自考英语写作基础教程汇总20篇

怎么写好应用文?下面是小编整理的应用文写作基础，欢迎查看。

一、结构的含义和作用

1.掌握结构的含义应用文的结构，是运用材料以表现主题的有序安排，是客观事物条理性在文章中的反映，为文章的组织形式和内部构造。文章的结构具有两重含义：一是宏观结构，即文章的总体构思、大体框架;二是微观结构，即对文章的层次、段落、开头、结尾、过渡、照应和主次的具体设计。

2.了解结构的作用结构好比文章的骨架，是安排文章的具体形式，是将材料化为文章的手段之二。结构是表现主题的手段，是准确表达主题的必由之路，也是引导读者领会文章思想内容的向导。写文章只有找到恰当完美的结构形式，才能把主题和材料组合在一起，形成一个完美有机的整体。其作用具体表现在：

(1)使文章言之有体。应用文大多有较固定的结构形态，它是人们在长期写作实践中经过选择，逐步找到的最适合表现某种内容的最佳形式，也称之为“程式”。如简报、书信和行政公文类文书，具有相当固定的惯用格式。

(2)使文章言之有序。合理安排文章结构，就是根据一定的思路，将零散的材料组织起来，使之眉目清楚地成为一个有机的整体。

(3)使文章言之有文。精心安排文章结构，可以增加文章的文采，从而增强其可读性。

二、安排结构的条件

1.了解思路的含义及思路与结构的关系

在文章结构的两重含义中，总体构思是具体设计的前提和基础。总体构思也就是人们常说的“言有序”，是指对材料的安排要有次序，这体现了作者的思路。思路是安排结构的条件。

1、思路的含义

思路是作者思维活动的路线，是作者在头脑中梳理、组织内容材料的过程和结果。它是作者对客观事物自身条理性的观察、理解。

作者思路清晰，结构必然有条不紊;作者思路不清晰，结构必然紊乱。经过选择的材料，只有经过合理的组织安排，使之条理化、系统化，组成一个有机的整体，才能准确鲜明地表现既定的主题。

2、思路与结构的关系

在写作构思阶段，作者的思维活动异常活跃。确立主题，选择好材料，并进而考虑如何表达主题和如何安排材料，由此逐渐形成一条清晰、连贯、独到的思维活动路线——思路。此时，文章的大体框架已在作者的头脑中“闪现”出来。等到作者用书面语言把思路表达出来时，文章的结构也就具体安排好了。因此，作者思路与文章结构的关系极为密切。具体表现为以下三点：

(1)思路是形成结构的基础和内核。结构是文章最主要的表现形式。要使结构完整、严谨、匀称，动笔前，就需要作者匠心独运，形成清晰、连贯并具独创性的思路，进而“外化”成纲目清晰、严谨周密的结构。但是，文章反映客观事物，决不是对其原始形态的简单搬抄和复制，而是在符合客观事物发展规律基础上的主观创造。因此，不同的作者。不同的文体有不同的思路。思路开阔而有创见，文章的结构就新颖独特;思路狭窄而落俗，会使文章的结构板滞僵死;思路紊乱，文章的条理就必然不清;思路松散，文章的结构就不可能严密紧凑。

(2)结构是思路的体现和反映。结构是思路的外显形式和文字载体。思路严密清晰，文章结构才能完整、严谨、清晰，主题才能得以准确地表达;思路紊乱、疏漏和闭塞，文章则会逻辑混乱、言而无序、首尾不能圆合。

3.了解锻炼思路的基本要求及锻炼思路的方法

(1)注意思路的条理性和逻辑性，使之清晰、周密、连贯。清晰，指展开思路要有顺序、有层次，同时对材料要加以区分和归类。周密，指思路要周到、严密，没有疏漏和缺损，不要顾此失彼，自相矛盾。连贯，指思维活动过程及其表达不仅要注意外在的次序，而且要处理好各个意思之间存在的衔接、并列、转折、因果、总分等内在联系，做到气脉贯通、流畅。

(2)注意思路的灵活性、独创性，使之活跃、开阔、敏捷。活跃与开阔，是指思路的开展要打破思维定势，进行多向探索，使之灵活、新颖而富有个性。敏捷是指思路的展开、梳理直至成型这一过程应该灵敏、迅速，使文章结构紧凑、气势流转而顺畅。

(3)养成良好的思维习惯。一是养成有序思考问题的习惯，由浅入深、由表及里、由此及彼。二是加强逻辑思维能力的训练。应用写作主要靠逻辑思维，要遵循“提出问题——分析问题——解决问题”这一认识规律。

(4)写作前要通盘思考，立足于写作意图、目的和所用文体特点，确定如何起笔，主体分几个部分展开，怎样收尾。

导语：小编就高考英语广东卷写作题将由基础写作(满分15分)和任务型写作(满分25分)两节组成。为了更有效地备考基础写作题，需要搞清楚基础写作题的特点和对考生写作能力的要求。本文将探讨这两个方面的问题，并对备考给出一些建议，供考生参考。

一、基础写作题的特点

高考设置基础写作题目的目的是要检测考生最基础的书面语言表达能力，如用词的合理性、句子结构的复杂度、语法运用的正确性、信息内容的完整性、句子之间的连贯性等。因此，基础写作题与往年的书面表达依然会有很多相似点，但也会出现一些新的特点。

1. 写作题材贴近考生的学习和生活。历年来高考作文题的题材都非常贴近考生的学习和生活，如校园活动、校外见闻、交友、旅游，和考生有关的话题讨论等。可以预料明年高考写作题的题材还会在这些范围之内，并为所有所考所熟悉。

2. 写作的体裁主要是故事性描述和应用文。基础写作题的体裁主要有故事性描写和应用文写作两大类。命题形式可能是看图写故事、看图表说明、根据表格信息完成一封短信或一份通知这类的应用文等。

3. 内容呈现的方式具有半封闭性。作文试题逐步走向开放将是大势所趋。但是，基础写作题还只能是半封闭的，其特点是写作的内容是被规定了的，考生必须将文章所规定的信息点完整、全面地表达出来，但对于语言表达的方式、信息组织的先后秩序、需要补充哪些必要的信息等，考生又有一定的自主构思空间。

4. 用5句话表达。这是基础写作题与往年书面表达题最显著的不同点。往年是规定字数(100词左右)，句子的数量不作规定，所以很多考生为了不犯句法错误总是用一些简单句。而基础写作只能用5句话来表达题目所给的全部信息点，但所给的信息点与往年的书面表达相比并不会减少，所以，用5个简单句很难完成任务，必须使用复合句或并列句来综合多个信息点，而且还要照顾句子之间的衔接和语意上的连贯。从这一点来说，基础写作题对考生运用语言能力的要求大大提高了。

二、基础写作题提出的新要求

由基础写作题的特点可以看出，它对考生提出了一些新的要求。

1. 信息组织能力。笔者认为，信息组织能力包括信息归类、信息排列和信息表达三个环节。对于题目所提供的各种信息点，考生首先需要依照一定的标准将信息进行归类，并初步计划将哪些信息放到同一个句子中;其次是将信息进行合理的排列，排列必须依照一定的标准，如时间顺序、空间顺序、因果关系、递进关系等;第三是选择信息表达的秩序，确定句子之间的先后关系，这既要考虑语法上能否衔接，还要考虑语意上的连贯。在组织信息的过程中，还要对某些信息进行必要的增删，使文章意思连贯、语言畅通、逻辑严密。

2. 运用复杂句子的能力。在整理和归类信息点之后，就需要正确地使用比较复杂的句子，综合地表达信息。复杂句子主要有三类：

第一类是复合句，包括含有名词性从句的复合句，含有定语从句的复合句，含有状语从句的复合句。

第二类是并列句，包括具有递进关系的并列句， 如由and，then，besides，in addition, furthermore，moreover, what’s more等连接的并列句，具有转折关系的并列句，如由but，however，on the contrary, after all等连接的并列句，具有平行选择关系的并列句，如由both…and…，as well as，as well，neither…nor…or，either…or…，not only…but also…等连接的并列句。

第三类是一些特殊句型，如使用强调句、倒装句、含有with复合结构的句子、there be开头的句子、以形式主语it开头的句子等。

正确地使用各种句型，不仅能够完成题目所要求的任务，还能使文章的句式变得丰富、行文更加流畅、中心和主旨更加突出。

三、基础写作题的备考策略

在基础写作的备考过程中，一方面要重视养成一些良好的写作习惯，如认真审题、巧妙构思、常写草稿、工整誊写、仔细核对等好习惯，另一方面在组织信息和训练复杂句子结构方面要多下些功夫。下面我们以“广东省普通高等学校招生全国统一考试广东省英语科考试说明”中的样题为例，探讨如何备考基础写作题。

第一节：基础写作(共1小题，满分15分)

假设你最近参加了由某电视台举办的中考生英语演讲比赛并获奖，该台准备组织获奖者去北京参加一次英语夏令营活动，下表是这次活动的时间安排和活动内容。

活动时间

7月15日-22日或8月15日-22日

活动内容

参加英语角 学唱英语歌曲

听英语讲座 表演英语短剧

看英语电影 教外宾学中文

【写作内容】

电视台现就活动时间和活动内容征求你的意见。请按照以下要求用英语以书信形式给予答复。

1. 选择适合你的时间并说明理由;

2. 解释你只能参加其中的两项活动(听英语讲座和教外宾学中文)，虽然你认为所有的活动都很有意义;

3. 说明你选择的理由：听英语讲座了解英美文化的信息;教外宾学中文因为2008北京奥运让越来越多的外宾想了解中国。

【写作要求】

1. 必须使用5个句子表达全部的内容

2. 信的开头和结尾已给出。

Dear Sir or Madame,

I’m glad to be invited to the English summer camp.

Thank you very much.

Yours truly,

Li Ping

【评分标准】

句子结构的准确性和复杂度;信息内容的完整性和连贯性。

由此我们可以看出，信息点的数量与往年的书面表达题相比并没有减少，要想用5个句子把所有的信息都表达出来，考生必须从以下三个方面进行备考：

1. 养成重视审题的习惯。虽然基础写作题是半封闭性的，但审题仍然十分重要。现以样题为例，谈谈如何审题：

思考的问题

样题分析

要写的文章主题是什么?(topic)

参加夏令营。

为什么要写这篇文章?(purpose)

电视台邀请参加夏令营，写信回复

要写文章的信息点有哪些?(information items)

选择的时间、参加活动的内容、解释为什么。

怎样安排信息点的逻辑顺序?(order)

说明要参加的活动并解释原因—→说明要参加的时间并解释原因。

动作是什么时候发生的(时态)?(when)

夏令营还没有开始，文章主要用一般将来时。

2. 提高组织信息的能力。组织信息的过程包括信息分类、信息排列和信息表达三个环节。这些步骤看起来好像很繁琐，但对于中下成绩的考生来说，一步一步地思考这些问题是很有必要的。现以样题为例，说明该怎样组织信息。

信息分类

信息排列

信息表达

时间信息：两个时间段。

内容信息：6项活动。

选择信息：其中的两个活动及其理由。

夏令营的内容信息点排列：可以将自己要参加的两项活动放在前面，其它信息点可以略写。

作者的选择信息点排列：依照自己所参与的活动顺序逐项表述，紧接着给出选择的理由。

结合已经给出的头和尾，写作的顺序可安排如下：

很高兴被邀请(已给出)——感谢安排这么多的活动——说明活动的意义——表达自己只能参加两项活动的遗憾和原因——说明参加的活动内容及原因(两项活动用两句话)——说明自己选择的时间及原因。

3. 夯实基础，掌握基本的句子结构及其用法。对于大多数考生来说，用词不准和句子结构错误是写作失分的“罪魁祸首”。夯实基础、掌握基本的句子结构及其用法是基础写作备考的主要任务，完成这项任务可以分步骤进行：

第一步：练习写简单句，练就写简单句基本不犯语言错误的“真功”。简单句大体上可以分为两个基本类型，考生必须掌握：“主语+谓语+(其它成分)”“主语+系动词+表语”。

第二步：练习运用复杂句。要提高运用复杂句的能力，考生必须要攻克三个易错点：一是主句与从句之间主谓结构混乱，造成主句缺谓语;二是没有掌握关联词的用法，错用、多用、漏用关联词;三是该使用简单句的地方人为地复杂化，如可以用分词或介词短语来表达的，却偏要用从句。

下面以样题为例，介绍笔者是如何思考写这篇文章的(为了分析方便，笔者将5个句子进行编号)，仅供参考：

Dear Sir or Madam,

I’m glad to be invited to the English summer camp. ①Thank you very much for arranging so many activities, such as English corner, English lectures, English films, English songs, English plays and helping foreigners learn Chinese. ②I am sure all the activities will do a lot of good to us students. ③But it’s a pity that I can only take part in two of them, because I will have to spend some time in doing my research project. ④I would like to listen to the lectures, by which I will learn more about western culture, and help foreigners learn Chinese, as more and more foreigners want to know about China and the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games.

⑤I want to see my grandparents in the country right after our school finishes in mid-July, so I am going to attend the camp from August 15th to 22nd.

Thank you very much.

Yours truly,

Li Ping

第①句顺应已给出的句中的glad心情，表示感谢安排这么多的活动，具有较好的连贯性。同时很自然地将活动内容做一介绍。

第②句用简单句表达活动的意义，语意上连贯，句式上没有继续用“长”句，有变化。

第③句用but转折并用it’s a pity 句型表示委婉的歉意，然后解释原因。

第④句用一个长句子表达自己要参加的两个项目，并解释原因，解释原因的第一句用定语从句，第二句用状语从句，使句子结构富于变化。

第⑤句解释参加的时间并给出解释。之所以把时间放在后面，主要是考虑它与题目已经给出的句子之间在语意上的连贯性不够。

好的立意就是文章成功的一半。让我们指导学生作文前围绕上述几点来考虑主题，定能写出思想发光的好文章来。那么怎样指导学生立意呢?这里就自己作文教学的几点感悟为例谈谈。

“文以意为主”，“意”就是文章的主题。它是文章的核心与灵魂。立意是一篇文章的根本，它直接关系到文章的选材，布局，乃至文章的深度。中考作文大多是话题或材料作文，没有明确的标准，如何立意就显得至关重要了。作文有了主题思想，文章才有灵魂，选择材料，安排结构，运用语言，也才有依据。

1、正确，有针对性

一篇文章的思想内容正确与否是评价文章好坏的根本依据。话题或材料作文的立意一定要合乎题目要求，切题才算真正的正确。表达出来的思想观点和感情要健康、积极向上。此外，还要有针对性。选取人们最感兴趣的、最能反映人们思想感情的作为主题，文章才能最大限度地激起反响。

2、思想要深刻

意不仅新，还要力求深刻。这就要求我们能够透过事物的现象去挖掘其内在的本质，思考出对人生，对社会有意义和价值的东西，能在一般人认识上再进一步，能发现别人没有发现的那一点，并能给人以启示。初中学生写作，在立意上难以深入，原因往往就在于浅尝辄止，没有深入开掘。所谓开掘就是深入思索，挖出事物最本质的东西来。

3、立意要新颖

如果文章主题一般化，不新颖，大家都雷同，就难以写出好文章，所以立意要新颖。好文章的立意应该是“从意中所有，从语中所无”。也就是说，大家都有这样的想法，但是大家未能表达出来，让你给写出来了，这就是新颖，这就是独创。

立意的独创性并非凭空而来，也不可随意杜撰，它是从生活中来的。只要平时注意观察和体验周围的生活，善于从常见的事物中认识到新的东西，领略到新的涵义，写文章就能出新意。不能看到生活一点现象就拿起来涂涂抹抹，而是在观察和研究生活现象的基础上独辟蹊径，有自己独特的感受和发现。而立意做到新颖巧妙，才能在生活的激流中吸取新思想，获得新感受。

4、简明集中

就立意而言，简明、集中是对主题的要求。相反，主题分散想面面俱到，却面面不到，是立意之大忌。要做到“简明”，就需要高度的概括力。思维不进行概括，表象就无法升华为本质，认识就无法实现理性的飞跃，思想就不可能达到简明、集中了。

“简明”要求思想内容上单一集中。这样可以集中精力，写得深刻，给人以鲜明突出的印象。

[写作基础：作文怎么立意

还记得著名作家海明威写的一句话：我要寻找志属于我自己的句子。每一个人都有属于他自己的句子，都应该有他自己的写作风格。《写作基础》课程的开展给我们提供了寻找自己特有的写作个性的机会，也增加了自己的实践经验和文笔内容的丰富程度。写作时必须从小时候抓起的，而我们现在所学的，也是为了巩固我们原本的基础，在此之上丰富我们的写作内涵和精髓。

这个学期刚开的《写作基础》课，无疑为我们平实的生活增添了不少色彩。课堂上，我们不断地汲取老师的教学精华，转化为我们自己的知识。课堂外，我们认真完成老师布置的作业，加以记忆巩固和发展，才不至于有江郎才尽的那天。而对于我来说，在这短短的几个月里，虽然不至于说全盘吸收，但也学到了不少东西，其中两个我觉得是最重要的，第一点是学会了仿写，第二点就是提升了经营博客的能力。首先，我先讲述一下我学习仿写的心得。上课的时候老师经常会要我们去看书，学习书本上的好的范文与句子。在这过程中，我常常把看到的觉得适合自己风格的句子或文章抄写下来，以便以后的写作。逐渐地学会了仿写。也许是觉得这样下去不够我的发挥，我又在这个过程这把原有的模式加以改善，形成了自己独有的模式，这样，在以后，灵感迸发时，也不会苦于怎样表达自己的情感。第二点是经营博客。在上课的时候，老师也讲到了要我们去申请博客，我觉得是一个非常不错的选择。我喜欢把自己写的东西都传到博客上去，让众多博友去评论和提供建议，这样，在不断地改进中我也逐渐提高了自己的写作水平。闲暇之余，我也会去博客中心看别人写的有没的文章，学习别人的写作模式，吸取经验，把好的一面加入到自己的文章中来。

总结得出，我对这门课程的建议也是基于我的学习经验上所得到的。我认为，要像学好学做这门课，要像真正提高自己的写作水平，不妨试试我的方法。在这个信息技术飞速发展的时代，拥有自己的博客是一件非常流行也非常明智的行为。在这个虚拟的世界里，我们可以尽情展示自己的才华，也能竭力汲取他人的经验，何乐而不为呢？集众人之长，才能有所长。这是我学习这门课程所得到的最大的收获，也是给这门课程的一点建议，希望我们的学弟学妹们能得到更好的进步与发展。

考研英语写作：应用文写作之感谢信

大纲对应用文写作的评价目标是：考生应能根据所设情景，写出不同类型的应用文，包括私人和公务信函、备忘录、摘要、报告等。写作时。考生应能：

1） 做到语法、拼写、标点正确、用词恰当；

2）遵循文章的特定问题格式；

3）合理组织文章结构，使其内容统一、连贯；

4）根据写作目的和特定读者，选用恰当语域。

应用文写作不需要华丽的辞藻和多变的句式，只需要能够用简洁概括的语言将事情叙述清楚就能够取得不错的成绩。应用文写作作为考研英语中性价比比较高的题目，考生必须重视对其复习。应用文写作可以充分借鉴模板，以达到更好的复习效果。下面，就为考生介绍一下感谢信的基本写作方法。

感谢信的目的是感激对方为自己的付出，感激之情要传达得真挚自然，不要刻意夸大。感谢信所涉及的内容多种多样，比如可以感谢对方替自己做了一件事情，在自己痛苦时安慰了自己，出席了自己的宴会等等。其内容包括：1)表达感激之情2)回顾事情的经过 3)肯定对方帮助的价值以及对自己的影响，表达自己回报的愿望。

常用套语有：

1表达感激之情：

Thanks so much for…;Abundant thanks to … for…

Im writing to express my heartfelt thanks for …

On behalf of my whole family, I wish to extend our heartfelt thanks for all the trouble you had taken in …I must write to thank you for inviting me to…

2肯定对方帮助的价值及影响：

You will never know how much we appreciated your kind and practical help. Your …meant more than I can express in words. Nothing can be more precious for me than your…

3表达回报的愿望：

I hope I can return the favor someday … Do call on me if I can ever return the favor. 感谢信中比较特殊是求职者面试后给面试官写的信。

此类感谢信的内容不只是感谢，而是一般感谢信和求职信的结合。其主要内容包括：(1)感谢对方给你面谈的机会，并注明你面试的时间和所求的职位;(2) 说明你对该公司、该职位的兴趣，强调你的知识与技能符合公司的需要，表示自己能为公司的发展做出贡献。也可以补充说明或澄清在面谈中忽略或没有讲明的问题 (3)重申你对该职位的兴趣，主动提供更多的材料，表示期待他们的消息。

Directions: You have just attended an interview in Apfel Incorporated for the position of marketing analyst. Write a letter of appreciation to the interviewer Mr. David Wayne. Your letter should include the following points:

1) express your appreciation for the interview

2) tell about your job-related skills and experience

实例：

Dear Mr. Wayne，

Thank you very much for taking the time from your busy schedule last Friday to interview me for the marketing analyst position at Apfel Incorporated. After our meeting, I am convinced that your company is an excellent place for my career.

I am extremely excited about the position and believe that my skills are a good match for the company. As you may remember, I completed a project that is similar in nature to the work I

would be doing at your company. I believe that I could make an immediate contribution to Apfel Incorporated.

Please let me know if I can provide you with any additional information about my background or goals. My email address is LiMing@yahoo.com, and my phone number is 12345678. I look forward to hearing from you soon.

Sincerely,

Li Ming

下面是语文迷小编为大家整理提供的英语写作技巧以及关联词，供大家阅读参考。

英语写作技巧之一：用介词短语替代从句，例：

原句：While they were playing tennis, she started an argument that lasted all morning.

修改后：During tennis she started an argument that lasted all morning.

原句：When you come to the second traffic light, turn right.

修改后：At the second traffic light turn left.

英语写作技巧之二：删除诸如"who is”或"that is"之类的关系代词，变从句为短语，例：

句：The novel, which is written in three parts, told a story that took place in the Middle Ages.

修改后：The three-part novel told a story set in the Middle Ages.

注：把句中的"three parts"改用形容词来表达，节省了四个不必要的单词"which is written in"。我们经常可以将关系代词如"that"去掉，这只会引起最少的变动。

英语写作技巧之三：剔除你不需要的单词，例：

Two joint partners will present their views over a long-distance telephone call.

写完这样的句子后，你自己再读一遍，挑出单词"joint"和"telephone"，注意删去不必要的词。

关联词的积累

1.提出观点不要只用I think，要学会用：

As far as I am concerned

In my opinion

From my point of view

From my perspective

The way I see it

2.转折不要只用but， 要多用：

However,

nevertheless, nonetheless,

Whereas

Some people like fat meat, whereas other people hate it.

转折也可用比喻：as a coin has two sides(就象硬币有两面一样), …(陈述转折内容)

3.表递进的：

In addition, in addition to, additionally,

what is more, moreover, furthermore,

more importantly，

what is worse (更槽糕的是)

4.表示“事实上”：

In fact,

as a matter of fact,

actually

5.表总结：

in conclusion, as a result,

all in all 总而言之

In short,

In a word, 一句话讲

Taking into consideration,

Taking into account all the factors that I have mentioned above, it is safe to draw a conclusion that …

6.表示因此：

Consequently,

Hence,

Therefore,

Thus,

as a result,

resultingly

7.表因为：

because of

due to,

owing to,

thanks to,

as a result of,

8.虽然

Although, even though, even if, though

Proud as these nobles are, …

As flattered as I am, I would say no.

In spite of, despite

I love you in spite of that.

9.比较：

In comparison with,

compared to,

compared with

She’s nothing compared to you.

10.表最后：

Finally,

eventually,

in the end,

at last,

ultimately,

11.表示程度的副词词组亦非常重要，会使文章看起来比较成熟、辨证：

To some extent 在某种程度上讲

To some degree 在某种程度上讲

To a large part 在很大程度上说

In a sense 在某种意义上讲

In general, generally 大体上说

Generally speaking 一般地讲

In some cases 在有些情况下

Basically 基本上

Broadly speaking 宽泛地讲

12.其他(要尽可能多用在文章中。始终牢记内容次要，而语言形式第一位。内容服务于形式)：

Not only, but also

Neither nor, either or

Instead of, instead

For example, for instance (替换使用), take … for example

Be likely to

Be able to

Speaking of, when it comes to …

When it comes to food, he is really picky.

In terms of 根据

First of all, second of all

Above all,

Significantly,

The more, the more

小说是什么?理论上的定义是：小说是作者对社会生活进行艺术概括，通过叙述人的语 言来描绘生活事件，塑造人物形象，展开作品主题，表达作者思想感情，从而艺术地反映和 表现社会生活的一种文学体裁。而作家们对小说有着自己的认识，如贾平凹说："小说是什 么?小说是一种说话，说一段故事，我们作过许许多多的努力--世上已经有那么多的作家 和作品，怎样从他们身边走过，依然再走--其实都是在企图着新的说法。"(《白夜·后记》) 这种"小说是一种说话"的经验之谈，值得我们初学小说者认真思索。

小说的特点主要有三点：第一，以塑造人物形象为反映或表现生活的主要手段;第二， 有较完整、生动的情节;第三，有具体的、典型的环境描写。因此，人物、情节和环境被称 为"小说的三要素"。

小说的类别可分为：长篇小说，中篇小说，短篇小说和微型小说。在写作上，这四类小 说各有不同的要求。如短篇小说，它的篇幅和容量比较短小，一般二万字以下，两千字以上。 人物集中，故事单纯，结构紧凑。往往截取生活中富有典型性的某一侧面或片断加以集中描 绘，以提示社会生活的意义，"它往往只有一个主人公，一条线索;往往只写几个小时或几 天之内集中发生的事，但却使读者盾了以后可以联想到更远更多的事。"(茅盾)由于它借一 斑而窥全貌，以一目尽传精神，鲁迅把它譬之为"大伽蓝"中的"一雕栏一画础"。如他的 《狂人日记》、《风波》、《祝福》等。再如微型小说，它的篇幅更短，几十个字、几百个字至 一千多字。情节单一，人物很少。多取材于日常生活中的一件小事，寓有褒贬或哲理。如日 本现代作家星新一的《宝子姑娘》和我国当代一些作家的微型小说作品。小说家沙汀说："我 以为小说之分为长篇、中篇和短篇，主要的差异并不在于字数，而在于表现方法。"这个说 法对初学写作者来说，很有指导意义;要从事不同类别的小说写作，不能不仔细研究并熟练 地掌握它们不同的表现方法。

1、认真观察。生活的绚丽多彩，来自于它的复杂组合与瞬息万变，抓住这些，是学会感悟的基础，而抓住的前提是认真细致的观察。首先，观察不是泛泛地"看看"，而是仔细地"审视"。其次，观察需要投入，投入又必须是诚心的、积极的和认真的，这种投入不光是形式上的参与，更是心理距离的缩短、思想情感的融通和语言行为的协调。

2、深入思考。思考就是在感悟，感悟包含了体验、咀嚼、顿悟。思考必须专注，感悟更当用心。学会思考，就是要克服这些不足，摈弃这些有碍于表达真情实感的成分。思考，实际上就是一个不断地问为什么，然后回答出"是因为这个"的过程。由此，小事情可以写出大主题，小人物可以表现得很丰满，小角度可以展现全局，小细节可以尽显本质。

3、以情悟情。感悟的主观性，决定了它活动过程中的情感性，情感是由人的思想道德所决定的。所以，无论是观察还是思考，都必须有一个正确的思想标尺、情感标尺，一方面来度量自己的对与错，另一方面来检验生活的是与非。以充沛的感情去体验生活，就会感受到生活中的真情实感。

小学生学写作，打好写作基础，练好写句子的基本功，要从把句子写完整、具体、通顺、连贯这几方面做起。

一、把句子写完整

怎样的句子才算是完整的呢?读读下面的句子：

1.我们劳动。(谁，干什么)

2.小蚂蚁运送食物。(什么，干什么)

3.哥哥是一名少先队员。(谁，是什么)

不难看出：在一般情况下，句子是由两部分组成的，前半部分交代“谁”或“什么”，后半部分交代“做什么”“怎么样”或者“是什么”。前后两部分说全了，句子才算是一句完整的话。需要强调说明的是：知道什么是完整句，怎样的句子才算完整，这只是一个知识性的问题;落实在行动上，即平日在说每一句话，在写每一句话时，都要认真思考，反复斟酌，提高“完整”意识，不写残缺不全的句子，这才是最重要的。

二、把句子写具体

句子要完整，这是首要的。但在许多时候，句子只做到“完整”是不能准确表达意思的，还要做到“具体”。怎样的句子才算是具体的呢?读读下面这几组句子，体会一下：

第一组：

1、爸爸做工。

2.爸爸在工厂里做工。

分析：第二句写清了爸爸在哪儿做工。

第二组：

1、小蜜蜂飞来。

2、夏日，一只金色的小蜜蜂从远处嗡嗡地飞来。

分析：第二句写清什么时候，有多少，什么样，从哪儿，怎么样。

由上面这两组句子可以看出：在句子主要成分的前面或后面，写清什么时候(时间)、有多少(数量)、在什么地方或从哪儿(地点)、什么样(形状或颜色)、怎么样(态势)、达到什么程度(情境)等，就写清了事物外形特点、活动特点，就把自己要准确表达的意思写出来了，这就叫做把句子写具体。这样的句子就算是完整、具体的句子。

学习把句子写具体，这是一项极为重要的技能，需要同学们抓住人物或事物的特点，准确运用词语，进行持久练习。

三、把句子写通顺

句子通顺，就是句意明白，读得顺口。具体来说，句子通顺包括以下几个方面：

1.用词要准确，经得起推敲。例如：我们把门口的泥土消除掉了。句中，“泥土”不能“消除”，只能“清除”掉。

2.句中词语排列的顺序要合理。例如：正在花上，有几只漂亮的蝴蝶翩翩起舞。这句话改成“有几只漂亮的蝴蝶，正在花上翩翩起舞”,句子就通顺了。

3.词语使用搭配要得当。例如：公园里生长着各种树木和五颜六色的鲜花。句中“生长”和“鲜花”两词搭配不当，应改为“公园里生长着各种树木，盛开着五颜六色的鲜花”。

4.句中各词语的意思不能自相矛盾。例如：我断定他大概是王小刚的哥哥。句中“断定”与“大概”矛盾，应删掉“大概”。

5.关联词语的使用恰到好处。例如：只有天下雨，地才会湿。“下雨”不是“地湿”的唯一条件，因此，第一句应改为：只要天下雨，地就会湿。

6.句意明白，合乎实际，符合情理。例如：博物馆里展出了五千多年前新出土的文物。说“五千多年前新出土的文物”不合实际，应改为：博物馆里展出了新出土的五千多年前的文物。

四、把句子写连贯

连贯，即句子之间连接贯通。显然，把句子写连贯，这是指写几句话(又叫“句群”)来说的。翻开某些同学的作文本，段落中上下句不连贯的现象比比皆是，主要表现在：句子之间无顺序，承接不紧密，跨度大;上下句之间，被描述的对象(即“主语”)重复出现，不会运用“他(她)”或者“它”这些人称代词。怎样才能做到把句子写连贯呢?

1.合理安排顺序，使句子连贯。

有顺序，这是写几句意思连贯的话的最基本的要求。这就要求我们，在写几句话时，一定不能东一句、西一句，想到哪儿就写到哪儿;总要围绕既定的中心意思，按照一定的顺序，把相关的句子组织在一起，使句子前后连贯。

2.学会运用“他(她)”或“它”这些人称代词，使句子连贯。

读读下面这段话，想一想，有什么毛病，怎样说才好：

妈妈的衣袖破了。妈妈赶忙从抽屉里拿出一个小布包。妈妈先从布包里拿出一根针，一根青线，用牙咬了咬线头，把线头穿过针眼。妈妈又从布包里找出一小块布，贴在破了的地方，然后一针一线地缝起来。

读后，大家一定会发现：这几句话写的对象是妈妈，主要写的是妈妈缝补衣服时所作的准备工作，是按事情经过的先后顺序排列的。只是由于这四句话的开头重复出现“妈妈”一词，因此读起来显得很拗口。如果把后面三句开头中的“妈妈”改成“她”字，这几句话就连贯多了。这就告诉我们：在几个句子里，如果写的是同一个人物(或事物)，后面再指这个人物(或事物)时，就可以用“他(她)”或“它”来代替。

我们已经谈到通过人物传记和分别从三个方面来研究人物关系的人物创作的基础了。小编收集了电影剧本写作基础，欢迎阅读。

我们已经谈到通过人物传记和分别从三个方面来研究人物关系的人物创作的基础了。

现在该怎么办呢?

你怎样才能把对一个人物的零碎和杂乱无章的想法变成为一个活生生的、有血有肉的人物呢?怎样才能把他变成你能与之结为一体的人物呢?

你如何给你的人物“注入生命”?如何去构成你的人物呢?

这是有史以来的诗人、哲学家、作家、艺术家、科学家和教士们反复思索的问题。至今没有确切的答案。它是创作过程之所以具有神秘感和魔力的一个重要因素。

关键的词是“过程”。需要一种途径去实现它。

首先，要创作人物的来龙去脉(context)。然后把内容注入其中。来龙去脉和内容——这些抽象的原则是你创作过程中珍贵的工具。它们构成一个概念。书中将要经常用到。

这就是来龙去脉：

比如说一个空杯子。向杯子里面看，杯子里是一个空间。这个空间里盛着咖啡、茶、牛奶、水、热可可、啤酒或其它液体。这些液体就是杯子的内容。

这个杯子盛着咖啡。杯子里盛咖啡的空间就是来龙去脉。

想着这个，我们往下讲这个概念就清楚了。

让我们从来龙去脉的角度来探讨构成人物的过程吧。

首先，确定人物的需求。

在剧本的过程中，你的人物想要达到什么目的或得到什么东西呢?

想要一百万元钱?抢劫曼哈顿银行吗?要打破以上竞速纪录吗?要象乔·沃伊特那样到纽约去成为“午夜牛郎”吗?要象《艾丽斯不再住在这儿了》中的艾丽斯那样去实现到加利福尼亚的蒙特雷当一名歌手的长期梦寐吗?要象理查德·德莱福斯(Richard Dreyfuss)在《第三类接触》中那样去搞清楚“究竟发生了些什么”吗?这些全都是人物的需求。

可问你自己——你人物的需求是什么?

然后，做出人物的传记。正如前面所建议的，你写上三到十页，多写点也行，弄清你的人物是谁。为了有一幅清晰的图景，你可能想从人物的祖父写起。别管写几页稿纸，你所开始的这个过程在创作的准备阶段中还要继续增长和发展。人物传记是为你自己写的，根本无需摆进剧本中去。它只是供你用来创作人物的工具。

人物传记完成之后，就可以进入人物的外在生活部分了。你要从人物生活的职业的、个人的和私生活的等因素分别加以考虑。

来龙去脉——这就是起点。

现在让我们来探讨什么是人物的问题。

什么是人物呢?

人都有什么共同之处?我们都是一样的，你和我——我们都有同样的需求、同样的愿望、同样的恐惧和不安全感。我们都希望被人爱，希望得到人们的喜欢，希望能成功、幸福和健康。我们在本质上是一样的。某种东西把我们联系在一起。

可是什么东西把我们区分开来呢?

把我们区分开来的是我们的观点——我们怎样看待世界。人人都有自己的观点。

人物就是观点——即我们看待世界的方式。这是一种来龙去脉。

你的人物可以是作父母的，因此就有“作父母的”观点。他可以是一名学生，那就会用“学生的”观点来看待世界。你的人物可以是政治活动家，就象《朱莉娅》(Julia)中的范尼莎·雷德格雷夫(Vanessa Redgrave)。那是她的观点，她为之献身。家庭主妇有其特殊观点。罪犯、恐怖主义者、警察、医生、律师、富人、穷人、妇女——解放了的或反之——全都会表现出个人的和独特的观点。

你的人物的观点是什么?

你的人物是自由党人还是保守党人?他(她)是环境论者呢?还是人道主义者?或是种族主义者?是相信命运、天数或占星术的人吗?是相信医生、律师、《华尔街日报》或《纽约时报》的人吗?或者是相信《时代周刊》、《人民报》和《新闻周刊》的人吗?

你的人物对自己的工作持什么观点呢?对婚姻呢?他是否喜欢音乐?如果喜欢，喜欢的又是哪一种音乐呢?这些因素都成为你的人物的独特而有机的组成部分。

我们都具有某种观点——要保证你的人物具有个人的和独特的观点。你创造了来龙去脉，内容就随之而来了。

例如，你人物的观点可能是认为不加限制地捕杀鲸鱼和海豚的行径是道德上的错误。他通过捐赠，提供志愿服务，参加集会，参加示威请愿，穿印有“救救鲸鱼和海豚”字样的汗衫等活动来支持这种观点。鲸鱼和海豚是地球上智力水平最高的两种动物。有的科学家推测它们可能“比人更精明”。科学资料证明海豚从未伤害或攻击过人类的任何成员。还有许多关于海豚保护第二次世界大战中落海的飞行员和水兵免受鲨鱼的凶猛攻击的故事。必须有一种方式去解救这些智力发达的生命形态。你的人物可能会以拒绝购买金枪鱼来抗议商业渔民滥捕鲸鱼和海豚。

要想办法使你的人物以行动来支持自己的观点并使之戏剧化。

人物还是什么呢?

人物还是一种态度。这也是一种来龙去脉，是展现人物观点的一种感情和行动的方式。人物的态度是高傲的?还是卑下的?是个正面人物?还是反面的?乐观的还是悲观的?

对生活和工作充满热情还是意志消沉的呢?

戏剧就是冲突。要还住：你越能清楚地确定人物的需求，就越容易给这些需求制造障碍。这样就产生了冲突。这有助于你创作一条紧张而富于戏剧性的故事线索。

这在喜剧中也是一条卓有成效的规律。尼尔·西蒙的人物一般都具有一个能激发矛盾的简单需求。在《告别了的姑娘》(The Goodbye Girl)中，理查德·德莱福斯扮演一个从芝加哥来的演员，他从一个朋友手里转租了一套纽约公寓套房，当他到那里时，发现房间被朋友原来的同房(玛莎·梅森Marsba Mason饰)和她的年轻女儿(奎恩·库明斯Qui-nn Cammings饰)占了。他想住进去，但她就是不搬。她声称这套间是她的，占有在法律上总是占上风的。这一冲突是他们关系的开端，它基于双方各自都认为自己是“对的”。

《亚当的肋骨》(Adams Rib)则是另一种情况。在迦逊·卡宁(Garson Kanin)和路斯·高顿(Ruth Gordon)所写的这个剧本里，史宾塞·屈塞(Spencer Tracy)和凯瑟琳·赫本(Katherine Hepburn)主演两个律师。他们是夫妻，同时又是法庭上的对手。屈塞对一个被控向丈夫开枪的妇女(裘迪·霍莉黛Judy Holliday饰)进行起诉，而赫本则为她辩护。这是一个有关男女“权利平等”这一基本问题的出色的喜剧情场。这部影片摄于1949年，它预示了女权

斗争运动，至今仍是一部经典的美国喜剧电影。

确定人物的需求，然后针对这一需求制造障碍。

你对你的人物知道得越多，在故事结构中创作的尺度就越宽。

人物还是什么呢?

人物还是个性。每个人物从视觉上都显示出一种个性。你的人物是欢快的?幸福的、伶俐的、机智的或外向的?还是严肃的?腼腆的?内向的?是举止可爱，还是难以接近的、

邋遢的、死心眼儿的、呆头呆脑的或缺乏幽默感的?

你的人物具有什么样的个性?

她是为人冷谈的、凶悍的，还是恶作剧的?这些都是人物的个性特征。它们都反映着人物。

人物还是行为。人物的实质就是动作——什么样的人干什么事。

行为是动作。比如说一个人从高级轿车中走下来，锁上车后穿过马路。他看到路边水沟里有一个镍币——那么他怎么办呢?如果他四下看看，见没有人瞧着就弯腰去拾起那个镍币。这个行为向你揭示了这个人物性格的某些方面。如果他四下看看，见有人瞧着他，就没有捡起那个镍币。这也向你揭示了这个人物性格的某些方面。他的行为把这个人物性

格戏剧化了。

如果你是在一个戏剧性情境中设置你的人物的行为，就可能引导读者和观众深入审视自己的生活。

行为向你揭示很多东西。我的一个朋友得到一次飞到纽约去接洽工作的机会。去还是不去，她的心情是复杂的。这次去谈的正是一项她很想做的既有地位工资又高的工作，可她拿不定主意是否下决心搬到纽约去。她为此斗争了一个多星期，最后还是决定去了。她收拾起行装开车到飞机场去，可当她把车停在飞机场时，“不小心”把钥匙锁在车里，而发动机还开着。这是行为动作展现人物的一个完善例子。这件事向她揭示了她内心始终明白的事——她并不想去纽约。

这样的一个场景可以说明人物的许多东西。

你的人物动不动就生气吗?他是象马龙·白兰度(Mar-lon Brando)在《欲望号街车》(A Streetcar Named Desi-re)中那样生起气来就乱扔东西吗?还是象马龙·白兰度在《教父》中那样虽然怒火中烧，却只是阴险地冷笑，并不表露呢?你的人物赴约总是迟到、早到还是准时呢?你的人物对官方的反应是象伍迪·艾伦(Woody Allen)在《安妮·霍尔》中那样当着警察的面撕毁司机的驾驶执照吗?建立在独特的性格特征基础之上的每一个动作和话语都可以扩大我们对你的人物的认识和理解。

如果你在剧本中写到某处时不知道你的人物在这种情境下该怎么做的话，那就到自己的生活中去找吧。看你在类似的情况下会怎么办。你自身就是最好的材料来源。好好练习。

你既然提出了问题，你就能解决它。

在我们日常生活中同样如此。

一切取决于你对人物的了解。在剧情发展过程中你的人物想达到什么目的?是什么驱使他努力去达到目的?或者没有达到?在你的故事中，他的需求或目的是什么?为什么他

们在那里?他们要得到什么?读者和观众对你的人物感觉如何?这是你作为作家的任务—在真实的环境中创作真实的人物。

人物还是什么呢?

人物还是我所谓的启示。在故事进程中我们了解到人物的一些事情。比如在《秃鹰的三天》中，罗伯特·雷福德在邻近的一家饭馆叫午饭吃。我们知道他有文化，是个“收集了世界上最全的一套退稿信”的作家。然后，我们极富于戏剧性地接受了他适应新情况的那种态度。这新情况就是有人要杀他，而他还不知道是谁和为什么。小劳伦佐·杉波尔

(Lorenzo Semple)和大卫·雷菲尔(David Rayfiel)的紧凑的剧本向我们展现了罗伯特·雷福德这一人物的某些东西。

剧作家的职责是把人物的不同方面展现给读者和观众。我们必须对你的人物有所了解。在剧情进展中，人物往往和观众同时了解到他在故事中的困境。这样人物就和观众一起

寻找那个支持戏剧动作的情节点。

同一性也是人物的一个方面。“他就好象我认识的某人”，这一识别因素是作家所能得到的最大的赞誉了。

动作即是人物!一个人的所为，而不是他的言谈，表明他是一个什么样的人。

上述所有的性格特征——观点、个性、态度、行为——在构成人物的过程中都是互相关联并且会互相重叠的。这样你就有了选择的余地;你可以选用这些性格特征的全部或部分，也可完全不用。但是知道了它们是什么，你就能得心应手地掌握构成人物的过程。

这一切都来自人物的传记。从人物的过去可以得出观点、个性、态度、行为、需求和目的。

在写作过程中，写到二十页到五十页纸.你才会发现人物开始向你说话，告诉你他们要做什么，说什么。一旦你和他们有了接触，和人物建立了联系，他们便自为了。让他们

做他们想做的事。要相信你有能力在“白纸黑字”的阶段选择动作和方向。

有时你的人物可能改变故事线索，而你也可能拿不定主意是否让他们做下去。那你就让他们做下去，看看会发生什么事。最糟也不过是你花几天时间认识到自己犯了个错误。犯错误也是很重要的。出事故、犯错误也会带来意外的收获。如果犯了错误，只要重写这一部分，一切就又重回正轨了。

我的一个学生来找我。他告诉我他正在写一出戏。这出戏要有不幸的“悲剧性”结尾。但在第三幕开始的时候，他的人物开始变得“滑稽”了。不断出现插科打浑的对话，而且结局也变得滑稽、不严肃了。每当他坐下来写的时候，幽默不停地涌现出来;他无法制止。他变得灰心丧气，最后因失望而放弃了。

他几乎是找我来认错的。他开诚布公地解释说，他已束手无策。我建议他坐下来再写.就让字和对话听其自然地写出来。如果是滑稽的，就让它滑稽好了。那么他就能看到写

出来的结果。如果它一直是滑稽的，而他又不喜欢，那最多把它锁到抽屉里存放起来就完了。然后再回过头来按他最早的设想重写第三幕。

他照办了，果然灵验。他扔掉了第三幕的喜剧方案，然后按他早先严肃的方案写了一稿。这个喜剧是他不得不写的;但又是必须摆脱的。这是他回避“完成”剧本的一种方式。作家常常在一个作品接近完成时，坚持写下去而没有写完。完成之后你还有什么可干的呢?你是否读过一本书而不愿读完它呢?我们都曾有过。只要承认它是一种自然现象就

行了，不必为此担心。

如果你遇到这种情况，那你怎样想就怎样写，看看结果如何。写作总是要冒风险的，你很难知道结果如何。最糟也不过是你再花几天时间重写那些行不通的东西!

只是别指望你的人物从第一页就开始跟你讲话。这样是行不通的。如果你作了创造性的研究工作，并熟知你的人物，那么你就会体验到某些阻力，然后才能有所突破，和你的人

物发生接触。 你的全部工作、研究、准备工作和思考时间的最后结果将是那些真实、生动、可信的人物——真实环境中的真实人物。

这是我们共同的目的。

书面表达历来是英语教学中一个难点，要想在限定的时间内写出一篇质量上乘的文章，非一日之功。纵观几年来的高考书面表达，我们可以看出，高考英语写作越来越重视情景的设置，要求考生总结自己的感受和见解，给出自己的观点。书面表达又是全面衡量学生英语综合水平的一种测试形式，因此，我们不得不重视。

第一步，写作的内容，要求做到两点— 内容完整、相关。这两点只要考生不粗心，基本都能做到。比如陕西考区的题目，要求写暑假的安排，是一篇正反观点类的议论文。必须注意题目的要求，第一要提出讨论话题，Recently there has been a heated discussion about what the students should do during the summer vacation.(这是一个经典的模版开篇句型)。第二要写出一方面的观点，然后是另一方面的观点，最后提出自己的看法，根据要求缺一不可，否则就会被扣掉相应的分数，这就是完整。再比如，2005年广东考区的成语寓言故事，不仅要描写整个守株待兔的过程，还应该根据要求点名寓意，否则也是不完整，这点只要在课堂上强调，学生是很容易做到的。所谓相关，也就是不要过多出现文中没有的信息，不能过分发挥，一般学生犯此类错误的较少。

第二步，写作中的语法。在阅卷中，一般三个小的语法错误会被扣掉一分，一个大的语法错误(关于谓语的错误)会被扣掉一分。所以，学生应该尽量避免犯语法错误。我在课堂中会强调，对于语法基础薄弱的同学，除了加强自己的语法功底外，就是去背诵我给出的50个最高频用到的句法结构。这些结构不仅正确，而且一定是高考中的有效得分点，即使语法偏弱，记住这些句子然后在考试中使用也能避免学生自己造句中的语法错误，一举两得。比如，倒装句在考试中就很少有同学主动启用，但是一旦正确启用就会收到意想不到的效果，所以我会给出四组倒装句，然后让学生加强运用和练习。这些句子包括：

1、Only when we realize the importance of environmental protection, can we solve the problem of pollution.

2、So precious is time that we can’t afford to waste it.

3、Diligent as he was, he failed in passing the exam.

4、By no means should teenagers get into the habit of smocking.

第三步，连接词的运用，使文章连贯、流畅。我把这些词分为8类，叫做“畅词”，往往学生由于中西方语言的差异，会忽视这一点，所以在授课中会通过大量的练习巩固和加强学生的印象。而且不仅要写，还写出高水平的畅词，因为高考是选拔性考试，要做到“人无我有,人有我优”。比如，“首先”这个表示次序的畅词，一般同学一定想到的是firstly 或者first of all。可是我建议学生启用to begin with, 或者initially (这个是建议水平较好的启用)。“然而”，绝大部分启用but, however，我建议学生采用on the contrary 或者oppositely。

第四步，也是整个课程的核心部分，要强化“复杂、高级”两个概念。为什么是核心呢?因为学生在这一部分没有正确的认识，在平时的学习中老师也没有有意识灌输和训练总结。大部分学生以为只要写出来、写正确就可以拿到高分，其实80-120个单词包括大概10个句子，如果全部是简单的词汇和句型没有办法达到最高档作文的要求。因此，我们强调高级的词汇和高级复杂的句型，不是说全部必须高级，而是必须出现一些才能符合高考作文大纲的要求。在这一步中，我总结的“高分词汇选择原则”、“简单句到复杂句的瞬间转换”、“高分句子写作策略”以及“钻石得分50句”，通过这些理论和实践结合的讲解，学生会感觉成绩的快速提升，效果明显。

英语写作中积累很重要。下面是语文迷网为大家整理的英语四级作文精彩句式，希望对你有帮助。

一.开头句型

1.Recently the phenomenon has become a heated topic.

2.Recently the problem has been brought into focus.

3. Nowadays there is a growing concern over ... .

4. What calls for special attention is that...

5. There’s no denying the fact that...

6. what’s far more important is that...

7.It is common knowledge that honesty is the best policy.

8.It is well-known that…

9.Many nations have been faced with the problem of ...

10.According to a recent survey, ...

11. With the rapid development of ..., ...

二.结尾句型

1.From what has been discussed above, we can draw the conclusion that ...

2.In conclusion, it is imperative that ...

3.In summary, if we continue to ignore the above-mentioned issue, more problems will crop up. 4.With the efforts of all parts concerned, the problem will be solved thoroughly.

5.Taking all these into account, we ...

6. Whether it is good or not /positive or negative, one thing is certain/clear...

7.All things considered, ...

8.It may be safely said that...

9.Therefore, in my opinion, it’s more advisable...

10. It can be concluded from the discussion that...

11. From my point of view, it would be better if...

三.表原因句型

1.A number of factors are accountable for this situation.

A number of factors might contribute to (lead to )(account for ) the phenomenon(problem).

2. The answer to this problem involves many factors.

3. The phenomenon mainly stems from the fact that...

4. The factors that contribute to this situation include...

5. The change in ...largely results from the fact that...

6. Part of the explanations for it is that ...

7. One of the most common factors (causes ) is that ...

8. Another contributing factor (cause ) is ...

9. Perhaps the primary factor is that ...

10. But the fundamental cause is that ...

四.表比较句型

1.The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages.

2.The advantages of A are much greater than those of B.

3.A may be preferable to B, but A suffers from the disadvantages that...

5.For all the disadvantages, it has its compensating advantages.

6.Like anything else, it has its faults.

7.A and B has several points in common.

8.However, the same is not applicable to B.

9. A and B differ in several ways.

10. Evidently, it has both negative and positive effects.

五.表证明句型

1. No one can deny the fact that ...

2. The idea is hardly supported by facts.

3. Unfortunately, none of the available data shows ...

4. Recent studies indicate that ...

5. There is sufficient evidence to show that ...

6. According to statistics proved by ..., it can be seen that ...

六.表结果句型

1. It may give rise to a host of problems.

2. The immediate result it produces is ...

3. It will exercise a profound influence upon...

4. Its consequence can be so great that...

七.表反驳句型

1. It is true that ..., but one vital point is being left out.

2. There is a grain of truth in these statements, but they ignore a more important fact.

3. Many of us have been under the illusion that...

4. It makes no sense to argue for ...

5. Such a statement mainly rests on the assumption that ...

6. Contrary to what is widely accepted, I maintain that ...

写作是考研英语的第二大重头戏，仅次于阅读。但是这部分又经常被考生忽略，考前不动手，依赖临考模板，很难写出高分作文。那么，如何准备2018考研英语写作呢?一起来看下。

对于考研英语写作，最基本的要求是考前必须动笔写出35篇文章，其中十篇应用文，二十五篇图画作文。注意：动笔写的文章最好是有范文的题目。写作应分为五步：

NO.1 写作

写作写作，第一步首先是写!一定要动手写，你看多少，背多少，都没有动手写来得实在，建议同学们拿考题多加练习。

NO.2 仔细对比

第二个就是仔细对比，写完后对照范文从三个方面去研究：第一个是内容，也就是构思和原文有何区别;第二个是语言，也就是用词、用句和原文有何区别?第三个是结构，就是你的行文思路和原文有什么区别?这是第二个步骤，写作的区别其实就是写作的弱点。

NO.3 背诵

第三步骤就是背诵：也就是可以去背诵一些范文。有的同学说了，范文我背过了，但是写作的时候还是不会写。有两个原因，第一个原因是你背得不熟，背得结结巴巴，还不如不背;第二个原因是没有练过，只是死记硬背。

所以为什么背了还不会用，有两个原因，第一背不熟，第二没有练过。背到什么程度，有12个字“滚瓜烂熟、脱口而出、多多益善。”要背到不需要去想，不需要去动脑子!如果背一篇文章还需要去想，那就证明还背得不熟。大家上考场，如果能想起平时的70%，那已经是相当不错了。所以一定要背熟，这就是第三个步骤。

NO.4 默写

第四个步骤就是默写：背熟后把书合上，把这篇文章默写下来。默写后，做一个工作：仔细对比原文发现写作弱点，你会发现你默写的文章和原文会有一些出入，包括拼写、语法、标点等，这种错误就是你写作的弱点，最好能够把这些错误用红笔标出来。大家为什么写作拿不到高分，根源只有一个——错误太多。很多错误自己都不知道。

NO.5 仿写

第五个步骤就是仿写：什么叫仿写?就是模仿你背过的文章再写出一篇新文章。在背完一篇文章后，要想想这篇文章有什么精彩的词组、词汇和句型可以使用。然后换一个话题，把这篇作文用一下，用里面词汇、词组和句型去构思另一篇文章。

写作的注意点和技巧：写作首要的是，一、不跑题;二、字数达到要求;三、字迹整洁工整;四、少有语病。

这些是很基本的要求，考试的时候就要好好落实。比如，拿到作文题目后要审题。在写的过程中注意字数的限制，不要写太多，会扣分的，字数不够也会扣分。所以实在不行就写完一段话，停下来数一数字数。字迹工整可能短期内提高不了。只要你比平时稍慢一点写字母，就会写得比较整洁。要知道老师的印象分是很重要的。病句的避免技巧就是，凡是你想的过程中感觉别扭的句子，多半就是病句。干脆不要写出来，换一种形式去表达。不要追求好词，要追求准确性。

在考前，小作文的提高是非常快的。方法就是分析小作文的类型。应用文写作部分(小作文)考查内容包括投诉信、咨询信、道歉信、求职信等信函类应用文，而且涵盖报告、通知、海报等告示类应用文。不同类型的作文，要自己总结模版。小作文是完全可以准备模版的，其作用也是常明显。一定要注意：总结出自己的模板。

Let‘s cross the bridge when we come to it.船到桥头自然直。下面是小编为你带来的初中英语写作常用谚语，欢迎阅读。

1. All roads lead to Rome.

条条大路通罗马。

2. Well begun is half done.

好的开端是成功的一半。

3. East, west, home is best.

金窝、银窝，不如自己的草窝。

4. First think, then act.

三思而后行。

5. It is never too late to mend.

亡羊补牢，犹为未晚。

6. Time is money.

时间就是金钱。

7. A friend in need is a friend indeed.

患难见真交。

8. Great hopes make great man.

远大的希望，造就伟大的人物。

9. Where there is a will, there is a way.

有志者，事竟成。

10. Stick to it, and you‘ll succeed.

只要人有恒，万事都能成。

11. Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.

早睡早起，富裕、聪明、身体好。

12. A good medicine tastes bitter.

良药苦口。

13. It is good to learn at another man‘s cost.

前车之鉴。

14. Let‘s cross the bridge when we come to it.

船到桥头自然直。

15. No pains, no gains.

不劳则无获。

16. Nothing is difficult to the man who will try.

世上无难事，只要肯登攀。

17. Where there is life, there is hope.

生命不息，希望常在。

18. An idle youth, a needy age.

少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲。

19. A plant may produce new flowers; man is young but once.

花有重开日，人无再少年。

20. God helps those who help themselves.

自助者，天助之。

21. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

只工作，不玩耍，聪明孩子也变傻。

22. Diligence is the mother of success.

勤奋是成功之母。

23. Truth is the daughter of time.

时间见真理。

24. No man is wise at all times.

智者千虑，必有一失。

25. Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today.

今天能做的事绝不要拖到明天。

26. Kill two birds with one stone.

一石双鸟。

27. Easier said than done.

说起来容易做起来难。

28. Genius is one percent inspiration and 99 percent perspiration.

天才一分来自灵感，九十九分来自勤奋。

29. He who laughs last laughs best.

谁笑在最后，谁笑得最好。

30. He who has health has hope, and he who has hope has everything.

身体健壮就有希望，有了希望就有了一切。

31. No man is born wise or learned.

人非生而知之。

32. Action speak louder than words.

事实胜于雄辩。

33. Courage and resolution are the spirit and soul of virtue.

勇敢和坚决是美德的灵魂。

34. There is no smoke without fire.

无风不起浪。

35. Many hands make light work.

人多好办事。

36. Reading makes a full man.

读书长见识。

37. Wisdom in the mind is better than money in the hand.

胸中有知识，胜于手中有金钱。

38. Seeing is believing.

百闻不如一见。

39. Money is a good servant but a bad master.

要做金钱的主人，莫作金钱的奴隶。

40. It‘s hard sailing when there is no wind.

无风难驶船。

41. The path to glory is always rugged.

通向光荣的道路常常是崎岖的。

42. Living without an aim is like sailing without a compass.

没有目标的生活如同没有罗盘的航行。

43. Quality matters more than quantity.

质重于量。

44. The on-looker sees most of the game.

旁观者清。

45. Joys shared with others are more enjoyed.

与众同乐，其乐更乐。

46. Happiness takes no account of time.

欢乐不觉日子长。

47. Time and tide waits for no man.

岁月不等人。

48. If you want knowledge, you must toil for it.

若要求知，必须刻苦。

49. Learn to walk before you run.

循序渐进。

50. From words to deeds is a great space.

言行之间，大有距离。

51. Skill and confidence are an unconquered army.

技能和信心是无敌的军队。

52. Habit is a second nature.

习惯成自然。

53. Two heads are better than one.

三个臭皮匠顶个诸葛亮。

54. Nothing is impossible to a willing mind.

世上无难事，只怕有心人。

55. You can‘t make something out of nothing.

巧妇难为无米之炊。

56. Nothing for nothing.

不费力气，一无所得。

57. He who makes no mistakes makes nothing.

不犯错误者一事无成。

58. Nothing seek, nothing find.

无所求则无所获。

59. A little of every thing is nothing in the main.

每事浅尝辄止，事事都告无成。

60. A great ship asks deep waters.

大船要走深水。

会写文章，善于写文章，需要若干条件，其中一个条件就是练好基本功。以下是为大家分享的3小学生写作基础及提升技巧，供大家参考借鉴，欢迎浏览!

打好写作基础，练好写句子的基本功，要从把句子写完整、具体、通顺、连贯这几方面做起。

一、把句子写完整

怎样的句子才算是完整的呢？读读下面的句子：

1.我们劳动。(谁，干什么)

2.小蚂蚁运送食物。(什么，干什么)

3.哥哥是一名少先队员。(谁，是什么)

不难看出：在一般情况下，句子是由两部分组成的，前半部分交代“谁”或“什么”，后半部分交代“做什么”“怎么样”或者“是什么”。前后两部分说全了，句子才算是一句完整的话。

需要强调说明的是：知道什么是完整句，怎样的句子才算完整，这只是一个知识性的问题;落实在行动上，即平日在说每一句话，在写每一句话时，都要认真思考，反复斟酌，提高“完整”意识，不写残缺不全的句子，这才是最重要的。

二、把句子写具体

句子要完整，这是首要的。但在许多时候，句子只做到“完整”是不能准确表达意思的，还要做到“具体”。怎样的句子才算是具体的呢?读读下面这几组句子，体会一下：

第一组：

1、爸爸做工。

2.爸爸在工厂里做工。

分析：第二句写清了爸爸在哪儿做工。

第二组：

1.小蜜蜂飞来。

2.夏日，一只金色的小蜜蜂从远处嗡嗡地飞来。

分析：第二句写清什么时候，有多少，什么样，从哪儿，怎么样。

由上面这两组句子可以看出：在句子主要成分的前面或后面，写清什么时候(时间)、有多少(数量)、在什么地方或从哪儿(地点)、什么样(形状或颜色)、怎么样(态势)、达到什么程度(情境)等，就写清了事物外形特点、活动特点，就把自己要准确表达的意思写出来了，这就叫做把句子写具体。这样的句子就算是完整、具体的句子。

学习把句子写具体，这是一项极为重要的技能，需要同学们抓住人物或事物的特点，准确运用词语，进行持久练习。

三、把句子写通顺

句子通顺，就是句意明白，读得顺口。具体来说，句子通顺包括以下几个方面：

1.用词要准确，经得起推敲。例如：我们把门口的泥土消除掉了。句中，“泥土”不能“消除”，只能“清除”掉。

2.句中词语排列的顺序要合理。例如：正在花上，有几只漂亮的蝴蝶翩翩起舞。这句话改成“有几只漂亮的蝴蝶，正在花上翩翩起舞”,句子就通顺了。

3.词语使用搭配要得当。例如：公园里生长着各种树木和五颜六色的鲜花。句中“生长”和“鲜花”两词搭配不当，应改为“公园里生长着各种树木，盛开着五颜六色的鲜花”。

4.句中各词语的意思不能自相矛盾。例如：我断定他大概是王小刚的哥哥。句中“断定”与“大概”矛盾，应删掉“大概”。

5.关联词语的使用恰到好处。例如：只有天下雨，地才会湿。“下雨”不是“地湿”的唯一条件，因此，第一句应改为：只要天下雨，地就会湿。

6.句意明白，合乎实际，符合情理。例如：博物馆里展出了五千多年前新出土的文物。说“五千多年前新出土的文物”不合实际，应改为：博物馆里展出了新出土的五千多年前的文物。

四、把句子写连贯

连贯，即句子之间连接贯通。显然，把句子写连贯，这是指写几句话(又叫“句群”)来说的。

翻开某些同学的作文本，段落中上下句不连贯的现象比比皆是，主要表现在：句子之间无顺序，承接不紧密，跨度大;上下句之间，被描述的对象(即“主语”)重复出现，不会运用“他(她)”或者“它”这些人称代词。怎样才能做到把句子写连贯呢?

1.合理安排顺序，使句子连贯。

有顺序，这是写几句意思连贯的话的最基本的要求。这就要求我们，在写几句话时，一定不能东一句、西一句，想到哪儿就写到哪儿;总要围绕既定的中心意思，按照一定的顺序，把相关的句子组织在一起，使句子前后连贯。

2.学会运用“他(她)”或“它”这些人称代词，使句子连贯。

读读下面这段话，想一想，有什么毛病，怎样说才好：

妈妈的衣袖破了。妈妈赶忙从抽屉里拿出一个小布包。妈妈先从布包里拿出一根针，一根青线，用牙咬了咬线头，把线头穿过针眼。妈妈又从布包里找出一小块布，贴在破了的地方，然后一针一线地缝起来。

读后，大家一定会发现：这几句话写的对象是妈妈，主要写的是妈妈缝补衣服时所作的准备工作，是按事情经过的先后顺序排列的。只是由于这四句话的开头重复出现“妈妈”一词，因此读起来显得很拗口。如果把后面三句开头中的“妈妈”改成“她”字，这几句话就连贯多了。

这就告诉我们：在几个句子里，如果写的是同一个人物(或事物)，后面再指这个人物(或事物)时，就可以用“他(她)”或“它”来代替。

下面是由语文迷网整理的三类英语作文开头句型，希望对你有帮助。

一、常规开头句型

1.As far as …is concerned 就……而言

2.It goes without saying that… 不言而喻，…

3.It can be said with certainty that… 可以肯定地说……

4.As the proverb says， 正如谚语所说的，

5.It has to be noticed that… 它必须注意到，…

6.Its generally recognized that… 它普遍认为…

7.Its likely that … 这可能是因为…

8.Its hardly that… 这是很难的……

9.Its hardly too much to say that… 它几乎没有太多的说…

10.What calls for special attention is that…需要特别注意的是

11.Theres no denying the fact that…毫无疑问，无可否认

12.Nothing is more important than the fact that… 没有什么比这更重要的是…

13.whats far more important is that… 更重要的是…

二、四级引出开头

1：It is well-known to us that……(我们都知道……)==As far as my knowledge is concerned, …( 就我所知…)

2：Recently the problem of…… has been brought into focus. ==Nowadays there is a growing concern over ……(最近……问题引起了关注)

3：Nowadays(overpopulation)has become a problem we have to face.(现今，人口过剩已成为我们不得不面对的问题)

4：Internet has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life. It has brought a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.(互联网已在我们的生活扮演着越来越重要的角色，它给我们带来了许多好处但也产生了一些严重的问题)

5：With the rapid development of science and technology，more and more people believe that……(随着科技的迅速发展，越来越多的人认为……)

6：It is a common belief that……==It is commonly believed that……(人们一般认为……)

7：A lot of people seem to think that……(很多人似乎认为……)

8:It is universally acknowledged that + 句子(全世界都知道...)

三、高考英语引出开头

Recently, the problem of … has aroused peoples concern. 最近,……问题已引起人们的关注.

The Internet has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life. It has brought a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.

互联网已在我们的生活中扮演着越来越重要的角色.它给我们带来了许多好处,但也产生了一些严重的问题.

Nowadays, (overpopulation) has become a problem we have to face.

如今,(人口过剩)已成为我们不得不面对的问题了.

It is commonly believed that … / It is a common belief that … 人们一般认为……

Many people insist that … 很多人坚持认为……

With the development of science and technology, more and more people believe that…

随着科技的发展,越来越多的人认为……

A lot of people seem to think that … 很多人似乎认为……

第一章：应用文写作基础知识（学习笔记）

一、应用文基础知识

1，应用文是直接用于处理公私事务的实用性文章。它以解决实际问题为目的，以说明论证为主要表达方式，有相 对固定的格式。

2

------------

------------

------------

4个阶段。

收集材料 写作的主旨，

掌握信息 谋篇布局。 文字化。 斟酌、润色，到定稿。

确定文件

3，应用文四个要素：立意、谋篇、语言、修改。

4，应用文写作的目的性一般表现为：

1）、阐明写作者的主张、观点和意图。

2）、下达指标、传达政策、布置工作和通知事项。

3）、传递信息、交流情况和总结经验。

5

6，应用文主旨的含义：就是写作者（个人或单位）通过全篇内容表达出来的贯通全文的写作意图，观点和公务活 动的行为意向。

7，应用文主旨的主要体现：

1

2）应用文写作者通过全篇的内容表达出来的观点。

3

8。

二、立意

1，应用文---立意的含义：是写作者酝酿、斟酌的过程，主旨是立意的结果；有十分明确的目的性。 立意直接影响主旨的质量优劣和成败。立意就是确立应用文的主旨。

2，应用文---立意的特点：

1）客观性，从客观材料提炼和产生。

2）主观性，作者对客观材料消化、提炼的结晶。

3）观念性，是作者对事物的认识和评价，是作者的核心意图。

4）时代性，是时代精神的产物。

3，应用文---立意的要求：

1）准确：指应用文符合四项基本原则，对事物的正确认识，反映社会生活的本质和主流。

2）深刻：紧抓矛盾的关键环节，揭示客观事物的深层本质，阐明事物之间的必然联系。

3）鲜明：文章的基本思想和基本观点十分明确。

4）集中：文章一般只有一个主旨，突出表达。

5）新颖：反映作者的思想不落后，有独特的见解。

4，应用文---立意的依据：

1）

2）

3）

5，应用文---立意的方法：

1）对比筛选：材料具有客观性和多义性，加以对比筛选，择其精辟。

2）分析归纳：对材料去粗取精，然后进行分析归纳。

3）集思广益：实地调查、集体讨论，征求他人意见，弥补不足。

4）选准角度：任何事物都有多侧面、多层次，正确选择角度。

三、谋篇

1，应用文---谋篇的含义：指写作者组织材料，设计、安排结构的过程。

2，应用文---谋篇的内容：

1）材料的组织

①材料的含义：指写作者为了完成文章的写作，体现自己的写作意图和目的，从现实生活中和文献资料中选取， 使用的一系列事实根据和理论根据。

②材料的作用：

a、材料是提出问题的依据。

b、主旨依靠材料加以说明和支撑。

“博”、“透”、“细”

A

B

C、正面材料和反面材料（正确和先进性的材料；错误和落后的材料）

D

E ④收集材料的方法：a、观察与体验

b、调查研究

c、积累、查阅资料

A、以主旨为中心（材料和主旨有直接对应的关系，根据主旨需要选择材料）

B

C 不能够张冠李戴，移花接木。 3

D、要选择新颖的材料 a、指新近发生的事实。

b、虽非新近发生却为新新发现而鲜为人知的事实。

c、虽为人知却因被变换视角而具有新意的材料。

A、要主次有序

B、要详略得当

C、要归类使用

2）结构的安排

①结构的含义：结构是文章的内部构造，是文章内容的重要形式，是写作者思路在文章中的体现。 ②结构的内容：a、确定文章的基本格式；b，安排好正文的组织结构。

a

、可以根据主旨的需要，把全部内容纳入恰当的结构形式中，使主旨得到正确体现，材料有

所依附，文章构成一个有机整体。

b、可以按照作者的思路，把观点和材料加以适当组织，使文章有条理、有层次，纲举目张， 和谐有序。

A、格式化（固定的、惯用的格式）

B、单一化（哪一种文体如何写，都有一定程式）

C、条理化（文章结构有条理性）

D、严密化（结构应该严谨，组织周密）

⑤结构的安排：主要环节包括设计开头语结尾、安排层次与段落、处理衔接（过渡）。

表明行文目的 总结式

援引行文依据 强调式

表明成文程序 呼应式

概述基本情况 请求式

提出问题 倡议式

复合式开头 展望式

层次间的结构形式：并列式、总分式、递进式、主次式。

整体结构形式：自然段形式、小标题形式、条款形式。

段落的表现形式：条款式、提行式。

过渡方式：词语过渡、句子过渡、段落过渡。

⑥结构的形式：纵式结构、横式结构、纵横式结构、条款式结构、一段式结构（常用的5种）。

3，应用文---谋篇的原则：

1）服从文章主旨的需要

安排结构的目的就是服从主旨的需要，为主旨服务。

2

应用文是对现实生活、客观事物的反映，安排文章的篇章结构也必须符合客观事物发展的规律。

3

文体（写作格式）不同，结构的样式和要求也会不同。

4

应用文是处理和解决实际问题的文章，大多数具有特定的读者。

四、语言

1，应用文---语言的含义：语言是思想的载体，是人类最重要的交际工具，是使应用文文章内容得以完美表达的文 字符号。

2，应用文---A

B、专门性 （专用词汇和术语） C、平实庄重

3，应用文---

a、含义明确、清晰、完整和无歧义。 b、搭配要适当

c、成分要完整

d、语序要妥当

A、精简文意，压缩篇幅。

B、合理安排层次，避免重复。

C、推敲词语，锤炼句子。

④平易（指文章语言浅近易懂）

4，应用文---语言的表达方式：表达方式成为识别文体特征的重要标志之一。

①叙述：含义---又称记叙，是陈述事件的来龙去脉，记述人物活动、经历、行为的一种表达方式。

a、常用来介绍人物的经历和事迹，记叙生产、工作的过程；

b、在论证中，用来引述事实，提供论据。

c、在说明中，用来介绍事物发展变化的形态，提供典型事例，以具体说明事 物的特征。

叙述的6（第一人称和第三人称） 按叙述的顺序划分：顺叙、倒叙、插叙、补叙。

按叙述的性质和用途划分：概述和详述。

叙述时应该注意的问题 ②说明：含义---是对客观事物进行解释、阐述的表达方式。

说明的作用：它具有解说、剖析事物的状态、性质、内容、成因、规律、关功能等作用。 解释说明法、分类说明法、6种方法

在运用说明的方法时的注意事项A、要注意内容的科学性，

B、要注意表达的客观性，

C、要注意语言的简洁、明晰、准确、朴素、通俗易懂。

③议论：含义---就是作者对某一问题、某一事件或某一事物进行分析、评论，以表明自己的观点和态 度的一种表达方式。

五、修改

1，应用文---修改的含义：是立意的深化和继续，也是运用增、删、调、补等手段，加工初稿，完善文章的过程。

2，应用文---

标题的修改 结构的修改

主旨的修改 语言的修改

材料的修改 行款格式的修改

标点符号的修改

3，应用文---修改的方法：

4，应用文---修改的方式：纸上修改和计算机修改2种。

不少同学在问了，英语作文怎么写?如何写好英语作文，下面是小编为大家收集的初中英语作文的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

初一英语写作题，题材一般是写人、写事、写物、写景、日记、书信、通知、便条等文体。一般来说，不同的写作题材，它的人物，时间，写作的重点也是不尽相同的。下面结合一些常见的题型介绍一下写作的注意事项以及写作技巧。

各地的评分标准略有差异，但是都包括以下几个方面：整体印象、语言表达、词数规定等几方面内容。我们在写作中要尽量避免扣分，争取有加分点。当然用英文写作不同于用母语那样得心应手，常常会受到生词、语法、惯用法的限制，只要同学们平时注意两种语言的异同性，抓住写作要点，也可妙笔生花。

1、为了保证文章层次分明、条理清楚，要把时间固定下来，如：记叙一件事要用过去时;写经常发生的事或对人物的描写，要用一般现在时。整个文章中的人称要一致，首尾呼应，不要随意改动，以免造成误解。

2、不要为了追求“一鸣惊人”而去找一些生冷的词汇，对这些一知半解的词你不会用，不知道如何搭配，结果可能适得其反，使文章显的生硬、不协调，甚至错误百出，所以要使用有把握的词，避免不必要的失分。比如说发生了一起意外事件，我们通常用“have an accident ”来表示，不要错误的使用“have an incident”。

3、注意不同语言的表达习惯，也是写好英语作文的重要环节，如“我的理想是做一名歌手”，很多同学写成“My ambition is to do/make a singer，” “to do”表示“做”或者“干”，“to make”表示“制作”，而“做一名歌手”则表示“成为一名歌手”应该用“be/become a singer”;又如“看书、看报”应用“read a book/newspaper”，而不是“see a book/newspaper”。因此，平时应该注意不同语言的表达习惯，切忌望文生义或一味生搬硬套。

4、有些同学因怕出错而只写短句或简单句，写出的文章过于幼稚、空洞乏味。要使文章有血有肉就要把平时学的知识用进去，如：定语从句、宾语从句、非谓语动词和比较等句型，关键时用上一、二个，就能使文章不同凡响，更有文采，特别是对关联词的使用，如“so that”、“not…but ”“not only...but also”等，会使你的文章逻辑结构紧密、层次鲜明、条理清楚，更能显示出你的英文功底，但要做到这些并非一日之功，要靠平时的不断训练和积累。

5、最简单的增分点就是认真的书写。工整漂亮的书写会给评卷老师留下美好的第一印象，在扣分时自然会“手下留情”，而且很多地区都在写作上有1分的书写分。只要平时多下点功夫，得到这一分并不难。

注意事项

最后将英语写作的基本步骤和技巧归纳为以下几个环节：

1、细心审题细读题目中每一项提示或观察所给的每一幅画，明确文章的中心思想，弄清题意，确定写作体裁，掌握所要表达的要点做到心中有数，避免随心所欲，文不对题。

2、理顺要点在所给提示或图上标出要点，然后按事件先后的顺序或各要点之间的内在联系排序，分出层次。如果是看图作文，则要按图构思，这样做既可避免要点遗漏，又可使表达内容条理清楚。

3、构成框架将理顺的要点或每幅图画的含义加以连贯，构成写作的整体框架，进一步定人称、定时态语态、定顺序、定段落、定开头结尾。基本框架构成后，写作就有了把握。

4、组织句子用自己最熟悉的短语或句型将理顺的要点逐句表达出来，多用简单句，用有把握的复合句。要扬长避短，避难就易。若遇到表达障碍，可换一种说法，将一句变成两、三句，只求达意。

5、串句成篇将写好的句子连贯地组织起来，注意上下句的逻辑关系，适当采用递进、让步、转折、因果等关联词语，使短文浑然一体，层次分明，过渡自然。6、检查修改文章草成后，默读1～2遍，检查修改，尤其要注意人称、大小写、拼写、习惯用语、格式有无错误，要点有无遗漏，文句有无语病，词数是否恰当，行文是否连贯。

英语写作水平的提高是一个渐进的过程，只要同学们在平时多加训练，多读文章，做一个有心人，就能在英语作文中取得理想的成绩

要学好写英语短文，就必须经常练习写作。记日记是提高书面表达能力的有效方法之一。日记是每日生活的记载，是一种记事文体。

一、日记的格式

英文日记通常由书端和正文两个部分组成。日记常以第一人称记下当天生活中的所见、所闻、所做或所想的事情。中、英文的日记三格式大致一样。英语日记的书端 是专门写日记的日期、星期和天气的。左上角是日期(年、月、日)、星期。右上角写上当天的天气情况， 如：Sunny，Fine，Rainy，Windy，Snowy，Cloudy等。

1、日期表达有多种形式。年、月、日都写时，通常以月、日、年为顺序，月份可以缩写，日和年用逗号隔开。例如：

A)September 1，2004或September 1st，2004也可省略写成Sept. 1，2004或Sept. 1st，2004;the 1st of September in 2004(月份不可以缩写)

B)只有月、日：September 1或September 1st(月份可以缩写)

C)只有年、月：September 2004或the September of 2004(月份不可以缩写)

以上的1或1st都应读作the first.

2、星期也可以省略不写，可将其放在日期前或后，星期和日期之间不用标点，但要空一格，星期也可缩写。如：

Saturday，October 22nd，2004;October 22nd，2004 Saturday

3.天气情况必不可少。天气一般用一个形容词如：Sunny，Fine，Rainy，Snowy 等表示。写在日期之后，用逗号隔开，位于日记的右上角。如：

Saturday，March 4，2004，Windy;1st January，2004，Fine

二、日记的要求

日记的正文是日记的主要部分，写在星期和日期的正下方，可以顶格写，也可以内缩3至5个字母的空间。由于记载的内容通常已经发生，谓语动词多用一般过去 时。但也可根据具体情况，用其它时态。如：记叙天气、描写景色，为了描写生动，可以使用现在时，以表现当时的情景。再如文后发表感想或评论可用现在时态或 将来时态。记日记力求简单明了，有连贯性。若有文字提示，则应重视提示，把握要点。在句式上尽量使用简单句，以防繁杂，造成语法、句型错误。

三、日记的类型和训练

日记分为记事型、议论型、描写型和抒情型。建议大家在学习写日记的过程中，可按以下步骤进行：

①将一天所经历的主要事情和过程依次简要地记下来，不附加任何感情色彩，这是最简单的记日记的方法;

②阅读别人的日记，并利用所学过的句型来表达个人在一天中观察到的或感受到的事情。

「范文与点评」

March 12th，2003，Tuesday Sunny (Fine)

Today is Tree Planting Day. At 7∶30 in the morning，all the students in our class met at the school gate. We walked to the park. Miss Gao and other teachers went and worked with us. All the students worked very hard，and we planted about 200 trees. Though we were dirty and tired，we still felt very happy.

这是一篇记叙型的日记。结构严谨，中心突出，有选择地记录当天的见闻(人或事)，并加以分析和评论。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

下面就是小编为大家带来的大学生法学论文基础知识、选题及写作方法，希望对你们有帮助。

法学论文的写作,虽然没有固定的模式,但有一定的规律可循。欲写出高水平的法学学术论文(亦称“法学学术理论文章”),必须既具有较高的思想理论水平和坚实的法学专业基础知识功底,又掌握并且能较熟练地运用写作技巧。现就与此有关的问题,阐述如下。

一 法学论文概述

学术论文,也称学术理论文章。它是指在自然科学或社会科学领域内用来进行科学研究和描述科学研究成果的论文。法学学术论文,是指在法学领域中对某个学术理论问题进行专门的系统的科学研究,并且表述某些研究成果的论文。“学术”,是指有专门的、系统的学问和方术。“理论”,是指科学的论点、论据及论证的体系。法学学术论文,就其功能而言,它既是探讨法律科学问题,进行法律科学研究的一种手段;又是阐述法律科学研究成果、进行法学学术交流的一种工具。法学学术论文,一般包括:论点、论据、论证三个要素。

法学学术论文,就其性质而言,属于论文中高级别的具有创造性的论文。它要求作者对法学学术理论界的某个问题有新的发现,提出新的学说,新的构想;或对以往的法学理论、法学观点有较多的新发展或深入开拓;或对法学中的旧学说提出不同的独立见解;或论证法学旧学说错误、疏漏之处;或提出新的法学预见、构想,启迪后人研究,等。凡法学学术论文,其要求均应如此。本文所言之法学学术论文的写作,仅指篇幅一万字左右的立论方式的法学论文(硕士论文、博士论文 等法学毕业论文除外)的写作,至于驳论方式的法学论文的写作暂不涉及。

(一)法学学术论文,一般说来应当具有如下几个特点:

1.学术性,即指论文对法学学术理论问题具有科学的论证性;

2.理论性,即指论文运用充分占有的材料,经过严密论证将法学中某个或某几个问题“升华”到理论高度,从而找出带规律性的东西的思辩性。

3.创造性,即指论文论述的法学问题“发前人所未发”,探求法学中前人没有发现的规律或匡正通说的独创性。

4.专业性,即指法学论文对法学学科中的某个或某几个专门问题进行研究,并取得一定成果,具有供法学专家、教授、学者研讨和交流的专业性。

(二)法学学术论文的主要要求是:

1.所研究和论述的法学问题,观点正确,对社会主义革命和法制建设有促进作用;

2.能推动法学领域学术理论的研究向前发展;

3.具有学术论文的诸特点;

4.全文观点与材料统一,层次分明,条理清楚;

5.论证中逻辑严密,推理正确;

6.所用的法学语言准确、概括、精炼;

7.文风庄重,就事论理,据理立说,以理创新。

(三)从总结前人的经验观之,要写出质量高的法学学术论文,论文的作者应当具备相当高的素质。择其要者是:

1.具有相当高的马列主义理论水平,并能用马列主义立场、观点和方法去研究实践中(如公安司法实践)中出现的新情况、新问题或匡正旧说。在研究中能以辩证唯物主义作指导,用发展的、辩证的、全面的观点看问题,不犯或少犯形而上学的、机械的、片面的等错误。

2.具有深厚的法学专业功底,即在法律专业领域内发现新问题,经过调查研究和证明,能独立地做出超越前人的新结论。

3.具有经过严格科学训练的科研能力和智力,即观察问题思维敏捷,概括事理水平较高,论证问题逻辑严密,创造新见能力很强。

4.具有不畏艰难,坚持真理的精神,即不惧怕研究中碰到的任何困难,即使遇到困难,也能想方设法地去克服,为取得研究某个问题的成功而奋斗不止;在法学科研和写作中,不唯上、不唯书、不唯旧说,不畏权威,只唯实,只唯新;对于符合客观事实的真理敢于坚持,对于符合事物发展规律的结论敢于作出。

由此可见,欲写出高质量的法学论文,必须加强上述素质的培养和训练。

(四)要写出好的法学学术论文,作者应当具备某些条件。它们主要是:

1.充分了解法学学术界在自己的论文题目所含内容方面已有的成就。法学学术界已研究和争论的问题很多,对自己来说,应清楚地了解到自己研究的论文在法学学术界是否有人研究过?如果有人研究过,还应了解已取得哪些成果?如果对此有争论,应了解各种观点的论点及论据是哪些?如此等等,不一而足。只有在了解上述情况的条件下才能确定自己选择研究什么新问题(即选题),才能不再研究前人已经研究过的问题,不再作重复的劳动甚至是无效的劳动。

2.充分掌握与自己论文有关的主要资料。掌握必要的资料是写好法学学术论文的基础。所谓必要的资料,是指写作论文所必不可少的资料。欲掌握这些资料,首先应收集与论文有关的所有资料,经过筛选,择取主要资料,在写作论文时对它们妥贴地加以利用。这是一项艰苦、细致的备料工作,必须做好。否则,写出的论文就缺少坚实的根基,质量自然不高。

3.有充足的写作时间。写作法学学术论文,从选题、收集资料、编写提纲到行文写作、修改定稿等,需要很多、很长的时间。关于法学学术论文的写作时间,且不说写博士、硕士论文需要一至两年,即使是写一篇一万字左右的法学学术论文,也必须花费几个月乃至一年的时间。既想写出高水平的法学学术论文,又想在十天半月之内一举成功,即使是写出来了,质量也不会高,其结果,必然是欲速则不达。这是因为,写法学学术论文是一项长期的、艰苦的科研活动,在很短的时间内是无法取得高质量的科研成果的。

4.有充沛的写作精力。写作法学学术论文,既是一项艰苦的脑力劳动,又是一种创造性的思维活动。一旦写作提纲定型,从行文开始,就必须集中一段时间,夜以继日地将论文一气呵成。如果自己没有充沛的精力,是难以完成此任的。由此可见,充沛的精力也是写出高质量法学论文的一个重要条件。

二 法学论文选题

法学论文选题,有广狭二义之分。广义上的选题,是指法学科学研究中选定的课题。所谓课题,是指需要研究或讨论的法学学科领域中比重较大的项目。狭义上的选题,是指选定法学学术论文的题目。所谓题目,是指法学论文的标题(或称“名字”)。本文所言之选题,特指后者而不是前者。

(一)法学论文选题的作用

选题在论文中占有十分重要的地位。这是因为,论文题目选得准、选得恰当,写作就能顺利进行。所谓论文题目选得好是“论文写作成功的一半”之说,就是这个道理。选题的作用主要有:

1.能确定研究方向。法学研究发展很快,门类繁多;法学中待研究的题目也不少。选定了某个题目,就确定了法学研究的方向和主攻目标。方向定得准,目标愈集中,写出来的法学学术论文成功的可能性就愈大。

2.能促进构思活动。法学学术论文写作是一种精神劳动。法学学术论文的写作是为获得法学研究成果而进行劳动的体现,也是客观事物在作者头脑中经过反复思考后反映出来的产物。它需要自己围绕学术论文的题目进行深思熟虑的和绞尽脑汁的构思和论证。选定一个好的法学论文题目,就能促进上述构思活动的深入顺利开展。

3.能指明写作思路。学术论文的题目选定之后能促使自己构思怎样开头,怎样发展,怎样深入,怎样完篇;考虑应当将哪些材料置于论文的前半部分,哪些材料置于论文的中间或后半部分;考虑怎样论证和运用哪些论据论证更有说服力,等。

(二)法学论文选题应当遵循一定的原则

其原则诸多,择其要者主要是:

1.有研究价值。它是指法学论文题目有学术价值,即有助于法律专业和法学学科的发展。

2.有重要的现实意义。它是指对依法治国,建设社会主义法治国家有指导或促进作用。法学论文题目,应当有助于立法司法和教育公民守法,对加强社会主义法制建设有推动作用。

3.有创新性。它是指该题是前人没有研究过,根据这个题目写出来的法学学术论文,能填补本专业的空白。

4.有深入研究的必要性。它是指自己选定的法学学术论文的题目虽然有人已经写过,但内容不深刻或不全面,或有疏漏甚至是谬误之处,自己选定的题目,角度比他们更新,写出来的内容有较多的创见和发展。

5.有强烈的创作欲。由于写作法学学术论文需要付出艰辛的脑力劳动,要克服重重困难,而要做到这些,就需要自己有主动的强烈创作欲望。实践表明,只有自己想写且非写出来不可的题目,经过一番努力研究之后创作出来的论文,才可能是高质量的论文。

6.符合自己擅长的法学专业。这是指选定的法学学术论文题目,是自己擅长的法学专业内的题目。法学学术论文,是法学专业性、学术性很强的文章。只有选定自己擅长的法学专业的题目,由于法学专业基础知识厚,造诣深,写作起来就会得心应手,左右逢源,论证严密,质量甚高。

7.吸收相关学科的知识,使法学专业知识与经济学、社会学、伦理学、逻辑学、生命科学、信息科学等知识相融合。只有这样,才能不断写出创新突出,紧跟时代发展潮流的学术论文。

8.本人力所能及。它是指根据自己的法学专业知识和理论水平能写出来的能力,因为具有能写出此题的能力,就会在较短或有限的时间内又快、又好地将法学学术论文写出来。如果某个选题很有学术价值,但因自己能力有限或不及,即使竭尽全力去写,其结果也写不出高质量的法学学术论文,这样就会事倍功半。

9.题目大小适中。它是指选定的法学学术论文的题目与所写出的内容要恰当。题目太大,由于篇幅或时间有限,就会草率成篇、面面俱到、蜻蜓点水,研究不会深刻;反之,题目过小,内容难以展开,说理不会透辟,因此,论文的质量也不会高。有鉴于此,必须注意所选择的题目大小应当适中。在是否选择大题目或者小题目的问题上,对于写出字数在一万至二万的学术论文而言,笔者主张小题大作。力争做到:“题目小,内容新,挖掘深,论述精。”

(三)法学论文选题应当注意的几个问题

1.选题应避免盲目性。所谓选题的盲目性,是指作者不考虑自己的主观条件和外界的客观条件,灵机一动就定下选题。其结果,要不是写不下去,就是无法展开,造成写作半途而废。

2.选题应避免随意性。所谓选题的随意性,是指作者不下苦功,轻易定题。这样做,因为没有经过深思熟虑,所选定的题目或者包括的内容太多或太少,或者写作难度太强或太易。题目包含的内容太多,写出来的论文会面面俱到没有重点;题目包含的内容太少,就深写不下去,写不出更多的深刻内容;题目太难,可能因为力不胜任写不下去;题目太易,即使写出了论文,其质量必定不合格,所述观点不会有创见。所有这些,都有碍于写出高质量的法学论文。

3.选题应当避免偶然性。所谓偶然性,是指本人阅读了他人的文章或听了别人的发言后偶有所获,但认识不深,在缺乏准备的情况下就草率地选定题目,这样做,往往因考虑欠周,资料不多,因而也不可能写出高质量的法学论文。

三 法学论文写作的准备

欲写出高质量的法学论文,应当作好多方面的准备,其中,主要是如下三个方面:

(一)制定研究计划

研究计划,是指研究的方法、步聚和时间安排等方面的筹划。制定研究计划,包括预先自我规定从哪个方面入手进行研究,先研究什么,后研究什么;从哪些方面着手收集资料;再怎样合理地安排时间,等。只有这样,研究起来就会重点明确,方法和步骤井然有序,防止研究时顾此失彼和做重复劳动等情况发生。

(二)广泛收集材料

广泛收集法学论文资料,是指广泛收集与法学学术论文题目有关的材料。充分占有丰富的材料是写出高质量论文的雄厚基础。这是因为:

1.充分占有资料,能了解到与论文有关的问题学术理论界研究到何种程度;哪些问题没有研究过;哪些问题虽已有人研究过但不深刻;哪些问题虽有旧说但需要匡正,等。这样,就能明确自己研究的重点和主攻方向。

2.充分占有了资料后,能拓宽研究问题的视野并提高认识问题的整体高度,为使自己站在前人已研究过的问题的更高层次,为写出更高水平的法学学术论文打下基础。

法学论文资料的来源,从大的方面观之,有直接地从社会调查、访问、实验中获取,也有间接地从书籍、报刊、文件、法规、电影电视、广播和其他文献中得到。收集法学论文资料的途径主要有:从校内外图书馆、资料室已有的资料中去查找;通过做实地调查、社会实践或实习等渠道获得;通过自己的平时观察和做实验获取。

收集法学论文资料的传统方法主要有:

1.自制资料卡片,上面写明资料的题目及简单内容,资料的出处、页码、年、月等;2.自己抄录;3.全部或部分复印;4.剪下自己订阅的报刊上的有关材料,等。在当今信息时代,收集资料的方法可购买有关资料的光盘,可从电脑上查阅或者下载,等等。所收集的材料内容包括:典型事例或案例、有关引文、法律条款、领袖的语录、国家领导人的讲话、历史资料、数字、至理名言或格言、对立观点的论点和论据等。

收集法学论文资料应当注意:1.要全面地收集与自己的论文有关的材料;2.对资料进行整理、分类;3.再选择出写论文所必需的典型资料,以备待用。只有这样,才不会使自己被浩瀚的资料所困扰,甚至被它们搞得头脑发懵,良莠不辨,主次不明。

(三)编制法学论文提纲

编制法学论文提纲,是指在收集到了大量材料的基础上,根据论证论文主题的需要编写和制作该论文结构的框架和体系。实际上,它相当于由序码和词语所组成的一种逻辑图表。制作论文提纲十分必要。这是因为:1.它能促使自己从宏观上对全文进行谋篇布局。由于编制提纲需要对材料进行选择;接着按论证主题的需要,对必用材料的使用按先后顺序进行安排和调整;对不必要的材料忍痛割爱,等,因此,这就促使自己对全篇作合理的布局。2.它能使论文的框架视觉化。好的论文提纲能使论文的中心论点、下属论点及论据安排得先后井然有序,层次分明,因而能使自己一看就一目了然,清清楚楚。3.能帮助自己在写作时,按已定的论文框架沿着先后顺序行文和避免重复。由于写作法学学术论文需要比较长的一段时间才能完成,有了一份详细的和纲目分明的论文提纲,能使自己按图索骥,流畅成文。

如果没有论文提纲,虽有腹稿,写作起来,由于写作时间较长,在论文写到中间或后半部时可能忘记前半部分已写的内容而又重复写上;或因时间长将应该写上的内容因遗忘而漏写,这样,就必定出现重复或漏写的情况,影响论文的质量。

编制法学论文提纲应当做好两方面的准备:1.确定基本论点,就是确定全文的表达中心。在此之后,再确定下位论点,即阐发基本论点的若干个小的论点。下位论点最好写出论点句子,使其固定下来。确定下位论点时,应根据论证基本论点(上位论点)的需要选用与上位论点逻辑关系最密切、说服力最强的论据。2.选定材料。选定材料,就是选定将要写入论文中的材料。此项工作应从收集到的大量材料中选出最能证明观点(上位论点、下位论点)的材料,并将它们作为立论的依据。这些材料,应当少而精。选择和整理材料应当分清主次。在选定材料的过程中,可采取如下几种办法:把选好的材料按问题分开;将证明每个问题的材料划分为一组;每一组的材料按使用的先后次序排列好。经过对材料作上述整理,又使其与论点连在一起,就便于下一步编制提纲。

编制提纲。要编制一份好的一万字左右的法学学术论文提纲,应当注意三个问题:

1.有合理的项目

一般在法学论文题目之下,编制出两个或三个层次的小项目。例如,写明:第一,题目(中心论点);第二,三至四个分论点(下位论点);第三,一至四个论据。第二和第三项的写法,既可用标题写法,即用简要语言,以标题的形式把该部分内容概括出来;又可用句子的写法,即用一个比较能表达完整意思的句式把该部分的内容概括出来。两者各有所长,各人可视自己的需要择一。

2.采用有效地编制论文提纲的方法

其方法主要是:

(1)拟定标题,即自己给论文起名字。它要求标题能传内容之神,名副其实,使读者看了一眼便知:论文所概括的全文主要内容。

(2)考虑构篇大小和顺序安排,既考虑全篇从哪几个方面,或按什么顺序展开、阐述基本论点(全文的逻辑结构框架);又逐个安排每个下位论点,再依次考虑每个段的安排,把准备使用的材料按构思的顺序标上序码并排列好,以备行文时使用。

(3)全面、反复地检查提纲,作必要的增、减或调整。

3.编写内容详简适当的论文提纲

提纲分简单提纲和详细提纲两种。简单提纲的内容只包括论文题目、下位论点,详细提纲除此之外还包括论证下位论点的各种证据。一般说来,宜编制详细提纲。因为编制这种提纲,一则能帮助自己全面地进行谋篇布局,二则能帮助自己在写作过程中有条不紊地进行。

四 法学论文的起草

法学论文起草,就是在已掌握的材料基础上,按照论文提纲的框架,写成一篇法学学术论文初稿。起草,就是狭义上的写作,亦即论证论题。起草在整个写作过程中占有十分重要的地位。主要表现在:1.起草,能把自己欲论证的问题,写成一篇法学学术论文草稿,并使其初步固定下来。2.起草如同“一朝分娩”,能使科研工作草创初成。这比在收集资料、编制提纲那个“十月怀胎”阶段的工作又前进了关键性的一步。

(一)起草必须对论题进行充分、有力地论证

所谓论证,就是对论文的中心论点进行说理的证明。古人云:“君子学以聚之,问以辨之。”做学问和写论文就是要“聚”、要“辨”。“聚”,就是收集资料;“辨”,就是分析、研究、起草的过程,就是提出论点、论据和运用论据进行论证的过程。提出的论点,应当符合正确、严密、鲜明、集中和深刻的要求。提出的论据,应当符合真实、典型、恰当、新鲜的要求。进行论证应当符合讲透道理和使“据”与“证”有机结合起来的要求。

(二)在进行论证过程中,可采用事实论证、事理论证、比较论证和因果论证等形式

1.事实论证。所谓事实论证,就是运用客观事实资料作为论据而展开的论证。它是常用的、简便而又准确的论证方法之一。事实论证过程中,可采用夹叙夹议、纵横并举、点面结合、连续排比、优劣对比、有总有分等方法进行。事实论证的一般要求是:既可以用重大的客观事实、历史上的重大事件、典型案例等,也可以用平凡的客观事实(如一般事例、案例、数据等);应尽可能选择运用人们知晓的客观事实;事实材料应力求新颖,富有说服力。

2.事理论证。所谓事理论证,是指运用经典著作中的基本原理、生活中的道理、哲理或名言等作为论据展开的论证。事理论证可用一般的事理论证(讲清道理)和引证(引证经典著作中的论述、格言、成语、警句等)两种方法。采用事理论证应当注意做到:思想敏捷,说理透辟;引证的内容准确、典型、恰当和自然,能点石成金。

3.比较论证。所谓比较论证,是将甲事物与乙事物进行比较的一种论证方法。比较论证常用的有类比论证、对比论证和差比论证三种类型。(1)类比论证,是指把本质上有相同或相似点的同类事物进行比较,通过已知的甲事物的某种属性推导出乙事物亦具有这种属性的论证方法。采用类比论证的要求是:用以类比的事物必须同属一类事物;同类事物相比,必须有本质意义上的相同点或相似点。(2)对比论证,是通过对两种对立的事物的对照分析来进行说理的方法。它是人们经常采用的说理的方法之一。对比论证可采用横比和纵比两种。“横比”,就是横向比较,即将相互对立的这种事物与另一种事物或一事物的这一方面与另一方面进行对照比较,以达到分辨是非、褒贬好坏、扬善抑恶的目的。“纵比”,即纵向比较,是通过对某一事物在不同历史发展阶段的情形的对比分析,以揭示事物现实与历史的矛盾的论证方法。横比和纵比可以单独使用,也可以结合使用。对比的着眼点,可以是一个,也可以是多个。在论证社会主义的法律或某种法律的优越性时,可以采用对比论证中的纵比方法。(3)差比论证,是通过具有差异的两种或两种以上事物进行比较分析,以论证论题的方法。采用差比论证时应当注意:既看到它们的相同点,又看到它们之间的不同点;在差异比较分析中,着重点放在不同点上;为充分揭示出差异点,应当善于从不同方面去发现差异点。在比较中国法律与外国法律、民法与刑法的差异时,可采用这种论证方法。

4.因果论证。所谓因果论证,是指运用对客观事物本身或客观事物之间因果关系,分析、研究所得到的材料,对论文所确立的论点进行的论证。因果论证可采取并列、层递、转换、推论等方法。(1)并列法,是指运用两个以上各自独立的同类性质的因果分析来证明论点的方法。(2)层递法,是指通过逐层、连续地阐明事物的多方面的因果关系来证明论点的方法。采用此法,通过逐层地阐明因果关系,使人们认识由表及里、由浅入深地看到事物的本质。(3)转换法,是指通过阐明事物之间互为因果的关系来证明论点的方法。采用这种论证方法,必须首先弄清从一个角度看,此一事物是因,彼一事物是果;从另一个角度看,彼一事物是因,此一事物是果的这种因也是果,果又是因的复杂关系。(4)推论法,是指凭据因果关系用已知推论出未知来证明论点的方法。采用这种方法应当注意:已知事实与未知事实已有因果关系;推论必须符合形式逻辑和辩证逻辑的要求。

除了运用上述方法以外,还可以采用逻辑上的演绎法和归纳法。所谓演绎,就是从一般到特殊;所谓归纳,就是从特殊到一般。它们亦是写作法学学术论文中运用证据证明论点的常用方法。

(三)法学论文写作应注意正确地使用法言法语

法学论文的法言法语,要求具有准确性、抽象性、逻辑性和论辩性。准确性应体现出用词贴切和造句恰当;抽象性应体现在概括、简洁和精要、深刻;逻辑性应体现出合乎逻辑合乎事理,严密有序;论辩性应体现在从正面论述和从反面辩驳两个方面。法学学术论文的法言法语,应用法律专业用语。例如,法的本质、国体、政体、犯罪、犯罪构成、罪责自负、证据确凿、定罪量刑、罪刑相应、畸轻畸重、法人、有独立请求的第三人、自然人、行为能力、责任能力、连带责任、事实婚姻、法定年龄、责任能力,等等。

(四)法学论文起草过程可以采用的两种写作方法

1.一气呵成法。所谓一气呵成法,就是根据已有的材料,按照提纲的先后次序,一鼓作气地、从头至尾把全文写出来。这时,不管在写作过程中发现什么问题,诸如观点不深刻,材料不充实,结构不严谨,以至某些文字不通顺等,一般不作修改,将它们留在全篇初稿完成之后再考虑。采用此法,能使自己思路不中断,集中一切精力和时间将论文的轮廓描绘出来,保证写作的进程。如果在写作过程中为修改或增加观点,考虑如何遣词和造词等停顿下来,就会中断思路,分散精力,妨碍一气呵成。正因为如此,此法是一种最普遍的起草方法,为大多数人所采用。

2.分块合成法。所谓分块合成法,是指作者按照先易后难的顺序先写提纲中自己已考虑得比较成熟的部分,然后写完其余部分,再排列组合成一篇完整论文的方法。采用此法,自己不受提纲中部分与部分之间先后次序的限制,对某一部分认识成熟就写那一部分,然后,再“养精蓄锐”,集中精力“击破”其他相对难度较大、初时考虑还未成熟的部分。上述两种起草方法各有优劣,至于自己采用哪一种,应根据本人的情况决定。

(五)法学论文写作时需正确运用引文和加注

一般而言,法学论文中都会或多或少地有引文和加注。对这两个问题,必须知晓。

1.关于引文问题。所谓引文,是指在法学论文写作过程中,由于论证上的需要,引用经典著作或文献中的内容、法律条款或其他内容的原文。引文的作用主要在于增强自己对论题的论证力。引文时应当注意两点:引文在论文中应尽量少而精,切不可求多;引用经典著作、文献资料,不可断章取义,各取所需,而应当按原著的本意引用。引文有两种:第一种是直引,即直接引用经典著作、文献或法律条款中的字、句、段、条、款等,作为论证之根据。直引时应当注意:原则上,直引的内容须与原文相符,不能有任何差异;没有正式公布的文献资料、法律条款、内部文件等内容,一般不得引用。第二种是意引,即对经典文献、法律条款等原文经过作者加工、改写或概括之后引用其主要意思。意引时应当注意:意引写出的内容相对原文应当浓缩;意引的意思必须符合原文的意思,不得篡改或歪曲。法学论文引文的方式,常用段中引文而很少用提行引文。段中引文,是指将引文加写在论文之中。如果是直引,应在引文的首尾字之上加引号;如果是意引,可只在引文前加冒号,也有的不加冒号而加逗号。无论直引或意引,均需注明引文的出处。

在引文问题上,当前有一种很不好的倾向,即有的作者,既不考虑被引之文是不是精典之述,也不管是否与引文能质证相符,而大段大段地引用外国不知名的律师、法官等人的话语,以充自己论文的字数,简直是良莠不分,兼收并蓄。这不仅削弱了论文的论证性,而且使人感到有拼凑文章和外文资料汇编之感。其效果是十分不好的。对此,应当以此为戒。

2.关于加注问题。所谓加注,就是注明出处。其作用在于使编辑和读者知道引文出自何处。加注有四种方法:段中注,即夹注,将引文用括号标明;脚注,即在有引文的页脚注明出处;章、节注,即注在一章一节之后;尾注,即把注附在全文末尾。

五 法学论文的修改定稿

(一)法学论文的修改

修改就是改正论文草稿中的缺点或错误。修改是一项艰苦的劳动,古人云:“改章难于造篇”,其理就在于此。正因为如此,法学论文的作者应当把修改当作一项再创造。要有责任心和耐心,决不可有凑合和厌烦情绪。只有有了这种认识,才会有对论文草稿进行反复修改的决心和恒心,才能把论文修改好。

修改有重要意义:1.能更加深刻地反映自己对客观事物的认识,经过修改,能促使自己一次或多次地讨论文中的某个或某几个问题,进行思索,使认识进一步深化。2.能更准确地表达自己对事物的认识。因为,在修改过程中,自己对草稿中的某些字、句、段进行推敲和修改,使论文表达的意思更准确,亦即更准确地表达了自己对客观事物的认识。

修改包括两个内容:1.从内容方面应当考虑修改的是:写作的目的是否表达清楚;基本论点是否明确;下位论点与中心论点是否“合拍”;论据是否充分、有力。2.从形式方面应当考虑:题目是否简明、贴切;论证是否深刻;详略是否得当;结构是否严谨;文字表达是否准确;文面是否合格。

修改的具体方法是:增、减、删、换、移。为了提高修改质量,还应当采用如下方法进行再修改:搁置一段时间再修改;深入调查研究之后再修改;查阅有关资料后再修改;听取同行意见后再修改。

(二)法学论文的定稿

就是把已修改过的稿件,眷清定型。眷清应用稿纸,一般以用20×20,每页400个格的稿纸为宜。眷写时,应用蓝色或蓝黑墨水眷写。眷文务必做到字迹工整。眷清时应当随手标上页码,以免串页。眷清之后,再将全文检查两至三遍,对不当之处还可以更正,直到自己认为没有任何错、漏和自己感到满意为止。目前,已广泛用电脑打印。印成后,也应当反复校对。成文后,最好留有软盘。只有使论文达到这个程度,一篇高质量的法学学术论文才算最后完稿。(摘自 《山西大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》2001年6月，原文：“法学术论文写作之我见” 作者 周国均 《中国法学》杂志总编辑)