自考英语写作基础教程（通用20篇）

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

一、单项选择题

(1)先易后难：一些考题的答案比较容易选定，可以先从这些考题入手。平时练习时，应以基础为主，主要精力不应放在偏题、怪题上。

(2)分析考查意图、运用相关知识：应学会分析出题者考查的意图，明确相关题的测试点是什么，然后运用所学知识，进行分析、判断，再进行选择。

(3)利用暗示进行选择：注意考题涉及的语境范围。平时应注重对习惯用语表达、惯用法和中英文化差别等方面知识的积累。

(4)运用排除法：可采取语言排除、逻辑排除、语法排除或选择排除等方法。先排除较容易、较明显的错误选项，缩小范围，而后对剩余的选项进行比较分析，最后确定答案。

二、完形填空题

1、搭配判断法。

根据对以往试题的分析，搭配型考题在完形填空题中占的比例最高。搭配型问题主要测试常见搭配的熟练程度，比如说哪些词要搭配不定式、动名词或某种从句，哪些词必须与某个介词搭配。我们在复习时要特别注意短语动词和介词的固定搭配。

2、结构判断法。

结构型问题主要包括句型、句式、连接词的选择等，解题时要运用句法知识，把握关键词，从而做出迅速正确的判断。完形填空题中有很多是利用语法的正确性与逻辑的排斥性间的矛盾来设计的。因此考生应结合上下文的合理性及意义关系的逻辑性选择最佳答案。完形填空中常考的逻辑关系主要有：

(1)转折、让步关系：这种关系表明后一种观点或事实与前一种观点或事实相比有些出乎意料。

常见的表示转折、让步的词或词组有：but，still，yet，however，though，although，no matter，in spite of，anyway，even if等。

(2)因果关系：

表示原因的连词或词组有：because (of )，due to，owing to，thanks to，since，for，as等。

表示结果的词或词组有：so，therefore，then，as a result，in consequence，consequently，thus等。

(3)递进、补充关系：这种关系表示对前一事实或观点做进一步阐述。

常用的词、词组有：moreover，likewise，besides，in addition，also，too，not only…but also，apart from，what‘s more 等。

(4)对比、比较关系：对比观点或事物间的差异性，比较观点或事物间的同一性。

表示对比的词或词组有：in contrast，by contrast，on the contrary，conversely，unlike，oppositely 等。表示比较的词或词组有：like，in comparison，compare…with，as，just as等。

3、词义判断法。

词汇型问题也是完形填空的一个考点，主要测试考生在段落语篇中把握语义连贯性的能力，提供选择的词可能是近义词、近形词也可能是随意拼凑的四个选项，遇到这类题，既要联系上下文，又要具有扎实的词汇基础，有时还须根据自己的文化背景知识做出判断、选择答案。

三、阅读理解

在做阅读理解题时，除了掌握前面介绍的基本题型、基本法则外，还要进行有意识的阅读训练。提高阅读能力的训练主要可以从下面几个方面入手：词汇、方法、侧重点。

1、词汇：猜词的技巧。

在阅读过程中，不可避免地会碰到不认识的单词，考试中又不允许查词典，有些不认识的单词对文章的理解影响不大，可以忽略。但有些不认识的单词则会影响阅读者对文章理解的正确性。在这种情况下，必需猜测词的含义，这就需要利用猜词的技巧了。

最基本的猜词技巧有两种：一是根据构词法的规则猜，构词法的规则在前面的章节中已有介绍，这里就不重复了;另一种猜词的技巧是根据上下文的描述、解释、列举、比较等，运用已有的知识，分析、推断该词的含义。常用的猜词技巧可归纳为以下几种：

(1)利用词根、词缀构词法推测词义。通过构词法推测词义是最常用的方法之一。

(2)分析文中对该词的直接定义推测词义。

作者在行文中有时不得不使用某些难词、偏词，为使读者理解，作者常常会在文章中直接解释该词语。作者或通过同位语，或使用定语从句加以阐明，或用冒号、破折号、括号给出，或用语篇标志词引出，这类语篇标志词有：that is (to say); e.g.;oor，in other words;to put it in another way等。如：

She is bilingual.In other words，she speaks English and French equally well.(bilingual：会说两种语言的)。

(3)分析文中对该词的近义复述推测词义。

同一短文中前后两个句子、短语或单词通常有互释作用，可以从上下文的复述中获取与某一单词或短语相关的信息以猜测词义。如：

It is difficult t

o list all of my fathe‘s attributes because he has so many different talents and abilities.(attribute：特质;才能)

(4)分析文中对该词的对比和并列表述推测词义。

利用上下文中的对比或并列表述猜测词义是最常用、最可靠的方法。有不少句子会在上下文中给出某个生词(尤其是偏词、难词)的同义词或反义词，运用对比或并列表达对这些生词加以推测。通过了解词与词之间的连接关系，特别是一些语篇标志词，如：however;on the other hand;nevertheless等，我们不难推断这些生词的词义。如：

If you agree，write “yes”;if you dissent，write “no”。(dissent：不同意）

一、积累固定搭配，避免中式英文

在高考中，很多考生写作文时都是要先想好中文内容再来翻译成英文。这看起来并没有什么不对的地方，因为一般考生的水平都达不到直接用英文来思考的程度。但差别在于英文很好的人在整体构思自己的作文时可能会用汉语，但是写作时完全的英语写作并不会存在什么障碍;只有英语水平一般的人才会将每句的意思大致用汉语想好，但写作时还是要用英文的习惯句型和固定搭配来表达，有时甚至没办法流畅的翻译出自己想的内容，再者也存在一个单词一个单词累积拼凑句子的情况 ，这就是我们常说的中式英语;之所以会这样，主要原因还是在于考生自身积累的英语习惯句型和固定搭配太少了，所以考生平时要注意积累考试常用的句型和语法基础知识，这些内容并不是太多，只要用心总结，需要很少一部分时间就能掌握的很好。

二、模糊叙述，避免不确定词汇

英语考试写作中经常遇到的一个问题就是不确定的词汇，想要描述一个事物，但是那个单词始终想不起来，这是每个考生都会遇到的问题，不论你的词汇量有多丰富，总会有你不认识的词汇出现。那么这时在考场上，我们该如何应对呢?首先我们应该想到的是找一个类似的词来代替它，也就是模糊化即用同义词表达。其次，我们可以用一句完整的话来描述出来它，对其加以解释说明。再次，如果我们实在描述不了也替代不了，那么我们还可以把一些解释不清的东西略去不写。只写那些自己会写的，避开那些自己不会写的。扬长避短，在写作中才能避开容易犯的错误而得到高分。

三、基础不过硬，少用复杂句

不少考生在考试中喜欢用很长很复杂的句式来填充自己的作文，对于英语语法熟练的考生来说这很随意，但是英语水平不过硬的考生最好不要过多地运用复杂句、长难句，因为考试作文是检验一个考生写作水平的工具，命题人虽然会以复杂句来判断考生的英语水平，但是复杂句也表示它容易出错的几率要高很多。因此，在考试中虽然我们要写复杂句但是注意不能写太多这样的句子，考试作文的句子要长短结合。基础不好的考生避免运用长难句，这样自己出错扣分的概率也小很多。

四、认真审题，思考作文分支观点

很多考生在拿到考试作文题时第一感觉是这个作文自己有话说，并且知道应该说什么，但是认真开始提笔时却往往不知道从何写起，之所以会这样是因为考生对作文的审题和观点把握并不清晰，此时考生应该先审题;其次思考简单的分支观点并且考虑可以采用的哪些简单而又成熟的句型。近几年的四级或六级题目大多都会给出提纲，一般提纲中都会包含考生需要的中心句，围绕这个中心句，考生可以考虑自己的文章结构。对于分支观点这方面，考生要尽量量力而行，不要思考太深的观点，要结合自己语言表达的能力而定。

五、重点研究近几年真题作文，掌握固定结构

准备作文的时候背诵真题作文是不可避免的，但是四六级作文真题范文数量太多，有些历时已经有些久远，参考的价值并不是很大，而要把这些都背下来似乎也不太可能，所以考生要把注意力放在近几年的作文范文上，在复习时间不太充裕的时候，并不需要整篇全部背诵，主要是学习范文的行文结构，熟悉适合自己的固定句型，这样大家背诵范文的目的就已经达到了。

我认为一个人的写作能力是在非短时间挖掘出来的，冰冻三尺非也一日之寒，是通过坚持不懈的锻炼才会取得成功的机会。冰心曾说的：“成功的花，人们只惊慕她现时的明艳！然而当初她的芽儿，浸透了奋斗的泪泉，洒遍了牺牲的血雨。其实也就告诉我们在羡慕别人取得的成功时，更应看到成功背后所付出的艰辛！每个人的写作功底都迥然不同，不是所有人都能把事情叙述好的，这就觉得就要多看书，勤练笔。读书破万卷下笔才有神。我们很多人在烦恼自己写作的文字功底不尽人意，构思的时候就有时让我们感觉词藻干枯，灵感枯竭，无法表达。这是在言情小说写作中最遗憾和苦恼的问题。所以我还是认为，写作贵为勤，勤能补拙，多练习着写一定是有益无害。

一、言情小说其往往比较注重小说的情节以及构思，构思很重要，怎么才能有悬念。写框架，后润色。

有时，我们看一篇短篇小说，或许刚开始平淡无奇，但猛然间峰回路转，让读者心生感慨，其结局往往是意料之外，但似乎又在情理之中。尽量不要让波澜不惊，尽量要“跌宕起伏”。你想下：如果你写得平淡如水，平铺直叙去把谁和谁的故事一字不漏地记录下来，那不是小说。读者看得索然寡味，失去阅读下去的信心，故事写出来是供读者欣赏的，不能由着自己的感受去写，要让读者产生共鸣。读过之后难以释怀，沉浸在你的文章中，有所感悟,久久回味。就是说需要写作的人有“催生波澜”的能力，还有高度的驾御语言和组织语言的能力。和重要的想象能力。想象能力就是能让故事情节更加吸引人的能力。无尽的想象会优化我们已经确立的点，让立意更耀眼，为文章增色不少。

二、在上周的学习中，关于言情小说的叙述方式的飞鸟老师已经谈过了。

谈下在言情小说叙述时候的人称代词

第一人称叙述的长处是有真实感，亲切自然，短处是“我”的限制，反映“我”以外的人物思想容易受到限制。

第二人称：作者用"你"、"你们"来叙述，是第二人称叙述。实用写作中很少用此人称，文学创作中有大都通篇为第一人称的，一般不用。

第三人称：作者站在第三者的立场，用叙述他人事情的口吻，把人物经历、事件经过告诉读者，这便是三人称的叙述

第三人称叙述的长处是不受时间、空间限制，写作较自由、灵活，能把人和事直接展现在读者眼前。短处是没有第一人称叙述那样亲切自然。而且，掌握起来比第一人称叙述较为困难。

三、有人写言情小说天马行空,这对写作来说,有利有，看个人如何的把握了，文章不能太散,这是缺点，在写之前.我们先确定一个中心,也就是说想要表达什么,然后我们围绕这个点,打开自己的思维,展开自己想象的翅膀,编织自己的语言,进行我们想象中的故事。

写言情小说的时候,我们必须注意最基本的要点：

1，人物形象,

2,故事情节,

3，环境描写,能烘托故事的氛围。有简有略地写.重点的,对整篇文章有推动作用的就多写...一般铺垫的就少写...写完后..我们可以多读几遍..删掉认为重复或者烦琐的地方。

再次说了，文章一定要有波澜。因为“文似看山不喜平”、“文贵曲”。在文学写作中，抒情是和叙述、描写同样重要，“文章不是无情物，情者文之经”。我们写作离不开抒情，抒情是一种很重要的表达技法。抒情的作用在于以情感人，即通过自己抒发的感情能激起读者感情上的共鸣。让读者为之动容，那样的文章也许是比较成功了。“繁采寡情，味之必厌”。

四、想谈谈灵感的问题。

灵感是我们来源于生活，情感，敏感反映。写作的文字没有一承不变的，在作者灵感闪耀时，随时有可能改变写作的思路。就是说在灵感一现的刹那，把所有的点滴灵感串连在一起，经过真实故事的幻化嫁接而成的。宁静的氛围可以酝酿灵感的净土。我认为只有心灵达到一定“空灵的状态”——“满足的状态”——“痛苦的状态”，才可以使文字、情节源源不断地流淌出来。而心灵的空灵状态常常在特幽静的环境，或者夜深人静，或者听特别静心音乐等。

空灵的状态。就是说，那时候的心境只有自己和文字。没有其他杂念干扰你。例如我比较喜欢的《琵琶语》等等，幽幽古曲，像那呢喃细语，轻缓柔和，就像幽灵一般，淡淡忧伤。丝丝缕缕，特别在深夜聆听，一切成空，空悲切。琵琶低吟，悲怨哀愁，很容易产生很多灵感如泉水般涌现。总觉得音乐能释放的感伤与悲情，以及对美好世界的向往。我相信，音乐的旋律是不分国界，不分种族，不分语言的，只要心灵相通。

五、情感写作是极为费尽心思、事情，所以也是最为痛苦的事情；最为痛苦的事情却也是最能满足写作动力，犹如“爱情毒瘤”与“爱情美梦”一般。有痛苦是动，动可以孕育故事。

情丝，在小说中可能成为一条珍贵的线索。一篇丰满的作品能刻画出小说中的感情的的美——一种刻骨铭心的痛，一个永恒的记忆，或者一个永恒的美。小说中的爱情——个个美丽的爱情故事。自古以来，多少人心甘情愿中了“爱情的毒”，可多少作家笔下的甜言蜜语，悲欢离合却一直感动着那许许多多的人啊！我相信有真正的爱情存在，而且是完美的爱情存在，虽然这种几率却是微小的。因为很多人都喜欢追求完美的爱情，完美的爱情路途太遥远，现实会粉碎你美好的童话故事，被爱所伤，痛得太绝，所以我们看到了文章中有了许多多少催人泪下，柔肠寸断，绵绵不绝的动人爱情故事。最后我们言情小说在推荐的时候注意几点：

1，记住，一个抢眼的标题会让文章增色不少，吸引人的注意从标题开始！那样上榜的几率就大大增加了

2，文章语言通顺,力求优美。故事如果不十分跌宕起伏，但是将这种感情描绘得很极致、浪漫美好、忧伤.把爱情完美化、充满青春气息等几个要素。

3，通过深刻描写来刻画出文中人物的性格特点，使塑造的人物形象立体、饱满，这才是小说。

4，另一方面就是通过一个爱情故事或者事件来写出一种人的命运。注意情感写作的几个要素。

文字优美，内容曲折，结局出人意料.千万不要太过平淡,平铺直叙,即使你故事的原型是一个人的真实经历,但是小说就是小说,要经过艺术加工.经过你认真雕琢,也就好似说是每个人都会的,那不是小说,是流水帐。

最后，请注意文章的排版，力求美观，选用合适的字体和信纸，适当配上与文字匹配的图，使之更生动、唯美。好了，打扰大家周末休息的宝贵时光了。最后祝大家周末愉快,希望我们珍惜在红袖添香这个大家庭的美好时光,温暖伴随,彼此真诚帮助,携手共舞.抒写我们美丽飞扬的文字!

雅思考试中写作作为文字输出最多的一个部分，不仅考察了同学们的英语写作能力，而且很多细节语法只是的掌握程度也很能在雅思写作中体现出来，而从以往的雅思写作考试来看，扣分的点往往不是那些有难度的语法，而是一些最基础的语法知识。

一、such as与for example的混用

我们知道，在表示举例子的时候，such as与like是完全等同的，如：Wild flowers such as/like orchids and primroses are becoming rare。

但是同学们对于Such as、for example 的把握还是不够准确。我们都知道，后者接句子前者接词语表示举例子。于是就有了下面的写法：

There is a similar word in many languages， such as in French and Italian。

这里的such as改为for example为好，因为in French and Italian其实是there is a similar word in French and Italian的简化，所以要用for example来引出例证。再来看几个类似的例子：

It is possible to combine computer science with other subjects， for example physics。

二、assume 及claim 使用不够准确

我们知道， think，assume，claim是议论文中常用引出观点的动词。在实际作文中，同学们往往认为几个词的意思是一样的，完全可以代换，所以拿过来就用。甚至还有同学把consider也拿过来与之混用。我们首先还是从定义来看这几个词的不同：

1.爱屋及乌 Love me, love my dog.

2.百闻不如一见 Seeing is believing.

3.比上不足比下有余 worse off than some, better off than many; to fall short of the best, but be better than the worst.

4.笨鸟先飞 A slow sparrow make an early start.

5.不眠之夜 whe night

6.不以物喜不以己悲 not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personnal losses

7.不遗余力 spare no effort; go all out; do ones best

8.不打不成交 No discord, no concord.

9.拆东墙补西墙 rob Peter to pay Paul

10.辞旧迎新 bid farewell to the old and usher in the new; ring out the old year and ring in the new

11.大事化小小事化了 try first to make their mistake sound less serious and then to reduce it to nothing at all

12.大开眼界 open ones eyes; broaden ones horizon; be an eye-opener

13.国泰民安 The country flourishes and people live in peace

14.过犹不及 going too far is as bad as not going far enough; beyond is as wrong as falling short; too much is as bad as too little

15.功夫不负有心人 Everything comes to him who waits.

16.好了伤疤忘了疼 once on shore, one prays no more

17.好事不出门恶事传千里 Good news never goes beyond the gate, while bad news spread far and wide.

18.和气生财 Harmony brings wealth.

19.活到老学到老 One is never too old to learn.

20.既往不咎 let bygones be bygones

21.金无足赤人无完人 Gold cant be pure and man cant be perfect.

22.金玉满堂 Treasures fill the home.

23.脚踏实地 be down-to-earth

24.脚踩两只船 sit on the fence

25.君子之交淡如水 the friendship between gentlemen is as pure as crystal; a hedge between keeps friendship green

26.老生常谈陈词滥调 cut and dried, cliché

27.礼尚往来 Courtesy calls for reciprocity.

28.留得青山在不怕没柴烧 Where there is life, there is hope.

29.马到成功 achieve immediate victory; win instant success

30.名利双收 gain in both fame and wealth

31.茅塞顿开 be suddenly enlightened

32.没有规矩不成方圆 Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. 33.每逢佳节倍思亲 On festive occasions more than ever one thinks of ones dear ones far away.It is on the festival occasions when one misses his dear most.

34.谋事在人成事在天 The planning lies with man, the outcome with Heaven. Man proposes, God disposes.

35.弄巧成拙 be too smart by half; Cunning outwits itself

书信是日常生活中广泛应用的一种文体。它是一种特殊的实用文体。长期以来，它形成了自己独有的固定的书写格式：一般包括称呼、正文、结尾、署名、日期五部分。所以，如果你想要写好书信，那么，必须要掌握以下有关书信写作的基础知识。

称呼：第一行顶格写收信人的名字和称呼(或只写称呼)，有时还要加上“敬爱的、亲爱的”等词，表示对收信人的亲热和尊敬;接着加个冒号，表示下面的话是对他说的。

正文：另起一行空两格开始写正文，也就是书信的内容。正文部分通常先写问候的话。问候是一种礼节，问候语很多，有节日的问候，如“新年好”“春节快乐”等;有季节性的问候，如“夏安”“冬安”等。也有开头问候身体健康，工作和学习情况的，如“近来身体可好”“近来的学习好吗?”等等。问候语可以独立成为一个段落。

正文是书信的主体部分，是写信的目的之所在，写信人要说的话，要办的事都写在这里。正文的内容在问候语下一行空两格写起，转行时要顶格写起。如果要说的话，要办的事多，应该分段写，每段写一件事，写完一件事，再写另外一件事。每段开头都要空两格写起。

结尾：正文写完后，要写上表示祝愿、尊敬或勉励的话，也叫致敬语。致敬语要根据对象不同而不同。如果写给长辈，可以写“敬祝健康”等;如果写给平辈，可以写“祝学习进步!”等。而“此致敬礼”是比较通用的，适合一般人的结束语。结尾的“此致”“祝”等可以紧接正文写，也可以独占一行，空两格写。“敬礼”“健康”等祝愿之情，要另起一行顶格写。

署名：写在正文结尾后的右下方。可以根据信纸剩下的多少，决定署名与致敬语的距离。署名时根据与收信人关系的亲疏，可带姓，可不带姓。习惯上，还按与收信人的关系，在名字前面加上“孙”、“弟”“老朋友”等称谓写在名字的左上角，字体小一点。

日期：一般写在署名的下边。日期最好是把年月日都写出来，便于收信人了解写信时间。

Time flies. 光阴似箭.

Time is life. 时间就是生命.

Times change. 时代在改变.

Time is money. 时间就是金钱.

Life is sweet. 人生是美好的.

Love is blind. 爱情是盲目的.

Extremes meet. 两极相通，有无相生。

Like knows like 人识其类。

Let well alone. 不要画蛇添足. /事已成功,不必多弄.

Marry thy like. 结婚须找同类人.

One man,no man. 个人是渺小的.

Hsitory is bunk. 历史是一堆废话。

Time marches on. 岁月如流

Murder will out. 恶行终会败露。

Never say "die. 永远不要说" 完了".

Care is no cure. 忧虑治不了病。

Beware beginning. 慎始为上。

Deeds, not words. 行动胜于空谈.

No mill, no meal. 不磨面,没饭吃.

Like begets like. 龙生龙，凤生凤。

Love begets love. 爱爱相生.

In doing we learn. 我们在干中学习.

No cross,no crown. 未经苦难,得不到荣冠.

Care killed a cat. 忧虑能杀人。

Boys will be boys. 男孩子总是男孩子.

No song, no supper. 不出力,不得食.

The truth will out. 真相总会大白.

Time works wonders. 时间能创造奇迹.

To think is to see. 思考就是明白.

Truth will prevail. 真理必胜

A lie begets a lie. 谎言生谎言。

Years bring wisdom. 年岁带来智慧.

In love is no lack. 爱情不会感到缺乏.

Easy come, easy go. 来得容易去得 . /悖入悖出.

Every little helps. 点滴都有用.

Forgive and forget. 恢弘大度，勿念旧恶。

Manners maketh man. 举止造人品.

Laugh and grow fat. 心宽体胖 。

Knowledge is power. 知识就是力量.

Let the world slide. 人世沧桑,听其自然.

Love me,love my dog. 爱屋及乌.

Life means struggle. 生活就是斗争.

Fair plays a jewel. 比赛风格好,胜过珠宝.

Early sow,early mow. 种得早,收得早.

Grasp all, lose all. 贪多必失.

Whats lost is lost. 失者不可复得。

Waste not, want not. 不浪费,不会穷.

Tomorrow never comes. 切莫依赖明天. / 我生待明日,万事成蹉跎.

No man is infallible. 没有人不犯错误。

Alms never make poor. 施舍穷不了人.

Love will find a way. 爱心所至,金石为开.

Manners make the man. 举止见人品。

Patience is a virtue. 忍耐是一种美德.

Pity is akin to love. 怜悯生爱.

Call a spade a spade. 是啥说啥，难听不怕。

Delays are dangerous. 因循出危险.

Diamond cuts diamond. 强中自有强中手.

Counsel is no command. 劝告不是命令.

Poverty tries friends. 贫穷考验朋友.

Once bitten,twice shy. 吃一次亏,学一次乖.

Pain past is pleasure. 痛苦过去即欢乐.

Leal heart lied never. 心诚无谎言。

Hot love is soon cold. 过热的爱情冷得快.

As good lost as found. 有得必有失. /得失同喜.

Every dog has his day. 瓦块也有翻身日，人人都有运来时。

Wise fear begets care. 懂得担心,就会小心.

"Never”is a long word. 不要轻易说“决不”。

After wind comes rain. 风是雨的头。

Nurture passes nature. 教养胜过天性.

Time tries all things. 时间检验一切.

Time cures all things. 时间是最好的医生. /时间能医愈一切创痛.

Truth needs no colour. 真理不需要打扮.

Silence gives consent. 沉默就是赞成。

Still waters run deep. 静水流深。

Study,study,and study. 学习,学习,再学习.

Virtue never grows old. 美德不会衰老.

No sweet without sweat. 幸福来自汗水.

No herb will cure love. 相思病无药医.

A true jest is no jest. 真正的笑语决非笑话。

A man can die but once. 人无二死.

A bargain is a bargain. 成约不能翻悔。

All men cant be first. 不可能人人得冠军。

All roads lead to Rome. 条条大路通罗马.

Every flow has its ebb. 潮有涨落日,人有盛衰时.

History repeats itself. 历史往往重演。

I think,therefore I am. 我思考，所以我存在。

Let bygones be bygones. 既往宜不咎。

Like author, like book. 书如其人。

Pardon all but thyself. 宽恕一切人，只是别宽恕自己。

Pride goes before fall. 骄者必败。

Knowledge is no burden. 知识再多不压身.

Civility costs nothing. 礼貌不费分文.

Charity begins at home. 仁爱先施于亲友.

Better late than never. 迟做总比不做好.

Better leave than lack. 有余胜过不足.

Cheapest is the dearest. 最便宜的也就是最贵的.

Custom is second nature. 习惯是第二天性。/ 习惯成自然。

In valour there is hope. 希望在于勇敢.

Reason rules all things. 理智统治一切.

Learn young, learn fair. 学习趁年少,而且要学好.

Idleness rusts the mind. 懒散使头脑衰退.

Health and money go far. 有了健康和钱财，就能走遍天下。

Hope well and have well. 善寄希望于未来,又善保有现在.

Hope is a lovers staff. 希望是爱者的手扶之杖.

Every Jack has his Jill. 人均有其偶.

If the cap fits,wear it. 帽子合适，你就戴上;如说的符合你的情况，你就接受。

Failure teaches success. 失败乃成功之母.

First think, then speak. 熟思而后言.

Forewarned is forearmed. 凡事预则立。

Barking dogs dont bite. 吠犬不咬人。

Beauty is but skin-deep. 美只是外表, /不能以貌取人.

Beauty will buy no beef. 漂亮不能当饭吃。

Good wine needs no bush. 酒好无需挂幌子。

Great minds think alike. 英雄所见略同。

All his geese are swans. 自己的鹅都是天鹅。

A poet is born,not made. 诗人靠天成。

A snow year,a rich year. 瑞雪兆丰年。

No man is indispensable. 没有一个人是不可缺少的。/少了谁地球也转。

Never hope for too much. 不要期望太多.

Tomorrow is another day. 明天又是一个新的开始.

Time is life for doctors. 对医生来说,时间就是生命.

Time is the great healer. 时间是最好的医治者.

Time works great changes. 时间会产生巨大的变化.

Two can play at the game. 你会耍的花招，别人也会。

Success has many friends. 成功者朋友多.

No pleasure without pain. 乐中必有苦.

Take things as they come. 随遇而安。

Talent is as talent does. 是不是有实才,就看干得来干不来.

All for one, one for all. 人人为我,我为人人.

A little pot is soon hot. 壶小易沸,量小易怒.

A cat may look at a king. 猫也可以看皇帝。/ 地位虽不同，人人应平等。

A good marksman may miss. 好射手也有失手的时候.

Anger is a brief madness. 愤怒是短暂的疯狂。

Wonders will never cease. 奇迹无穷尽。

You never know your luck. 命运好坏不由已.

Youth is half the battle. 年轻是胜利的一半.

As the call, so the echo. 发什么声音，有什么回声。

As the tree,so the fruit. 什么树结什么果。

He who hesitates is lost. 当断不断,反受其乱.

Fortune favours the bold. 天助勇者。

Forbidden fruit is sweet. 禁果分外甜。

From saving comes having. 富有来自节俭.

Fools haste is no speed. 急急忙忙, 欲速反慢.

Fair and softly goes far. 谦和者致远。

Every man has his faults. 人都有缺点.

Hunger is the best sauce. 饥者口中尽佳肴.

Learn even from an enemy. 即使是敌人也可以向他学习.

Little goods little care. 钱财少,不烦恼.

Practise what you preach. 躬行己说,身体力行. /自己怎么说,就得怎么干.

Second thoughts are best. 再思为上.

It is hard to please all. 要使人人满意是件难事。

Business before pleasure. 先工作,后娱乐./干完正事再玩儿.

It is dogged that does it. 有志者事竞成.

Its a day after the fair. 错过良机，为时已晚。

Reading enriches the mind. 开卷有益.

Opportunities do not wait. 机不可失,时不再来.

Other times,other manners. 隔代不同礼。

Love laughs at locksmiths. 爱情嘲笑锁匠. /爱情能克服困难.

Let the sleeping dogs lie. 莫惹是非。

Every medal has two sides. 每个勋章都有两面。/ 每个问题都有正反两面。

Every bean hath its black. 每粒蚕豆都长黑嘴。 / 人都有缺点。

Even Homer sometimes nods. 即使荷马也会打盹. /智者千虑,必有一失.

Facts are stubborn things. 事实都是顽强的. /事实是掩盖不住的.

Every why has a wherefore. 凡事必有因.

Fortune favours the brave. 天佑勇士。

Art is long,life is short. 人生短暂，艺术长存。

Bad times make a good man. 艰难困苦出能人.

Better be sure than sorry. 稳当总比后悔好。

Good counsel does no harm. 忠言有利无害。

Anything for a quiet life. 悠然自在最难求.

Appearances are deceptive. 外表是靠不住的。

Who knows most says least. 知道得最多的人说得最少。

A good deed is never lost. 好心一定有好报。

A lazy youth, a lousy age. 少时懒惰老来苦.

A watched pot never boils. 心急锅不开.

Take time by the forelock. 要把握时机.

Nothing seek,nothing find. 无所求则无所获.

Never do things by halves. 做事不可半途而废.

The wages of sin is death. 为恶者应灭亡。

Sow nothing, reap nothing. 春不播,秋不收. /无功不能受禄.

True love never grows old. 真正的爱永不衰老.

Sharp tools make good work. 工欲善其事,必先利其器.

Sweep before your own door. 正人先正己。

Time is wealth for workers. 对工人来说,时间就是财富.

Time is grain for peasants. 对农民来说,时间就是粮食.

Today is Yesterdays pupil. 今天是昨天的学生.

After a storm comes a calm. 雨过天晴,苦尽甘来.

A mans home is his castle. 一个人的家就是他的城堡.

A bully is always a coward. 恃强欺弱者均是懦夫。

A creaking door hangs long. 旧门久用，病夫命长。

A bow long bent grows weak. 常拉满弓无力。

An artist lives everywhere. 一技在身，走遍天下。

Youth will have its course. 人生谁无少年时,甜苦酸辛各自知.

There are spots in the sun. 太阳也有黑点。

Beggars cannot be choosers. 乞丐不能挑肥拣瘦.

Be still,and have the will. 不动声色,事方有成.

Art lies in concealing art. 艺术在于使人看不见艺术。

Freedom lies in being bold. 自由在于勇敢.

Give losers leave to speak. 要允许失败者讲话。

First thrive and then wive. 先立业,后成家.

East or West, home is best. 无论在何处,家园最美好.

Every oak must be an acorn. 每棵橡树都曾是一粒橡子.

Every man is his own enemy. 人都有与自己为敌的时候. /败事全由已.

Labour created man himself. 劳动创造人.

Leave off with an appetite. 吃得七分饱，就该离餐桌。

Love is the mother of love. 情生情,爱生爱.

Love is the reward of love. 爱是对爱的报答.

Man proposes, God disposes. 谋事在人，戒事在天。

Man is not made for defeat. 创造人不是为了让他遭受失败. /人不是为失败而生的.

Life is too short to waste. 生命短促,不容浪费.

Honesty is the best policy. 诚实为上策.

Honour lies in honest toil. 光荣在于诚恳地劳动.

Hitch your wagon to a star. 把你的马车拴到星星上. /要胸怀大志.

Hold fast when you have it. 在手之物应紧握.

Many hands make light work. 众擎易举. /人多好办事./ 众人拾柴火焰高.

Marriage is a covered dish. 婚姻是一道盖着的菜.

Brevity is the soul of wit. 言以简为贵.

Bread is the staff of life. 民以食为天。

Blushing is virtues color. 脸红是美德的颜色。

Do as you would be done by. 己所不欲，勿施于人。

Drawn wells are seldom dry. 水井常用不枯竭.

Drift is as bad as unthrift. 花钱凭冲动,等于无底洞.

Dont meet trouble half-way. 不要自寻烦恼。

Diligence redeems stupidity. 勤能补拙.

Blood is thicker than water. 血比水浓.

Counsel breaks not the head. 忠告不会打破头.

Clothes do not make the man. 人不在衣装.

Idleness makes the wit rust. 懒惰使脑筋生锈.

Love is stronger than death. 爱的力量大于死亡./ 爱情能战胜死神.

Love me little,love me long. 爱情应细水长流.

Ones sin will find one out. 坏事终归要败露。

One love drives out another. 新的爱情来,旧的爱情去.

Prettiness makes no pottage. 漂亮不能当饭吃.

Pen and ink is wits plough. 笔墨是才智之犁.

Its never too late to mend. 改过不嫌晚。

Rome was not built in a day. 罗马不是一天建成的./ 伟业非一日之功.

In the end things will mend. 船到桥头自然直.

Envy never enriched any man. 嫉妒从未使人得益。

Familiarity breeds contempt. 亲密生侮心。

Friends are thieves of time. 朋友是时间的浪费者. / 浪费朋友的时间,就是谋财害命.

Four eyes see more than two. 两人总比一人看得周到.

Good clothes open all doors. 门不挡衣着华丽的人。

Good advice is beyond price. 忠告是无价之宝.

Youth is the season of hope. 青春是希望的季节.

All rivers run into the sea. 条条江河归大海.

"They say so" is half a lie. 传闻多失实.

A curst cow has short horns. 性子烈的牛角短，脾气暴的人为害有限。

A miss is as good as a mile. 差之毫厘,失之千里.

All is fair in love and war. 情场战场，不择手段。

A stitch in time saves nine. 不洞不补,大洞尺五. /及时处理,事半功倍.

Time is the father of truth. 时间是真理之父.

There is no end to learning. 学无止境.

There is no satiety in study. 学而不厌.

Time is the greatest teacher. 时间就是良师.

Time is speed for scientists. 对科学家来说,时间就是速度.

Variety is the spice of life. 变化是生活的调味品.

We are all slaves of opinoin. 我们都是意见的奴隶。

More than enough is too much. 超过所需就是太多.

The shortest answer is doing. 最简短的回答是干.

Nothing venture,nothing have. 不担风险就无收获.

No living man all things can. 世上没有万能的人.

The insolent have no friends. 目空一切的人无朋友.

A wonder lasts but nine days. 奇闻只存在九天。

A word is enough to the wise. 智者不用多告诫.

A little labour, much health. 适量的劳动有益于健康。

A lean dog shames his master. 狗瘦主人羞。

A hungry man is an angry man. 饿汉易怒。

A green wound is soon healed. 新伤口愈合快。

Whats done cannot be undone. 木已成舟，覆水难收。

What man has done,man can do. 前人能办的事,后人也能做.

Wishes never can fill a sack. 愿望装不满口袋。

He goes far that never turns. 不回头的人走得远.

He that talks much errs much. 语多必失。

He that talks much lies much. 言多必妄。

Before friends all is common. 朋友之间应不分彼此.

Far fowls have fair feathers. 远方的鸟羽毛美。/弄不到手的东西是最好的。

Eyes are as eloquent as lips. 眼睛会和嘴一样说话.

Easy and success are fellows. 从容与成功是伙伴。

Many a little makes a mickle. 积少成多;集腋成裘.

Love and cough cannot be hid. 爱情象咳嗽,压也压不住.

Life is compared to a voyage. 人生好比是一次航程.

Life is real,life is earnest. 人生真实,人生诚挚.

Marriage makes or mars a man. 婚姻可使人成功,也可使人失败.

Money is round.It rolls away. 圆圆钱币,滚走容易.

Hope is life and life is hope 希望就是生活,生活也就是希望.

Comfort is better than pride. 华美不如舒适.

Custom makes all things easy. 凡事成习惯就容易做。/ 熟能生巧。

Diet cures more than doctors. 自己饮食有节，胜过上门求医。

Deliberating is not delaying. 深思熟虑不误事.

Dexterity comes by experience. 换取经验要付出代价.

Doubt is the key of knowledge. 怀疑是知识的钥匙.

Dare and diligence bring luck. 大胆又勤奋,定能交好运.

Blow first and sip afterwards. 喝茶防烫，吃饭防噎。

Human pride is human weakness. 人类的骄傲即是人类的弱点。

Lazy folk take the most pains. 懒人躲懒最费力.

Light not a candle to the sun. 不要对着太阳点蜡烛。/日既出矣，爝火可熄。

Love is the lodestone of life. 爱情是生活的磁石.

It is never too late to learn. 学习从不嫌晚.

Justifying a fault doubles it. 护短是加倍的错误。

Kill two birds with one stone. 一石二鸟. /一箭双雕. / 一举两得.

Pride hurts, modesty benefits. 满招损，谦受益。

One is never too old to learn. 人有老的时候,没有老得不能学的时候.

One cannot put back the clock. 时光不能倒流.

Early start makes easy stages. 早动身,易从容,早开始,早成功.

Every bird likes its own nest. 鸟均爱其巢;人皆爱其家.

Fair words fill not the belly. 甜言蜜语填不饱肚子。

Fine feathers make fine birds. 好的衣装只能打扮出个好外表。

Fine words butter no parsnips. 花言巧语没有用.

First deserve and then desire. 先做到受之无愧，而后再邀功请赏。

For a lost thing care nothing. 物已丢失，勿再烦恼。

Force can never destroy right. 武力决不能摧毁正义。

Glory is the shadow of virtue. 荣誉是美德的影子.

At court,everyone for himself. 在法庭上人人都要为自己。

As man sows, so he shall reap. 善有善报，恶有恶报。

Good ware makes quick markets. 货好销得快。

He is rich that has few wants. 寡欲者富。

He lives long that lives well. 活得好等于活得久.

He that fears death lives not. 害怕死亡的人，活着也没有快乐。

Wisdom is only found in truth. 唯有在真理中才能找到智慧.

Who loseth liberth loseth all. 失掉自由使失掉一切.

All that glitters is not gold. 闪烁者不尽是金。

A great ship asks deep waters. 大船要在深 水行./ 深水浮大船.

A good tree is a good shelter. 枝叶茂盛的大树是躲避风雨的好去处. / 大树底下好乘凉.

A burnt child dreads the fire. 烧伤的孩子最怕火。

A clean hand wants no washing. 手要是干净无须洗。

A bad penny always comes back. 伪币迟早归原主。

A rolling eye, a roving heart. 眼活情不专.

A proud man hath many crosses. 骄傲者挫折多。

A shy cat makes a proud mouse. 猫儿胆小耗子闹。

All is not at hand that helps. 世间没有唾手可得之事.

The exception proves the rule. 例外证明法则的存在。

No man is a hero to his valet. 在最贴身的人眼中，谁也充不了伟人。

The used key is always bright. 常用的钥匙不长锈.

The sun shines upon all alike. 太阳照人，不分贵贱。

We are not born for ourselves. 人之有生,不为一已.

Two heads are better than one. 两人智慧胜一人.

True praise roots and spreads. 诚实的赞美深入人心.

Truth is the daughter of time. 真理是时间的女儿.

True friendship lasts forever. 真正的友谊恒久不变.

Shallow streams make most din. 溪浅声喧。

Slow and steady wins the race. 稳扎稳打;无往不胜.

Time and tide wait for no man. 时光如逝水,岁月不待人.

There is no joy without alloy. 世上没有十全十美的快乐。/ 金无足赤，乐无十全。

Theres no wisdom like silence. 保持沉默最聪明。

Think today and speak tomorrow. 熟思而后言.

Time is money for enterprisers. 对企业家来说,时间就是金钱.

Too many cooks spoil the broth. 厨师太多烧坏汤。

We soon believe what we desire. 心里想什么就会相信什么。

Speech is the image of actions. 语言是行动的图象。

Two wrongs do not make a right. 两个错误,加不出一个正确. /用错误改正不了错误.

生活的积累是写作的源泉，就像罗丹所说的“美是到处都有的。小编收集了如何写好作文的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

一、观察是写作的基础

1、注意平时积累，做生活的有心人。

生活的积累是写作的源泉，就像罗丹所说的“美是到处都有的。对于我们的眼睛，不是缺少美，而缺少发现。”因此，我们要培养学生做生活的有心人，善于留心观察身边的事物，到大自然中去陶冶美的性情，到社会生活中去发现美的事物。只有生活丰富多彩、热爱生活的人，思想才会活跃，感情才会丰富，才可能写出感人的文章。

2、留心观察，善于捕捉事物特征。

正如[***被屏蔽词语]指出的：“一棵树的叶子，看上去是大体相同的，但仔细一看，每片叶子都有不同。有共性，也有个性，有相同的方面，也有相异的方面。”因此，要注意培养学生细心观察的习惯，使他们在细心观察的基础上善于找出同类事物千差万别的个性和特征。

3、注重阅读，丰富间接生活积累。

生活的直接积累对写作是十分重要和有意义的，但受着时间、空间的限制，人的精力和经验总是有限的，不可能任何生活都直接参与、直接体验。因此，要培养学生善于阅读的好习惯，因为大量的知识要从书本中来获得。同时，使学生养成写阅读笔记的学习习惯。俗话说：“好记性不如烂笔头。”只要大量阅读，善于积累，同样可以从中获得对生活的丰富感受，提高生活的认识。

二、分析题意，提炼素材

没有材料或材料不足，自然写不好文章。但有了材料如果不精心选材或选材不当，仍然也写不出好文章。因此，要提高学生的写作能力，还要重视培养学生的审题立意、谋篇布局的能力。

1、审明题意，选取材料。

材料是为主题服务的，因此，在选择材料前，必须要明确文章的体裁及文章所要表达的中心思想。我们有些学生往往不舍得割舍材料，有用没用一起上，这样就会造成“下笔千言，离题万里”的结果。所以，在写作时，首先要明确主题。在教学中除了引导学生注意分析课文题目，培养审题技能以外，还可采用一些具体方法，培养学生概括、提炼的能力。如，让学生把自己作文的中心思想浓缩为一句简短的文字，即提炼出“主题句”。采用这种浓缩法，对提高学生审题立意的技能，是十分有益的。

其次，要选取典型材料，即那些反映事物本质，有代表性、有说服力的材料。同时，还应注意材料的真实性和可信性。

2、立意要深刻，创意要新颖。

无论何种体裁的文章，都需要通过材料烘托主题。因此，看一篇文章是否成功，首先就要看作者是否是透过现象，抓住本质，对生活是否有深刻的认识和独到的见地，即立意要深刻。

其次，在立意深刻的基础上，还要看作者的创意是否新颖，即作者在文章中所提出的见解，所抒发的感受，不落俗套，否则人云亦云，则没有新意。因此，在写作训练中，应拓宽学生视野，鼓励学生大胆想象，在文章中体现自己的独特性，这样就会抓住读者，给人一种新鲜醒目的感觉。要做到创意新颖，关键是写作的角度要新。因为现实生活丰富多彩，客观事物纷繁复杂，人物千姿百态，即使是同一生活现象，同一人物或同一景物，只要观察者的角度不同，就会表现出不同的侧面。因此，角度新也就是立意要新，观点要新，构思要新。

三、注重表达能力的培养

作文能力一般包括认识生活和反映生活两方面的能力。认识生活需要敏锐的观察力和深刻的分析能力，而反映生活则需要准确的表达能力。因此，在教学中，教师应采用多种方式训练学生的表达能力。

1、课堂上进行口头表达能力训练。

学生表达能力的体现，首先表现在是否有敏捷的思维和准确的语言表达能力，因此，训练口头表达能力是不能忽视的。在课堂教学中，训练口头表达能力的方法是多种多样的。例如讲提纲，可让学生口述自己作文的提纲大意，这样不仅可以提高学生的构思能力，而且可以了解学生的逻辑思维能力。再如，可采用讲故事、谈感想等方法培养学生不仅言而“有物”，还要言而“有序”。否则七嘴八舌，前后无序，虽训练了说的能力，却不能增强学生的思维能力和语言组织能力。除此之外，教师还可以组织学生就提出的问题进行研讨或辩论，这样可以锻炼学生“言之成理”、“出口成章”的本领。

2、采用多种方法，训练学生书面写作能力。

写作训练的方法是多种多样的，但无论哪种方法，目的都是为提高学生的写作能力，它包括观察能力、分析判断能力和语言文字表达能力。因此，我们应首先让学生养成写日记和记笔记的好习惯，这样有益于学生积累作文的素材，有效地解决作文时感到“无话可说”的问题。同时，培养学生写真事、说实话的好文风，以及快速准确的文字表达能力。因此，它一向是中学语文教师作为提高学生写作能力的一项重要的经常性的工作。

其次，可进行模仿性写作练习。因为我们的课文就是很好的范文，在学习了文章的写作技法、特点后，可以让学生模仿范文自行命题。如，学习了抒情散文《白杨礼赞》可让学生模仿其笔法，写一些抒情性文章《烛火赞》、《粉笔赞》、《雪》等等。如学习了说明文《景泰蓝的制作》，可以让学生模仿说明文的写作方法，介绍一下自己的小制作、小发明或对某一事物进行观察后，写成说明文。像这样类型的写作训练，既结合了教材、范文，又可跳出教材范文的框框，能较好地调动学生的写作积极性，对所学的文体能做到较好的掌握和训练。

再者，教师可收集一些材料、漫画、哲理故事等，让学生根据所给的内容进行写作，这样既锻炼了学生的观察力、思考力、想象力，又能挖掘出学生的思想深度和认识程度，既培养了学生写作的基本能力，又开发了他们的智力。

语言教学中能力的培养，重在写作能力的培养。因为对学生作文能力的考核，实际上是对其思想认识水平、知识水平、能力与智力的综合性考核，这种考核能在一定的广度与深度上反映出学生实际的语文水平。由此可见，提高学生的作文能力是十分必要和重要的。

领导讲话是秘书部门常见的文字材料，是秘书人员必须熟悉和掌握的一种文体。怎样撰写领导讲话，笔者根据自己十年办公室工作的实践认为，应从以下三个方面去努力。

一、在写作特点上，注意奏好四部曲

第一，进入领导角色。进入领导角色是写好领导讲话的前提。因为领导讲话是领导意志的直接反映和完整表述。如果不能站在领导的高度，就写不出符合领导要求的好稿来。因此，秘书人员要有意识地使用领导眼光，运用领导魄力，高屋建瓴，观察问题，分析问题，处理问题，使所写的讲话材料既有气势，又有魄力;既有广度，又有深度。不能脱离领导，站在局外，凭自己的主观想象去东拼西凑。

第二，展示领导艺术。领导讲话是一种论事说理的文字材料，是一种展示领导才华的公开形式，应认真对待。讲话的内容一般包括三个方面：上级机关要求做什么，为什么;我们要做什么，怎样做;不能做什么，为什么不能。因此，它要求讲话材料既要体现一定的理论水平，又要展示高超的领导艺术。

第三，推出领导举措。领导讲话通常是为了部署某项工作或开展某项活动而作出的。因此，必须有明确的指导思想和过硬的工作举措。常见的领导举措有：提高认识、加强领导、抓点带面、督促检查、总结评比等。

第四，运用领导语言。正确运用领导讲话时的特殊语言，可以起到加强效果的作用。必须认真研究语言表述问题，努力做到全面、完整、准确、肯切。讲话材料中常见的领导语言有：传达精神的概括语言;分析形势的完整语言;布置工作的肯切语言;开展动员的激励语言。

二、在写作方法上，注意定好六步棋

一是查阅文件，吃透精神。对上级机关下发的正式文件和上级领导作出的重要讲话，要认真阅读，细心研究，把握要点，吃透精神。只有这样，才能使所撰的讲话材料体现上级文件精神，符合上级政策规定。

二是深入调查，摸清情况。要写好领导讲话，就要熟悉基本的和全面的情况。只有深入细致的调查，才能得到准确的情况。“没有调查，就没有发言权”，道理就在于此。调查没有深度，讲话就没有力度。因此，起草讲话稿之前，要主动深入基层，运用多种方式，从不同角度、各种层次、多个侧面做“解剖”性调查。通过实地调查，获得来自基层单位的实际情况。

三是研究消化，提炼升华。对调查获得的材料进行梳理筛选，去粗取精，去伪存真，再经过理性的分析研究，使零乱松散的素材达到凝炼升华的高度，形成一个鲜明的主题。

四是征求意见，罗列提纲。形成文字材料之前，必须慎重地向领导本人征求意见，包括篇幅的长短、内容的多少、表扬事项与批评事项等等。征求意见之后，就可以根据领导的要求、调查的情况和会议的主旨，拟定提纲了。

五是挥笔疾书，一气呵成。文章的框架扎好了，就如画家画梅有了主干，下一步就是添枝加叶、排花润色了。经过一番构思酝酿之后，若要动笔行文，最好找个安静的地方，集中精力，一次完稿。如果断断续续，“三天打鱼，两天晒网”，就可能影响到文章的连贯性和逻辑性。

六是字斟句酌，严审细核。一次写成的稿子毕竟有点粗糙，必须认真细致地进行修改和校核。讲话材料的修改，要从整体着眼，从局部入手。不仅要从大的方面如观点、材料、结构等方面考虑，而且要从小的方面如题目、语言、标点等方面加以修改。

三、在写作技巧上，注意把好三道关

领导讲话的结构一般包括导言、主体和结尾三部分，也就是通常所说的“三道关”。

(一)导言。导言是文章的先导语言，是讲话稿的开头，类似于新闻报道中的导语。其内容可以是全文提要，也可以是概括介绍。一般介绍会议的性质、背景、主题、任务、形式、程序、目的以及方法步骤等。这段文字尽管在整个报告中份量不大，但颇为重要。它既是标题及事由的承接，又是主体内容展开的序幕，对全文起着提纲挈领的作用。

(二)主体。主体部分是领导讲话的核心，可分为“上级指示精神”和“本地工作部署”两个部分。“上级指示精神”主要包括：会议的性质和概况;对当前形势的最新看法;对某种工作的评价和估量;对下级工作的指示和要求。传达上级指示精神应坚持详尽的原则，该写的一定要写清楚。“本地工作部署”，主要包括的内容有：本地区在全局范围内所处的位置;过去工作积累的经验;当前的有利条件;落实上级机关或领导指示精神的举措;总结评比和奖惩办法。进行工作部署是落实上级指示精神的关键环节，要注意必要性和可能性的有机结合，注意全局利益与局部利益的有机协调。安排“上级指示精神”与“本地工作部署”所占篇幅时，应注意两点：当领导讲话的重点是传达精神时，“上级指示精神”所占篇幅要长;当领导讲话的重点是部署工作时，则“本地工作部署”所占篇幅要长。

(三)结尾。结尾是领导讲话的收尾部分。一般表明讲话人对会议的看法、希望和祝愿，是对全篇讲话内容的总结、概括和升华。领导讲话的结尾通常可分为“升华主题”和“祝愿会议”两个部分。“升华主题”所起的作用是强调前面的讲话内容，把会议的气氛推向高潮，其形式有五种：一是总结式。对全文进行总结概括，起强调作用。二是召唤式。向参加会议的同志或一定范围内的同志发出号召。三是预测式。对某项工作的完成情况作出分析与预测。四是希望式。对会议或某项工作寄予的希望。五是鼓舞式。为完成某项重要工作任务而鼓劲加油。“祝愿会议”所起的作用是表明对会议的态度。常用的祝词有“预祝大会圆满成功”、“祝各位代表身体健康”等。

写作领导讲话的各个部分应遵循三条原则：一是导言部分的简明原则;二是主体部分的详尽原则;三是结尾部分的升华原则。

关于领导讲话稿的写作基础：

第一部分 起草领导讲话稿的基础工作

领导讲话稿是情况信息的积累与凝聚、政策的阐发、理论的深化、工作的要求、研究的结晶、实践的总结和领导意图的体现。要起草好领导讲话稿，关键是要做好与起草领导讲话稿相关的基础工作。

一、起草领导讲话稿的主要基础工作

起草领导讲话稿的基础工作主要包括三个大的方面:一是政策理论和业务准备。二是情况资料准备。三是对领导意图、脉搏的把握、准备。具体包括以下七个方面内容:

(一)资料工作。第一，尽可能全面、客观、准确地掌握情况信息，即做到搜集资料不厌其多、整理资料不厌其烦、储存资料不厌其杂。第二，搜集的资料必须分门别类，分专题或专卷存放。第三，对搜集的资料要及时学习、分析、研究，真正把“死东西”变成“活东西”。第四，搜集资料的方式既可以个人单独搞，也可以集体统一搞，理想的模式是个人与集体结合起来搞。

(二)综合工作。第一，根据起草领导讲话稿的需要，经常自觉地开展自我服务性的综合工作。第二，根据领导的决策需要，开展为领导决策服务的综合工作。第三，综合工作贵在经常有用。第四，为起草领导讲话稿所做的综合工作，应有别于一般的综合材料工作，应以短小精悍的小综合材料为主。

(三)调查研究。第一，要经常围绕领导决策和公安中心工作，抓住一些鱼待解决的重大问题和突出矛盾，深入调查研究，力争发现一些重要的倾向性问题，提出一些有重要参考价值的意见或建议。第二，要通过调查研究摸到重要的有用情况，研究出有价值的成果。

(四)形势分析。第一，当前情况与未来发展趋势相结合。第二，既要看到有利形势，又要看到不利形势。第三，要有深入、精辟的分析，既有鲜明的论点，.又有充足的论据，一还要有科学的论证。

(五)政策理论学习与研究工作。一是马列主义、毛泽东思想、邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想。二是党和国家历史与现实的路线、方针、政策，三是法律、法规尤其是与公安工作有关的法律、法规。四是历史的和现实的公安工作的大政方针。第一，提高政策理论水平的唯一途径是学习、学习、再学习。第二，要多研究政策理论，多研究问题。第三，一要注意把理论与实践结合好，创造性地提出工作措施和要求。

(六)渊博的知识基拙。要具备文学知识、社会学知识、政治学知识、历史学知识、经济学知识及科技知识等。

(七)把握领导意图。第一，多留心、多留神，精心捕捉领导意图。第二，对于捕捉到的领导意图及时进行文字处理、归纳和提炼。第三，要注意加强对领导意图的研究、升华与正常发挥。

二、做好起草领导讲话稿基础工作的主要途径

(一)思想重视，增强意识。

(二)突出重点，有的放矢。

(三)注重实用，讲究实效。

(四)分工协作，共同负责。

(五)处处留心，时时动手。

(六)运用科技，提高质效。

(七)不断总结，逐步提高。

第二部分 领导讲话稿的起草工作

一、领导讲话稿的特点

(一)领导讲话稿本身的特点。第一，要有一定的高度，有的还要求有一定的理论色彩。第二，要有很强的实战性。第三，要有很强的针对性。第四，格式非常灵活。第五，语气特征非常讲究。第六，领导讲话的个性语言非常突出。

(二)领导讲话稿起草过程中的特点。第一，起草时间的有限性和时间分配的不确定性。第二，起草内容的不确定性。第三，领导讲话稿定型时间的后延。

二、领导讲话稿的种类

(一)从领导讲话的场合看，可以划分为汇报稿、发言稿、指示稿。

(二)从领导讲话的内容看，可以划分为工作报告、形势报告、动员报告、情况介绍、经验介绍等。

(三)从讲话的形式看，可以划分为正式发言稿、即席讲话稿、开幕词、闭幕词、电视讲话稿、广播新闻稿、讲课稿。

(四)从会议上讲话的具体时间看，可以划分为开始时的报告与结束时讲话两种基本形式。

三、领导讲话稿的基本结构

(一)“三段论”结构:第一部分主要是情况、工作，第二部分是问题、原因，第三部分是措施、建议。

(二)“独联体”结构:领导讲话稿的每一部分都独立成篇，各个部分可连接起来成文。 第一，领导讲话稿的长短要考虑讲话的时间要求。第二，根据讲话的重点，合理安排结构。第三，领导讲话稿的结构中，要注意导语部分、过渡段和结束语，以免使文章显得干瘪和突兀。第四，领导讲话稿的标题一般有直录式、点题式或主附式两种。

四、起草领导讲话稿的步骤

起草领导讲话稿的步骤一般要经过明确起草目的即审题，搜集、整理资料，确定主题和设计提纲，写作、修改、成文等过程。

(一)确定提纲。第一，要事先征求讲话者本人的意见，拟出提纲后交讲话者本人审定。第二，提纲最好是比较详细的纲目式的。第三，拟定提纲要尽量有新意。

(二)起草工作。第一，要注意提炼观点。第二，要特别强调逻辑性。第三，内容要高度概括，用语简炼、明快。第四，初稿起草时，要多从内容上、从大的方面考虑问题。第五，大、小标题都要准确、鲜明地概括本段、层的内容。

五、领导讲话稿的语言特点

(一)语言要符合讲话人的身份和场合。从身份上来讲，不同职位身份的人，讲话语言的虚、实程度不同。从场合来看，不同的场合，语言特点就有很大差别。

(二)语言要符合讲话人的个性特征。要在注意适当口语化的同时，从讲话者本人的角度出发，写出符合讲话者个人风格、特征的稿件。

(三)语言要讲究准确。包括情况、观点要准确，概念要明确，判断要恰当。

(四)语言要鲜明。一要观点鲜明。二要在布局谋篇上做到突出重点，论据充分，论点、证据、论证融为一体，能够纲举目张。三要在结构安排上层次清楚、分明。四要讲究方法。五要句子结构规范、简炼。

(五)语言要讲究生动。一要内容充实，分析精辟透彻。二要注意修辞方法的运用。三要注意提炼出有特色的文字。

六、领导讲话稿修辞上的特点

(一) 用词避免太专业化。

(二) 绘性用词要注意变换。

(三)恰当地使用限制性词语。

(四)规范地使用简化词。

(五)一些名词排列要规范。

七、起草领导讲话稿需要注意的一些问题

(一)要体现领导意图。

(二)要有新意或者说要求变化。

(三)要突出重点，不要面面俱到。

(四)要把握好起承转合。

第三部分 领导讲话稿的修改工作

修改领导讲话稿主要是在领导审定前、领导提出修改意见之后、正式印刷之前及形成正式文件之前。

一、领导讲话稿修改的重点

(一)主题思想:一是领导讲话稿的主题和提出的观念、观点、思路、目标、口号以及引申等，是否领导意图。二是这些观点、思路、目标是否符合客观形势和工作实际的要求。三是是否非常重要而又非讲不可。

(二)政策措施:包括方案、意见、政策、措施等方面，是否符合国家的法律、法规;是否符合党和政府的方针、政策及有关规定;是否符合本地实际，是否符合人民群众的根本利益和要求;是否具有较大的适用性和可操作性。

(三)文字表达:包括结构、层次、标题、语言、材料、引文、典型、事例等方面，是否符合事实、_符合逻辑、符合语法，是否鲜明生动。

(四)文面要求:即体式、款式、字体、字号、书写、序号、时间、页码、署名等是否规范。

二、领导讲话稿修改的原则

(一)在指导思想上:必须遵循实事求是、精益求精的原则。

(二)在工作作风上:必须遵循谦虚谨慎、认真负责、讲究效率的原则。

(三)在工作组织上:必须遵循多方求教、集思广益的原则。

(四)在具体工作上:必须遵循服从主题、提高质量、从大到小、从粗到细的原则。

三、领导讲话稿修改的组织形式

(一)集体修改。一是起草人员集体讨论，专人修改。二是起草人员集中一起，边讨论边修改。三是向会议或非与会人员印发征求意见稿，书面广泛征求意见。四是专门邀请有关领导或其他人员讨论修改。五是讲话者与起草人员共同修改。六是有重点地走访上级、基层，面对面地征求意见。

(二)个人修改。一要舍得割“爱”，并力戒片面性。二要多换一个角度认识问题，换一个思路考虑问题，换一种提法表述问题。三要与有关领导和人员多沟通，多虚心求教。

四、领导讲话稿中常见的问题

(一)主题思想方面:主题没有体现领导意图，认识不深刻，观念不新颖，概念不对，概括不当，观点不鲜明、不清晰、不全面、不准确等。

(二)政策体系方面:与上级政策相悖，与有关政策不衔接或政策不配套，政策界限模糊、失度等。

(三)文字材料方面:篇幅冗长、布局不合理、标题大而空、 典型不鲜明等。

(四)文面要求方面:行文不规范。

五、领导讲话稿修改的具体方法

(一)集体修改领导讲话稿的具体操作方法:边读边改法、 读后修改法、综合整理书面意见法、现场听取意见法等。

(二)个人修改领导讲话稿的具体操作方法:抓住重点深入 思考与推敲的多思法、反复阅读修改法、请人指正法等。

怎么写好应用文?下面是小编整理的应用文写作基础，欢迎查看。

一、结构的含义和作用

1.掌握结构的含义应用文的结构，是运用材料以表现主题的有序安排，是客观事物条理性在文章中的反映，为文章的组织形式和内部构造。文章的结构具有两重含义：一是宏观结构，即文章的总体构思、大体框架;二是微观结构，即对文章的层次、段落、开头、结尾、过渡、照应和主次的具体设计。

2.了解结构的作用结构好比文章的骨架，是安排文章的具体形式，是将材料化为文章的手段之二。结构是表现主题的手段，是准确表达主题的必由之路，也是引导读者领会文章思想内容的向导。写文章只有找到恰当完美的结构形式，才能把主题和材料组合在一起，形成一个完美有机的整体。其作用具体表现在：

(1)使文章言之有体。应用文大多有较固定的结构形态，它是人们在长期写作实践中经过选择，逐步找到的最适合表现某种内容的最佳形式，也称之为“程式”。如简报、书信和行政公文类文书，具有相当固定的惯用格式。

(2)使文章言之有序。合理安排文章结构，就是根据一定的思路，将零散的材料组织起来，使之眉目清楚地成为一个有机的整体。

(3)使文章言之有文。精心安排文章结构，可以增加文章的文采，从而增强其可读性。

二、安排结构的条件

1.了解思路的含义及思路与结构的关系

在文章结构的两重含义中，总体构思是具体设计的前提和基础。总体构思也就是人们常说的“言有序”，是指对材料的安排要有次序，这体现了作者的思路。思路是安排结构的条件。

1、思路的含义

思路是作者思维活动的路线，是作者在头脑中梳理、组织内容材料的过程和结果。它是作者对客观事物自身条理性的观察、理解。

作者思路清晰，结构必然有条不紊;作者思路不清晰，结构必然紊乱。经过选择的材料，只有经过合理的组织安排，使之条理化、系统化，组成一个有机的整体，才能准确鲜明地表现既定的主题。

2、思路与结构的关系

在写作构思阶段，作者的思维活动异常活跃。确立主题，选择好材料，并进而考虑如何表达主题和如何安排材料，由此逐渐形成一条清晰、连贯、独到的思维活动路线——思路。此时，文章的大体框架已在作者的头脑中“闪现”出来。等到作者用书面语言把思路表达出来时，文章的结构也就具体安排好了。因此，作者思路与文章结构的关系极为密切。具体表现为以下三点：

(1)思路是形成结构的基础和内核。结构是文章最主要的表现形式。要使结构完整、严谨、匀称，动笔前，就需要作者匠心独运，形成清晰、连贯并具独创性的思路，进而“外化”成纲目清晰、严谨周密的结构。但是，文章反映客观事物，决不是对其原始形态的简单搬抄和复制，而是在符合客观事物发展规律基础上的主观创造。因此，不同的作者。不同的文体有不同的思路。思路开阔而有创见，文章的结构就新颖独特;思路狭窄而落俗，会使文章的结构板滞僵死;思路紊乱，文章的条理就必然不清;思路松散，文章的结构就不可能严密紧凑。

(2)结构是思路的体现和反映。结构是思路的外显形式和文字载体。思路严密清晰，文章结构才能完整、严谨、清晰，主题才能得以准确地表达;思路紊乱、疏漏和闭塞，文章则会逻辑混乱、言而无序、首尾不能圆合。

3.了解锻炼思路的基本要求及锻炼思路的方法

(1)注意思路的条理性和逻辑性，使之清晰、周密、连贯。清晰，指展开思路要有顺序、有层次，同时对材料要加以区分和归类。周密，指思路要周到、严密，没有疏漏和缺损，不要顾此失彼，自相矛盾。连贯，指思维活动过程及其表达不仅要注意外在的次序，而且要处理好各个意思之间存在的衔接、并列、转折、因果、总分等内在联系，做到气脉贯通、流畅。

(2)注意思路的灵活性、独创性，使之活跃、开阔、敏捷。活跃与开阔，是指思路的开展要打破思维定势，进行多向探索，使之灵活、新颖而富有个性。敏捷是指思路的展开、梳理直至成型这一过程应该灵敏、迅速，使文章结构紧凑、气势流转而顺畅。

(3)养成良好的思维习惯。一是养成有序思考问题的习惯，由浅入深、由表及里、由此及彼。二是加强逻辑思维能力的训练。应用写作主要靠逻辑思维，要遵循“提出问题——分析问题——解决问题”这一认识规律。

(4)写作前要通盘思考，立足于写作意图、目的和所用文体特点，确定如何起笔，主体分几个部分展开，怎样收尾。

以下是《九年级英语作文:我和哥哥的历险记》翻译。

It was sunny that day. Our parents were out, so there were only my brother and me at home. We were bored. So we decided to go boating. We played happily. But when we went to the middle of the river, the weather changed. It rained suddenly. We didn t bring umbrella and our boat was bamboo raft. As the rain was more and heavier, we were afraid to sink in the river. We tried our best to make our boat in shore. But our bamboo raft had more water on it. I was afraid to die. My brother was also very anxious. At that time, my mother came and she pulled us back to the ground. It was thrilling.

那是一个晴天。我们的父母都出去了，所以只有我和哥哥在家。我们很无聊。所以我们决定去划船。我们玩的很开心。但当我们走到河中央时，天气变了。突然下起雨来。我们没带伞，而且我们的船还竹排。由于雨越来越大，我们担心会沉到河里去。我们尽力使我们的船靠岸。但是竹筏上的水越来越多。我害怕死了。我哥哥也很着急。那时，我妈妈来了来了，她把我们拉回到地面。真的惊心动魄啊。

下面是由语文迷网小编精心为大家整理的高考英语写作基本原则，希望对你有帮助。

一、 长 短 句原则

工作还得一张一弛呢，老让读者读长句，累死人!写一个短小精辟的句子，相反，却可以起到画龙点睛的作用。而且如果我们把短句放在段首或者段末，也可以揭示主题：

As a creature, I eat; as a man, I read. Although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy the intellectual need of mind, they are in a way quite similar.

如此可见，长短句结合，抑扬顿挫，岂不爽哉?牢记!

强烈建议：在文章第一段(开头)用一长一短，且先长后短;在文章主体部分，要先用一个短句解释主要意思，然后在阐述几个要点的时候采用先短后长的句群形式，定会让主体部分妙笔生辉!文章结尾一般用一长一短就可以了。

二、 主 题 句原则

国有其君，家有其主，文章也要有其主。否则会给人造成“群龙无首”之感!相信各位读过一些破烂文学，故意把主体隐藏在文章之内，结果造成我们稀里糊涂!不知所云!所以奉劝各位一定要写一个主题句，放在文章的开头(保险型)或者结尾，让读者一目了然，必会平安无事!

特别提示：隐藏主体句可是要冒险的!

To begin with, you must work hard at your lessons and be fully prepared before the exam(主题句). Without sufficient preparation, you can hardly expect to answer all the questions correctly.

三、 一 二 三原则

领导讲话总是第一部分、第一点、第二点、第三点、第二部分、第一点… 如此罗嗦。可毕竟还是条理清楚。考官们看文章也必然要通过这些关键性的“标签”来判定你的文章是否结构清楚，条理自然。破解方法很简单，只要把下面任何一组的词汇加入到你的几个要点前就清楚了。

1)first, second, third, last(不推荐，原因：俗)

2)firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally(不推荐，原因：俗)

3)the first, the second, the third, the last(不推荐，原因：俗)

4)in the first place, in the second place, in the third place, lastly(不推荐，原因：俗)

5)to begin with, then, furthermore, finally(强烈推荐)

6)to start with, next, in addition, finally(强烈推荐)

7)first and foremost, besides, last but not least(强烈推荐)

8)most important of all, moreover, finally

9)on the one hand, on the other hand(适用于两点的情况)

10)for one thing, for another thing(适用于两点的情况)

建议：不仅仅在写作中注意，平时说话的时候也应该条理清楚!

四、 短语优先原则

写作时，尤其是在考试时，如果使用短语，有两个好处：其一、用短语会使文章增加亮点，如果老师们看到你的文章太简单，看不到一个自己不认识的短语，必然会看你低一等。相反，如果发现亮点—精彩的短语，那么你的文章定会得高分了。其二、关键时刻思维短路，只有凑字数，怎么办?用短语是一个办法!比如：

I cannot bear it.

可以用短语表达：I cannot put up with it.

I want it.

可以用短语表达：I am looking forward to it.

这样字数明显增加，表达也更准确。

五、 多实少虚原则

原因很简单，写文章还是应该写一些实际的东西，不要空话连篇。这就要求一定要多用实词，少用虚词。我这里所说的虚词就是指那些比较大的词。比

我们说一个很好的时候，不应该之说nice这样空洞的词，应该使用一些诸如generous, humorous, interesting, smart, gentle, warm-hearted, hospital 之类的形象词。再比如：

走出房间，general的词是：Walk out of the room

但是小偷走出房间应该说：Slip out of the room

小姐走出房间应该说：Sail out of the room

小孩走出房间应该说：Dance out of the room

老人走出房间应该说：Stagger out of the room

所以多用实词，少用虚词，文章将会大放异彩!

六、 多变句式原则

1)加法(串联)

都希望写下很长的句子，像个老外似的，可就是怕写错，怎么办，最保险的写长句的方法就是这些，可以在任何句子之间加and, 但最好是前后的句子又先后关系或者并列关系。比如说：

I encore music and he is fond of playing guitar.

如果是二者并列的，我们可以用一个超级句式：

Not only the fur coat is soft, but it is also warm.

其它的短语可以用：

Besides, furthermore, likewise, moreover

2)转折(拐弯抹角)

批评某人缺点的时候，我们总习惯先拐弯抹角说说他的优点，然后转入正题，再说缺点，这种方式虽然阴险了点，可毕竟还比较容易让人接受。所以呢，我们说话的时候，只要在要点之前先来点废话，注意二者之间用个专这次就够了。

The car was quite old, yet it was in excellent condition.

The coat was thin, but it was warm.

更多的短语：

Despite that, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, notwithstanding

3)因果(so, so, so)

昨天在街上我看到了一个女孩，然后我主动搭讪，然后我们去咖啡厅，然后我们认识了，然后我们成为了朋友…可见，讲故事的时候我们总要追求先后顺序，先什么，后什么，所以然后这个词就变得很常见了。其实这个词表示的是先后或因果关系!

The snow began to fall, so we went home.

更多短语：

Then, therefore, consequently, accordingly, hence, as a result, for this reason, so that

4)失衡句(头重脚轻，或者头轻脚重)

有些人脑袋大，身体小，或者有些人脑袋小，身体大，虽然我们不希望长成这个样子，可如果真的是这样了，也就必然会吸引别人的注意力。文章中如果出现这样的句子，就更会让考官看到你的句子与众不同。其实就是主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句的变形。

举例：This is what I can do.

Whether he can go with us or not is not sure.

同样主语、宾语、表语可以改成如下的复杂成分：

When to go, why he goes away…

5)附加(多此一举)

如果有了老婆，总会遇到这样的情况，当你再讲某个人的时候，她会插一句说，我昨天见过他;或者说，就是某某某，如果把老婆的话插入到我们的话里面，那就是定语从句和同位语从句或者是插入语。

The man whom you met yesterday is a friend of mine.

I don’t enjoy that book you are reading.

Mir liu, our oral English teacher, is easy-going.

其实很简单，同位语--要解释的东西删除后不影响整个句子的构成;定语从句—借用之前的关键词并且用其重新组成一个句子插入其中，但是whom or that 关键词必须要紧跟在先行词之前。

6)排比(排山倒海句)

文学作品中最吸引人的地方莫过于此，如果非要让你的文章更加精彩的话，那么我希望你引用一个个的排比句，一个个得对偶句，一个个的不定式，一个个地词，一个个的短语，如此表达将会使文章有排山倒海之势!

Whether your tastes are modern or traditional, sophisticated or simple, there is plenty in London for you.

Nowadays, energy can be obtained through various sources such as oil, coal, natural gas, solar heat, the wind and ocean tides.

We have got to study hard, to enlarge our scope of knowledge, to realize our potentials and to pay for our life. (气势恢宏)

要想写出如此气势恢宏的句子非用排比不可!

七、 挑战极限原则

既然十挑战极限，必然是比较难的，但是并非不可攀!

原理：在学生的文章中，很少发现诸如独立主格的句子，其实也很简单，只要花上5分钟的时间看看就可以领会，它就是分词的一种特殊形式，分词要求主语一致，而独立主格则不然。比如：

The weather being fine, a large number of people went to climb the Western Hills.

Africa is the second largest continent, its size being about three times that of China.

如果您可一些出这样的句子，不得高分才怪!

导语：中学经常接触到三种题材的写作，分别是记叙文，说明文，议论文，下面小编带来三种文体的知识口诀，一起来看看吧!

一、记叙文知识点

时间地点和人物，主要人物中心定;(中心：中心思想)

起因经过和结果，记叙要素要分清;

记叙顺序有四种，顺插倒补看事情;(顺插倒补：顺叙、插叙、倒叙、补叙)

第一人称以我写，局外人写三人称;

表达方式有五种，叙议抒描和说明;(叙议抒描：记叙、议论、抒情、描写)

人物描写有四种，肖像动作和言心;(言心：语言描写和心理活动描写)

环境描写记分明，社会自然要分清;

记叙文体多线索，时空物人和感情;(时空物人：时间、空间、事物和人物)

抑扬对比和陪衬，象征手法加拟人。(抑扬：先抑后扬和先扬后抑;手法：写作手法)

二、说明文知识点

给人知识说明文，介绍事物阐事理;

基本要求抓特征，多用方法来表意;(特征：事物的特征;方法：说明方法)

图表数字和举例，诠释分类下定义;(画图表、列数字、举例子、作诠释、分类别)

还有比较和比方，阅读写作要注意;(作比较、打比方)

说明顺序只三种，时间空间和逻辑;

说明语言要准确，简洁平实求浅易;

总分并列和递进，说明结构细分析。(总分：包括总分关系、总分总关系和分总关系)

三、议论文知识点

表明观点和主张，以理服人议论文;

观点态度要鲜明，论据一定要充分;

例证引证和喻证，对比论证要分明;(四种论证方法)

提出问题是引证，分析问题即本论;

解决问题是结论，议论结构须分清;

议论语言要准确，更是要求严密性。

引言：培养小学生的英语写作能力,应从培养良好的书写习惯、扎实的词汇句型开始。接下来小编给各位读者总结了一些小学英语写作必备句型，希望大家认真打好基础，不断提高写作水平。

一、~~~ the + ~ est + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)~~~ the most + 形容词 + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

例句：Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

海伦是我所看过最美丽的女孩。

Mr. Chang is the kindest teacher that I have ever had.

张老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。

二、Nothing is + ~~~ er than to + V

Nothing is + more + 形容词 + than to + V

例句：Nothing is more important than to receive education.

没有比接受教育更重要的事。

三、~~~ cannot emphasize the importance of ~~~ too much.

(再怎么强调…的重要性也不为过小学英语写作必备句型小学英语写作必备句型。)

例句：We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。

四、There is no denying that + S + V …(不可否认的…)

例句：There is no denying that the qualities of our living have gone from bad to worse.

不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。

五、It is universally acknowledged that + 句子~~ (全世界都知道…)

例句：It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable to us.

全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。

六、There is no doubt that + 句子~~ (毫无疑问的…)

例句：There is no doubt that our educational system leaves something to be desired.

毫无疑问的我们的教育制度令人不满意。

七、An advantage of ~~~ is that + 句子(…的优点是…)

例句：An advantage of using the solar energy is that it won’t create (produce) any pollution.

使用太阳能的优点是它不会制造任何污染。

八、The reason why + 句子 ~~~ is that + 句子(…的原因是…)

例句：The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air.

The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can supply fresh air for us.

我们必须种树的原因是它们能供应我们新鲜的空气。

规范英语论文的格式,使之与国际学术惯例接轨,对从事英语教学,英语论文写作,促进国际学术交流都具有重要意义。下面是小编为你带来的关于英语论文的写作格式和规范，希望对你有帮助。

一、英语论文的标题

一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:Dr./Prof.C.Prager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English 734或British Novel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需double space,即隔行打印,行距约为0.6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。

就学生而言,如果英语论文篇幅较短,亦可不做标题页(及提纲页),而将标题页的内容打在正文第一页的左上方。第一行为作者姓名,与打印纸顶端距离约为2.5cm,以下各行依次为教师学衔和姓、课程编号(或名称)及日期;各行左边上下对齐,并留出2.5cm左右的页边空白(下同)。接下来便是论文标题及正文(日期与标题之间及标题与正文第一行之间只需隔行打印,不必留出更多空白)。

二、英语论文提纲

英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为2.5cm左右)的始端打上 Thesis 一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母;处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。

三、英语论文正文

有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约1.5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码;阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。

四、英语论文的文中引述

正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节;既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式 (即英语论文参考文献)的规范性。引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。目前美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。现针对文中引述的不同情况,将部分规范格式分述如下。

1.若引文不足三行,则可将引文有机地融合在论文中。如:

The divorce of Arnolds personal desire from his inheritance results in “the familiar picture of Victorian man alone in an alien universe”(Roper9).

这里,圆括弧中的Roper为引文作者的姓(不必注出全名);阿拉伯数字为引文出处的页码(不要写成p.9);作者姓与页码之间需空一格,但不需任何标点符号;句号应置于第二个圆括弧后。

2.被引述的文字如果超过三行,则应将引文与论文文字分开,如下例所示:

Whitman has proved himself an eminent democratic representative and precursor, and his “Democratic Vistas”

is an admirable and characteristic

diatribe. And if one is sorry that in it

Whitman is unable to conceive the

extreme crises of society, one is certain

that no society would be tolerable whoses

citizens could not find refreshment in its

buoyant democratic idealism.(Chase 165)

这里的格式有两点要加以注意。一是引文各行距英语论文的左边第一个字母十个空格,即应从第十一格打起;二是引文不需加引号,末尾的句号应标在最后一个词后。

3.如需在引文中插注,对某些词语加以解释,则要使用方括号(不可用圆括弧)。如:

Dr.Beaman points out that“he [Charles Darw in] has been an important factor in the debate between evolutionary theory and biblical creationism”(9).

值得注意的是,本例中引文作者的姓已出现在引导句中,故圆括弧中只需注明引文出处的页码即可。

4.如果拟引用的文字中有与论文无关的词语需要删除,则需用省略号。如果省略号出现在引文中则用三个点,如出现在引文末,则用四个点,最后一点表示句号,置于第二个圆括弧后(一般说来,应避免在引文开头使用省略号);点与字母之间,或点与点之间都需空一格。如:

Mary Shelley hated tyranny and“looked upon the poor as pathetic victims of the social system and upon the rich and highborn...with undisguised scorn and contempt...(Nitchie 43).

5.若引文出自一部多卷书,除注明作者姓和页码外,还需注明卷号。如:

Professor Chen Jias A History of English Literature aimed to give Chinese readers“a historical survey of English literature from its earliest beginnings down to the 20thcentury”(Chen,1:i).

圆括弧里的1为卷号,小写罗马数字i为页码,说明引文出自第1卷序言(引言、序言、导言等多使用小写的罗马数字标明页码)。此外,书名A History of English Literature 下划了线;规范的格式是:书名,包括以成书形式出版的作品名(如《失乐园》)均需划线,或用斜体字;其他作品,如诗歌、散文、短篇小说等的标题则以双引号标出,如“To Autumn”及前面出现的“Democratic Vistas”等。

6.如果英语论文中引用了同一作者的两篇或两篇以上的作品,除注明引文作者及页码外,还要注明作品名。如:

Bacon condemned Platoas“an obstacle to science”(Farrington, Philosophy 35).

Farrington points out that Aristotles father Nicomachus, a physician, probably trained his son in medicine(Aristotle15).

这两个例子分别引用了Farrington的两部著作,故在各自的圆括弧中分别注出所引用的书名,以免混淆。两部作品名均为缩写形式(如书名太长,在圆括弧中加以注明时均需使用缩写形式),其全名分别为Founder of Scientific Philosophy 及 The Philosophy of Francis Baconand Aristotle。

7.评析诗歌常需引用原诗句,其引用格式如下例所示。

When Beowulf dives upwards through the water and reaches the surface,“The surging waves, great tracts of water, / were all cleansed...”(1.1620-21).

这里,被引用的诗句以斜线号隔开,斜线号与前后字母及标点符号间均需空一格;圆括弧中小写的1是line的缩写;21不必写成1621。如果引用的诗句超过三行,仍需将引用的诗句与论文文字分开(参见第四项第2点内容)。

五、英语论文的文献目录

论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为 Works Cited, 其格式须注意下列几点:

1.目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。

2.目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码;如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码(但必须计算页数),其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。标题Works Cited与打印纸顶端的距离约为2.5cm,与第一条目中第一行的距离仍为0.6cm;各条目之间及各行之间的距离亦为0.6cm,不必留出更多空白。

3.各条目内容顺序分别为作者姓、名、作品名、出版社名称、出版地、出版年份及起止页码等;各条目应严格按各作者姓的首字母顺序排列,但不要给各条目编码,也不必将书条与杂志、期刊等条目分列。

4.各条目第一行需顶格打印,回行时均需缩进五格,以将该条目与其他条目区分开来。

现将部分较为特殊的条目分列如下,并略加说明,供读者参考。

Two or More Books by the Same Author

Brooks, Cleanth. Fundamentals of Good Writing: A

Handbook of Modern Rhetoric. NewYork: Harcourt, 1950.

---The Hidden God: Studies in Hemingway, Faulkner, Yeats,

Eliot, and Warren. New Haven: Yale UP,1963.

引用同一作者的多部著作,只需在第一条目中注明该作者姓名,余下各条目则以三条连字符及一句点代替该作者姓名;各条目须按书名的第一个词(冠词除外)的字母顺序排列。

An Author with an Editor

Shake speare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. Ed. Louis B.

Wright. New York: Washington Square, 1959.

本条目将作者 Shakespeare 的姓名排在前面,而将编者姓名(不颠倒)放在后面,表明引文出自 The Tragedy of Macbeth;如果引文出自编者写的序言、导言等,则需将编者姓名置前,如:

Blackmur, Richard P.Introduction. The Art of the Novel:

Critical Prefaces. By Henry James. New York: Scribners,

1962.vii-xxxix.

如果引言与著作为同一人所写,则其格式如下例所示(By后只需注明作者姓即可):

Emery, Donald. Preface. English Fundamentals. By Emery.

London: Macmillan, 1972.v-vi.

A Multivolume Work

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. 4 vols. London: Faber, 1928.

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. Vol.2. London: Faber, 1928. 4 vols.

第一条目表明该著作共4卷,而论文作者使用了各卷内容;第二条目则表明论文作者只使用了第2卷中的内容。

A Selection from an Anthology

Abram, M. H.“English Romanticism: The Spirit of the Age.”

Romanticism Reconsidered. Ed. Northrop Frye. New

York: Columbia UP,1963.63-88.

被引用的英语论文名须用引号标出,并注意将英语论文名后的句点置于引号内。条目末尾必须注明该文在选集中的起止页码。

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers

Otto, Mary L.“Child Abuse: Group Treatment for Parents.”

Personnel and Guidance Journal 62(1984): 336-48.

报刊杂志名需划线,但其后不需任何标点符号。62为卷号或期号,如既有卷号,又有期号,则要将二者以句号分开。如:(3.3);1984为出版年份,应置于圆括弧中。

Arnold, Marilgn.“Willa Cathers Nostalgia: A Study in

Ambivalance.”Research Studies Mar.1981:23-24,28.

月刊或双月刊须同时注明出版年月;23-24,28表示该文的前一部分刊于第23和24两页,后一部分则转至第28页。

Gorney, Cynthia.“When the Gorilla Speaks.”Washington Post

31 July,1985:B1.

引用日报上的英语论文必须同时注明报纸出版的年、月、日。B1为该文在报纸中的版面及页码。参考文献(略)(摘自《外语与外语教学》1999年第8期，原文：“英语论文写作规范”作者 刘新民)

一、结合工作撰写新闻稿件的意义

平常我们经常说，新闻写作是“七分看问题三分写稿件”。比方说，写今天培训班的稿件，就得先搞明白，为什么要办这个班，是因为存在什么问题要解决什么问题才办这个班。于是，我们就可以这样写了：为了提高各级干部的综合业务素质，石景山区人口计生委办了一期培训班。如果面对每一件事情，大家都能够按照撰写新闻稿件的习惯去想，这件事为什么要做，是因为存在什么样的问题才要做，怎么样做才能达到目的、有效果，这种思维习惯养成后，分析问题、解决问题的能力肯定能够增强。

其次，结合工作撰写新闻稿件，能够真实、及时、有效地反映工作成果。不论是一个单位还是一个人，一天到晚都在干工作，确实也做出了很多成绩，这些成绩如果能够通过新闻媒体反映出来，可能会得到很理想的效果。平时，某某报纸或电视报道了某某单位或个人的事迹后，我们就经常会听到这样的话：还不如我们做得好呢!这很可能不是一句狐狸吃不着葡萄说葡萄酸，而是真的是他们的工作做得比较被报道的要好，甚至是好很多。因此，在“酒香也怕巷子深”的信息时代里，如何把自己的工作宣传出去，确实是一件非常重要的事情。

第三，结合工作撰写新闻稿件，能够比较有效地调动工作积极性。平时我们在单位里，早上上班时遇到个人，女的遇到男的，说一句“XXX，你今天看起来好精神啊”、男的看到女的，来一句“啊呀，XXX，你今天又比昨天漂亮了、年轻了”。虽然人还是那个人，脸还是那张脸，而且还只有越来越老的可能。尽管大家都明白这个道理，但是这种“去年二十今年十八”的赞美，因为符合人心向善的逻辑规律，往往能够让大家都感到心情愉悦。而正面的新闻报道也同样有这样的功效。无论是被报道的人和单位，还是撰写新闻的人，都会有成就感在心头油然而生，无形中就有效调动了大家的工作积极性。有些社会效应大的典型报道，这方面的效应尤其明显。

第四，结合工作撰写新闻稿件，会对个人的成长进步形成直接的影响。从某种意义上说，撰写新闻稿件对作者的综合素质是有一定体现的。我不是说能写新闻稿件的都是比别人能力强的，而是指撰写新闻稿件需要作者有一定的查找问题、分析问题并提出解决问题方案的能力，具有较为扎实的文字基础，还要有较强的协调能力。我相信，如果我们在座的基层人口计生干部中出现这方面的人才，很可能就会得到重用。也许这也正是我们今天要开办这个培训班的目的之一吧。

从上述的四个方面看，虽然大家工作都很忙，但还是值得在百忙之中抽出一定的时间来撰写新闻稿件的。但是，有人也许会说，我们也不是不想搞报道，只是条件不充分，和专业的新闻记者没法比。但我却不这么认为，专业的新闻记者是有他的优势，比如时间、精力上比较集中，掌握了熟悉的技巧等等，但我们也有我们的优势，这种优势主要体现在二个方面，即两个知情。

二、基层干部撰写新闻稿件的优势

一是对工作重点、难点的知情。

在对工作的重点、难点的准确掌握上，基层干部所具有优势是专业新闻报道员难以比拟的。大家可能都接待过记者，或者看过记者采访，许多时候，如果没有精心准备，记者很容易问出一些让人啼笑皆非的问题来的。这叫外行看热闹，内行看门道。我们在座的领导们都是人口计生工作的专家能手，对什么是工作重点、难点，什么事情是一段时间内上级抓得紧的，都是了如指掌。这一点对于搞好新闻报道工作是一个非常重要的前提条件。我每次采访一个部门的工作，都必须先找一大资料看看，然后找熟悉工作的同志东扯西拉的请教，才能够确定从哪个角度入手来抓报道主题。在这个过程中，没少闹笑话。(举例：流管处的数据交换平台。)

二是对拟采访对象的知情。

不要说媒体的记者，就像我这样的宣传干部，每次到一个地方采访都是匆匆忙忙的。一方面是自己的时间比较紧，另一方面怕打搅被采访者。但是，不管是记者还是我这样的，大凡都有一个习惯，那就是采访得越细，问题问得越清楚越好。(举例：通州采访。)结合工作撰写新闻稿件，写的都是我们自己身边的人身边的事，人是自己朝夕相处的，工作是自己一滴滴汗水干出来的，写起来是信手拈来，驾驭自如。

只要我们能够充分发挥这两个优势，写出优秀的新闻稿件就肯定不是难事。这也是我为什么要将汇报的大题目称为“春江水暖鸭先知”的用意。

三、新闻写作的基本知识

(一)新闻的定义

掌握新闻稿件基本要素的目的是为了增强大家的选题能力，即让大家能够独立判断出什么样的工作或事件能够作为新闻报道的素材。

首先，什么是新闻?历来说法不一。新闻定义的争鸣伴随着新闻学的研究，已走过一个多世纪的路程。国内外众多资深新闻学专家和新闻工作者，给新闻下了170多种定义。

无论中外古今，公众认知、理解的新闻就是某种见闻。如果我们以属加种差的形式来给新闻这一概念下定义的话，见闻就是新闻的属概念。找到了属概念，使用内涵定义法就可以根据不同的种差，给出不同的定义，如从性质、发生原因、种属关系、功用等方面就可以列出下面一组基本定义。

1.性质定义：新闻是新近、新鲜、新奇的见闻。性质定义反映的是新闻的基本特性，即新近、新鲜、新奇，用一个字来概括即“新”。

2.发生定义：新闻是通过对新近、新鲜、新奇事物的感知而获得的见闻。发生定义是立足于新闻产生的方式来给新闻下定义的。这种方式就是人的感知形式。

3.关系定义：新闻与过时、陈腐、平淡的旧闻相对，是新近、新鲜、新奇的见闻。关系定义突出的是新闻与旧闻的关系，要表明的是前者和后者同归“见闻”一“属”，是同属中的两个不同“种”类。

4.功用定义：新闻是能够满足受者喜新好奇心理的新见闻。功用定义所表述的则是新闻的最基本的社会功用，而不是作为某种特定工具的特殊功用。

可以说，上述一组基本定义具有最广泛的概括性，能够正确地定位新闻的外延与内涵。

(二)新闻稿件应具备的几个基本要素

新闻稿件的基本要素之一：新闻事件具有能够满足读者好奇心的特征。

上学的时候，老师们说，资本主义国家的新闻定义通俗点讲，就是“狗咬人不是新闻，人咬狗是新闻”。老师讲完了，大家就在教室里哄堂大笑起来。现在想想，其实发生在我们身边的“人咬狗”式的新闻也很多。比如说，现在众多的媒体炒作、明星包装等等，你骂我，我骂你，似乎很热闹，但从实质意义上理解，与前面所说的“人咬狗是新闻”的调侃也差不了太多。这种现象说明了什么问题，我们在这里不能分析得太深刻了，否则就有可能出政治问题了。但是，之所以提起这些，是因为它充分说明了新闻选题的侧重点，就是应该在“创新特征”上下功夫。你想报道的事件它必须得有点新意，能够满足读者的好奇心理。

在我们现实工作中，我们可以把新闻性理解成工作中的创新性，即我们所做的工作是独一无二的，是可以让大家感到眼前一亮的。比如说，人口计生委搞了一个性科学教育基地，这对于性观念保守的中国社会来说，就是一件具有很强创新特征的工作。围绕这样的一个选题做文章，就非常符合新闻事件能够满足读者好奇的特征。

在北京的各家媒体中，社会新闻这一块，这样的稿件是占了绝对多数的。但是，在我们结合工作搞报道的过程中，这样的稿件却是相对较少的。

影视评论是艺术评论中一个重要组成部分，是根据某种思想原则和审美标准对影视艺术进行理性分析和科学评价的一种艺术研究活动。小编收集了影评的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

一、影视评论的含义及功能

(一)、影视评论的含义:

影视评论是艺术评论中一个重要组成部分，是根据某种思想原则和审美标准对影视艺术进行理性分析和科学评价的一种艺术研究活动。它以具体影片创作为其研究对象，评美审丑，褒优贬劣，探索揭示其成败得失的规律。正如苏轼的诗歌所说的“杜陵评书贵瘦硬，此论未公吾不凭。短长肥瘦各有态，玉环飞燕谁人憎。”

(二)、影评的功能及意义

(1)影视评论它能够阐释作品深刻意蕴，挖掘作品内在价值。

“一个批评家的职务就在于惹起作品与读者之间的反应。”——门肯〈美〉 导游意识

①正确阐释作品深刻意蕴。

“有思想有学术水平的评论家要力求向读者提供关于作者的技巧和目的的有益见解，导引读者去把握作品中富有意义和特别值得注意的那些元素。”——李R.波布克

②优秀影片本身是多义性的，模糊难传的，应该给作品以正确的价值评估,揭示或解释艺术品各种解释的可能性。层次感

③国情、民族欣赏心理不同造成的误读。包容、知识、审视

(2)引导鉴赏，培养和提高观众的审美趣味与艺术鉴赏水平。

(3)总结创作经验，探索艺术的发展规律，给艺术以正确的理论导向。

具体过程是，在考试时放映一部影片，然后要求考生当堂写一篇对该影片的评论文章。这是一项考查你综合素养的考试。要想写好一篇影评，不仅需要有较好的理解力，还需有较高的艺术修养;不仅要有一定的电影理论知识，还要对电影的创作情况有相当的了解。所以，“临时抱佛脚” 是不会有太大的效果的。

在考试的时候，你首先要学会如何看片子。比如：它的选材、主题立意、人物塑造、情节构思、结构设计、细节运用、环境选择等等方面有何特点?你没有必要将过多的注意力放在演员的表演、导演的手法或摄影的画面上。在看片子同时，一篇影评的主要内容应该己经在自己的脑海中形成了。如果看完了影片还没有什么想法，拿起笔来才开始构思，十有八九是要失败的。

二、影评的特征及内涵

1、与政治评论相比，突出审美判断。

文人之笔，劝善惩恶也。——王充〈〈论衡〉〉

书之载道，文以经世。——魏及翁 切忌把影评写成观后感，注重对电影的审美分析。

①、影视艺术反映生活有自己特殊的规律，影视批评也应遵照影视艺术美的规律和美的特征进行评论。它首先必须给人以美感，让观众在美的享受中潜移默化的得到陶冶。

②、影视评论不等同于从政治观念出发，把政治观念现行政策变成衡量艺术的唯一标准，用政治价值观念取代艺术真善美价值的综合，用对艺术的政治鉴定代替对艺术做出全面的审美判断。使艺术批评脱出美学范畴，把艺术的审美判断蜕变为政治评论。

③、真正的影评，作为一种艺术实践活动，应在审美上多做文章，在“寓”字上见功力，即寓教育于审美之中，寓娱乐认识于审美中。

2、与姊妹艺术评论相比，重画面语言分析

真正的影评是对银幕造型时空的认识，是对电影运动本性独特欣赏，是对电影色彩、音乐、剪辑的领会和完善。

“电影艺术的基础既然是视觉的形象的言语，那么电影艺术家应该用绘画的表象的方法，来表现和传达一切的感情和思想。” ——夏衍

论述方式：评是文的主体，叙评结合，评析结合。

叙事：来自电影的情节(打包举例)

评：拍得成功与否?--要用“专业、书面的语言”表述对电影的价值判断。

析：导演用了哪些艺术表现手法?(视听语言)

这些艺术手法分别起到什么样的作用?

对本片成功起到什么帮助性作用?

哪些镜头、场面是点睛之笔?做具体分析。具体化原则

3、①、评是剖析：所谓剖析就是对影片的画面构图、色彩、音乐、摄影、人物性格刻画、主题思想展示、艺术种种表现手法等诸种因素作用由浅及深的分析。

②、评是判断：也就是对作品的思想、流派及艺术家作出中肯的评价，或者肯定或者否定或者兼而有之。

③、评是选择：就是在影评中有所侧重的进行分析，避免“看似面面俱到，实则空洞无聊”的问题。立意要单一，小而精，不要大而全。什么都写，什么都写不深刻，流于表面、蜻蜓点水，必败。

④、评是创造：评论是一种独立的具有自我价值的创造性劳动，它要挖掘作品的内在价值，赋与作品未完成的艺术形象的新创造。“六度创作”

第三节 影评写作的基本要求

一、先有所感悟，后发而为文

有所感悟是写作的动因，也是写作的首要条件。这种“感觉点”就是思想和感情引起的触动、感觉和领悟，乃至强烈的共鸣触发点。古人云：“景乃诗之胚，情乃诗之媒”。做一个热爱生活的人。

“影片在什么地方激动你，或者相反，使人不耐烦甚至毛骨悚然，这些鲜明之处不要轻易错过，如相信自己感情是真实的，就把它当作一滴墨水滴在白纸上，让它慢慢湮开去，由实而虚，讲出点道理来。”——钟惦棐

1、“感”并不是观后感。有很多初学者仅仅在评论文章中描写自己看完电影后的内心感受，没有什么分析更没有什么评论和见解。当然就不会在考试中有竞争力，因为不够深刻。要立论与分析相结合，叙述与评论相结合。

2、感觉点要准。有很多影片从主题意蕴到人物性格都是丰富变化的，当考生在考场上面对一部陌生的影片时，慌忙中随意拼凑自己的文章，这绝对不可取。要抓住影片的“母题”所在，要有所选择的写作。

二、新颖的角度，独特的构思

1、文章要有立意和角度。

所谓立意，即文章的评论对象及作者对该评论对象所持的见解和观点。杜牧在《答庄充书》中这样说道：“意，犹帅也，无帅之兵，谓之乌合。凡为文以意为主，以气为辅，以辞彩章句为之兵卫。”可见文章立意的重要性。角度就是给所表现的事物选择一个最理想的着眼点和突破点。回扣主题。

2、立意要新颖，要勇于探索和创新。

“人所易言，我寡言之;人所难言，我易言之，自不俗”——姜夔《白石诗话》

“学诗先除五俗，一曰俗体，二曰俗意，三曰俗句，四曰俗字，五曰俗韵”——严羽《沧浪诗话》

所以，要抓住读者的注意力就要在新奇上做文章。

3、角度要小，立意要单一集中。

从电影的基本元素中选择你所最感兴趣的，最具有表达力的切入点。从主题、镜头、画面、人物、光色、声音等等角度中选择一个最有审美意义的角度，立意要集中，不可盲目强调面面俱到。

三、结构严谨，起落有致

1、结构要严谨。

国学大师王国维先生曾经这样说过：“一切优美皆形式之美也。就美之自身言之，则一切优美皆存在于形式之对称、变化及调和。”可见，结构严密、整齐、有序，有体式、有质感。影评文章也要在行文上注意段落层次和行文逻辑。

2、结构要错落有致+详略得当。

夏衍在其作品《夏衍论创作》中谈到“没有波澜、没有曲折、没有起伏，正象一座房屋、一个园林，一进门就可以一览无余，这是文章的大忌。” 评“悬念”。因此，面对创作性的评论文章，一定要在谋篇布局中下心思。可以尝试小标题的巧妙运用，但是不提倡“首先，其次，再次，最后” 、“一，二，三，四”等粗俗的分层方法。

第四节 正文行文写作超级思路

1分层分段：首先写出几个小标题

2每层(分论点)：观点、理论、案例、论证

⑴观点：中心句(得分意识)

⑵理论：引用名言、名家理论、课本理论

⑶案例：来自剧情、打包举例

⑷论证：感 析 评 论

①感：感想，感性的思想，与电影有关，基调是理性的(观众)。

②析：分析，即现象到本质、个体到整体、分析到综合

what(2-3个视听段落)

which

how 《常用词汇》

③评：评论角度主要有

A观众的心声——看片体会

B笔者——电影本身

C专家、大师的“权威评论”

——价值(商业 审美 社会)、地位、流派、导演风格、哲学+美学+心理学

④论：论电影的本体，“电影拍得好不好”，而不是论电影讲述的“故事”或者“人物”。

3注意过渡：过渡句、过渡段。

4排列段落的“逻辑顺序”：先后、因果、并列、顺承、递进、转折、总分、……也写成“小标题”的形式。

5层次之间的关系：1最好是“递进”，“顺承”也可以，最低级写“并列”。

2“层次字数长度、论证方式、语言特点”要相似，有整体性。

3运用连词连接段落

6注意回扣主题：主题：影评的中心论点(副标)

1重复，在不同的段落中多次写“主题词”。

2使用近义词、变形词，变相回扣主题。

3引用名家的名言，权威回扣主题。

4侧面回扣主题，用观众反映说话。

7注意标点： ， 。 ? ! ……

《》 ： A;B;C ( ) A、B、C、D A-B-C

8独词、独句成段：可以作为“过渡句”、“分界线”、“点题，升华主题的句子”2/3、3/5处

9转折段：常见的有“感情荒漠化”、“细节处理不到位”、“人物塑造不生动”、“剧情不合逻辑”、“硬伤”。

10行文总结段：电影的真谛……→人性……→人文关怀、人文气息、人文情怀……→普世价值。共鸣

(五)结尾点题

如果说整篇影片评论文章有题目、副标、题引、正文(开头、分层论述、批判如：情感荒漠化)、结尾、后记等构成元素的话，一定要在文章的结尾部分强调自己的观点或抒发内心最真挚的情感。当然，也要注意语言和辞藻的生动和层次的递进，从而达到

① 总结全文，②深化文章主题(副标)，③发出呼吁(多拍像这样的好电影)，④引导审美方向(导演风格、艺术特色)，⑤提升到“人性”、“人文关怀”、“普世价值”的高度的目的。

《手机》：人际关系冷漠---信任危机—社会问题—电影关注现实当下人的生存状态—人文关怀

一、记叙文的概念和特点

[记叙文的概念]

记叙文,是叙述、描写人物、事件、景物的文章。

即通过人物的言行、事情的经过,来表达一定的中心思想。

或者说,记叙文是通过记叙人物、事件,来表明作者思想感情的一种文体。

记叙文不是狭义的文体概念,它是泛指以叙述、描写为主的写人、记事、写景、状物等文章。写人、记事、摹景、状物均属广义的记叙,以这些表达方式为主的文章,叫记叙文。

[ 记叙文的特点]

1、以人、事、物、景为写作对象;

2、以叙述、描写为主要表达方式;

3、通过对事物的描述,用来反映现实生活，表达作者的思想感情。

4、记叙文的主题,一般是通过对人事物的描述表现出来煌,而不是由作直接讲出来的。

二、记叙文的类型

A、一般来说, 记叙文分为两种：

第一种是“简单记叙文”：只记一人一事,篇幅比较短小;

另一种是“复杂记叙文”：所记的人和事件,不限于一个或一件;写作方法也比较复杂。

记叙文包括范围很广 ，童话、故事、散文、游记、参观记、消息、通讯、报告文学、人物传记、回忆录、家史、短篇小说、长篇小说，都属于记叙文的范畴。

B、记叙文本身也较复杂，它又可公为四种类型：

写人、记事、写景、状物。

写人、记事,只是侧重不同,二者密不可分。写人要叙事;记事要有人。只是人、事在不同的文章里描述的程度不同：

写景、状物有密切关系,其实质是咏物抒情，“情景作文”是二者合一之体现。景也是物(是有观赏价值的物),关键在“情”,然“情”之依托物,乃景、物及表达方式(叙述、描写、议论等)。

三、记叙文的表达方式

记叙文的主要表达方式是记叙和描写，但它并不排斥议论、说明和抒情。

复杂的记叙文,往往是叙述、描写、议论、和抒情相互结合。

为什么会这样来表达呢?

1、因为在记叙文中,所写的人、所记的事、所描摹的事物,总要有作者的看法,总要表达自已的感情。

这种对人或事物发表看法,进行评论——这就是“议论”;

这种对人或事物,表达自已的爱憎感情——这就叫“抒情”。

2、一篇好的记叙文,,不能单纯叙述、描写,而要在叙述、描写过程中,夹以议论、抒情。

3、写记叙文 ,除了运用主要表达方式(记叙和描写)外 ,为了突出形象、加深主题,常常用到到议论、抒情和说明;但议论、抒情应恰到好处使文章更形象生动,更富有感染力,起到画龙点睛的作用。

从上述可见：叙述、描写——是记叙文的主要表达方式;

议论、抒情——是记叙文常用的表达方式。

四、记叙文的“六要素”

1、记叙文的“六要素”

所谓“六要素”,就是人物、时间、地点、事件发生的原因、经过、结果。

任何一篇完整的记叙文字，都不能缺少其中任何一项,否则,叙述就会出现疑窦,出现悬念;或者有头无尾，线索中断;或者来路不明,无中生有。

2、记叙文的“六要素”也是叙述、记事的“六要素”。

3、怎样理解 “六要素”?

因为一件事情,都要发生在一定的时间、一定的环境(地点)里，有一定的人物参加。凡事情都有其起因(原因)、经过、结果。这些都是写记叙文的主要内容,必须写具体,重点内容要写详细、写充实,才能达到一篇记叙文的写作目的。

要想把一件事情说清楚,只有将与这事情有关的主要因素,交代清楚,就能把这个故事(事情、事件),即文章,显得完整、有条理。

也只有把六要素,交代清楚了,才能更好地表现主题思想。

在文章中,如何处理 “六要素”呢?

——要根据文章的实际情况，灵活地加以运用。

A、用三个“要素”,就能写成文章。

写一篇文章,对所写的人物、事件，都要有所侧重。只要能抓住其中三个要素,就可以写出一篇好篇文章。

在“六要素”中,时间、地点是最主要的要素。

因为 ,一切事物都存在一定的时间、地点(空间)里;一切事物又都是在一定的时间、空间内发生，发展，进行演变的。

所以, 时间、地点,必须交代清楚(交代即可,不等要详写)。

在一篇文章里,只要抓住不同的时间、地点的变化,就能突出典型环境、典型人物,就能写同很有特色的记叙文章来。

B、“六要素”的位置。

时间、地点——通常在文章前面作简要交化;

人物——随事件发展,陆续登场;

吸引人结果——作倒叙方法描述;

还可以最后交代原因——以作悬念。

C、有时,有的要素,可不用出现。

“六要素”,是否在文中都得出现?——这要从实际情况而定。

若,时间、地点，是人所共知的;或由其他之描述也能反映出来的;或不交代也没有多大影响的要素——则可省略不写。

如果事件的结果是显而易见的——结局可以不写,以给人留下回味之余地。

D、以时间为例,看“六要素”的交代方法可灵活多样。

□ 一般的交代：

×年×月×日

早晨、中午、傍晚

○ 代替法：

通过“太阳升起来了”、“烈日当空”、“夕阳西下”“夜幕降临”、“天边染上了红霞”等来代替时间的变化。

◎ 精确到：

时、分、秒

※ 大概：

“以前”、“古时候”、“前不久”、“最近”。

五、记叙文的写作要略

(一)、定要素

记叙文的写作,要从三个方面入手：

定要素;

搭架子;

会表达。

【定要素】

[相同点]

时间、地点——这是写文章的共同要素，一般都应写入文章。

[不同点]

一是,对人物和事件,在每篇目文章里的“侧重点”不同,所以各类文章的主体部分(主要内容)的重点内容也不同(或人、事、物、景)。

写人=时间+地点+人;

记事=时间+地点+事(原因、经过、结果);

写景=时间+地点+景(过去、现在、未来);

状物=时间+地点+物;

抒情=时间+地点+情(见景生情、睹物思人)。

(二)、搭架子

记叙文的写作,要从三个方面入手：

定要素;

搭架子;

会表达。

(二)、搭架子

搭架子——这是记文的结构安排问题。

开头——要简明、要点题。

中间——有“六定”：

1、定(分)段;

2、定各段详略;

3、定事——记一事或几事(一详,余略);

4、定人——写一人或几人(一主,余从);

5、定表达——以叙述为主，兼议论或抒情;;

6、定过渡、照应——使文章曲折、波澜。

结尾——要扣题;收束有力、发人深省、令人回味。

(三)、善表达

要善于运用各种表达方式，写好记叙文。

这就必须知道各种表达方式的作用和表现方法。这也是写作中的大事。

叙述、描写——是记叙文的主要表达方式;

[叙述]

叙述是作者对人物、事件、环境作一般交代和说明,不作细致刻画。

一般用在：具体情节，事情因、果、经过的叙述。

[描写]

描写是对人物、事件、环境所作的绘声绘色、细致入微的描写和刻画。要用生动富有感情的、形象的语言,着重刻画人、事、物的具体状态和细节特征。

议论、抒情——是记叙文兼用的表达方式。

[议论]

记叙文的议论,是为了直接点明和加深所写事物的意义,即文章的中心思想。

在记叙文中穿插的议论,可起到画龙点睛作用;有的在段落之间加上一两句议论,还可起到承上启下作用。

记叙文中的议论,可先叙后议,也可先议后叙;有的是不直接对人、事、物发表议论,而是由文中的人物去发议论、作评价。

[抒情]

记叙文中抒情有两种情况：

一是,在叙述的基础上,直接抒发对事物的思想感情;

二是,间接抒情,是寄情于人、事、物中,在叙述、描写的字里行间,渗透着作者的感情,用情景交融、情事结合的内容,使人受到感染。

◎ 记叙文要综合运用各种表达方式。

要以叙述、描写为主要表达方式,兼用、少用议论、抒情。

因为记叙文是要充分地具体叙述、描写客观事物,让事实本身说话。

议论、抒情用在文章开头、结尾、中间,或写在与事间均可。

这几种表达方式,要自然地结合在一起,使文章成为一个有机的整体。

(四)、巧立意

[巧立意]要明确1、2、3、4,四件事!

1、“立意”,就是确立主题,也就是写出来的文章,所表达的中心思想。

2、确立的主题,要注意两个问题：

一是, 审清题意,做到全局在胸;

二是， 明确主题,做到突出中心。

3、确定记叙文主题时，要做到“三要”：

一要，有积极意义(主题思想必须是健康的,有教育癔义);

二要, 集中(不能是多中心);

三要，含蓄(主政工要蕴含在具体的记叙和描写,之中, 一般不宜用明显的话语揭示出来。)

4、在明确主题时,要考虑到记叙的内容,来定中心：

写人记叙文——要表现人物的思想性格;

记事记叙文——要写出事件所蕴涵的意义(或政治思想、或哲理、或情趣的);

写景记叙文——要写出个人对景物深刻的感悟(热爱之情);

状物记叙文——要透露出乐趣，或托物言志,要表现对人或现象之情感。

(五)、记叙文的“头” 与“尾”

记叙文常用的开头法：

开门见山开头——直截了当地交代了要写的事情的起因和必要的要素;也可开宗明义，一落笔便直触主题(中心)。

悬念法开头——先造成悬念,让读者产生悬想;

环境描写开头 ——以生动的环境描写起笔,来渲染气氛;

名言警句开头——以含蓄深刻的名言警句开头。

此外, 记叙文也可用下列方法开头：

议论开头;

抒情开头;

说明开头;

人物开头;

景物开头;

设问开头;

倒叙开头;

回忆开头……

开头,要揭示中心、要简要、要引人入胜。

记叙文常用的结尾法：

照应开头,点题结尾;

自然结尾;

引用阐发结尾;

省略号结尾;

还可以用下列方法结尾：

总结全文,画龙点睛;

议论抒情,深化主题;

展望未来,鼓舞号召;

结尾是文章的结束部分,也是文章有机组成部分。结尾要能起到点明或深化主题的作用。

导语：英语写作是一种创作性的学习过程。下面是小编收集的小升初英语作文写作技巧，欢迎大家阅读!

英语写作是一种创作性的学习过程。启动知识信息储存，构思立意，谋篇布局，遣词造句，对语言表达的正确性和准确性、思维的逻辑性和文章的条理性都比口语要求更高。通常英语写作有以下几个特点：紧扣教学大纲对考生书面表达的要求;以有指导的写作为主(guidedwriting)，便于考生在短时间内构思成文;突出试题的交际性，考查考生在特定的情景中运用语言的能力;增强试题的实用性，所选话题贴近学生学习生活，为学生所熟悉;看图作文主要考查考生运用所学知识解决实际问题的能力。

英语写作注意两点

一、先审题，弄清写作要求审题是写好作文的前提，也是书面表达的基础。如果写偏了题，语言表达再好也很难得高分。审题时要注意两个方面：

1.认真地看两遍题目，包括提示，全面了解写作要求。

2.理清思路，确定体裁、框架结构和内容。

二、用英语进行思维英语写作时必须排除汉语思维的干扰。

从现在起应逐渐加大阅读量和听的输入量，将阅读、听力训练与书面表达有机地结合起来。经常体会和领悟作者传递信息和表达思想的方式。在话题讨论和写作中经常运用所学到的表达方式就会有所创造。还要尽量做到“五多”：多看、多听、多思考、多用心体验和感悟身边的人和事、多用英语说和写自己的体验和感受。

最后一个月如何训练英语写作

1.重视增加阅读量是提高英语写作的途径之一。

目前，考生在进行大量阅读的同时，应注重所读材料的文章结构以及连接词的运用(ontheotherhand，however，furthermore)、作者的表达方式(词汇、习惯用语和典型句子的使用)、作者是如何进行叙述和议论的。

2.在教师的指导下，平时应勤写多练。

练习写作应从基本功抓起。在中译英翻译训练过程中，加强积累适量的词汇、词组和增加各种类型句子的运用。把握好各种句型和词汇的搭配，并从各类题材和体裁着手，多阅读好的范文。然后模仿写作，作文写好之后，一般都要修改。第一遍收笔后，先看一看结构，然后从字词上推敲，使文章“充实”起来。更重要的是经老师修改过的作文一定要仔细地看一至两遍，然后再认真地抄写一遍，收获将会很大。

英文写作“四步走”

由于时间限制，考试时必须在所限定的时间内完成英语作文。英语作文步骤如下：

1)作文动笔之前一般都要先打腹稿。在确立中心上、运用材料上、篇章结构上，充分酝酿。

2)考虑好想写多少句子，该用哪些动词和词组等。

3)边写边思考内容的连贯性，语言和句子的准确性。

4)写完后一定要再细看一遍。

主要体裁作文写作技巧

(一)写提示议论文应考虑的几点：

1.文章开头，能依据提示确立主题句(topic)阐明观点或看法。

2.会使用连接词分层次说明理由、缘由(supportingsentences)。

3.归纳总结，首尾呼应。

(二)看图作文应考虑的几点：

1.看懂图片，把图片展示的人物、地点、时间、事件等有机地串联起来，使之成为内容连贯的句子。

2.确定短文须用的时态和该用的人称。

3.确定体裁(说明文还是记叙文)，接着用简洁的语句描述图片或图表大意。

4.根据图片或图表大意议论。

应用文的种类繁多，可以从不同的角度划分成不同的类别。

一、按其处理事情的性质划分

可以分为公务类应用文和私务类应用文。

公务类应用文是指为处理国家和集体的事务而写作和使用的应用文，即通常所说的公文。

私务类应用文是指为处理个人的事务而写作和使用的应用文，即通常所说的个人日常应用文书。

二、按表达方式划分

有记叙文、说明文、议论文。

记叙文是以记叙为主要表达方式的应用文;说明文是以说明为主要表达方式的应用文;议论文是以议论为主要表达方式的应用文。

三、按使用领域划分

(一)行政类应用文

行政类应用文包括国家行政机关公文和日常行政公文。

1.国家行政机关公文

国家行政机关公文是指国务院办公厅印发的《国家行政机关公文处理办法》中所规定的命令(令)、决定、公告、通告、通知、通报、议案、报告、请示、批复、意见、函、会议纪要十三类十三种公文。国家机关公文是国家机关、社会团体或企事业单位处理事务的文件，主要用来传达和贯彻党和国家的政策法令，指导工作，提出要求，答复问题，通报情况，交流经验，传递信息。公文制作比较严格，具有一定的法律效力，在写作和使用时，要根据国家最新的行政机关公文处理办法，区分每类公文文种的行文要求和使用范围，确定适用的文种形式，确保其使用效率。

2.日常行政机关公文

日常行政机关公文是指上述国家法定的行政机关公文以外的一些事务文件。是指简报、计划、总结、调查报告、规章制度，介绍信、证明信等用来处理单位内部日常事务，与具体部门进行工作联系的应用文。它们的行文格式不像公文那样严格，制作也比较自由。日常事务公文不具有法定的权威，一般不单独行文，如有必要，需另行备文，按法定公文处理，否则只作为参考材料。有些日常事务公文还可在报刊上发表。

(二)专业工作应用文

专业工作应用文是指在一定专业机关或专门的业务活动领域内，因特殊需要而专门形成和使用的应用文。由于分工不同，社会各行各业经管的事务有很大的差异。这样，在长期的工作实践中便逐渐形成了一些与其专业相适应的应用文，称为专业工作应用文。专业应用文除了要遵守应用文的一般规则外，还有很强的专业特点，外行人是不能写好的，如财经部门常用的预决算报告、审计报告、市场调查报告、市场预测报告、项目可行性研究报告、外贸函电、经济合同等;司法部门常用的起诉书、判决书、证词、辩护词、立案报告、破案报告;文教部门常用的教学计划、教学大纲、教案、教学管理条例;医务工作常用的病历、处方、护理日志、诊断证明书、死亡报告;外事工作常用的照会、声明、国书、意向书、备忘录、国际公约、联合公报等等。

在各类应用文中，专业工作应用文涉及的面最广，发展最快。随着社会经济的发展和科学技术的进步，社会分工会越来越细，为适应工作需要随事立体的应用写作新形式，也将会不断增多。

(三)日常生活应用文

日常生活应用文主要指个人用来处理日常生活事务和礼仪的应用文，如书信、电报、启事、请柬、讣告、日记、读书笔记。日常生活应用文与个人的日常生活、人际交往活动关系密切，使用范围很广。日常生活应用文虽然也有一定的格式，但不十分严格，写作较灵活自由。

以上只是从大的方面来划分。如果进一步，还可根据行文方向、内容性质或其他管理文件的标准来划分。