve learned a lot. 4. As a result of /Because of/Due to/Owing to reading the book, weve learned a lot. 由于阅读这本书,我们已经学到了很多。

5. The cause of/reason for/overweight is eating too much.6.Overweight is caused by/due to/because of eating too much.7. The effect/consequence/result of eating too much is overweight. 8. Eating too much causes/results in/leads to overweight. 吃太多导致超重。

展开阅读全文

篇13:写作基础:引号的用与不用

全文共 336 字

+ 加入清单

导语:对标点符号的正确运用是写作基础功,但是有一部分人对引号的使用产生了疑问,下面我们通过一个问答来给大家说说。

问:“啄木鸟舌头又细又长,尖端生着不少‘钩子’。”这句话中的“钩子”这个词加了引号,下面又说“伸出带钩子的舌头”,“钩子”没有加引号。同样一个词为什么一个加引号,一个不加?

答:《标点符号用法》规定,引号除了用来表示直接引用的话以外,还可以用来标明具有特定含义的词语。上面句子中的“钩子”,不是一般的铁钩、木钩,而是生在啄木鸟舌头上的类似钩状的东西,为了说得通俗形象,把它叫做“钩子”,是具有特定含义的词语,所以加了引号。下面再出现“钩子”这个词语时,读者已经了解了它的特定含义,不致感到费解,有了前面的语言环境就可以把它当作一般词语使用了,所以不必再加引号。

展开阅读全文

篇14:英语写作技巧及要领介绍

全文共 2377 字

+ 加入清单

下面是语文迷小编为大家整理提供的英语写作技巧以及关联词,供大家阅读参考。

英语写作技巧之一:用介词短语替代从句,例:

原句:While they were playing tennis, she started an argument that lasted all morning.

修改后:During tennis she started an argument that lasted all morning.

原句:When you come to the second traffic light, turn right.

修改后:At the second traffic light turn left.

英语写作技巧之二:删除诸如"who is”或"that is"之类的关系代词,变从句为短语,例:

句:The novel, which is written in three parts, told a story that took place in the Middle Ages.

修改后:The three-part novel told a story set in the Middle Ages.

注:把句中的"three parts"改用形容词来表达,节省了四个不必要的单词"which is written in"。我们经常可以将关系代词如"that"去掉,这只会引起最少的变动。

英语写作技巧之三:剔除你不需要的单词,例:

Two joint partners will present their views over a long-distance telephone call.

写完这样的句子后,你自己再读一遍,挑出单词"joint"和"telephone",注意删去不必要的词。

关联词的积累

1.提出观点不要只用I think,要学会用:

As far as I am concerned

In my opinion

From my point of view

From my perspective

The way I see it

2.转折不要只用but, 要多用:

However,

nevertheless, nonetheless,

Whereas

Some people like fat meat, whereas other people hate it.

转折也可用比喻:as a coin has two sides(就象硬币有两面一样), …(陈述转折内容)

3.表递进的:

In addition, in addition to, additionally,

what is more, moreover, furthermore,

more importantly,

what is worse (更槽糕的是)

4.表示“事实上”:

In fact,

as a matter of fact,

actually

5.表总结:

in conclusion, as a result,

all in all 总而言之

In short,

In a word, 一句话讲

Taking into consideration,

Taking into account all the factors that I have mentioned above, it is safe to draw a conclusion that …

6.表示因此:

Consequently,

Hence,

Therefore,

Thus,

as a result,

resultingly

7.表因为:

because of

due to,

owing to,

thanks to,

as a result of,

8.虽然

Although, even though, even if, though

Proud as these nobles are, …

As flattered as I am, I would say no.

In spite of, despite

I love you in spite of that.

9.比较:

In comparison with,

compared to,

compared with

She’s nothing compared to you.

10.表最后:

Finally,

eventually,

in the end,

at last,

ultimately,

11.表示程度的副词词组亦非常重要,会使文章看起来比较成熟、辨证:

To some extent 在某种程度上讲

To some degree 在某种程度上讲

To a large part 在很大程度上说

In a sense 在某种意义上讲

In general, generally 大体上说

Generally speaking 一般地讲

In some cases 在有些情况下

Basically 基本上

Broadly speaking 宽泛地讲

12.其他(要尽可能多用在文章中。始终牢记内容次要,而语言形式第一位。内容服务于形式):

Not only, but also

Neither nor, either or

Instead of, instead

For example, for instance (替换使用), take … for example

Be likely to

Be able to

Speaking of, when it comes to …

When it comes to food, he is really picky.

In terms of 根据

First of all, second of all

Above all,

Significantly,

The more, the more

展开阅读全文

篇15:关于清明节英语写作素材:清明节的来历

全文共 2747 字

+ 加入清单

清明,是24节气之一,是中国的流传千年传统节日,我想,在每一个人的心中,它都有着不一样的含义。它的由来很耐人寻味。

Qingming Festival, is one of the 24 solar terms, is Chinas thousands of years of traditional festivals, I think, in each persons heart, it has a different meaning. Its origins are quite afford much food for thought.

清明节与春秋五霸晋文公重耳有关。重耳耳垂大,肋骨是连在一起的,一只眼睛里有两个眸子。晋国内乱,公子夷吾和重耳逃亡在外。公子夷吾杀太子自封晋惠公,对他更加无礼,重耳只好带着狐偃、狐毛、介子推等人去投奔齐国,在途中公子重耳因连日吃野草,发病了,奄奄一息,可在荒山野岭中哪有大夫?为了就自己主公,介子推割下身上的一块大腿肉生火做汤,把肉汤送给重耳,他的病好了。

The Qingming Festival is associated with the spring and Autumn Annals chonger. One ear, the ribs are linked together, one eye in two eyes. The civil strife, Wu and his son in exile. Who killed the prince - Wu Jin Hui Gong, more rude to him, he had to take the Huyan, fox fur, Jie et al to Qi, on the way to one of the princes due to days of eating weeds, disease, be at ones last gasp, but in the wild hills where the doctor? In order to his master, the muon push to cut a piece of thigh meat fire off the soup, broth gave Chonger, his disease.

他到了秦国,在秦穆公的帮助下回了晋国做了晋文公,国家建立之后,晋文公把手下的有功之臣都封了官,有人告诉他那肉汤是介子推的肉,说重耳忘记给介子推封官了。于是他后悔忘了给介子推封,可是现在六部的尚书都有人做了,他去请介子推去做官,谁知介子推隐居绵山,文公不忘本,就亲自去绵山请他,但是就是找不到他。

He went to Qin, Qin Mugong help next time in the Jin Jin, after the establishment of Jin State, his meritorious official seal, someone told him that the broth is muon push meat, that he forgot to give demonstration of the muon push. So he regrets that he forgot to muon push email, but now six of the book is done, he went to please muon push an official, who knows the meson pushes in Mianshan, Wen did not forget, then went Mianshan to please him, but I could not find him.

有人出了一个馊主意:烧山必他出来。但是介子推和老母就是不出来,后来两个人抱着两棵老柳烧死了。文公命一看追悔莫及,下令举国哀悼介子推,把绵山重新命名介山,规定每年的这一天全国不许用火,并要插柳,还将4月5号命名为清明,又称寒食节。

Someone out of a bad idea: burning mountain will him out. But Jie Zitui and mother is not out, then two people holding the two old tree willow. Wen Gongs life at her mourning, ordered the muon push, to rename the Mianshan medium mountain, stipulated every year on this day the no fire, and must be inserted Liu, also named April 5th as the Qingming Festival, also known as.

两千年来,我们中国人很重视这个节日,在清明节这一天家家不动火,只吃一些隔天的菜或青团之类的。近来我国又把它定为法定假日。让人们有时间去祭祖、扫墓、踏青。

In two thousand years, we the Chinese people attach great importance to this holiday, during the Ching Ming Festival this day every family does not get angry, just eat some vegetables such as green or the next day. Recently, our country had made it a statutory holiday. Give people time to worship ancestors, sweep the tombs, outing.

清明节,标示着中国千百年来的一个传统,说明中国人是讲义气的,重感情的,中国人有恩不忘。

The Qingming Festival, marked by a tradition for thousands of years in China, shows that the Chinese people is the sense of obligation, the feelings of the Chinese people did not forget, grace.

展开阅读全文

篇16:短篇小说的写作基础

全文共 10236 字

+ 加入清单

短篇小说,小说的一种。其特点是篇幅短小,情节简洁,人物集中。下面是小编整理的短篇小说的写作基础,欢迎阅读。

高尔基在《和青年作家谈话》中指出:"一开始就写大部头的长篇小说,是一个非常笨 拙的办法,……学习写作应该从短篇小说入手,西欧和我国所有最杰出的作家几乎都是这样 的,因为短篇小说用字精炼,材料容易合理安排,情节清楚,主题明确。"

怎样写作短篇小说呢?

一、充分准备,打好基础 写作短篇小说与写作中、长篇小说一样,在写作前必须进行充分的准备。首先,在执笔 写小说之前,必须具有一定的思想修养和生活积累。其次,读过较多的文艺作品,喜爱文学 创作,有一定的文艺修养和文艺理论的基础常识。茅盾在《创作的准备》开头就指出:"世 界文学史上的巨人们留遗给我们的不朽的著作,以及他们毕生的文学事业的经历,就是这题 目--创作的准备的最完美的解答。理论家们从这些文学巨人们的业迹研究分析解释, 写了很多论文,数十万言一厚册,也就是给这题目作注脚。"再次,在写作小说之前,从事 过表达方法的基本练习,并从事过一般散文尤其是速写的写作练习。"一个初学写作者最好 多做些基本练习,不要急于写通常所谓小说,不要急于成篇。所谓基本练习,现在通行的速 写这一体,是可以用的。不过我觉得现今通行的速写还嫌太注重了形式上的完整,俨 然已是成篇的东西,而不是练习的草样了。作为初学写作者的基本练习的速写,不妨只有半 个面孔,或者一双手,一对眼。这应当是学习者观察中恍有所得时勾下来的草样,是将来的 精制品所必需的原料。许多草样斗合起来,融和起来,提炼起来,然后是成篇的小说。"(《茅 盾论创作》第358页)所以,我们要学习写作小说,必须从思想、生活、技巧各个方面下 苦功,打下坚实的基础。当然,对这个问题的认识不能绝对化。这并不是说,我们要等思想、 生活、技巧三关都完全过好之后再进行创作。不少青年作者的经验说明,初学写作者就是要 勇于创作实践,写是最好的基本训练。不要怕失败,失败是成功之母。小说创作和其它文体 的写作一样,没有什么捷径,小说的技巧只有自己从多次实践中逐步摸索出来。别人的技巧, 只能作借鉴,创作还是要靠自己。

二、认识生活,熟悉人物 创作需要生活,对生活不熟悉,不理解,就无法反映和表现生活。社会生活是文学艺术 的源泉,人是社会诸关系的总和,只有熟悉、理解社会生活,才能熟悉、理解各类人物。不 熟悉、不理解各类人物,就无法进行以塑造人物形象为中心的小说写作。茅盾在谈他怎样开 始小说创作时说:"我是真实地去生活、经验了动乱中国的最复杂的人生的一幕,终于得了 幻灭的悲哀,人生的矛盾,在消沉的心情下,孤寂的生活中,而尚受生活执着的支配,想要 以我的生命力的余烬从别方面在这迷乱灰色的人生内发一星微光,于是我开始创作了。我不 是为的要做小说,然后去经验人生。"他还说;"好管闲事是我们做小说的人最要紧的事,你 要去听,要去问。"(《创作的准备》)因此,一个小说作者应像阿·托尔斯泰说的那样:"他 溶化在生活洪流之中,溶化在集体之中;他是一个参加者。"

小说写作需要的生活不是指日常生活、饮食男女之类,能成为小说素材的"生活",至少应该有三个条件:

1.具有较鲜明、生动的形象;

2.具有独特性;

3.具有一定的思想 内涵。因此,当作者在观察生活的时候,无论对人物、对故事、对环境,都应从上述三点出 发,勇敢地扬弃那些琐屑的、纷纷扰扰的"流水帐",抓住真正有用的写作素材,渗透作者 的思想、感情,使生活素材逐渐变成自己的东西。 三、严格选材,深入开掘 1931年,沙汀和艾芜写信给鲁迅,请教短篇小说的题材问题。鲁迅回信说:"只要 所写的是可以成为艺术品的东西,那就无论他所描写的是什么事情,所使用的是什么材料, 对于现代以及将来一定是有贡献的意义的?quot;"两位是可以各就自己现在能写的题材,动手来 写的。不过选材要严,开掘要深,不可将一点琐屑的没有意思的事故,便填成一篇,以创作 丰富自乐。" 高尔基也说过:"在短篇小说中,正如在机器上一样,不应该有一个多余的螺丝钉,尤 其是不应该有多余的零件。" 这就告诉我们,写作短篇小说必须严格选择题材,深入开掘。那末,短篇小说怎样进行题材的选择和主题的开掘呢?

短篇小说的选材要做到:

(一)撷新去陈,根据时代需要选材。短篇小说的题材是没有什么限制的,凡是人类涉 足的领域、产生的事件,都可以经过选择作为作品的题材。但是,从美学价值和社会意义来 考虑,我们就必须撷新去陈,尽量选择我们这个时代、这个社会所需要的题材来写。

(二)以小见大,根据体裁特点选材。短篇小说这种体裁的形式特点,要求作者不能象 写长篇小说那样写人生的纵剖面,而必须写人生的横断面,就象是横着锯断一棵树,察看年 轮可以知道树龄一样,短篇小说虽写人生中的一角、一段,也就可以窥见整个人生。鲁迅、 茅盾、巴金等作家为了在短篇小说中反映他们所处的时代,在写作短篇小说时,都是选取主 人公人生道路上的某一段作为题材的。因此,有经验的小说家在谈创作经验时就指出,创作 短篇小说必须善于"截取"、"选择"。如王蒙在《谈短篇小说的创作技巧》中就说过,短篇 小说构思的很重要的一点就是要"从广阔的、浩如烟海的生活事件里,选定你要下手的部位。 它可能是一个精彩的故事,它可能是一个给人留下了深刻印象的人物,它可能是一个美好的 画面,它也可能是深深埋在你的心底的一点回忆,一点情绪,一点印象,而且你自己还一时 说不清楚。这个过程叫作从大到小,从面到点,你必须选择这样一个小,否则,你就无 从构思无从下笔,就会不知道自己写什么。"

(三)扬长避短,根据自己生活选材。一般来说,作者应该写自己熟悉的题材,因为这 些题材是在自己的生活中积累的大量素材的基础上提炼出来的,写起来容易驾驭,而且能写 得生动、深刻。当代小说家中的佼佼者大多是从写自己生活经历中的人和事开始走上小说创 作道路的。 选材是短篇小说写作中的第一个重要的环节。选材的目的在于从大量的素材中选取可以 写入小说中的题材--生活中有典型意义的片断。要达到这个目的,我们必须具有从纷纭的 生活现象中"捕捉"题材的能力。这种"捕捉"生活中有典型意义的片断的能力,对于小说 创作极为重要。茅盾在他的《短篇小说选集后记》中指出:"在横的方面,如果对于社会生 活的各样环节茫然无知;在纵的方面如果对于社会生活的发展方向看不清,那么,你就很少 可能在繁复的社会现象中,恰好地选取了最有代表性、即具有深刻的思想的一事一物,作为 短篇小说的题材。"所以,短篇小说在选材时,不能只着眼于事件的故事性和吸引力,而要 着眼于把生活的侧面、片断放到整个时代的背景上去考察,要把握住社会的"纵"的和"横" 的两个方面,善于从平凡的日常生活现象中捕捉住不平凡的东西,从而由时代和社会的一角 反映出时代和社会的全貌,使读者从生活海洋中的一朵浪花看出奔腾澎湃的大海。

对于短篇小说题材的"开掘"--主题的提炼同样要十分重视。"几乎在所有的情况下, 作家心中首先想到的总是小说的主题,或者说思想内容。他构思小说的情节是为了表达这一 主题,创造人物也是围绕着这一主题。好的小说总是有一个好的主题的。"([英]《小说家的 技巧》) 衡量一篇小说的美学价值,重要的并不是看题材本身,而是看作者对于题材所开掘的思想的 深度--主题提炼的程度。所谓开掘,就是要深入发掘生活素材所内涵的本质意义的东西; 作者对生活素材的本质意义开掘得越深入,主题思想就越深刻,作品的教育作用也就越大, 美学价值也就更高。所以说,一篇没有好的主题的小说,是无法登上大雅之堂的。 李师东在《一个新的文学层面的诞生》中评论九十年代的新生代作家时指出:"八十年代的 文学,是以对表现疆域的拓展的掘进、对表现手段的探索和实验为其显著特征的。与前几茬 作家相伴随的是冲突和对抗、张扬和摒弃、试验和沿袭、超前和滞后、创新和守成、反拨和 建立等源远流长的话题。直至今天,我们仍然能在文学创作和文学批评中感受到来自不同思 想观念、文化背景的冲撞和对举。""在九十年代新的时空下,这一茬更为年轻的青年作家得 以走上文坛,正在于他们明显疏离了前几茬作家习惯关心的话题,而与社会的新的变化和进 展保持了同步相向的趋势……把个人的情绪与时代的生活面貌和精神处境勾连在一起,谋求 与九十年代社会的契合,体现中国社会新的进展,这正是他们的努力。以一种消解的姿态, 达到对文学的整合,以反先锋的方式,回归到朴素的情感姿态,以个人化的方式,进入到文 学创作之中,这正是这个新生代作家群的文学用心。"(中国华侨出版社1996年出版的"新 生代小说系列"总序) 应该指出:小说写作中对材料的分析与科学研究中对材料的分析是根本不同的两回事。

"一个文学作家应当走的创作过程的道路,是和社会科学家研究过程的道路相反的。""社 会科学家所取以为研究的资料者,是那些错综的自然的现象,文学作家的却是造成那些现象 的活生生的人。社会科学家把那些现象比较分析,达到了结论;文学作家却是从那些活生生 的人身上,--从他们相互的关系上,看明了某种现象,用艺术手段来说明它,如果作 家有的是正确的眼光,深入的眼光,则他虽不作结论而结论自在其中了。"(《茅盾论创作》 第466页)因此,小说作者的分析工作是与自己对人物、事件的观察、感受,对生活的体 验、理解结合在一起的,这种分析是理性的,但是它是融化在形象思维中的。

许多小说作者的创作实践告诉我们,有的作品的主题是在人物之前产生的,而有的主题 是在有了人物之后才确定的。例如茅盾创作《春蚕》,是先有了主题,"其次便是处理人物, 构造故事。"(《我怎样写〈春蚕〉》)而王蒙说他的许多短篇小说并不是先有了主题然后再去 写的。他说:"《夜的眼》是什么先行呢?是感觉先行,感受先行,是对城市夜景的感受先行。 这里头有我个人的感觉,但又不全都是。……《夜的眼》就是写一个长期在农村、在边远地 区的人对大城市、对我们生活的感受。……这个感受饮食着深思对我们生活的深思,这个深 思还没有做出明确的结论,但是它充满了深思。"王蒙又说:"《夜的眼》还有一个主题,这 也是我在最近才明确的,就是写了我们生活中的转机。……所谓转机,充满了艰难,充 满着历史的负担,但又开始有了新的东西,大有希望。《夜的眼》里既有负担,又有希望; 既有伤痕,又有跨越伤痕向前进的努力;既有思索,又有感受;既有想不清的地方,又有相 当清楚的地方。我觉得《夜的眼》里包含的东西是比较多的。"(《漫话小说创作》)

总之,我们对小说的材料必须深入开掘,对主题必须刻苦提炼。而在构思时、写作中, 是不能将主题提炼、人物刻划割裂开来的。可以是主题先行,也可以是人物先行,还可以是 感受先行。而且,主题可以是一个,也可以是几个,即写成多主题的小说。

四、刻划人物,塑造典型

人物的刻划和典型的塑造,是小说写作中最重要的工作。茅盾指出:"典型性格的刻划, 永远是艺术创造的中心问题。"

怎样才能写出典型的人物形象呢?我们当然要充分运用叙述、描写、议论和抒情等等表 达方法,采用比喻、象征、夸张、拟人……等等修辞手段,使人物生动、形象,活灵活现, 栩栩如生。但是,仅仅这样还是很不够的,小说写作与一般记叙文写作的一个重要的不同之 处,就在于小说要进行艺术概括,运用虚构、想象的典型化方法刻划人物性格,从而创造出 具有个性的又体现时代精神、社会牲特征的典型形象。为此,就"必须使现象典型化。应该 把微小而有代表性的事物写成巨大的和典型的事物--这就是文学的任务。"(高尔基《和青 年作家们的谈话》)

典型化的基本规律就是个性和共性的高度统一,使"每个人都是典型,但同时又是一定 的单个人"。这就要求我们努力实现恩格斯提出的要求:"现实主义的意思是,除了细节的真 实外,还要真实地再现典型环境中的典型性格。"

所谓典型环境,一般指一定的自然环境和社会环境即现实环境,其实,它"更应该包括特定 的种族环境、地域环境、历史文化环境等各种稳态的以及动态的大环境要素。一个具有永恒 意义的艺术典型,正是诸种直接的现实环境以及全部的民族、历史、文化等深度环境和综合 环境所共同培育而成的。"(郝雨《在典型创造上用力》,1997年10月14日《文艺报》) 所谓典型性格,指的是人物必须是充分的共性和鲜明的个性的高度的统一体。人物的共性要 从人物的个性中体现出来。"人们常说,近年来的小说创作故事情节的枝干上并没有结了多 少人物之果,即是指作品重在把握围绕事件所交织起来的复杂的社会现实,但缺少栩栩 如生、呼之欲出的人物形象。这恐怕就与缺少有深度的、富于个性魅力的性格刻划有关。因 此只有在深刻把握现实关系的同时,深刻地把握人物内在灵魂,使身份与性格有机 结合而不能偏废其一,才能达到现实主义创作所要求的典型化高度。"(任玖珊《现实主义话 题再热评论界》,1997年10月14日《文艺报》)

在写作中,小说人物典型化的具体方法有两种:

第一种,以生活中的某一个原型为主,加以概括、想象和虚构,从而创造出典型人物。 例如,鲁迅的《狂人日记》中的狂人,原型是他的一个表兄弟。鲁迅结合平时对黑暗社会的 多方见闻,改造了这个疯人形象的内容,赋予人物以深刻的社会意义,从而塑造出了狂人这 个艺术典型。

第二种,在广泛地集中、概括众多人物的基础上塑造出典型人物。这就是鲁迅说的"杂 取种种人,合成一个"的方法。巴尔扎克在谈人物塑造时指出:"为了塑造一个美丽的形象, 就取这个模特儿的手,取另一个模特儿的脚,取这个的胸,取那个的骨。艺术家的使命就是 把生命灌注到所塑造的人体里去把描给变成现实。如果他只是想去临摹一个现实的女人,那 么他的作品就不能引起人们的兴趣,读者干脆就会把这未加修饰的真实扔到一边去。"

鲁迅笔下的人物大多是这样的。他说:"所写的事迹,大抵有一点见过或听到过的缘由, 但决不全用这一事实,只是采取一端,加以改造,或生发开去,到足以几乎完全发表我的意 思为止。人物的模特儿也一样,没有专用过一个人,往往嘴在浙江,脸在北京,衣服在山西, 是一个拼凑起来的脚色。"(《我怎么做起小说来》)

有许多优秀的短篇小说作品,其中的人物都是指不出生活原型的。这种作品中的典型人 物形象的塑造,可以说比用某一原型塑造人物形象更为困难,然而,一个真正的小说作者是 必须掌握这种塑造典型人物形象的方法的。 以上两种塑造人物的典型化方法,有时可以在一个作品中同时运用,即可以用一种方法塑造 某一人物形象,而用另一种方法塑造另外的人物形象。

在刻划小说人物时,还应注意以下三个问题:

(一)小说中的人物和真实人物不同。他是作者虚构的,而这种虚构的人物来自小说作 者的心灵之中,是融有作者的血肉、灵魂、性格、气质的"臆造"的人物。小说中的人物生 活在小说的国度里,这个国度是一个叙述者与创造者合而为一的世界。英国小说家福斯特在 《小说面面观》中指出:小说人物在人生中的五项主要活动--出生、饮食、睡眠、爱情和 死亡等方面,都有不同于真实人物的特点。只要他了解他们透彻入理,只要他们是他的创作 物,他就有权要怎么写就怎么写。这就说明:小说人物由于是作者展开想象、通过虚构创造 的,因此他不同于生活中的真实人物。学习小说写作,不能不首先明白这个问题。

(二)小说人物与作者自我之间是一种既矛盾又统一的关系。莫泊桑在《谈小说创作》中告 诉我们:作者写的不管是什么人物,"我们所表现的终究是我们自己","我们要使人物各各 不同,就只有改变他们的年龄、性别、社会地位和我们自我的生活情况,这自我是 大自然用不可越逾的器官限制所形成的。""要使读者在我们用来隐藏自我的各种面具下 不能把这自我辨认出来,这才是巧妙的手法。"

同时,莫泊桑又指出:我们作者"如果对人物进行了充分的观察,我们就难免相当准确地确 定他们的性格,以便能预见他们在各种不同情况下的行动方式,如果我们能够说:一个具 有这样性格的人,在这样的情况下会做出这样的事,但决不能由此得出这样的结论:我们 能够一个个地确定人物自己的非我们所有的思想中的一切最隐蔽的活动,那些与我们不同的 本能所产生的一切神秘的希求,他那器官、神经、血液、肌肤和与我们特殊的体质所决定的 暧昧的冲动。"这就是说:作者根据自己的艺术构思塑造着人物,但人物却对作者保持着相 对的独立性;作者三番五次地进行艺术构思,修改自己的人物性格,要人物活起来站起来, 是典型又是个性;人物性格一旦形成,一旦活起来站起来,他就要顽强地按照他的社会地位、 生活环境、思想性格、个人气质来思考,说话,做事,行动,抒发内心情绪。这时候,他常 常要跟他的作者发生争执,提醒作者应该怎样描写他。在这样的情况下,作者的笔就只好顺 着人物自身的行动进行写作。当然,这种情况是只有在进行认真、深刻的艺术构思后才会出 现,草率从事是写不出真正的小说人物的。

(三)小说人物的个性特征需要通过真实的细节描写体现出来。在小说写作中,细节描 写对人物的个性化具有头等重要的意义。真实的典型的细节首先是行动方面的,也可以是语 言方面的,或者是心理活动方面的,以及其它方面的。作家刘真从创作中体会到:"作品中 的细节,就象活人身上的细胞,是艺术作品的灵魂,所谓作品的高度,深度,是由它的细部 来决定的。""一个细节很难构成一篇小说,可它常常是一篇小说的引线或基础。"(《首先要 攻下的难关》)

学习小说写作,一定要下功夫寻找这样的细节--看似无所谓却有重要意义的细节。因 为典型环境中的典型性格,正是由许多适当而具有力的典型细节来完成的。唯有把许多有典 型意义的细节有机地贯串起来,组织起来,才能达到从典型环境中描写典型性格的目的。

另外,有的作者还常常通过写人物小传分析人物性格。这种人物小传对作者掌握人物性 格有一定帮助,初学者也可在习作小说时采用。

五、构思故事,安排情节 "故事是小说的基本面,没有故事就没有小说。这是所有小说都具有的最高要素。" (爱·摩·福斯特《小说面面观》)"小说家的技巧首先在于会说故事。"(伊莉沙白·鲍温《小 说家的技巧》)

故事是什么呢?"故事是一些按时间顺序排列的事件的叙述--早餐后中餐,星期一后 是星期二,死亡后腐烂等等。就故事在小说中的地位而言,它只有一个优点:使读者想要知 道下一步将发生什么。……故事虽是最低下和最简陋的文学肌体,却是小说这种非常复杂肌 体中的最高因素。"(爱·摩·福斯特《小说面面观》第22页)

然而,初学写作者必须了解,小说的故事和一般意义上的故事是有很大区别的。小说的 故事都是虚构的,但是这种虚构--臆造由于作者充分发挥了想象,并进行了巧妙的组织, 读者会觉得比现实生活中的事件还要真实可信。当然,发挥想象构思故事绝对不是毫无根据 地胡思乱想,胡编瞎造,而是以现实生活中的矛盾冲突作 为构成作品情节的基础,从错综复杂的矛盾冲突和形形色色的生活事件中,选取最能展示人 物性格的事件,经过提炼的加工改造的功夫,构成富有表现力的情节。这种提炼的加工改造, 就是情节典型化的过程。它告诉我们:根据提炼出的主题,从人物性格出发虚构故事情节, 这是小说构思的基本原则。 学习写作小说必须懂得情节及其与故事的区别。情节是什么?高尔基认为,"文学的第三个 要素是情节,即人物之间的联系、矛盾、屿、反感和一般的相互关系,--各种不同的性格、 典型成长和构成的历史。"(《和青年作家的谈话》)也就是说,情节是环绕着人物性格以及人 物之间的相互关系所展开的一系列的生活事件。爱·摩·福斯特指出:"情节是小说中较高 级的一面","情节是小说的逻辑面","情节同样要叙述事件,只不过特别强调因果关系罢 了。"(《小说面面观》)

传统小说的情节一般包括破题、开端、发展、高潮和结局等五个环节。当代小说的情节安排 已经不受这些环节的限制,如有的没有破题,直接写开端;有的可在高潮中暗示结局。

在写作时,情节通常是由场面和线索构成的。场面,指小说中被处理在某一时间、某一 地点的具体的矛盾冲突--人物之间的关系,它是比事件更为具体的生活画面。线索,指把 人物活动贯穿起来完成情节发展的事物或事件。短篇小说多为一根情节线索,也有两根的, 一是主线,一是次线;一是明线,一是暗线。 安排故事和情节需要使用"大纲"。一般来说,"大纲"包括:1、主要人物表;2、故事 要点;3、重要场面;4、作品主题;5、篇章结构。这样的"备忘录"式的大纲,虽然在实 际写作时会有修改,但是它比没有大纲要好得多,尤其对初学写作小说的人更为重要。 六、精于首尾,善于叙述 一篇好的故事包含三个要素:一是必须简单;二是能引起读者广泛的兴趣;三是要有一 个好的开头。所谓好的开头,不仅仅是个结构的问题,实际上是小说如何截取生活片断、恰 当地"切入"的问题,是小说的总体构思的问题。好的开头必须直截了当,引进人物,展开 故事。 至于结尾,在短篇小说写作中同样重要。这是因为好的结尾可以提高和深化作品的的思 想意义、加强作品的感染力和艺术效果。优秀短篇小说的结尾,或给人以人生哲理的思索, 或给人以希望和鼓舞,或使人掩卷深思…… 对于整个作品的叙述的技巧--写的技巧,同样要给予足够的重视。王蒙指出:"构思得差 不多了,靠写。写,不仅仅是把想好的东西记录下来。固定下来,写,是创造的最重要的阶 段。正是在写的过程中,你的思维活动、感情活动、内心活动才空前活跃起来。" 那末,怎样来叙写?可以像写章回体小说那样去叙写,也可以像书信那样去叙写;可以连贯 性地叙写,也可以间断性地叙写……应该看到,短篇小说的叙写是十分自由的。

叙写中的时间如何安排是个技巧问题,这是因为:"时间是小说的一个重要组成部 分。……时间同故事和人物具有同等的重要的地位。"(伊莉莎白·鲍温《小说家的技巧》)

要注意以下三点:

(一)"小说家的时钟":讲故事的要则之一是能同时天南海北,无所不知地讲,不但精 通历史,通晓当今,还能洞察未来可能发生的事情。在作者的叙述中,所有已知的和预期的 时间都集中在即刻发生的事件上。在这个过程中,"小说家的时钟"同时报出不同的时间。 这种时间说明:无论故事起初是怎样构思的,叙述总是象花筒似地把各个时间牵连在一 起。最简单的叙述就是将各种感觉、回忆和推测的过程混为一体。 小说作者安排故事的方法之一就是他可以调整各事件所占的时间比例。一个重要的事件 可以写得比它实际发生的过程更长一些;而漫长的历史用一段文字就可以概括叙述出来。这 种叙述的灵活性正是小说作者使用的主要手段之一:用时间比例来表明每一事件的相对重要 性。从某个角度上看,小说家在写作时可以象一把扇子似地把时间打开或者折拢。既然每一 篇故事根据自己的轻重缓急都需要一种特殊的计算时间的方法,那么作者如何计算时间就是 非常重要的。

(二)时间生活和价值生活:在叙写中,小说作者为了表达的需要有时把时钟拨快,有 时把时钟拨慢,有时把指针倒回或拨前,但是,没有一个作者能全然不顾时间的顺序。福斯 特在《小说面面观》中说:"在小说中,对时间的忠诚极为必要,没有任何小说可以摆脱它。" 这是因为,"日常生活同样的充满了时间性……不管什么样的日常生活,实际上都是由两种 生活合成的--时间生活和价值生活--而我们的行为也显示出一种双重的忠诚。我只看 了她五分钟,但那是值得的。这个简单的句子里就含有这种双重的忠诚。故事是叙述时间 生活的,但在小说中--如果是好小说--则必须包含价值生活。"所以,叙写故事不能忽 略自然的时间生活,但是更要注意社会的价值生活,必须匠心经营,写好价值生活。

(三)微观叙述和宏观叙述:小说的叙写应使读者有历史感。为此,小说作者在把自己 的故事安排在一个特定的时间范围内的同时,他就应对历史负起责任。这就是说,小说场景 的每一个细节,对话中的每一个片断以及书中人物的每一个行动都必须合乎小说发生的时代 背景。这样,在写作中就有了微观叙述和宏观叙述。所谓微观叙述,是指"按时序组织起来 的一连串事件";所谓宏观叙述,是指"历史的一个片断"。这两种叙述使得作者能够正确处 理"小说范畴里的时间安排和小说结构与历史前景间的关系。"(乔纳森·雷班《现代小说写 作技巧》)

(四)三项基本选择:在对待时间的安排上,作者通常有三项基本的选择:一是按"时 间一致"的原则来叙述,使小说里的事件在前后顺序上同阅读的顺序大致一样。二是用缩短 或概述时间的办法去叙述,在故事的开端或结局之间略去若干年月。这样,读者的阅读时间 和小说人物的行动时间是不一致的。三是用时序颠倒的方法 进行叙述,阅读时间和行动时间有时一致又有时不一致。

(五)叙述时间的距离:时间在小说里除了起着"导演"的作用之外,又起着引起"悬念" 的作用。"在一本我们称为严肃的小说中,我们同样也感到,或者应该感到时钟一小时又一 小时地在轰响,日历一页又一页地掀过去。此外,时间还把读者牢牢地系在宏大的现在 --如果你愿意的话,叫它场景也未尝不可--,而这些现在是由一些中间性的情节连 系起来的。我们可以在时间上前后移动,但是现在这一时刻必须牢牢地抓住我们。"

展开阅读全文

篇17:读后感写作的基础知识

全文共 1145 字

+ 加入清单

读后感,就是读了一本书或一篇文章,或读了一段话,或读了几句名言后,把具体感受和得到的启示写成的文章,读后感也可以叫做读书笔记, 是读完一篇文章的感受以外的总结、点评。所谓感,可以是从书中领悟出来的道理或精湛的思想,可以是受书中的内容启发而引起的思考与联想,可以是因读书 而激发的决心和理想,也可以是因读书而引起的对社会上某些丑恶现象的抨击。读后感的表达方式灵活多样,基本属于议论范畴,但写法不同于一般议论文,因为它 必须是在读后的基础上发感想。要写好有体验、有见解、有感情、有新意的读后感,必须注意以下几点:

首先,要读好原文。读后感的感是因读而引起的。读是感的基础。走马观花地 读,可能连原作讲的什么都没有掌握,哪能有感?读得肤浅,当然也感得不深。只有读得认真,才能有所感,并感得深刻。如果要读的是议论文,要弄清它的论 点(见解和主张),或者批判了什么错误观点,想一想你受到哪些启发,还要弄清论据和结论是什么。如果是记叙文,就要弄清它的主要情节,有几个人物,他们之 间是什么关系,以及故事发生在哪年哪月。作品涉及的社会背景,还要弄清楚作品通过记人叙事,揭示了人物什么样的精神品质,反映了什么样的社会现象,表达了 作者什么思想感情,作品的哪些章节使人受感动,为什么这样感动等等。

其次,排好感点。只要认真读好原作,一篇文章可以写成读后感的方面很多。如对原文中心感受得深可以写成读后感,对原作其他内容感受得深也可以写成读后感,对个别句子有感受也可以写成读后感。总之,只要是原作品的内容,只要你对它有感受,都可以写成读后感。

第三,选准感点。一篇文章,可以排出许多感点,但在一篇读后感里只能论述一个中心,切不可面面俱到,所以紧接着便是对这些众多的感点进行筛选比较,找出自己感受最深、角度最新,现实针对性最强、自己写来又觉得顺畅的一个感点,作为读后感的中心,然后加以论证成文。

第四,叙述要简。既然读后感是由读产生感,那么在文章里就要叙述引起感的那些事实,有时还 要叙述自己联想到的一些事例。一句话,读后感中少不了叙。但是它不同于记叙文中叙的要求。记叙文中的叙讲究具体、形象、生动,而读后感中的 叙却讲究简单扼要,它不要求感人,只要求能引出事理。初学写读后感引述原文,一般毛病是叙述不简要,实际上变成复述了。这主要是因为作者还不能把握 所要引述部分的精神、要点,所以才简明不了。简明,不是文字越少越好,简还要明。

第五,联想要注意形式。联想的形式有相同联想(联想的事物之间具有相同性)、相反联想(联想的 事物之间具有相反性)、相关联想(联想的事物之间具有相关性)、相承联想(联想的事物之间具有相承性)、相似联想(联想的事物之间具有相似性)等多种。写 读后感尤其要注意相同联想与相似联想这两种联想形式的运用。

展开阅读全文

篇18:关于小说写作的基础知识:小说概述

全文共 794 字

+ 加入清单

小说是什么?理论上的定义是:小说是作者对社会生活进行艺术概括,通过叙述人的语 言来描绘生活事件,塑造人物形象,展开作品主题,表达作者思想感情,从而艺术地反映和 表现社会生活的一种文学体裁。而作家们对小说有着自己的认识,如贾平凹说:"小说是什 么?小说是一种说话,说一段故事,我们作过许许多多的努力--世上已经有那么多的作家 和作品,怎样从他们身边走过,依然再走--其实都是在企图着新的说法。"(《白夜·后记》) 这种"小说是一种说话"的经验之谈,值得我们初学小说者认真思索。

小说的特点主要有三点:第一,以塑造人物形象为反映或表现生活的主要手段;第二, 有较完整、生动的情节;第三,有具体的、典型的环境描写。因此,人物、情节和环境被称 为"小说的三要素"。

小说的类别可分为:长篇小说,中篇小说,短篇小说和微型小说。在写作上,这四类小 说各有不同的要求。如短篇小说,它的篇幅和容量比较短小,一般二万字以下,两千字以上。 人物集中,故事单纯,结构紧凑。往往截取生活中富有典型性的某一侧面或片断加以集中描 绘,以提示社会生活的意义,"它往往只有一个主人公,一条线索;往往只写几个小时或几 天之内集中发生的事,但却使读者盾了以后可以联想到更远更多的事。"(茅盾)由于它借一 斑而窥全貌,以一目尽传精神,鲁迅把它譬之为"大伽蓝"中的"一雕栏一画础"。如他的 《狂人日记》、《风波》、《祝福》等。再如微型小说,它的篇幅更短,几十个字、几百个字至 一千多字。情节单一,人物很少。多取材于日常生活中的一件小事,寓有褒贬或哲理。如日 本现代作家星新一的《宝子姑娘》和我国当代一些作家的微型小说作品。小说家沙汀说:"我 以为小说之分为长篇、中篇和短篇,主要的差异并不在于字数,而在于表现方法。"这个说 法对初学写作者来说,很有指导意义;要从事不同类别的小说写作,不能不仔细研究并熟练 地掌握它们不同的表现方法。

展开阅读全文

篇19:2024年高考英语作文写作素材:谚语

全文共 722 字

+ 加入清单

if a man deceives me once, shame on him, if he deceives me twice, shame on me.

上当一回头,再多就可耻。

if you make yourself an ass, don‘t complain if people ride you.

人善被人欺,马善被人骑。

if your ears glow, someone is talking of you.

耳朵发烧,有人念叨。

if you run after two hares, you will catch neither.

脚踏两条船,必定落空。

if you sell the cow, you sell her milk too.

杀鸡取卵。

if you venture nothing, you will have nothing.

不入虎穴,焉得虎子。

a cat may look at a king.

人人平等。

adversity makes a man wise, not rich.

逆境出人才。

a fair death honors the whole life.

死得其所,流芳百世。

a faithful friend is hard to find.

知音难觅。

a fall into a pit, a gain in your wit.

吃一堑,长一智。

a fox may grow gray, but never good.

江山易改,本性难移。

a friend in need is a friend indeed.

患难见真情。

a friend is easier lost than found.

得朋友难,失朋友易。

展开阅读全文

篇20:写作基础知识—散文的写作

全文共 1502 字

+ 加入清单

导语:中国是一个散文大国。古今的散文大家和作品,享誉很高。我们这里要学习的主要是抒情散文,也涉及叙事散文和其它类型的散文。作者可以根据自己的人生阅历、文化素养和爱好,或写作抒情散文,或作叙事散文,或写文化散文,或作智慧散文,或写游历散文,或作其它类型的散文。

其次,要认清散文的写作特点。散文是一种内容丰富、题材广泛、篇幅短小、体裁多样、形式灵活、文情并茂的文体。

在写作上,它有以下六个特点:

(一)内容丰富,题材广泛散文的内容涉及自然万物、各色人等、古今中外、政事私情……可以说是无所不包、无所不有的。可以写国内外和社会上的矛盾、斗争,写经济建设,写文艺论争,写伦理道德,也可以写文艺随笔,读书笔记,日记书简;既可以是风土人物志、游记和偶感录,也可以是知识小品、文坛轶事;它能够谈天说地,更可以抒情写趣。凡是能给人以思想启迪、美的感受、情操的陶治,使人开阔视野,丰富知识,心旷神怡的,都可选作散文的题材。

(二)思想警辟,诗意盎然散文多是真情实感的产物,那些优秀的篇章,都有思想火花的闪耀,表现着作者对时代和人生的深刻认识与精辟见解。

(三)短小精悍,自由灵活有人称散文是文艺战线上的“轻骑兵”,就是因为它具有篇章短小精悍、形式灵活自由的特点。

(五)直抒胸臆,自具风格文学作品都是带有感情的,但小说、戏剧的作者,往往把自己强烈的感情倾注在人物形象的塑造上,作者对生活的感受、对人物的爱憎褒贬,一般是通过间接的方式表现出来的。而散文则不一样,它常常象诗歌一样,每每用直接抒情的方式抒写胸臆,不仅使读者知其理、晓其事,而且悟其心、感其情,因此,散文要求作者写真情实感。真情是散文的生命,只有直抒胸臆,把真情实感捧给读者,才会赢得读者的喜爱。作家贾平凹在回答“散文创作要不要绝对真实”的问题时说:“这个问题争论很多,又都没有一定结论。我个人的体会,还是倾向于‘绝对真实’四个字。所谓真实,主要是指在感情以及运用环境和事件上。古人写的散文,题材也是很广泛的,但古人写散文,都是有感而发。今人写散文,多多少少存在着一些为写而写的现象,所以在绝对真实问题上就出现了所谓‘理论与实践上的不一致。’也正因为如此,这些散文就写得不那么成功了。

(六)惨淡经营,文采斐然优秀的散文不可能是“掉以轻心”写出来的,它们都是作者惨淡经营、刻意加工的结晶。秦牧指出:“一篇小小的散文也许写作时间仅仅是一两个小时,但却要求作家深厚的素养,而且不断扩大和丰富这种素养。把散文当作是‘小功夫’,‘掉以轻心’的写作态度,是很不利于我们散文创作的繁荣发展的。即使是怎样熟练的名作家,我们也要求他们在写作一篇小文章时,采取‘大象搏狮用全力,搏兔也用全力’的态度。”有些散文家提倡散文的“整体 美”,也是要求作者在内容和形式上都“惨淡经营”。整篇文章是惨淡经营、刻意加工写成的,它的语言就是精炼的,文采斐然的。这是由于作者运用的是散文笔调。那么什么是“散文笔调”呢?

可以说,散文笔调一方面表现在它的行文灵活自如,另一方面则表现在它十分讲究文采。散文的文采不仅有华丽的,而且有朴素的。

小编结语:学习散文写作,既要掌握华丽的文采,也要掌握朴素的文采。写得华丽并不容易,写得朴素更难。徐迟的文章是很有文采的,他常用赋的方法兼用比、兴修辞,使得文采华美。但是他说:“只有写得朴素了,才能显出真正的文采来。古今大散文家,都是这样写作的。越是大作家,越到成熟之时,越是写得朴素。而文采闪耀在朴素的篇页之上。”我们还要看到,不管是华丽的还是朴素的,散文的富有文采的语言都是从新鲜、活泼的口语中来的,也是对优秀的古代散文创造性的继承,也是作者仔细选择、锤炼和加工的结果。

展开阅读全文