自考英语写作基础教程最新20篇

作文能力一般包括认识生活和反映生活两方面的能力。认识生活需要敏锐的观察力和深刻的分析能力，而反映生活则需要准确的表达能力。

一、观察是写作的基础

1、注意平时积累，做生活的有心人。

生活的积累是写作的源泉，就像罗丹所说的“美是到处都有的。对于我们的眼睛，不是缺少美，而缺少发现。”因此，我们要培养学生做生活的有心人，善于留心观察身边的事物，到大自然中去陶冶美的性情，到社会生活中去发现美的事物。只有生活丰富多彩、热爱生活的人，思想才会活跃，感情才会丰富，才可能写出感人的文章。

2、留心观察，善于捕捉事物特征。

正如[***被屏蔽词语]指出的：“一棵树的叶子，看上去是大体相同的，但仔细一看，每片叶子都有不同。有共性，也有个性，有相同的方面，也有相异的方面。”因此，要注意培养学生细心观察的习惯，使他们在细心观察的基础上善于找出同类事物千差万别的个性和特征。

3、注重阅读，丰富间接生活积累。

生活的直接积累对写作是十分重要和有意义的，但受着时间、空间的限制，人的精力和经验总是有限的，不可能任何生活都直接参与、直接体验。因此，要培养学生善于阅读的好习惯，因为大量的知识要从书本中来获得。同时，使学生养成写阅读笔记的学习习惯。俗话说：“好记性不如烂笔头。”只要大量阅读，善于积累，同样可以从中获得对生活的丰富感受，提高生活的认识。

二、分析题意，提炼素材

没有材料或材料不足，自然写不好文章。但有了材料如果不精心选材或选材不当，仍然也写不出好文章。因此，要提高学生的写作能力，还要重视培养学生的审题立意、谋篇布局的能力。

1、审明题意，选取材料。

材料是为主题服务的，因此，在选择材料前，必须要明确文章的体裁及文章所要表达的中心思想。我们有些学生往往不舍得割舍材料，有用没用一起上，这样就会造成“下笔千言，离题万里”的结果。所以，在写作时，首先要明确主题。在教学中除了引导学生注意分析课文题目，培养审题技能以外，还可采用一些具体方法，培养学生概括、提炼的能力。如，让学生把自己作文的中心思想浓缩为一句简短的文字，即提炼出“主题句”。采用这种浓缩法，对提高学生审题立意的技能，是十分有益的。

其次，要选取典型材料，即那些反映事物本质，有代表性、有说服力的材料。同时，还应注意材料的真实性和可信性。

2、立意要深刻，创意要新颖。

无论何种体裁的文章，都需要通过材料烘托主题。因此，看一篇文章是否成功，首先就要看作者是否是透过现象，抓住本质，对生活是否有深刻的认识和独到的见地，即立意要深刻。

其次，在立意深刻的基础上，还要看作者的创意是否新颖，即作者在文章中所提出的见解，所抒发的感受，不落俗套，否则人云亦云，则没有新意。因此，在写作训练中，应拓宽学生视野，鼓励学生大胆想象，在文章中体现自己的独特性，这样就会抓住读者，给人一种新鲜醒目的感觉。要做到创意新颖，关键是写作的角度要新。因为现实生活丰富多彩，客观事物纷繁复杂，人物千姿百态，即使是同一生活现象，同一人物或同一景物，只要观察者的角度不同，就会表现出不同的侧面。因此，角度新也就是立意要新，观点要新，构思要新。

三、注重表达能力的培养

作文能力一般包括认识生活和反映生活两方面的能力。认识生活需要敏锐的观察力和深刻的分析能力，而反映生活则需要准确的表达能力。因此，在教学中，教师应采用多种方式训练学生的表达能力。

1、课堂上进行口头表达能力训练。

学生表达能力的体现，首先表现在是否有敏捷的思维和准确的语言表达能力，因此，训练口头表达能力是不能忽视的。在课堂教学中，训练口头表达能力的方法是多种多样的。例如讲提纲，可让学生口述自己作文的提纲大意，这样不仅可以提高学生的构思能力，而且可以了解学生的逻辑思维能力。再如，可采用讲故事、谈感想等方法培养学生不仅言而“有物”，还要言而“有序”。否则七嘴八舌，前后无序，虽训练了说的能力，却不能增强学生的思维能力和语言组织能力。除此之外，教师还可以组织学生就提出的问题进行研讨或辩论，这样可以锻炼学生“言之成理”、“出口成章”的本领。

2、采用多种方法，训练学生书面写作能力。

写作训练的方法是多种多样的，但无论哪种方法，目的都是为提高学生的写作能力，它包括观察能力、分析判断能力和语言文字表达能力。因此，我们应首先让学生养成写日记和记笔记的好习惯，这样有益于学生积累作文的素材，有效地解决作文时感到“无话可说”的问题。同时，培养学生写真事、说实话的好文风，以及快速准确的文字表达能力。因此，它一向是中学语文教师作为提高学生写作能力的一项重要的经常性的工作。

其次，可进行模仿性写作练习。因为我们的课文就是很好 的范文，在学习了文章的写作技法、特点后，可以让学生模仿范文自行命题。如，学习了抒情散文《白杨礼赞》可让学生模仿其笔法，写一些抒情性文章《烛火赞》、《粉笔赞》、《雪》等等。如学习了说明文《景泰蓝的制作》，可以让学生模仿说明文的写作方法，介绍一下自己的小制作、小发明或对某一事物进行观察后，写成说明文。像这样类型的写作训练，既结合了教材、范文，又可跳出教材范文的框框，能较好地调动学生的写作积极性，对所学的文体能做到较好的掌握和训练。

再者，教师可收集一些材料、漫画、哲理故事等，让学生根据所给的内容进行写作，这样既锻炼了学生的观察力、思考力、想象力，又能挖掘出学生的思想深度和认识程度，既培养了学生写作的基本能力，又开发了他们的智力。

语言教学中能力的培养，重在写作能力的培养。因为对学生作文能力的考核，实际上是对其思想认识水平、知识水平、能力与智力的综合性考核，这种考核能在一定的广度与深度上反映出学生实际的语文水平。由此可见，提高学生的作文能力是十分必要和重要的。

在多年的雅思教学中，我发现学生在实际考试中面临着不同的写作障碍，影响了考试成绩，雅思英语考试中应该如何克服写作障碍。归纳起来大致有以下几个方面：

一、真情流露，无从下笔

有的考生在考试时见到作文题，顿感思路塞车，好像有许多话要说，但又不知究竟应从那里写起。明智的做法是“投其所好、尽情发挥。”考生不妨把作文的要求量化到每一个段落，一篇250词左右的作文一般不会超过15句话，把这15句话根据题目要求分配到各段中去，每一段大概只说那么几句话，事实上往往是说得越多错误越多。因此，每句话紧扣提纲，见好就收,这才是最稳妥的对策。

二、心里明白，难以表达

在考场上有的考生题目看得懂，提纲也明白，就是不知道该说什么，头脑里一片空白。这是在雅思写作考试中的一种常见的现象，针对这一现象，最有效的办法就是要善于联想到一些具体的事实，具体的例证和具体的现象。事实上，雅思的作文题目一定是一个具有社会普遍型话题，其目的是让不同教育背景的考生都有话可说。因此，考生一定能就题目联想起具体细小的事情再形成观点。把看得见摸得着的事物带来的思考变成作文里的实质内容，这不失为一种很好的策略。

因此，当头脑出现空白时，应该由具体细小的、琐碎的、微不足道的事物所引发的思考形成观点，再进行论述。这种定式思维的形成需要多下功夫多练习。

三、一味追求标新立异，导致无从下笔

考试时通常发现有的考生聚精会神的坐在那里冥思苦想，非要想出一个与众不同的观点。陷入这种境地的考生，显然犯了一个根本性的错误，参考时间为40分钟的作文，一般应在35分钟之内完成,再用几分钟的时间检查语言错误。可有的考生十几分钟一句话都写不了，就是因为他太进入角色了，这是考试中一个很大的误区。

考作文的目的纯粹是通过这一命题形式，考查考生的英语水平如何，雅思英语《雅思英语考试中应该如何克服写作障碍》。命题人关注的是书面表达能力，而不是看一个人有没有内容，思想有没有深度，所以“一味追求标新立异”是没有必要的。

四、构思、写作不统一，落实有困难

实事求是的讲，要求考生完全运用英语思维来写作文是不现实的。很多考生在实际写作过程中，脑子里想的是中文句子，然后再把中文句子译成英文。因此采用“得其意，忘其形”的方法，忘掉中文的语法结构，句法形式则可能要整个地打乱，“钻进去，跳出来”。所谓“钻进去”就是要看意思是否到位了，“跳出来”就是要忘记中文的语言形式。实际上把英文译成中文，关键是要在转换中把意思表达出来。

针对构思、写作不统一，落实有困难情况。必须摒弃翻译中追求一一对应的关系，并机械地把中文译成英文的方法，应该把中文句子结构彻底地忘记，然后用比较简单的“万能”英语表达。平时不妨做一做这样的练习，通过阅读不认识词条的英文注解，然后试着把单词译成中文词，再去对照英汉词典的汉语释义，慢慢地就会开始领会用英语表达的门道了。

五、被动心态压抑新构思

尽管雅思考试作文为规定式命题，但考生仍可积极主动地发挥。其主动性在于采取回避的策略，表达上采取迂回的方式，即运用不很复杂的语言。内容的取舍上避重就轻地写比较易于表达的内容。很多人在写作过程中从头至尾都处于被动状态，当有内容想要表达清楚的时候，却又发现种种途径都不可能表达好，只好硬着头皮把自己意识到没把握的东西勉强写上去。连自己都意识到可能是错误的东西，只会产生于己不利的负面影响。所以，当有的内容感觉一点找不着，英语实在表达不清楚的时候，就应该彻底地放弃。单词拼写错误也是雅思考试作文写作的一大问题。常用单词是不能拼错的，有的单词平时会拼写，考试时突然没把握了，不妨换一下或许还能想起另外一个难度大一点、拼写有把握的来代替。应该回避明确知道自己不会拼写的词。如果没法换一个词，将句子改换一种说法亦未尝不可。有的考生在考卷上没把握的地方标上问号，或者把两种可能都写上，让判卷老师选择，这个方法是不可取的。

总之，不能让自己陷人被动，想说什么，用什么方式说。说多少，说到什么程度。一切都应由考生主动把握，这样才会减少心理上的压力，

1、认真观察。生活的绚丽多彩，来自于它的复杂组合与瞬息万变，抓住这些，是学会感悟的基础，而抓住的前提是认真细致的观察。首先，观察不是泛泛地"看看"，而是仔细地"审视"。其次，观察需要投入，投入又必须是诚心的、积极的和认真的，这种投入不光是形式上的参与，更是心理距离的缩短、思想情感的融通和语言行为的协调。

2、深入思考。思考就是在感悟，感悟包含了体验、咀嚼、顿悟。思考必须专注，感悟更当用心。学会思考，就是要克服这些不足，摈弃这些有碍于表达真情实感的成分。思考，实际上就是一个不断地问为什么，然后回答出"是因为这个"的过程。由此，小事情可以写出大主题，小人物可以表现得很丰满，小角度可以展现全局，小细节可以尽显本质。

3、以情悟情。感悟的主观性，决定了它活动过程中的情感性，情感是由人的思想道德所决定的。所以，无论是观察还是思考，都必须有一个正确的思想标尺、情感标尺，一方面来度量自己的对与错，另一方面来检验生活的是与非。以充沛的感情去体验生活，就会感受到生活中的真情实感。

(一)屈原投江

(one) Qu Yuan River

为了纪念爱国诗人屈原，居民为了不让跳下汨罗江的屈原尸体被鱼虾吃掉，所以在江里投下许多用竹叶包裹的米食(粽子)，并且竞相划船(赛龙船)希望找到屈原的尸体。

To commemorate the patriotic poet Qu Yuan, residents in order not to let Qu Yuans Miluo River jumped by fish and shrimp to eat, so in the river for the rice wrapped in bamboo leaves with many (dumplings), and race (rowing Dragon Boat Race) to find Qu Yuans body.

(二)曹娥寻父尸

(two) case of seeking father.

东汉孝女曹娥，因曹父溺江而亡，年仅十四岁的她沿江豪哭，经十七日仍不见曹父尸首，乃在五月一日投江，五日后两尸合抱而浮起的感人事迹， 乡人群而祭之。

The Eastern Han Dynasty filial daughter Cao E, drowned himself in a river because Cao father died, only fourteen years old, she cried along the ho, after seventeen days still do not see Cao father body, but in May 1st the river, five days from two dead and floating deeds, people group and sacrifice.

(三)白蛇传

(three) the legend of white snake

传说白蛇白素贞，为了报答许仙的恩惠，与许仙结为夫妻的凄美的爱情故事，传说端午节当天白蛇喝了雄黄酒，差点现出蛇形，加上法海白蛇及水淹金山寺的情节，都是脍炙人口的民间戏曲的曲目。

The legend of white snake and Bai Suzhen, in order to repay the grace of Xu Xian, and Xu Xianjie married the beautiful love story, the legend of the White Snake Legend of the Dragon Boat Festival a male Yellow Wine, almost a snake, white snake and flooded with sea Jinshan Temple of the plot, is a folk opera music win universal praise.

(四)伍子胥的忌日

(four) the anniversary of the death of Wu Zixu

传说伍子胥助吴伐楚后，吴王阖闾逝世，皇子夫差继位，伐越大胜，越王句践请和，伍子胥主战，夫差不听，却听信奸臣言，赐伍子胥自杀，并于于五月五日将尸体投入江中，此后人们于端午节纪祀伍子胥。

Legend has it that Wu Zixu will Fachu Wu, Wu helv Prince died, his successor, the victory of the king, and Wu Zixu battle, the king, do not listen, but listen to a word, give Wu Zixu Dutch act, and on May 5th the bodies into the river, then people in the Dragon Boat Festival worship Wu Zixu ji.

我们已经谈到通过人物传记和分别从三个方面来研究人物关系的人物创作的基础了。小编收集了电影剧本写作基础，欢迎阅读。

我们已经谈到通过人物传记和分别从三个方面来研究人物关系的人物创作的基础了。

现在该怎么办呢?

你怎样才能把对一个人物的零碎和杂乱无章的想法变成为一个活生生的、有血有肉的人物呢?怎样才能把他变成你能与之结为一体的人物呢?

你如何给你的人物“注入生命”?如何去构成你的人物呢?

这是有史以来的诗人、哲学家、作家、艺术家、科学家和教士们反复思索的问题。至今没有确切的答案。它是创作过程之所以具有神秘感和魔力的一个重要因素。

关键的词是“过程”。需要一种途径去实现它。

首先，要创作人物的来龙去脉(context)。然后把内容注入其中。来龙去脉和内容——这些抽象的原则是你创作过程中珍贵的工具。它们构成一个概念。书中将要经常用到。

这就是来龙去脉：

比如说一个空杯子。向杯子里面看，杯子里是一个空间。这个空间里盛着咖啡、茶、牛奶、水、热可可、啤酒或其它液体。这些液体就是杯子的内容。

这个杯子盛着咖啡。杯子里盛咖啡的空间就是来龙去脉。

想着这个，我们往下讲这个概念就清楚了。

让我们从来龙去脉的角度来探讨构成人物的过程吧。

首先，确定人物的需求。

在剧本的过程中，你的人物想要达到什么目的或得到什么东西呢?

想要一百万元钱?抢劫曼哈顿银行吗?要打破以上竞速纪录吗?要象乔·沃伊特那样到纽约去成为“午夜牛郎”吗?要象《艾丽斯不再住在这儿了》中的艾丽斯那样去实现到加利福尼亚的蒙特雷当一名歌手的长期梦寐吗?要象理查德·德莱福斯(Richard Dreyfuss)在《第三类接触》中那样去搞清楚“究竟发生了些什么”吗?这些全都是人物的需求。

可问你自己——你人物的需求是什么?

然后，做出人物的传记。正如前面所建议的，你写上三到十页，多写点也行，弄清你的人物是谁。为了有一幅清晰的图景，你可能想从人物的祖父写起。别管写几页稿纸，你所开始的这个过程在创作的准备阶段中还要继续增长和发展。人物传记是为你自己写的，根本无需摆进剧本中去。它只是供你用来创作人物的工具。

人物传记完成之后，就可以进入人物的外在生活部分了。你要从人物生活的职业的、个人的和私生活的等因素分别加以考虑。

来龙去脉——这就是起点。

现在让我们来探讨什么是人物的问题。

什么是人物呢?

人都有什么共同之处?我们都是一样的，你和我——我们都有同样的需求、同样的愿望、同样的恐惧和不安全感。我们都希望被人爱，希望得到人们的喜欢，希望能成功、幸福和健康。我们在本质上是一样的。某种东西把我们联系在一起。

可是什么东西把我们区分开来呢?

把我们区分开来的是我们的观点——我们怎样看待世界。人人都有自己的观点。

人物就是观点——即我们看待世界的方式。这是一种来龙去脉。

你的人物可以是作父母的，因此就有“作父母的”观点。他可以是一名学生，那就会用“学生的”观点来看待世界。你的人物可以是政治活动家，就象《朱莉娅》(Julia)中的范尼莎·雷德格雷夫(Vanessa Redgrave)。那是她的观点，她为之献身。家庭主妇有其特殊观点。罪犯、恐怖主义者、警察、医生、律师、富人、穷人、妇女——解放了的或反之——全都会表现出个人的和独特的观点。

你的人物的观点是什么?

你的人物是自由党人还是保守党人?他(她)是环境论者呢?还是人道主义者?或是种族主义者?是相信命运、天数或占星术的人吗?是相信医生、律师、《华尔街日报》或《纽约时报》的人吗?或者是相信《时代周刊》、《人民报》和《新闻周刊》的人吗?

你的人物对自己的工作持什么观点呢?对婚姻呢?他是否喜欢音乐?如果喜欢，喜欢的又是哪一种音乐呢?这些因素都成为你的人物的独特而有机的组成部分。

我们都具有某种观点——要保证你的人物具有个人的和独特的观点。你创造了来龙去脉，内容就随之而来了。

例如，你人物的观点可能是认为不加限制地捕杀鲸鱼和海豚的行径是道德上的错误。他通过捐赠，提供志愿服务，参加集会，参加示威请愿，穿印有“救救鲸鱼和海豚”字样的汗衫等活动来支持这种观点。鲸鱼和海豚是地球上智力水平最高的两种动物。有的科学家推测它们可能“比人更精明”。科学资料证明海豚从未伤害或攻击过人类的任何成员。还有许多关于海豚保护第二次世界大战中落海的飞行员和水兵免受鲨鱼的凶猛攻击的故事。必须有一种方式去解救这些智力发达的生命形态。你的人物可能会以拒绝购买金枪鱼来抗议商业渔民滥捕鲸鱼和海豚。

要想办法使你的人物以行动来支持自己的观点并使之戏剧化。

人物还是什么呢?

人物还是一种态度。这也是一种来龙去脉，是展现人物观点的一种感情和行动的方式。人物的态度是高傲的?还是卑下的?是个正面人物?还是反面的?乐观的还是悲观的?

对生活和工作充满热情还是意志消沉的呢?

戏剧就是冲突。要还住：你越能清楚地确定人物的需求，就越容易给这些需求制造障碍。这样就产生了冲突。这有助于你创作一条紧张而富于戏剧性的故事线索。

这在喜剧中也是一条卓有成效的规律。尼尔·西蒙的人物一般都具有一个能激发矛盾的简单需求。在《告别了的姑娘》(The Goodbye Girl)中，理查德·德莱福斯扮演一个从芝加哥来的演员，他从一个朋友手里转租了一套纽约公寓套房，当他到那里时，发现房间被朋友原来的同房(玛莎·梅森Marsba Mason饰)和她的年轻女儿(奎恩·库明斯Qui-nn Cammings饰)占了。他想住进去，但她就是不搬。她声称这套间是她的，占有在法律上总是占上风的。这一冲突是他们关系的开端，它基于双方各自都认为自己是“对的”。

《亚当的肋骨》(Adams Rib)则是另一种情况。在迦逊·卡宁(Garson Kanin)和路斯·高顿(Ruth Gordon)所写的这个剧本里，史宾塞·屈塞(Spencer Tracy)和凯瑟琳·赫本(Katherine Hepburn)主演两个律师。他们是夫妻，同时又是法庭上的对手。屈塞对一个被控向丈夫开枪的妇女(裘迪·霍莉黛Judy Holliday饰)进行起诉，而赫本则为她辩护。这是一个有关男女“权利平等”这一基本问题的出色的喜剧情场。这部影片摄于1949年，它预示了女权

斗争运动，至今仍是一部经典的美国喜剧电影。

确定人物的需求，然后针对这一需求制造障碍。

你对你的人物知道得越多，在故事结构中创作的尺度就越宽。

人物还是什么呢?

人物还是个性。每个人物从视觉上都显示出一种个性。你的人物是欢快的?幸福的、伶俐的、机智的或外向的?还是严肃的?腼腆的?内向的?是举止可爱，还是难以接近的、

邋遢的、死心眼儿的、呆头呆脑的或缺乏幽默感的?

你的人物具有什么样的个性?

她是为人冷谈的、凶悍的，还是恶作剧的?这些都是人物的个性特征。它们都反映着人物。

人物还是行为。人物的实质就是动作——什么样的人干什么事。

行为是动作。比如说一个人从高级轿车中走下来，锁上车后穿过马路。他看到路边水沟里有一个镍币——那么他怎么办呢?如果他四下看看，见没有人瞧着就弯腰去拾起那个镍币。这个行为向你揭示了这个人物性格的某些方面。如果他四下看看，见有人瞧着他，就没有捡起那个镍币。这也向你揭示了这个人物性格的某些方面。他的行为把这个人物性

格戏剧化了。

如果你是在一个戏剧性情境中设置你的人物的行为，就可能引导读者和观众深入审视自己的生活。

行为向你揭示很多东西。我的一个朋友得到一次飞到纽约去接洽工作的机会。去还是不去，她的心情是复杂的。这次去谈的正是一项她很想做的既有地位工资又高的工作，可她拿不定主意是否下决心搬到纽约去。她为此斗争了一个多星期，最后还是决定去了。她收拾起行装开车到飞机场去，可当她把车停在飞机场时，“不小心”把钥匙锁在车里，而发动机还开着。这是行为动作展现人物的一个完善例子。这件事向她揭示了她内心始终明白的事——她并不想去纽约。

这样的一个场景可以说明人物的许多东西。

你的人物动不动就生气吗?他是象马龙·白兰度(Mar-lon Brando)在《欲望号街车》(A Streetcar Named Desi-re)中那样生起气来就乱扔东西吗?还是象马龙·白兰度在《教父》中那样虽然怒火中烧，却只是阴险地冷笑，并不表露呢?你的人物赴约总是迟到、早到还是准时呢?你的人物对官方的反应是象伍迪·艾伦(Woody Allen)在《安妮·霍尔》中那样当着警察的面撕毁司机的驾驶执照吗?建立在独特的性格特征基础之上的每一个动作和话语都可以扩大我们对你的人物的认识和理解。

如果你在剧本中写到某处时不知道你的人物在这种情境下该怎么做的话，那就到自己的生活中去找吧。看你在类似的情况下会怎么办。你自身就是最好的材料来源。好好练习。

你既然提出了问题，你就能解决它。

在我们日常生活中同样如此。

一切取决于你对人物的了解。在剧情发展过程中你的人物想达到什么目的?是什么驱使他努力去达到目的?或者没有达到?在你的故事中，他的需求或目的是什么?为什么他

们在那里?他们要得到什么?读者和观众对你的人物感觉如何?这是你作为作家的任务—在真实的环境中创作真实的人物。

人物还是什么呢?

人物还是我所谓的启示。在故事进程中我们了解到人物的一些事情。比如在《秃鹰的三天》中，罗伯特·雷福德在邻近的一家饭馆叫午饭吃。我们知道他有文化，是个“收集了世界上最全的一套退稿信”的作家。然后，我们极富于戏剧性地接受了他适应新情况的那种态度。这新情况就是有人要杀他，而他还不知道是谁和为什么。小劳伦佐·杉波尔

(Lorenzo Semple)和大卫·雷菲尔(David Rayfiel)的紧凑的剧本向我们展现了罗伯特·雷福德这一人物的某些东西。

剧作家的职责是把人物的不同方面展现给读者和观众。我们必须对你的人物有所了解。在剧情进展中，人物往往和观众同时了解到他在故事中的困境。这样人物就和观众一起

寻找那个支持戏剧动作的情节点。

同一性也是人物的一个方面。“他就好象我认识的某人”，这一识别因素是作家所能得到的最大的赞誉了。

动作即是人物!一个人的所为，而不是他的言谈，表明他是一个什么样的人。

上述所有的性格特征——观点、个性、态度、行为——在构成人物的过程中都是互相关联并且会互相重叠的。这样你就有了选择的余地;你可以选用这些性格特征的全部或部分，也可完全不用。但是知道了它们是什么，你就能得心应手地掌握构成人物的过程。

这一切都来自人物的传记。从人物的过去可以得出观点、个性、态度、行为、需求和目的。

在写作过程中，写到二十页到五十页纸.你才会发现人物开始向你说话，告诉你他们要做什么，说什么。一旦你和他们有了接触，和人物建立了联系，他们便自为了。让他们

做他们想做的事。要相信你有能力在“白纸黑字”的阶段选择动作和方向。

有时你的人物可能改变故事线索，而你也可能拿不定主意是否让他们做下去。那你就让他们做下去，看看会发生什么事。最糟也不过是你花几天时间认识到自己犯了个错误。犯错误也是很重要的。出事故、犯错误也会带来意外的收获。如果犯了错误，只要重写这一部分，一切就又重回正轨了。

我的一个学生来找我。他告诉我他正在写一出戏。这出戏要有不幸的“悲剧性”结尾。但在第三幕开始的时候，他的人物开始变得“滑稽”了。不断出现插科打浑的对话，而且结局也变得滑稽、不严肃了。每当他坐下来写的时候，幽默不停地涌现出来;他无法制止。他变得灰心丧气，最后因失望而放弃了。

他几乎是找我来认错的。他开诚布公地解释说，他已束手无策。我建议他坐下来再写.就让字和对话听其自然地写出来。如果是滑稽的，就让它滑稽好了。那么他就能看到写

出来的结果。如果它一直是滑稽的，而他又不喜欢，那最多把它锁到抽屉里存放起来就完了。然后再回过头来按他最早的设想重写第三幕。

他照办了，果然灵验。他扔掉了第三幕的喜剧方案，然后按他早先严肃的方案写了一稿。这个喜剧是他不得不写的;但又是必须摆脱的。这是他回避“完成”剧本的一种方式。作家常常在一个作品接近完成时，坚持写下去而没有写完。完成之后你还有什么可干的呢?你是否读过一本书而不愿读完它呢?我们都曾有过。只要承认它是一种自然现象就

行了，不必为此担心。

如果你遇到这种情况，那你怎样想就怎样写，看看结果如何。写作总是要冒风险的，你很难知道结果如何。最糟也不过是你再花几天时间重写那些行不通的东西!

只是别指望你的人物从第一页就开始跟你讲话。这样是行不通的。如果你作了创造性的研究工作，并熟知你的人物，那么你就会体验到某些阻力，然后才能有所突破，和你的人

物发生接触。 你的全部工作、研究、准备工作和思考时间的最后结果将是那些真实、生动、可信的人物——真实环境中的真实人物。

这是我们共同的目的。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

1、True mastery of any skill takes a lifetime.

对任何技能的掌握都需要一生的刻苦操练。

2、Sweat is the lubricant of success.

汗水是成功的润滑剂。

3、If you are doing your best,you will not have to worry about failure.

如果你竭尽全力，你就不用担心失败。

4、Energy and persistence conquer all things.

能量和坚持可以征服一切事情。

5、Bravery never goes out of fashion.

勇敢永远不过时!

6、Those who turn back never reach the summit.

回头的人永远到不了最高峰!

7、Proper preparation solves 80 percent of lifes problems.

适当的准备能解决生活中80%的问题。

8、Winners do what losers dont want to do.

胜利者做失败者不愿意做的事!

9、Every noble work is at first impossible.

每一个伟大的工程最初看起来都是不可能做到的!

10、We improve ourselves by victories over ourselves. There must be contests, and we must win.

我们通过战胜自己来改进自我。 那里一定有竞赛，我们一定要赢!

11、Speech is the image of actions.

语言是行动的反映。

12、It is always morning somewhere in the world.

世界上总是有某个地方可以看到阳光。

13、If you do not learn to think when you are young, you may never learn. ( Edison )

如果你年轻时不学会思考，那就永远不会。(爱迪生)

14、Anger begins with folly, and ends in repentance.

愤怒以愚蠢开始，以后悔告终。

15、Talents come from diligence, and knowledge is gained by accumulation.

天才在于勤奋，知识在于积累。

16、The greater the man, the more restrained his anger.

人越伟大，越能克制怒火。

17、If there were less sympathy in the world, there would be less trouble in the world. ( O. Wilde )

如果世界上少一些同情，世界上也就会少一些麻烦。(王尔德)

18、All lay load on the willing horse.

人善被人欺，马善被人骑。

19、Strike the iron while it is hot.

趁热打铁。

20、When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game.

鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利。

消息、通讯、新闻评论都是新闻文体。所谓新闻，就是对新近发生的事实的报道。

时代不同，新闻事业的性质不同，新闻的含义也就不同。后滕武男在《新闻纸研究》一文中认为，最早的新闻是政府的新闻。公元前一世纪，罗马统治者凯撒为了使公民知道和他们有关的官方规定，要求把政府的行为公布在罗马广场上的《每日公报》上。这个说法与我国的情况吻合。我国唐朝就用邸报向宫廷官员通报朝廷的行动。邸报是中国古代报纸的统称。目前大陆所能看到的最早的邸报，是尹钧公从北京图书馆找到的明代《急选报》，该报出版于公元1580年4月。人类最早的新闻是通报官方行动。16、17世纪西方，新闻主要指的是商业行为。

新闻事业的商业性质，决定了新闻行为以人们的接受心理为导向。当然新闻事业打从一开始，就是与政治联姻的，后来只不过披上了商业的面纱而已。事实上，从某个角度而言，在整个资本主义发展的过程中，商业行为本身就是一种政治行为。今天西方发达的资本主义国家鼓吹新闻自由，但当美国新闻记者经过千辛万苦的调查，独家报导了美国侵越期间在一小岛上进行惨绝人寰屠杀的轰动的新闻之后，马上就在政府的干预下被老板吵了鱿鱼。这至少说明，他们的“新闻自由”决不是没有前提的。

无产阶级则公开宣称报纸、电台是他们的“喉舌”。

我们现在的新闻事业虽然也在逐步走向市场，但其性质同资本主义国家新闻的性质是有根本区别的。陆定一同志在《我们对于新闻学的基本的观点》中说:“新闻的定义就是新近发生的事实的报道。”这一定义跳出了一切时代与阶级的局限，高度准确的概括了新闻最本质的特征。

一、新闻的特点

新闻最本质的特点是事实性、真实性和时效性。

1.事实性

新闻是以社会生活中发生的客观事实为报道对象。离开了事实，新闻就不复存在。即使是新闻评论，它也是来源于新闻事实和对新闻事实的评论。

2.真实性

真实是新闻的生命。因为，追本溯源，新闻的产生，是发布新闻的主体把正在发生和将要发生的事情告诉受众，希望受众于以配合，以使主体的意图充分实现。不真实的新闻会使结果相反，此其一。第二，新闻作为一种事业能够存在和发展，正是由于他的真实使其具有正确认识外部世界的价值，失实的新闻是毫无价值的，也就不算是新闻了。第三，新闻是人们了解外部世界，决定自己的行动，端正自己的认识的重要信息源，不实的新闻会使受众产生错误，这是道德和法律所不能允许的。第四，真实性是形成和确保新闻权威性的根本前提。

3.时效性

时效是新闻竞争的核心。新闻的时效性有两层含义，一是指新闻发生的新近性，二是指报道的及时性。

二、新闻价值

新闻价值是指构成新闻事实和材料本身所具有的满足社会对新闻的需要的信息意义。新闻价值是判定一个事实值不值得报道的客观标准。新闻价值包括5个要素:

1.时新性:新闻姓“新”，时间越近，新闻越新，所具有的新闻价值就越大。

2.重要性:指社会生活中出现的影响较大而又为许多人所关注的事件。

3.显著性:指引人注目的人物和事件。

4.接近性:指新闻与受众在地理上、思想上、职业上、性别上、年龄上、心理上的关联。其关联程度越紧密，越能引起受众的兴趣，新闻价值越大。

5.趣味性:新闻报道的内容必须是广大读者的感兴趣的。有的新闻事实不一定具有很大的社会意义，但只要是有健康趣味的，也是有新闻价值的。

三、 新闻写作的常用文体与类型

消息是迅速及时地报道社会生活中重要的突出事件和新近发生或发现的事物、成就、问题、情况等的新闻文体，是新闻报道的主要形式，也是新闻报道的最常见、最主要的文体。

一.消息的结构

消息的结构是指一篇消息的材料组合和段落安排的总体设计，也就是写作顺序。

新闻写作中对消息的材料结构的总的要求是:简明扼要，层次清晰，能准确地叙述事实，能发挥新闻价值的最佳效果，最有利于表现主题，最能够吸引读者。

目前，国内外常见的消息形式，大致有三大类。

1倒金字塔式结构

这是采用最多的一种消息结构，也称为“倒三角结构”。它的特点是将最重要、最新鲜、最吸引人的新闻事实放在最前面，并按材料的重要性来安排段落层次:重要的居前，次要的继之，再次要的置于末尾。

2金字塔结构

作者完全按事件发生、发展的先后顺序安排层次。事件的开头就是消息的开头，事件的结尾就是消息的结尾。这种编年史式的写法，读者容易接受和理解。一些故事性强、人情浓的消息常采用这种结构。

3自由式结构

现实生活是丰富多彩的，消息的内容也是千姿百态、千变万化的，因此，消息的结构形式也是多种多样的。消息还有并列式结构、对比式结构、问答式结构、总结式结构，等等。

二.消息的标题

一般来说，一篇消息可以分为5个部分:标题、导语、主体、背景、结尾。其中导语、主体、背景是主要部分。当然，并非任何一则消息都包含有完整的5个部分，有的只有其中的两或三四个部分。

消息的标题具有多行性的特点，信息量大。它有所谓引题、主题、副题之分。

引题，又称肩题、眉题或看题。它主要用来揭示新闻事实的意义，交代形势，说明背景，烘托气氛，引出主题;在主题为虚题时，还有说明“主题”的作用。其位置在主题的上方。

主题，又称正题，它一般用来点明消息的主要事实或概括说明消息所表达的思想和观点。它在引题之下，副题之上，其位居中，且字体比引题、副题大。

副题，又称辅题或子题，一般用以报道事实的结构或提要，有是也用来的说明主题的来源、依据，弥补主题的不足。其位置在主题之下。

三.消息的导语

消息的导语，即消息的开头，通常是指消息的第一自然段。它以极简要的文字写出消息的主要内容，用最新鲜、最重要、最引人的事实，揭示新闻的主题，引起读者的兴趣和注意。

由两个或多个自然段组成的导语，称“复合导语”。

导语写法多样，而且可以按不同标准分类。按消息要素在导语里出现的多少分类，导语可分为全型导语和微型导语两种。

所谓全型导语，就是消息的六个要素齐全的导语。

随着新闻事业的发展，全型导语的采用越来越少了，代之而起的是部分要素导语，也称做微型导语。

按照导语中强调的要素，可分为突出“何人”的导语，突出“何地”、“何时”、“何事”的导语等。

按导语表达方式，可分为叙述式的导语、描写式导语、评论式导语和引语式导语，等等。

导语的表现形式还有一些，如比喻式、摘要式、对比式、抒情式、悬念式，等等。一则消息的导语究竟如何写，主要根据新闻事实的特点还决定，不应拘泥于某种形式。

四.消息的主体和结尾

主体是消息的主干部分。他承接导语，用具体、充实的材料，展开导语，揭示消息的主题。

消息主体的结构形式一般有时间顺序、逻辑顺序和时间顺序和逻辑顺序结合三种。

五.消息的背景

新闻背景是有关新闻事实的历史和环境资料。用背景材料衬托或说明新闻事实，可以显示或强调信息的重要意义。

新闻背景材料可分为说明性材料和注释性材料。

说明性材料即对新闻人物或事件的政治背景、地理环境、历史演变及其他情况做介绍和交代，以说明事物产生的各种因素，揭示事物发生和变化的意义。注释性材料，是对有关名词科技知识等的注释。它能帮助读者看懂消息的内容，增长知识和见闻。

公基大作文也即公共基础知识中的文章写作部分，下面是小编为大家收集整理的2017公共基础知识写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

2017公共基础知识写作技巧

一、从写作内容角度上看。

公基作文一般是议论性质的文章，字数一般要求在800--1200字之间。公基作文要求结合材料进行写作，属于材料作文类，考生不能脱离材料自行写作。此外，考生在写作的时候一定注意不要跑题，不要脱离总论点。因为作文的阅卷是先定档后给分，这就要求我们一定不能跑题，而且虽然都是议论文但是不能跟高中初中作文那样随意抒发议论，要找到自己的角度，站在报考岗位的角度去思考问题，不能盲目抒情、大发特发议论，此乃作文大忌。

二、从文章标题角度来看。

标题即论点，刚才我们谈到作文阅卷先定档，因此，如果能标题就是论点的话能够大幅度减轻阅卷人的压力，使得自己更容易获得高分。对于标题给大家简单提醒一下，通常情况下标题不建议大家使用标点符号。

三、从文章结构上来看。

一定要保证文章结构的完整性，在阅卷规则当中，有重要一条就是逻辑完整，因此适当运用逻辑结构词就显得特别重要。这里提示广大考生，我们的逻辑词经历过四个阶段，第一个阶段是第一、第二、第三、第N个，这种结构因为第多少个没有上限，因此不建议采用，第二个阶段是首先、其次、再次、最后，第三个阶段是一方面、另一方面、与此同时、此外、加之等。这里推荐大家使用第二第三个阶段，逻辑结构比较完整，第四个阶段是运用过渡句过渡段，这种逻辑不推荐大家使用。

四、公基作文一定要写对策。

考查公基作文的目的就是考查考生进入单位之后分析与解决问题的能力，因此，考生必须在文章中必须有所体现。从文章写作对策段落来说，建议大家在对策段落里面运用“结论+原因+措施”的写作结构，这种结构简单理解就是是什么、为什么、怎么办逻辑，比如说某地的某个行业出现一定的发展问题，那么对于这个行业的发展政府起主要作用，那么我们应该先说政府大概应该如何去做，如政府应该多渠道扶持，此即结论，接下来就应该叙述政府为什么要去扶持，也即原因部分，最后要写明政府如何扶持也即具体措施，如运用宏观调控、减免税收、提供政策支持等。

五、从结尾段落来说，结尾要做到与首段呼应。

浑然一体的结尾与开头要相呼应，写出既呼应开头，又不简单重复的语句，这种结尾方式是各类文章极常见的收束方法。这种收束方法能唤起读者心理上的美感，产生一种首尾圆合，浑然一体的感觉。

公共基础知识写作点拨

第一：理解、分析、研究文体。事业单位写作其实就是议论文写作，因为只有议论文这种文种才能够承载对一个事物的确定观点和论述。所以对议论文来说，要把握一点，就是议论文是围绕一个观点进行展开，这对议论文来说是最重要的，也就是要有确实的观点，即总论点，目前来看事业单位考试的总论点一般都是已经确定的。

第二：确定了总论点之后，再去议论观点。例如：上海是个好地方，那么整个文章展开的核心就是证明观点，也就是为什么说上海是个好地方，再比如：要勤奋，整个文章展开的核心就是论述为什么要勤奋。

近几年来公职类考试的写作命题有了新的变化。首先，会有给定材料，材料围绕着一个主题展开，主题通常是社会问题或者施政要点。例如：要推进民生改革;要提高政府公信力;要推进服务型政府建设;要勇于探路等。其次，针对这样主题的变化，论述的方向也随之有所变化。例如：要提高政府公信力。基于这样的总论点，文章展开的逻辑就是为什么要提高公信力、如何提高政府公信力。再比如：要勇于探路，那么文章展开的逻辑就是为什么要勇于探路、如何探路。通过以上事例，小伙伴们能基本理清两个最重要的内容：议论文就是围绕一个确定的观点展开，整个文章的核心要求就是把观点论述清楚。解决了这两个问题后，接下来就是填充内容了，在此根据情况来说明。

第一：如果平时比较关注新闻、热点时事，自然有内容可写，而且能够做到内容充实、立意高远、理解透彻。如果是这样的情况，就摸索出适合自己表达的语言风格即可。

第二：如果是平时看书比较多，有自己对事物的思考。这样的基础能让写作体现出比较好的人文素养和知识储备，如果是这样的情况，就把看书多的优点发挥出即可。

第三：如果是既不看新闻、也不看书、学习马马虎虎或者工作后没有时间复习，这样的情况比较普遍，如果是这样的情况，就需要找一些捷径了，比如选择培训班等等。

新闻标题是新闻的题目，读者看新闻时首先看的就是标题。好的新闻标题能使读者在最短的时间内了解新闻的主要内容，小编收集了英语新闻标题写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

新闻标题是新闻的题目，读者看新闻时首先看的就是标题。好的新闻标题能使读者在最短的时间内了解新闻的主要内容，引起阅读兴趣。写作标题的原则，是要尽量用有限的语句将新闻的主要内容和意旨表达清楚。在英语(优习英语网)新闻标题的写作中，选取准确的动词及正确的时态、语态，是一项重要技巧。例如下面这几行标题，不管是硬新闻还是软新闻标题，都含有一个动词：

High tax levels “driving away foreign investors”

Bush acknowledges Viet Nam parallel

Nigerian plane crashes with over 100 aboard

Myles Quin likes to collect stuff-most of all good yarns

The City cultivates a thriving poetry corner out of The Waste Land

如果缺乏动词，新闻标题会显得单调、千篇一律，例如：

Bill Gates and the Microsoft

American views on China

这两则标题显得大而空泛，华而不实，没有提供关于新闻具体内容的实际信息，应该尽量避免这种写法。

动词的选择

动词使新闻标题变得活跃，但它本身必须是一个活跃的词，能最准确、生动地描述新闻事实，因为标题里没有多余的空间来容纳形容词，所有修饰性的内容，包括程度、颜色、感觉等，都必须依靠这个动词来体现。因此，要尽量避免使用“ask”这类平淡的动词和表达含糊的混合动词，例如“American government gives views on Mexican’s racism”，如果报道对象“American government”在谴责“Mexican’s racism”时用了很有力很明确的语句，那么就应该避免“gives views”这种含糊的写法。

此外，还应该尽量使用表达力强、有力的动词，尽量不使用较弱的助动词“be”、“have”作为新闻标题的主要动词。

时态的使用

一种观点认为新闻标题应使用现在时态，因为所报道的事件虽然已经过去，但它是新近发生的，对读者来说仍然是第一次了解该事件，现在时态能给他们一种事件正在发生的感觉，这对新闻报道来说很重要;另一种观点认为新闻标题不能用现在时，例如法庭报道，对于过去发生的事件，绝对不能用现在时态，避免产生歧义，例如应该写成：“Old retiree stole grocery loaves”，不能写成“Old retiree steals grocery loaves”，否则会使人误会此人一直在继续这种偷窃行为，引起争端。甚至认为任何含有过去的时间因素的标题都应使用过去时态。这一观点可能深受上世纪70年代以来美国新闻学者梅耶(Philip Meyer)的精确新闻报道理论的影响。

那么，究竟应该使用什么时态?考虑的重要依据是看使用现在时态会不会带来歧义，如果不会，则适宜使用现在时。英语新闻标题中不宜使用“yesterday”这个词，尤其是在早报的标题中，因为早报所报道的几乎所有事情都可以被认为是发生在“昨天”的。但如果报道的是将来要发生的事，则应尽量使用确切的时间，如：“Paper industry will strike tomorrow /next week/next month”。再如：“Beijing to fulfill promises for 2008 Olympics”，即使省略了“will”，意思仍很清楚。

有一种新闻标题采用“be+动词不定式”结构，助动词“be”通常省略：

Princess (is) to Visit Baffinaland in August.

Financier (is) killed by burglars.

Countries (are) to Spend More on Cancer Research.

使用将来时态报道即将和日后将会发生的事情是很常见的。

主动语态与被动语态

在英语新闻标题中，主动语态比被动语态的表达效果更好。试比较下面两则新闻标题：

France rejects EU Constitution

EU Constitution rejected by France

对比后，我们发现，使用被动语态的新闻标题，比主动语态标题长，单词数量多，这对有长度限制的标题来说是很不利的。同样长度的标题，主动语态所提供的信息内容更多，结构更生动，而且可以有更多的空间去阐述其他内容，例如“Boy found dead by teacher”如果改写成主动语态“Teacher found boy dead in lab”，不但阐述更加自然，包含的信息也更多。

例外的情况是当事件或动作的承受人比执行者更重要时，可以使用被动语态。

关于动词，还有一个问题需要注意。英语中有不少单词既能作名词，又能作动词，其词性是根据具体语法位置来决定的。写作标题时如果省略了一些前后辅助辨别的词汇，单词的词性就可能变得不确定和含糊，下面这些单词都属于此类：

tax, ban, plan, drive, move, probe, protest, bat, share, watch, cut, axe, ring, bank, rises, state, pay, pledge, talks, riot, attack, appeal, back, face, sign, jump, drug

英语新闻标题的动词应尽量使用一般现在时，但在遇到该动词兼有名词和动词两种词性的情况下，有时可以使用过去时态，以使这个动词的词性更加清楚，避免产生歧义。

写记叙文时，如果要使文字内容更具体，不空泛，一定要把叙述与描写结合起来。那么如何才能结合好呢?我们首先需要了解一下这两者的基本概念和作用。

叙述和描写。是作文中两种不同的表现方式。我们这里说的叙述是指把人的经历行为或事件的发生、发展变化表述出来的一种表达方式，它常常把分散的场景，片断的故事和人物的身世，地位，经历，事迹等贯穿起来。它要求做到头绪清楚，脉络分明，有条有理，重点突出。

在记事、写人、状物的文章中，叙述是不可少的，尤其是在介绍人或事物变化为主的文章中叙述的作用更大，甚至有的文章专以叙述为长。我们本讲选的优秀作文《男班长，女班长》就是一个很好的例子。文章中描写部分很少，介绍事件发展过程的叙述占了很大的篇幅，如开头对男女班长来自何方的介绍，女班长对男班长的观察，正副班长必须合作的现实，以及同学们的揶揄，思想的顾虑，同学开玩笑不断，“收到副班长纸条”，到结尾“男女班长仍然合作着处理班里的事务”。这篇文章用很短的篇幅，以叙述为主，把一波三折的事件按发展轨迹清晰有序地介绍出来。对发展过程虽是梗概地介绍，但文章的思想内涵却非常丰富，也可以说在写法上是比较巧妙的。

叙述在按事件发生发展、人物经历的时间来划分，可以有顺叙，倒叙、插叙、补叙等方式，我们在写文章时，可以根据表达的需要去选择叙述的方式。

描写是对人物，事物和环境所作的具体的描绘和摹写，描写是再现描写对象状态的一种表达方式。描写需要采用绘声绘色的办法，把事物的状貌、神采和动态，具体地、真切地饱含情意地勾画出来。写人要使其声可闻，其容可睹;写物要使之可见，可闻，可触，可感;写景要意境鲜明，使读者产生仿佛置身其间的幻觉。

在我们学过的课文中，传神的描写是很多的。如《天山景物记》中对天山深处的描写，“山色逐渐变得柔嫩，山形也变得柔和，很有一伸手就可以触摸到凝脂似的感觉。这里溪流缓慢，萦绕着每一个山脚，在轻轻荡漾着的溪流的两岸，满是高过马头的野花，红、黄、蓝、白、紫，五彩缤纷，像绵延的织锦那么华丽，象天边的彩霞那么耀眼，像高空的长虹那么绚烂。”这段描写抓住山色、溪流、野花这三种最能表现天山特点的事物，重彩浓墨，绘声绘色地把天山美景表现出来。既能使读者如身临其境，也增添了作品的文采。我们在作文时，如果能恰当地运用描写来表现形象，借以表达某种强烈的思想感情。文章的感染力就一定能有所增强。

叙述和描写在记叙性的文字中都是不可缺少的表现方式。叙述着重于一般情况过程的交待，描写则着重形象的描摹和刻画;如果说叙述是纵的绵延，那么描写便是横的扩展。一篇文字若无叙述，就会显得杂乱无章;没有描写，则会干瘪枯燥，毫无生气可言。

实际上，成功的作品中，常常是叙述与描写交错在一起的。我们所选优秀作文，《奶奶与花》就是叙述与描写交融在一起的，近似于一线串珠式的一篇记叙文。

文中以时间为序，先从小时候家门前有一个很大的“花园”叙述开始，然后再描写人物行为语言、花的形态、气味。从而表现我“深深地爱上花”的过程。接着叙述自己病中见到花的情景，描写花的形态，写出自己感受到“花能给人一种强盛的生命力”。接着是叙述“随着年龄的增长，这种认识愈来愈深”又通过对“死不了”“仙人球”的描写，感悟出“花，让我感到一种无尽的生命力，一种明亮的期望”。第五自然段叙述自己养花的过程。这里又运用描写的方式，描绘出花园的美丽，各种花的特点，表现出花可以陶冶情操的作用。这段描写是比较突出的，描写了花的各种色彩，各种形态，用排比、比喻的手法绘色绘形，有丰富的想象力。为了把文章写得曲折有致，第七段、第八段叙述搬进高层楼房前、后我与奶奶对花的珍爱，对小花园的怀念，这里又有对人物的心理、动作的描写，为“小花园”遭到破坏，我和奶奶沉痛心情做了铺垫。

这篇文章用叙述的方式。介绍了事件发展曲折过程，使文章头绪清楚，脉络分明，重点环节突出。这是文章的一条线。在每个重要环节上，作者都生动形象地描绘了人物的行为、场景、物态，内容丰满。叙述和描写有机地结合在一起，深刻地表达了文章的主题思想，增强文章的感染力。

在作文时，恰当地运用叙述与描写，做到有机结合，要注意以下几点。

一、要熟练掌握叙述与描写的功能，注意二者之间互相依存、互相交通的关系。根据作文内容和思想表达的需要，交错运用。

二、在描写范围比较大、内容比较丰富的地域景物或事物状貌时，(例如《天山景物记》等一些游记式的文章)需要有一条贯穿始终的线索，有一个逐步转移、推进的过程，那么这个线索或过程就要依靠叙述来表现。如我们常讲的“移步换景”的写法，其中对“移步”的交代，往往需要叙述。用时间推移来描写事物或人物的发展变化时，对每个阶段的交代，一般也是要运用叙述来完成的。在这种情况下描写的条理性要依靠叙述来体现。

三、在写故事情节比较强文章时，人物的语言，行动往往是构成情节的重要因素、情节又要依靠叙述来展开，这就需要描写人物语言行动与铺叙故事情节同时进行，也就是说要把叙述故事融化在描写中，或把描写融化在叙述情节中。我们仔细玩味一下作文《奶奶与花》，其中有些地方就是把描写与叙述这样融合在一起的。

If you’re reading this, there’s a good chance that you have an email account. You may well have several – perhaps separate accounts for professional and personal contacts.

如果你正在阅读这篇文章，你肯定有一个或若干个甚至是不同帐号的私人或办公邮箱。

It’s easy to assume that we know how to use email effectively: it’s been around for long enough. But if you find yourself struggling to communicate effectively by email, these six tips should help:

邮件这样的沟通方式早已经渗入到了我们的生活工作中，因此可以说大多数人都能有效地使用邮件与他人交流。但如果你发现自己还没做得足够有效，我想以下这六点可以帮到你：

1. Start With an Appropriate Salutation

邮件开头称呼要恰当：

Some people jump straight into the text of an email without so much as a “hi”. It’s polite to add a salutation, just as you would with a letter. That might look like:

有些人写邮件不喜欢加称呼，甚至连简单的“你好”都忽略，直接开始正文内容。孰不知就像在传统的信件上一样，写上称呼是一种礼貌的象征。称呼可以这样写：

#Dear Sir/Madam 亲爱的先生/女士

#Dear Mr. Johnson 亲爱的约翰逊先生

#Hi Sue 苏，你好

#Hello Fred 你好，福瑞德

Your salutation needs to be appropriate. If you’re writing to a prospective employer, “Dear Mr. Johnson” is probably the best way to go. “Hi Bob” is going to look unprofessional.

称呼必须恰当。若邮件对象是你未来的上司，“亲爱的约翰先生”这样的称呼应该为最得体的。像“你好，鲍勃”更适用于随意的场合。

But don’t assume that formality is always the right answer. If you’re writing to a friend of a friend, using “Dear” plus their surname is going to seem oddly stilted.

那么，是不是正式的用语就万能呢?绝对不是。若你给你朋友的朋友写邮件，那用“亲爱的+姓”就显得异常别扭。

If in doubt, “Dear [first name]” will usually work just fine.

当你判断不出哪种场合该用什么称呼合适，你可以使用“亲爱的+名”来应付所有情况。

2. Get Straight to the Point

直奔主题

Your correspondent won’t want to wade through paragraphs of waffle – so get straight to the point. If you’re writing to someone out of the blue, don’t give them your life story before you make a request.

相信阅读你邮件的人不会愿意仔细浏览你那空洞无聊的长篇大论，所以你需要直奔主题。如果你想写封邮件安慰某个心灵受伤的朋友，开头先把你的建议亮出来，然后再用你的亲身经历来辅助说明。

Getting straight to the point might mean that the first line of your email (after the salutation) looks something like this:

直奔主题意味着邮件内容的第一行应该是这样：

#I’m working on an article about Acme Widgets for XYZ publication, and wondered if you had a few minutes to answer the following three questions.

我现在正在写一篇要交给某某出版社关于极致控件的文章，不知道您有没有时间回答3个问题呢?

#Could you supply me with a quote for the following project?

可否对下面的设计项目进行引证?

#I’d like to discuss the revisions with you. Would Tuesday at 2pm be a good time?

我想和你谈谈修订的事。这周二下午两点您有空吗?

#I’ve attached the documents you requested at our meeting yesterday.

昨天会议上您要求的文件已附上，请查收。

You may well need to include more details, but if you put the important point up front, your email is more likely to get a timely response. If your question comes too far down, the recipient may not even realise that you need a reply.

当然，你需要再增加更多的细节内容。若将邮件重点放到内容的开头，你将收到更加及时的回复信息。如果你的问题在邮件后头，收信人可能都不会意识到你在等他回复。

3. Keep it Short

内容言简意赅

try to keep your email as short as possible. Make the paragraphs short, too – long paragraphs can be difficult to read and take in.

尽可能将你的邮件内容写得简单明了。文章太长不易阅读和吸收。

Do make sure you give enough information for your correspondent to be able to make a decision, if that’s required. You might find that it’s best to offer this as an attachment – you’ll have more flexibility over formatting, and your correspondent can print out the attachment easily.

若对方需要通过你的邮件来做决策，那你一定要在邮件中将相关信息写完整。为了能更灵活地排版，你可以把这些信息作成附件形式，以方便对方将其打印出来。

4. Use Numbered Points

将内容编号

If you’ve got several questions or points to make, it’s very helpful to number them. This makes it easy for the other person to respond to each one, especially if some just require a yes/no response or a single word answer. For instance:

对于那些为了咨询或提供各种问题的邮件，最好将问题一点一点的列举出来，以便于他人对每个问题作答，尤其当某些人更倾向于对问题只回答“是”和“否”的时候。例如：

#Could you let me know:

能否告知：

#1. How much it would cost for the website design

1. 网站设计费用

#2. How much for the website design plus a tri-fold brochure

2. 网页设计加一份三页宣传册的费用

#3. Whether you could complete #2 by the end of April

3. 您能否在四月底完成第二点所述工作?

It’s also useful to list your questions or points as bullets in this way; if you write a single paragraph, some of your questions might get missed.

将你的问题或观点用图标的方式罗列出来是很实用的，倘若你用一段话将几个点全部涵盖，那对方有可能会漏看其中的几点。

5. Re-read and Use Spell-Check

重新阅读一遍，校对拼写错误

A typo or spelling mistake can turn one word into an entirely different one. If you’re using email in a professional capacity, that mistake could be embarrassing – or even offensive. It might alter the whole meaning of your email: a missing “not”, for instance, could potentially cause problems.

排版或拼写错误有时能导致对一个单词的误解。尤其当你用邮件来沟通专业性内容时，这样的错误就很尴尬，甚至有些失礼。它可能改变你整个邮件的意思。比如：少写了个“不”，就可能会引起某些问题。

Spell-check should help you avoid any silly mistakes – but use your eyes and brain too. There are plenty of words that spell-check won’t pick up. If you’re emailing from a device with predictive text and an auto-correct feature, make sure you always re-read what you’ve typed.

因此检查拼写将避免你犯这些低级错误，但这里强调——不仅仅用眼睛检查，还得用大脑思考。有些错误不一定能轻易检查出来。如果你的邮件系统有字句联想功能和自动纠错功能，一定要把写出来的内容再通读检查一遍。

6. Make Your Signature Useful

充分利用邮件签名

Do you have an email signature? (That’s the text that appears automatically at the bottom of your email.) Some people don’t use one at all; others have a funny quote or favorite saying.

你设置过邮件签名吗(它将会在你每次邮件内容的下方自动生成)?有些人从来都没有使用过它，但我们也看过一些非常有意思和哲理的签名。

Whether you’re using email for professional or personal reasons, make your signature useful for both you and your recipient. That might mean:

无论你是为了工作还是私人聊天，加注签名对你和邮件接收者都有好处，因为这意味着可以：

Giving the link to your website

加上你的网页链接

Including your work address and/or phone number

写上你的工作地址或电话号码

Adding links to your social media accounts

注上你的社会媒体工具帐号(例如博客，微博，论坛)

Putting in a line to promote your recent book / blog / product

宣传你最新的书籍，博文或产品

If your email provider allows it, you may even want to create several signatures to use for different purposes (e.g. one for emailing friends, one for new business contacts).

有些邮箱甚至还提供用户根据不同目的设计不同签名的服务(比如：一个对朋友使用，一个对新结识的企业伙伴使用)。

论文是以议论和说理为主的文章，其主要表达方式是议论。小编收集了议论文写作基础，欢迎阅读。

论文是以议论和说理为主的文章，其主要表达方式是议论。论点、论据、论证是议论文的三要素。论点是统摄全文的观点，是全文的灵魂，也是其它两个要素围绕的核心。论据是用来证明论点正确性的材料足够的事实或正确的道理，它必须服从并服务于中心论点。论证是运用论据来证明论点的过程，它是论点和论据之间的逻辑联系纽带。论据和论证必须指向明确，且有说服力，才能形成整体合力，从而影响别人的想法，接受文中的主张。这就要增强议论的向心力。

向心力原来是个物理学概念，是指使质点(或物体)作曲线运动时所需的指向曲率中心(圆周运动时即为圆心)的力。这里我们借用这个概念来形象说明一下议论文的写作吧。这个心就是中心论点，这个向心力指的就是论据、论证的说服力;增加质点质量材料或加大速度论证即可增加向心力。为了证明自己的论点的正确，我们常常要从不同的角度，多方面地给出论据，并运用多种论证方法来证明论点。如果这些论证和论据是有系统的、有说服力的(当然是正确的)，那议论的向心力就会增强，中心论点就能使人信服。反之，则会弱化向心力，甚至还会产生离心现象，将极大地削弱论证力度，最终使论点立不住，甚至不可信，达不到使人信服的目的。

对论据而言，首先要增强论据的真实性、典型性和新颖性。真实性是基础，不能随意捏造，因为议论文要靠论据来支撑，如果有一个论据是假的，那读者就会窥一斑而见全豹，推而广之，进而全盘否定你的观点。对于引用名人名言，一定要写明谁说的，否则就会减少可信度，读者大都有因其人而信其言的思维定势，所以平时是要牢记一些名人名言在脑中的。典型性是公信力的保证，家长里短、道听途说当不得论据，所举论据应该是众所周知、公认的事实或定理原理，而且是最典型的，这样才能以一当十，增强说服力。新颖性是在前两者基础上，突出论据的新鲜感和时效性。其次要扩大论据的覆盖面。一般来说，文中所举论据应避免重复，尽可能兼顾不同领域、范围(有时同一领域的多数量也能增强说服力)。古今中外、社会科学、自然科学、个人、集体、国家是思考的几个常见维度。第三要注意论据的表述。对道理论据一般表述为某人说过某话就可以了，对事实论据的表述则要注意内容表述的指向性。要在陈述事实的同时，鲜明地将与中心最密切的关联处清晰地表达出来，而不是淹没在材料中让读者猜测、揣摩，而且还要着重对事实的结果进行交待，以增强说服力。一般在叙述时要关注四个要点：人、事、果、倾向性词语(某人做某事最终结果怎样)。倾向性词语是指能清晰表明与论点一致性的醒目的词语或语句，使论据与论点保持逻辑上的高度一致性。当然，无论是举例还是引用，在这之后最好加上分析说理的句子，以使论据与论证紧密结合形成合力，共同有力地证明论点。例文很好地体现了这些特点。

对论证而言，要增强论证的严密性，这需要学习一些逻辑知识。可以说，逻辑性是议论文的生命。我们一般总会用到归纳法和演绎法。归纳是由个别到一般，演绎是由一般到个别;归纳法限于已知，指向温故，演绎法助人探求未知，指向知新。运用归纳法时注意不要以偏概全，把话说死说绝了，需要辩证、全面;运用演绎法时注意推论的合理性，要符合逻辑。特别要注意语言的准确性和严密性，用语要恰当，造句求精密。

我认为一个人的写作能力是在非短时间挖掘出来的，冰冻三尺非也一日之寒，是通过坚持不懈的锻炼才会取得成功的机会。冰心曾说的：“成功的花，人们只惊慕她现时的明艳！然而当初她的芽儿，浸透了奋斗的泪泉，洒遍了牺牲的血雨。其实也就告诉我们在羡慕别人取得的成功时，更应看到成功背后所付出的艰辛！每个人的写作功底都迥然不同，不是所有人都能把事情叙述好的，这就觉得就要多看书，勤练笔。读书破万卷下笔才有神。我们很多人在烦恼自己写作的文字功底不尽人意，构思的时候就有时让我们感觉词藻干枯，灵感枯竭，无法表达。这是在言情小说写作中最遗憾和苦恼的问题。所以我还是认为，写作贵为勤，勤能补拙，多练习着写一定是有益无害。

一、言情小说其往往比较注重小说的情节以及构思，构思很重要，怎么才能有悬念。写框架，后润色。

有时，我们看一篇短篇小说，或许刚开始平淡无奇，但猛然间峰回路转，让读者心生感慨，其结局往往是意料之外，但似乎又在情理之中。尽量不要让波澜不惊，尽量要“跌宕起伏”。你想下：如果你写得平淡如水，平铺直叙去把谁和谁的故事一字不漏地记录下来，那不是小说。读者看得索然寡味，失去阅读下去的信心，故事写出来是供读者欣赏的，不能由着自己的感受去写，要让读者产生共鸣。读过之后难以释怀，沉浸在你的文章中，有所感悟,久久回味。就是说需要写作的人有“催生波澜”的能力，还有高度的驾御语言和组织语言的能力。和重要的想象能力。想象能力就是能让故事情节更加吸引人的能力。无尽的想象会优化我们已经确立的点，让立意更耀眼，为文章增色不少。

二、在上周的学习中，关于言情小说的叙述方式的飞鸟老师已经谈过了。

谈下在言情小说叙述时候的人称代词

第一人称叙述的长处是有真实感，亲切自然，短处是“我”的限制，反映“我”以外的人物思想容易受到限制。

第二人称：作者用"你"、"你们"来叙述，是第二人称叙述。实用写作中很少用此人称，文学创作中有大都通篇为第一人称的，一般不用。

第三人称：作者站在第三者的立场，用叙述他人事情的口吻，把人物经历、事件经过告诉读者，这便是三人称的叙述

第三人称叙述的长处是不受时间、空间限制，写作较自由、灵活，能把人和事直接展现在读者眼前。短处是没有第一人称叙述那样亲切自然。而且，掌握起来比第一人称叙述较为困难。

三、有人写言情小说天马行空,这对写作来说,有利有，看个人如何的把握了，文章不能太散,这是缺点，在写之前.我们先确定一个中心,也就是说想要表达什么,然后我们围绕这个点,打开自己的思维,展开自己想象的翅膀,编织自己的语言,进行我们想象中的故事。

写言情小说的时候,我们必须注意最基本的要点：

1，人物形象,

2,故事情节,

3，环境描写,能烘托故事的氛围。有简有略地写.重点的,对整篇文章有推动作用的就多写...一般铺垫的就少写...写完后..我们可以多读几遍..删掉认为重复或者烦琐的地方。

再次说了，文章一定要有波澜。因为“文似看山不喜平”、“文贵曲”。在文学写作中，抒情是和叙述、描写同样重要，“文章不是无情物，情者文之经”。我们写作离不开抒情，抒情是一种很重要的表达技法。抒情的作用在于以情感人，即通过自己抒发的感情能激起读者感情上的共鸣。让读者为之动容，那样的文章也许是比较成功了。“繁采寡情，味之必厌”。

四、想谈谈灵感的问题。

灵感是我们来源于生活，情感，敏感反映。写作的文字没有一承不变的，在作者灵感闪耀时，随时有可能改变写作的思路。就是说在灵感一现的刹那，把所有的点滴灵感串连在一起，经过真实故事的幻化嫁接而成的。宁静的氛围可以酝酿灵感的净土。我认为只有心灵达到一定“空灵的状态”——“满足的状态”——“痛苦的状态”，才可以使文字、情节源源不断地流淌出来。而心灵的空灵状态常常在特幽静的环境，或者夜深人静，或者听特别静心音乐等。

空灵的状态。就是说，那时候的心境只有自己和文字。没有其他杂念干扰你。例如我比较喜欢的《琵琶语》等等，幽幽古曲，像那呢喃细语，轻缓柔和，就像幽灵一般，淡淡忧伤。丝丝缕缕，特别在深夜聆听，一切成空，空悲切。琵琶低吟，悲怨哀愁，很容易产生很多灵感如泉水般涌现。总觉得音乐能释放的感伤与悲情，以及对美好世界的向往。我相信，音乐的旋律是不分国界，不分种族，不分语言的，只要心灵相通。

五、情感写作是极为费尽心思、事情，所以也是最为痛苦的事情；最为痛苦的事情却也是最能满足写作动力，犹如“爱情毒瘤”与“爱情美梦”一般。有痛苦是动，动可以孕育故事。

情丝，在小说中可能成为一条珍贵的线索。一篇丰满的作品能刻画出小说中的感情的的美——一种刻骨铭心的痛，一个永恒的记忆，或者一个永恒的美。小说中的爱情——个个美丽的爱情故事。自古以来，多少人心甘情愿中了“爱情的毒”，可多少作家笔下的甜言蜜语，悲欢离合却一直感动着那许许多多的人啊！我相信有真正的爱情存在，而且是完美的爱情存在，虽然这种几率却是微小的。因为很多人都喜欢追求完美的爱情，完美的爱情路途太遥远，现实会粉碎你美好的童话故事，被爱所伤，痛得太绝，所以我们看到了文章中有了许多多少催人泪下，柔肠寸断，绵绵不绝的动人爱情故事。最后我们言情小说在推荐的时候注意几点：

1，记住，一个抢眼的标题会让文章增色不少，吸引人的注意从标题开始！那样上榜的几率就大大增加了

2，文章语言通顺,力求优美。故事如果不十分跌宕起伏，但是将这种感情描绘得很极致、浪漫美好、忧伤.把爱情完美化、充满青春气息等几个要素。

3，通过深刻描写来刻画出文中人物的性格特点，使塑造的人物形象立体、饱满，这才是小说。

4，另一方面就是通过一个爱情故事或者事件来写出一种人的命运。注意情感写作的几个要素。

文字优美，内容曲折，结局出人意料.千万不要太过平淡,平铺直叙,即使你故事的原型是一个人的真实经历,但是小说就是小说,要经过艺术加工.经过你认真雕琢,也就好似说是每个人都会的,那不是小说,是流水帐。

最后，请注意文章的排版，力求美观，选用合适的字体和信纸，适当配上与文字匹配的图，使之更生动、唯美。好了，打扰大家周末休息的宝贵时光了。最后祝大家周末愉快,希望我们珍惜在红袖添香这个大家庭的美好时光,温暖伴随,彼此真诚帮助,携手共舞.抒写我们美丽飞扬的文字!

记叙文是以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主，以写人物的经历和事物发展变化为主要内容的一种文体形式。小编收集了描写记叙文的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

一、记叙文的概念和特点

[记叙文的概念]

记叙文,是叙述、描写人物、事件、景物的文章。

即通过人物的言行、事情的经过,来表达一定的中心思想。

或者说,记叙文是通过记叙人物、事件,来表明作者思想感情的一种文体。

记叙文不是狭义的文体概念,它是泛指以叙述、描写为主的写人、记事、写景、状物等文章。写人、记事、摹景、状物均属广义的记叙,以这些表达方式为主的文章,叫记叙文。

[ 记叙文的特点]

1、以人、事、物、景为写作对象;

2、以叙述、描写为主要表达方式;

3、通过对事物的描述,用来反映现实生活，表达作者的思想感情。

4、记叙文的主题,一般是通过对人事物的描述表现出来煌,而不是由作直接讲出来的。

【记叙文·写作】二、记叙文的类型

A、一般来说, 记叙文分为两种：

第一种是“简单记叙文”：只记一人一事,篇幅比较短小;

另一种是“复杂记叙文”：所记的人和事件,不限于一个或一件;写作方法也比较复杂。

记叙文包括范围很广 ，童话、故事、散文、游记、参观记、消息、通讯、报告文学、人物传记、回忆录、家史、短篇小说、长篇小说，都属于记叙文的范畴。

B、记叙文本身也较复杂，它又可公为四种类型：

写人、记事、写景、状物。

写人、记事,只是侧重不同,二者密不可分。写人要叙事;记事要有人。只是人、事在不同的文章里描述的程度不同：

写景、状物有密切关系,其实质是咏物抒情，“情景作文”是二者合一之体现。景也是物(是有观赏价值的物),关键在“情”,然“情”之依托物,乃景、物及表达方式(叙述、描写、议论等)。

【记叙文·写作】三、记叙文的表达方式

记叙文的主要表达方式是记叙和描写，但它并不排斥议论、说明和抒情。

复杂的记叙文,往往是叙述、描写、议论、和抒情相互结合。

为什么会这样来表达呢?

1、因为在记叙文中,所写的人、所记的事、所描摹的事物,总要有作者的看法,总要表达自已的感情。

这种对人或事物发表看法,进行评论——这就是“议论”;

这种对人或事物,表达自已的爱憎感情——这就叫“抒情”。

2、一篇好的记叙文,,不能单纯叙述、描写,而要在叙述、描写过程中,夹以议论、抒情。

3、写记叙文 ,除了运用主要表达方式(记叙和描写)外 ,为了突出形象、加深主题,常常用到到议论、抒情和说明;但议论、抒情应恰到好处使文章更形象生动,更富有感染力,起到画龙点睛的作用。

从上述可见：叙述、描写——是记叙文的主要表达方式;

议论、抒情——是记叙文常用的表达方式。

【记叙文·写作】四、记叙文的“六要素” (上) (上)">

1、记叙文的“六要素”

所谓“六要素”,就是人物、时间、地点、事件发生的原因、经过、结果。

任何一篇完整的记叙文字，都不能缺少其中任何一项,否则,叙述就会出现疑窦,出现悬念;或者有头无尾，线索中断;或者来路不明,无中生有。

2、记叙文的“六要素”也是叙述、记事的“六要素”。

3、怎样理解 “六要素”?

因为一件事情,都要发生在一定的时间、一定的环境(地点)里，有一定的人物参加。凡事情都有其起因(原因)、经过、结果。这些都是写记叙文的主要内容,必须写具体,重点内容要写详细、写充实,才能达到一篇记叙文的写作目的。

要想把一件事情说清楚,只有将与这事情有关的主要因素,交代清楚,就能把这个故事(事情、事件),即文章,显得完整、有条理。

也只有把六要素,交代清楚了,才能更好地表现主题思想。

四、记叙文的“六要素” (下)：灵活运用“六要素

在文章中,如何处理 “六要素”呢?

——要根据文章的实际情况，灵活地加以运用。

A、用三个“要素”,就能写成文章。

写一篇文章,对所写的人物、事件，都要有所侧重。只要能抓住其中三个要素,就可以写出一篇好篇文章。

在“六要素”中,时间、地点是最主要的要素。

因为 ,一切事物都存在一定的时间、地点(空间)里;一切事物又都是在一定的时间、空间内发生，发展，进行演变的。

所以, 时间、地点,必须交代清楚(交代即可,不等要详写)。

在一篇文章里,只要抓住不同的时间、地点的变化,就能突出典型环境、典型人物,就能写同很有特色的记叙文章来。

B、“六要素”的位置。

时间、地点——通常在文章前面作简要交化;

人物——随事件发展,陆续登场;

吸引人结果——作倒叙方法描述;

还可以最后交代原因——以作悬念。

C、有时,有的要素,可不用出现。

“六要素”,是否在文中都得出现?——这要从实际情况而定。

若,时间、地点，是人所共知的;或由其他之描述也能反映出来的;或不交代也没有多大影响的要素——则可省略不写。

如果事件的结果是显而易见的——结局可以不写,以给人留下回味之余地。

D、以时间为例,看“六要素”的交代方法可灵活多样。

□ 一般的交代：

×年×月×日

早晨、中午、傍晚

○ 代替法：

通过“太阳升起来了”、“烈日当空”、“夕阳西下”“夜幕降临”、“天边染上了红霞”等来代替时间的变化。

◎ 精确到：

时、分、秒

※ 大概：

“以前”、“古时候”、“前不久”、“最近”。

【记叙文·写作】五、记叙文的写作要略(一)、定要素

记叙文的写作,要从三个方面入手：

定要素;

搭架子;

会表达。

【定要素】

[相同点]

时间、地点——这是写文章的共同要素，一般都应写入文章。

[不同点]

一是,对人物和事件,在每篇目文章里的“侧重点”不同,所以各类文章的主体部分(主要内容)的重点内容也不同(或人、事、物、景)。

写人=时间+地点+人;

记事=时间+地点+事(原因、经过、结果);

写景=时间+地点+景(过去、现在、未来);

状物=时间+地点+物;

抒情=时间+地点+情(见景生情、睹物思人)。

【记叙文·写作】五、记叙文的写作要略(二)、搭架子

记叙文的写作,要从三个方面入手：

定要素;

搭架子;

会表达。

(二)、搭架子

搭架子——这是记文的结构安排问题。

开头——要简明、要点题。

中间——有“六定”：

1、定(分)段;

2、定各段详略;

3、定事——记一事或几事(一详,余略);

4、定人——写一人或几人(一主,余从);

5、定表达——以叙述为主，兼议论或抒情;;

6、定过渡、照应——使文章曲折、波澜。

结尾——要扣题;收束有力、发人深省、令人回味。

【记叙文·写作】五、记叙文的写作要略(三)、善表达

要善于运用各种表达方式，写好记叙文。

这就必须知道各种表达方式的作用和表现方法。这也是写作中的大事。

叙述、描写——是记叙文的主要表达方式;

[叙述]

叙述是作者对人物、事件、环境作一般交代和说明,不作细致刻画。

一般用在：具体情节，事情因、果、经过的叙述。

[描写]

描写是对人物、事件、环境所作的绘声绘色、细致入微的描写和刻画。要用生动富有感情的、形象的语言,着重刻画人、事、物的具体状态和细节特征。

议论、抒情——是记叙文兼用的表达方式。

[议论]

记叙文的议论,是为了直接点明和加深所写事物的意义,即文章的中心思想。

在记叙文中穿插的议论,可起到画龙点睛作用;有的在段落之间加上一两句议论,还可起到承上启下作用。

记叙文中的议论,可先叙后议,也可先议后叙;有的是不直接对人、事、物发表议论,而是由文中的人物去发议论、作评价

英文写作中常用的句子有哪些?下面来看看小编为大家整理的内容吧。

Never think yourself above business.勿自视过高;不要眼高手低;永远不要认为自己是大才小用。

Life is measured by thought and action, not by time. 衡量生命的尺度是思想和行为，而不是时间。

It pays to help others. 帮助别人是值得的。

It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems.该是有关当局采取适当的措施来解决交通问题的时候了。

He that thinks his business below him will always be above his business.自命大才小用，往往眼高手低。

Business may be troublesome,but idleness is pernicious.事业虽扰人，懒惰害更大。

We should get into the habit of keeping good hours.我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。

We should bring home to people the value of working hard.我们应该让人们明白努力的价值。

Time tries truth.时间检验真理。

Time past cannot be called back again.光阴一去不复返。

Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished.违反交通规则的人应该受到处罚。

There is no one but longs to go to college.人们都希望上大学。

The progress of thee society is based on harmony.社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。

The great use of life is to spend it for something that overlasts it.生命的最大用处是将它用于能比生命更长久的事物上。

Taking exercise is closely related to health.做运动与健康息息相关。

Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports.既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃作运动。

常用短语：

1. 有利有弊 Every coin has its two sides。(不推荐用。。。) No gardenwithout weeds。

2. 对…观点因人而异 Views on …vary from person to person。

3. 重视 attach great importance to…

4. 社会地位 social status

5. 把时间和精力放在…上 focus time and energy on…

6. 扩大知识面 expand one’s scopeof knowledge

7. 身心两方面 both physically and mentally

8. 有直接/间接关系 be directly / indirectly related to…

9. 提出折中提议 set forth a compromise proposal

10. 可以取代 “think”的词 believe, claim, hold the opinion/beliefthat

11. 缓解压力/ 减轻负担 relievestress/ burden

12. 优先考虑/发展… give (top) priority to sth。

13. 与…比较 compared with…/ in comparison with

14. 对这一问题持有不同态度 hold different attitudes towards this issue

15. 支持前/后种观点的人 people / those in favor of theformer/latteropinion

16. 有/ 提供如下理由/ 证据 have/ provide the followingreasons/evidence

17. 在一定程度上 to some extent/ degree / in some way

18. 理论和实践相结合 integratetheory with practice

19. …必然趋势 an irresistible trend of…

20. 日益激烈的社会竞争 the increasingly fierce social competition

21. 眼前利益 immediate interest/ short-term interest

22. 长远利益. interest in the long run

23. …有其自身的优缺点 … has its merits and demerits/ advantagesanddisadvantages

24. 扬长避短 Exploit to the full one’s favorableconditions andavoidunfavorable ones

25. 取其精髓，去其糟粕 Take the essence and discard the dregs。

26. 对…有害 do harm to / be harmful to/ be detrimental to

27. 交流思想/ 情感/ 信息 exchange ideas/ emotions/ information

28. 跟上…的最新发展 keep pace with / catch up with/ keep abreastwiththe latest development of …

29. 采取有效措施来… take effective measures to do sth。

30. …的健康发展 the healthy development of …

31. 相反 in contrast / on the contrary。

32. 代替 replace/ substitute / take the place of 大写)

33. 经不起推敲 cannot bear closer analysis / cannot hold water

34. 提供就业机会 offer job opportunities

35. 社会进步的反映 mirror of social progress

36. 毫无疑问 Undoubtedly, / There is no doubt that…

37. 增进相互了解 enhance/ promote mutualunderstanding

38. 充分利用 make full use of / take advantage of

39. 承受更大的工作压力 suffer from heavier work pressure

40. 保障社会的稳定和繁荣 guarantee the stability and prosperity ofoursociety

41. 更多地强调 put more emphasis on…

42. 适应社会发展 adapt oneself to the development of society

43. 实现梦想 realize one’s dream/ make one’s dream come true

44. 主要理由列举如下 The main reasons are listed as follows:

45. 首先 First， Firstly， In the first place, To begin with

46. 其次 Second, Secondly, In the second place

47. 再次 Besides，In addition, Additionally,Moreover,Furthermore

48. 最后 Finally, Last but not the least, Above all, Lastly,

49. 总而言之 All in all, To sum up, In summary, In a word,

积累一些英语格言，对英文写作有一定的帮助。以下是小编带来的小学生经典英语格言，希望对你有帮助。

A cat may look at a king. 猫也可以看国王。

A friend in need is a friend in indeed. 患难识知已。

A good marksman may miss. 智者千虑，必有一失。

A good maxim is never out of season. 至理名言不会过时。

A good medicine tastes bitter. 良药苦口，忠言逆耳。

A good winter brings a good summer. 瑞雪兆丰年。

All roads lead to Rome. 条条道路通罗马。

Better early than late. 宁早勿晚。

Better late than never. 迟做总比不做好。

Great minds think alike.英雄所见略同。

It is good to learn at another man’s cost.前车可鉴。

It is never too late to learn. 活到老，学到老。

Love me, love my dog.爱屋及乌。

Men learn while they reach. 教学相长。

Second thoughts are best. 三思而后行 。

导语：活动类作文属于叙事作文，在写作过程中重点表现活动的重点。下面是活动类作文写作基础，欢迎参考!

一、写学习和文体活动的作文类型

1.写一次学习或文体活动，反映校园生活的丰富多彩;

2.写一次学习或文体活动，表现同学们有着广泛的兴趣和爱好;

3.写一次学习或文体活动，表现全班同学的精神风貌和合作态度。

二、写学习和文体活动的参考题目

1.《记一次兴趣小组的活动》

2.《记一次学习的争论》

3.《记一次智力竞赛》

4.《记一次游戏活动》

5.《记一次_______比赛》

6.《一次快乐的周末联欢会》

7.《记一次升旗仪式》

8.《记一次入队仪式》

三、写学习和文体活动的参考开头

1.《记一次兴趣小组活动》的两种开头

第一种开头：下午第二节一下课，我们就一起来到了生物活动室，参加“红蜻蜒生物活动小组”。

第二种开头：“今天的红蜻蜒生物活动小组不知道活动什么内容?”下午第二节课下课的铃声一响，我们就议论开了。

2.《记一次智力竞赛》的两种开头

第一种开头：星期三下午，我们五年级举行了一场别开生面的学习竞赛：语文知识智力竞赛。

第二种开头：“善耕小学五年级语文智力竞赛，现在开始!”随着年级主任王老师的一声宣布，别开生面的竞赛活动开始了!

3.《记一次升旗仪式》的两种开头

第一种开头：星期一的早晨，天，格外地蓝;风，格外地柔，这一天，我们五(2)中队就要举行隆重的升旗仪式。

第二种开头：绿绿的草坪，高高的旗杆，一队队少先队员精神振奋，他们正等待着庄严的升旗仪式的到来。

四、写学习和文体活动的参考词句

书声琅琅/有条不紊/心不在焉/欢声笑语/静悄悄/掩卷沉思/频频点头/聚精会神/跳了起来/笑眯眯/有高有低/比唱歌还要好听/瞥见了/华丽/思路开阔/老高老高/乱蹦乱跳/冷不防/左瞧右看/仔细欣赏/轻轻飘浮/郁郁葱葱/变幻无穷/广阔无垠/心里痒痒的/端端正正/难分难解/一马当先/鼓起勇气/动作灵巧/不负众望/以守为攻/一鼓作气

1.队员们的脸上泛起了笑容，惊奇的目光变成了赞叹。

2.这时，全场静寂得连摄影师拨弄快门的声音都听得见。3.最吸引人的是五年级同学表演的“红领巾考察团”的节目。

4.我一出台，就在小白兔屋外的篱笆边探头探脑地张望着，台下的观众一下子哄笑起来。

5.“我”把嘴张得大大的，爪子伸得长长的，黑鼻子狂嗅着，活像一只真的大灰狼。

6.二十秒，不分胜负!三十秒，不分胜负!啊，五十秒，还不分胜负……

7.比赛开始了，投掷区内垒球、手榴弹像天上的流星一样飞落在很远的地方。

8.“砰”的一声，一颗红色的信号弹腾空而起，场上身穿各色衣衫的运动员，“刷”地从起跑线上飞出去，像一片彩云。

9.守门员敏捷灵巧的动作，博得全场热烈的掌声。

10.比赛场上响起一阵轰雷似的掌声，我们终于赢了!

五、写学习和文体活动的参考段落

1.去年夏天，我第一次到龙潭湖采集标本。那天天很热，我拿起捉蝴蝶和蜻蜓的网子，背着标本采集箱，在草丛中来回巡视着。忽然，不远的一棵小树上，一只蝉在鸣叫。我走到树下，抬头望去，只见一只螳螂从蝉的下面沿着树干爬了上去。渐渐近了，蝉没有发觉，还在叫着。螳螂又爬了几步，来到了蝉的后面，举起“大刀”，一下子把蝉按在下面，蝉不叫了，它受到了这突然的袭击，有些慌乱，它挣扎着想逃走。可绿色卫士似的螳螂哪里肯放过，它把蝉翻过来，让蝉肚皮朝天，然后挥动着“大刀”，一下刺进了蝉的肚子里。蝉疼得乱动乱叫，可螳螂不慌不忙，一口一口，把蝉吃下肚去。我看着看着有些吃惊，因为我从来没见过螳螂吃蝉。这一次真是让我大开眼界。

(采集标本活动让我增长了不少知识，见到了很多没有见过的精彩场面。)

2.同学们心情大概也和我一样，大家伸长了脖子，睁大了眼睛，盯着李老师的每一个动作。李老师从一个小瓶子里倒出一点深褐色的粉末，又在粉末上滴了几滴液体。几秒钟过去了，不见动静。教室里鸦雀无声，大家将信将疑地等待着。又过了几秒钟，只见石棉板上出现了一丝青烟，袅袅上升。不一会儿，烟越来越浓，还听见噼噼啪啪的炸裂声。啊，要烧起来了。果然，一下子腾起了蓝色的火苗，火越烧越旺。教室里一下子像开了锅似的，欢呼声，鼓掌声，议论声响成一片。

(小作者写声音的变化很有本事，你看他先是“鸦雀无声”，到“一丝青烟”，再到“噼噼啪啪”的炸裂声，最后是“像开了锅似的”，多么生动，多么有味!)

3.我俩摆开阵势扭打开了。我光凭着自己劲大，加之求胜心切，想一下子把他拉倒。可是越急，越乱了脚步。张忠对我的扭拉只是躲闪招架。忽然他看准我的一个破绽，脚下一使绊，使了个“拐把”，把我摔了个狗吃屎。第二次交手，我使出浑身解数，拿出平生力气，死扭硬拉，可他像一尊铁塔，任我怎么折腾他也摔不倒。突然，他一只手抓起我的脚，一只手在我胸前稍微往后一推，我又仰面倒在地上。周围又是一片叫好声。

(虽然很想赢，但是因为技不如人，也只好认输了。)

4.观众们一个个瞪大了眼睛看布条往哪儿走。正在这时，红布条慢慢向三(3)班方向移动了。周围的观众都喊：“三(3)班加油!三(3)班加油!”我们听到了喊声，都鼓起了勇气，脸涨得通红，眼睛睁得大大的，身子拼命往后倾斜，差点快碰到地上了。红布条又慢慢向我们班级移动。“哗……”比赛场上响起了一阵轰雷似的掌声，我们赢了。

(抓住了红布条来写，是很正确的。因为红布条是胜利的象征。)

5.轮到我们钉了。我迫不及待地把线浸了唾沫捻了捻。可是我这一捻，把那几个小毛头捻成又细又长的了，穿针的时候，我穿来穿去就是穿不进。我把毛头拽下来以后才穿了进去。接着，我在线的末端打结。由于线上有唾沫，打结的时候，老是粘在手指上打不起来，好不容易把结打好了。开始钉钮扣了，我用右手拿着针从布底下穿上来，可是没穿到钮扣眼里，倒戳在钮扣上。我觉得针前面硬硬的，还以为布是硬的呢，于是我就使劲地戳。哪知道针戳不穿钮扣，反而歪过来，正戳在我手上。这时我才感觉到钉钮扣不简单啊!一颗钮扣钉好了，该打结了，这一项我干得很顺利，一会儿就打好了。

(能把穿针引线的事情写得这样详细，不容易!的确，在写作之中，有的地方是要像穿针引线一样仔仔细细，认认真真。)

6.游戏一开始，同学们就高高兴兴地排好了队，有的同学认为画鼻子很简单，显出很不在意的样子;有的同学却皱着眉头在想画的办法。排在最前面的李红高兴得手舞足蹈，她刚把红领巾蒙到眼睛上，就迫不及待地向前大步走去。她事先也没看好目标，就走了过去，结果她越走方向越歪，旁边有个同学小声地说：“太往左了，往右!”她愣了一下，站住了，马上向偏右的方向走去，又太歪了。到了黑板前，她也不想想黑板的位置，就随便一画，结果把鼻子画到了头顶上，引得同学们哄堂大笑。

(写活动时，周围人的态度和言行是很重要的，不可缺少。这能起到渲染气氛和突出人物的效果。)

7.第四场比赛就轮到我们四年级同学了，我们全班同学按座号坐下后，只听得监考老师一声令下，比赛开始了。同学们连忙打开桌上发的试卷，迅速地算了起来。这时，赛场上一片寂静，我耳朵里只听到沙沙的写字声。“快做!”催促着自己，不断地挥动手中的铅笔。“八九七十二、八八六十四……”我默读着乘法口诀，还运用我自己的“加减速算法”，作出了一道又一道算术题。时间一秒一秒地过去了，我忘记了一切。嘿，快做完了，就剩下最后一道四则运算题了，我高兴得差点叫了起来。可就在这一瞬间，“收卷时间到!”随着监考老师的一声，比赛结束了。我不得不放下手中的笔。我拍着自己的脑袋，恨我自己做得太慢了，为什么不能按时完成呢?我低着头难过地离开了考场。

(有面的描写——赛场上一片寂静;也有点的描写，就是写我在赛场上的表现。点面结合，就立体化了，给人的印象就比较深。)

8.一声哨响，第三局比赛开始了。我的心怦怦直跳。我屏住了呼吸，用足力气，两只手像两把小钳子一样牢牢握紧绳子。在我前面的小胖鼓着腮，把牙咬得格格响，脸涨得通红。平时很文静的小芳也变得非常严肃，只见她的眼睛瞪得大大的，紧锁双眉，拼命地用力。尽管我们使足了劲，可绳子中央的红领巾并不听话，正偷偷向五(1)班那边移去。“加油!加油!”场外的小观众为我们急得直跺脚。“不要急，要沉着，劲往一处使，一定能胜利!”我们的班主任老师带领着啦啦队也在为我们鼓劲。

(写活动，要注意把“点”写好，所谓的“点”，实际上就是一个个人的情况，而不是一群人的情况。比如在这段文章里，作者写的是一场拔河比赛，当然有很多的人参加。在描写时，适当地描写一下个人的情况，能够把这场比赛介绍得更加详细。你看，这一段文字就写了“我、小胖和小芳”的比赛情况，使人能够更具体地了解当时比赛的过程。你觉得是不是这样?)

9.楼上的一排教室灯火通明。陈强那个班的教室在最后一间。他依次从宽敞的窗户望进去，嗬，教室全都变了样：五色纸链织成的一道道彩虹在灯光下交相辉映，课桌都拼成了一张张长条桌，桌上铺上红格或蓝格的桌布，一瓶鲜花放在桌子中间的生日蛋糕圆盒旁。长桌的数目与小队的数目一致，讲台上也铺着桌布，放着鲜花。陈强觉得，那生日蛋糕在商店里给人的感觉只不过是一种精美的食品，可今晚放在教室里就有了另一种含义，不由得令人肃然起敬。

(写活动时，需要进行周围环境的描写，因为活动的地点需要介绍呀，是不是?所以，在描写活动前，应该先把活动的场地介绍一下。一般来说，活动前，总要先把环境布置布置。美一点，才能开开心心地搞活动呀!)

10.有趣的斗蛋比赛在热烈的气氛中结束了。斗蛋手们，有的高兴，有的难过，你瞧：胜利者正在津津有味地吃着蛋，他们一定觉得手中的蛋格外香吧!那些“败将”们呢，愁眉苦脸地看着那不争气的蛋，吃也吃不下，扔又舍不得扔。不过到了最后，他们还是偷偷地把蛋吃掉了。他们一定一边吃，一边安慰自己：蛋破了更好，还省得自己敲碎呢!

(写活动结束后的情景，这一段写得较好。特别是写那些比赛失败的选手们的心情，写得很有特色。作者不是净写他们的愁眉苦脸，还写了他们对自己的安慰，而且还的确有点道理。这种很有幽默感的句子，可以看出小作者的水平的确高人一筹。不过，大家有没有注意到，这些句子，作者全都是用一种猜测的语气写出来的，为什么要这样处理呢?)

11.我走进二楼的比赛室，看见许多选手已经在写了，就赶紧走到自己的座位上，拿出了文房四宝。我一边折纸，一边自己叮嘱自己：“千万不要紧张，要发挥出自己的最佳水平来。”我看了看边上的几位选手写的字，真不错，便更加感到自己肩负的责任重大。我暗暗下了决心：一定要战胜他们!我定定了神，就拿起毛笔，蘸足了墨水，开始写字。

(文中有两处心理描写。看起来，如果要表现自己的一种精神，就可以用这种手法。写的时候，可以用文中“叮嘱自己”和“暗暗地下定了决心”这样的句式，后面跟上冒号就可以了。)

12.中秋节的晚上，月儿格外地明，我和妈妈来到学校。不一会儿，老师宣布晚会开始。第一个项目就是竞选中队长。我和竞选对手——周玉，同时坐到了主席台上。我的心怦怦地跳着，再看看一旁的周玉，他也是那样地紧张。我想：如果竞选失败，那多难为情……

(竞选中队长，这种场面的确是够让人紧张的。作者通过写景，写竞选对手周玉和自己的内心活动，把这种紧张一层一层地写出来了。)

13.哗哗哗……一阵阵热烈的掌声;哈哈哈……一阵阵朗朗的笑声。这里出了什么稀罕的事?啊，原来是我班女同学正在进行梳辫子比赛。前几天，同学们就得到了这个消息。今天上午第三节课，比赛正式开始了。一个个女同学站到了讲台前。我们男同学不时地在后面挤眉弄眼，悄悄议论着，谁能取胜。

(写活动，开头很容易写得一般化，或是简单地交待时间，或是简单地交待地点，等等。这里的一段文字就显得与众不同。你看它的开头，又是拟声词，又是排比句，非常地新颖，很能吸引读者。)

14.夜幕降临了，操场上燃起了熊熊的火焰，营火晚会开始了，全场欢腾起来，大家手拉手跳起了优美的集体舞。同学们的表演更是精彩。瞧，张刚和李强的相声多么有趣，逗得大家合不拢嘴;夏艺同学的电子琴独奏，让人暗暗称赞;田珂同学的魔术表演，让同学们琢磨不透，联想翩翩……

(用一两句话简单地介绍当时活动的情况，这很有必要。如果全是详细的描写和叙述，没有简略的介绍，这就像没有绿叶的红花一样，是不够完美的。当然，反过来也一样。)

15.班里联欢会进行击鼓传花游戏。鼓停时，拿着花的同学就要表演节目。顽皮的刘平又开始捣鬼，他一直抓住花，咚咚咚——鼓点刚落，他眼疾手快，猛地把花丢给旁边的沈晴。花在沈晴的怀里打了个转，落到了地上，沈晴傻乎乎地把花捡在手里，这才知道上了当。她犹豫了半天，还是被推到场中。她挠挠头皮，又使劲咽了一下口水。“来来，唱一个!来来，唱一个!……”经不住同学们再三欢迎，她只得放开嗓子唱了起来。

(写那朵花在沈晴怀里的情景，写得很不错，细致而又生动。)

六、写学习和文体活动的参考题材

1.举行各种学习竞赛，让同学们在充满趣味和竞争的学习气氛中得到知识，丰富课外生活;

2.老师让同学们学做小老师，一帮一，一对红，大家很欢迎这种学习的形式;

3.我们的课外活动很是丰富，我们搞了写字比赛、漫画比赛、普通话比赛、诗歌比赛、小品比赛、童年回忆录写作比赛等等;

4.我们的学习活动不仅在课堂里，而且有时还安排在工厂里，田野里和大街上，老师们是让我们认识到社会就是一个大课堂，知识的学习并不局限在教室里;

(以上可以作为写学习活动的题材。)

5.班级举行文娱活动，活跃同学们的课外生活，同时也是在锻炼大家的各种能力;

6.班级举行自炊活动，同学们自带米、菜和煤炉，在教室里做了一桌饭菜;

7.班级里举行小奥运会，与国际奥运会的项目基本相同，大家感到很有兴趣;

8.班级举行**比赛，大家经过几轮赛事，最后比出了冠亚军;

9.班级里掀起了学下国际象棋的活动，两周以后，大家还举行了国际象棋的比赛。

(以上可以作为写文娱和体育活动的题材。)

常用的励志英语句子有很多，但是你能在短时间内就想起来吗?下面是语文迷为大家整理的英语励志句子，希望对你写英语作文有帮助。

Children in backseats cause accidents. Accidents in backseats cause children. 后排座位上的小孩会生出意外，后排座位上的意外会生出小孩。

Don’t take guilt trips. Take a trip to the mall, to the next country, to a foreign country, but NOT to where the guilt is.别踏上犯罪的道路。你可以去逛街，可以到邻县去，可以出国旅行，但就是别踏上犯罪的道路。

Enjoy the simple things.享受简单事物的乐趣。

I will greet this day with love in my heart.我要用全身心的爱来迎接今天。

Keep learning. Learn more about the computer, crafts, gardening, whatever. Never let the brain idle. "An idle mind is the devil’s workshop. And the devil’s name is Alzheimer’s."学无止境。多学学电脑、手艺、园艺等等。不要让你的大脑闲置下来。无所事事是魔鬼的加工厂。魔鬼的名字叫“痴呆症”。

Keep only cheerful friends. The grouches pull you down.结交快乐的朋友。整日愁眉不展只能让你雪上加霜。

There will be no regret and sorrow if you fight with all your strength.

只要全力地拼搏，就不会有遗憾，没有后悔。

Time is a bird for ever on the wing.

时间是一只永远在飞翔的鸟。

Time will never change and stop for any person.

时间不给任何人情面，也不会为谁而停留。

Today, give a stranger one of your smiles. It might be the only sunshine he sees all day.

今天，给一个陌生人送上你的微笑吧。很可能，这是他一天中见到的唯一的阳光。

Victory wont come to me unless I go to it.

胜利是不会向我们走来的，我必须自己走向胜利。

Walk the road you want to walk and do what you want to do , keep moving ahead and that’s not the silence of failure.

走自己想走的路，干自己想干的事，勇敢向前，这就是你不败的沉默。

We all have moments of desperation. But if we can face them head on, that’s when we find out just how strong we really are.

我们都有绝望的时候，只有在勇敢面对时，我们才知道我们有多坚强。

We must accept finite disappointment, but we must never lose infinite hope.

我们必须接受失望，因为它是有限的，但千万不可失去希望，因为它是无穷的。

The future is scary but you can’t just run to the past cause it’s familiar.

未来会让人心生畏惧，但是我们却不能因为习惯了过去，就逃回过去。

The first step is as good as half over.

第一步是最关键的一步。

The failures and reverses which await men - and one after another sadden the brow of youth - add a dignity to the prospect of human life, which no Arcadian success would do.

尽管失败和挫折等待着人们，一次次地夺走青春的容颜，但却给人生的前景增添了一份尊严，这是任何顺利的成功都不能做到的。

Success is the continuous journey towards the achievement of predetermined worth while goals .To live your life in your own way .To reach the goals , you’ve set for yourself . To be the person, you want to be ——that is success .

成功是不断向领先确定的有价值的目标前进的过程，用自己的方式生活，达到自己定下的目标，做出自己想做的人——这就是成功。

Success is the ability to go from one failure to another with no loss of enthusiasm.

成功是，你即使跨过一个又一个失敗，但也沒有失去热情。

Ones real value first lies in to what degree and what sense he set himself.

一个人的真正价值首先决定于他在什么程度上和在什么意义上从自我解放出来。

People neeed some courage in life, just like climbing a cliff .Although there are stemp ahead, you still fell some timorous and dare not go ahead. But when you conquer the timidity and reach the peak, you will feel the importance of courage as you enjoy the beautiful scenes. It is the same with life.

人生需要一点勇气和胆量，就如登一座悬崖峭壁的山峰，虽然上面都有云梯、搭好的台阶，可你就是有点胆怯，不敢向前，但你战胜了自我，到达了顶峰，看到了山顶的景色，你就会感到勇气和胆量是成功的标准人生何尝不是如此呢?

Real dream is the other shore of reality.

真正的梦就是现实的彼岸。

Sharp tools make good work.

工欲善其事，必先利其器。

Sometimes your plans don’t work out because God has better ones.

有时候，你的计划不奏效，是因为上天有更好的安排。

Standing firm is to challenge difficult courageously and to leave the smile after sccess to oneself.

坚强，就是勇敢的向困难挑战，把成功的微笑留给自己。

Never underestimate your power to change yourself!

永远不要低估你改变自我的能力!

Never, never, never, never give up.

永远不要、不要、不要、不要放弃。

导语：说到大家可能都会说起那电影人物啊，演员演技啊，背景音乐之类的。有些观众更是会“鸡蛋里挑骨头”说剧情一般，编导不行什么的。但是大家知不知道一部电影的形成是多么的不容易，单单是一份电影剧本的形成就很不简单啦!下面小编带大家了解电影剧本的写作基础~体验一下编导的不容易~

电影剧本是什么?

它是一部故事片的指南或概要吗?是蓝图吗?是图表吗? 是一系列通过对话和描写来叙述的形象、场景、段落等，就像一串联系在一起的珍珠项链一样吗?是一幅梦境中的风景画吗，是一些思想的汇集吗?

那么问题来了电影剧本究竟是什么?

首先，它不是小说，当然它也绝对不是戏剧。

如果你看一部小说而且尝试着去确定它的基本特性时，你会发现那种戏剧性行为动作、故事线等，时 常是发生在主要人物的头脑中。我们(读者)是在偷窥主人公的思想、感情、言语、行为动作、记忆、梦 幻、希望、野心、见识和更多的东西。如果出现了另外一位人物，那么故事线则随着视角而变化，但时常 是又返回到原来的主要人物那里。在小说中，所有的行为动作都发生在人物的头脑中──在戏剧性行为动 的“头脑幻景”之中。

在戏剧(舞台剧)中，行为动作和故事线则发生在舞台前拱架下面的舞台上，而观众是第四面墙，偷 听舞台人物的秘密。人物用语言来交谈他们的希望、梦幻、过去和将来的计划，讨论他们的需求、欲望、 恐惧和矛盾等。这样，戏剧中的行为动作产生于戏剧的对白语言之中，它本身就是用口头讲述出来的文字 电影则不同。电影是一种视觉媒介，它把一个基本的故事线戏剧化了。它所打交道的是图像、画面、 一小片和一段拍好的胶片;一个钟在滴滴答答地走动、一个窗子正在打开、一个人在看、两个家伙在笑、 一辆汽车在弯道上拐弯、一个电话铃在响等等。一个电影剧本就是由画面讲述出来的故事，还包括语言和描述，而这些内容都发生在它的戏剧性结构之中。

一部电影剧本就是一个由画面讲述出来的故事。

它象名词(noun)──指的是一个人或几个人，在一个地方或几个地方，去干他或她的事情。所有的电 影剧本都贯彻执行这一基本前提。 一部故事片是一个视觉媒介，它是把一条基本的故事线加以戏剧化。如同所有的故事一样，它有一个 明确的开端、中段和结尾。如果我们拿来一个电影剧本，把它象一幅画那样挂在墙上来审视，那么它看起 来就象下面那个图表。

第一幕 第二幕 第三幕

开端(beginning) 中段(middle) 结尾(end)

│ │

A──·───┼───·───────┼─────Z

│ │

建 置(setup) 对抗 (confrontation) 结 局(resolution)

所有的电影剧本都包括这一基本的线性结构。 我们把这一电影剧本的模式称之为示例(Paradigm)。

它就是一个模特儿，一个式样，一个构思的规划。 表中的示例象一张桌子：一张桌面加上(通常是)四条腿。在此示例范围内，可有方桌子、长桌子、 圆桌子、高桌子、矮桌子、矩形桌子、可调节的桌子等等。以此示例为样板，我们可以随意制作各种各样 的桌子──反正都是一张桌面加上(通常是)四条腿。

这个示例是确定无疑的。

上面的图表就是一个电影剧本的示例。

下面我们将其分解：

第一幕，或称开端

一个标准电影剧本的篇幅大约有120页，或长两个小时。 不论你的剧本全用对话、全用描写，或两者兼有之，均可按一分钟一页来计算。 规矩是不变的──电影剧本中的一页等于银幕时间一分钟。

第一幕是开端，可看成建置(setup)部分，这是因为你要用30页左右的稿纸去建置(确定)你的故事

。如果你去看电影，你时常会自觉或不自觉地做出判断──你是否喜爱这部影片。今后看电影时，请注意 一下，你需要多长时间做出你是否喜爱这部影片的决定。一般大约十分钟左右。也就相当于你写的电影剧 本的头十页。你应该及时地抓住你的读者。

你应该用大约十页的篇幅来让读者明白谁是你的主要人物，什么是故事的前提，故事的情境是什么。

以《唐人街》(Chinatown)为例：第一页使我们知道杰克·吉蒂斯(杰克·尼科尔森JackNicholson饰)是 地区调查所的一位不拘小节的私人侦探。在第五页我们认识了一位墨尔雷太太(狄安娜·莱德DianeLadd饰)。她要雇用杰克·吉蒂斯去调查“我丈夫和谁正在乱搞”。这是这部电影剧本的主要问题 ，而且它提供了一股导致最后解决的戏剧动力。

在第一幕结尾处要有一个情节点。所谓情节点就是一个事变或事件，它紧紧织入故事之中，并把故事 转向另一方向。这一事件一般出现在第25～27页之间。在《唐人街》之中，当报纸上发表了声称墨尔雷先 生在“爱巢”之中被人抓住的故事之后，真的墨尔雷太太(费伊·邓纳维FayeDunaway饰)和她的律师来到 事务所，恐吓说要提出诉讼。她是不是那位雇用杰克·尼科尔森②的真的墨尔雷太太?又是谁雇人冒充墨尔雷太太呢?这一切都是为什么?这个事件就把故事转引到了另一个方向：杰克·尼科尔森作为事件的幸 存者必须弄清楚，是谁在摆布他，并且为了什么。

第二幕，或称对抗

第二幕是你故事的主体部分。一般是在剧本的第30页至90页。它之所以称为电影剧本的对抗部分，是 因为一切戏剧的基础都是冲突(conflict)。一旦你给自己的人物规定出需求(need)，亦即在剧本中他想要 达到什么目的，他的目标是什么，你就可以为这一需求设置障碍(obstacles)，这样就产生了冲突。在《 唐人街》这个侦探故事中，第二幕就是杰克·尼科尔森与一些势力发生了冲突，这些势力不愿意让他调查 出谁应该对墨尔雷先生之死以及争水丑闻负责。杰克·尼科尔森所需要克服的障碍支配着这个故事的戏剧

性动作(dramaticaction)。

第二幕结尾处的情节点一般发生在第85页至90页之间。在《唐人街》中，第二幕的结尾的情节点就是 ：杰克·尼科尔森在墨尔雷先生被谋杀的水池中找到了一副眼镜，并知道它不是墨尔雷的就是属于那个谋 杀者的。这样就把故事引入到结局部分。

第三幕，或称结局

第三幕通常发生在第90页至第120页之间，是故事的结局。

故事是如何结束的?主人公怎么样了?他是活着还是死了? 他是成功还是失败了?等等。你的故事需要有一个有力的结尾，以便使人理解并求得完整。那种模棱 两可，含义暧昧的结尾，现在已经过时了。

所有的电影剧本都贯彻着这一基本的线性结构。 戏剧性结构可以被规定为：一系列互为关联的事情、情节或事件按线性安排最后导致一个戏剧性的结局。

如何安排这些结构组成部分，决定了你的电影的形式。以《安妮·霍尔》(AnnieHall)为例，它是一

个由闪回来叙述的故事，但也有一个明确的开端、中段和结尾。《去年在马里昂巴德》(AnneederniereaMarienbad)也是一样。《公民凯恩》(CitizenKane)、《广岛之恋》

(Hiroshimamonamour)和《午夜牛郎》(MidnightCowboy)都是如此。

所以这个示例是起作用的。

第一幕 第二幕 第三幕

│ │

────·─┼──────·─┼─────

│ │

建置 对抗 结局

情节点Ⅰ 情节点Ⅱ

它是一个模特儿，一个式样，一个构思的规划;一个技巧高超的电影剧本就是这个样子的。它为我们 提供了关于电影剧本结构的总观。如果你弄清楚了它就是这个样子的话，你可以简单地把你的故事“装” 进去就行了。

所有的好电影剧本都符合这个示例吗?

肯定是的。

但不必盲目相信我的话。你把它当成一件工具来使用它;对它发生疑问，去研究它，并且思考它。 也许有人不相信它。可能不相信会有什么开端、中段和结尾。你可能说：艺术如同生活一样，它充其 量不过是在某个巨大的中间部分中偶然发生的几个个人的“重要时刻”，并没有什么开端也没有什么结尾 。它正如库特·冯尼格特(KurtVonnegut)所称，是“一系列偶然的时刻被随意地串联在一起”。

我不同意上述这种看法。

请问：一个人出生、生活到死亡，难道不象是开端、中段和结尾吗?

想一想伟大文明的兴起与衰亡吧──如：古埃及、古希腊、古罗马帝国，它们都是从一个小小的社团 萌芽，发展到权力鼎盛时期，然后衰败直至覆灭。

想一想一颗星的诞生与消亡，或者宇宙的开端，根据现在大多数科学家已经赞同的“大统一”理论， 如果宇宙有其开端的话，那它必然也应该有一个结尾。 想一想我们身体的细胞吧!它们从补充、恢复到再生这一循环周期要用多少时间呢?只要七年──在 七年中我们身体中一些细胞要死亡，别的一些细胞要生殖、活动、死亡，然后再生。 想一想你获得某项新工作的第一天吧!你要和新同事相识，要承担一些新的职责，直到后来你决定离职、退休或者被解雇。

电影剧本也毫无例外。它们有自己明确的开端、中段和结尾。

这是戏剧性结构的基础。

这仅仅只是电影剧本的写作基础的一小角。所以一部成功的电影的诞生多么的来之不易啊~小编希望大家且看且珍惜~

与其他文体相比，英治议论文的结构一般较为固定，有下列几个部分组成：

1.提出需要议论的议题;

2.摆出正反两方面的观点;

3.表明作者持何种态度;

4.论证自己观点的正确性从而使读者接受自己的观点;

5.小结。

在具体写作中要注意下列几点：

1.议题的提出要开门见山，不要拖泥带水，啰啰唆唆

2.正反两方面的观点一般都要摆出，有时也有只强调一种观点的，那么这就等于将上述第二点和第三点合在一起了

3.作者的观点必须鲜明，不能模棱两可

4.论证自己的观点是议论文的最关键的部分。论证手段与英语说明文中的一些写作手法相同，常用的有罗列法、举例法、因果法、比较法等等。

5.对于较长的英语议论文还可以在文章结尾时对全文要点作一小结。

下面这篇学生作文是较为典型的一篇英语议论文：

Should Examination Be Abolished (取消)?

The examination system has come to be the main theme (主题)of modern education. One should take an examination andsucceed in passing it before he could be admitted， promoted or graduated. As it plays so important a role in the realm of education (教育的领域) it is under much criticism (评论) as to its validity (有效性) . People who are in favour of it try to develop this system more; those who are against it believe that such a system should be abolished. Should examination be abolished? In my opinion it should be.

Many people think that an examination is the only means to test knowledge， but， in fact， that is not true. A few questions given in an examination could by no means cover the whole field of the subject. Thus those who are able to answer them may be the poorest of the students and yet happen to know just a few points about that subject.

Id like to say that， because of the existence of the examination system， students pay so much attention to gaining high marks， that they often forget the chief purpose of education. The so-called clever students devote (贡献) themselves to the study of textbooks only. They， of course， know nothing but the skeleton (梗概) of knowledge. The end and aim of education， however， is to enable students to learn how to live. To do this， students must get themselves to do all kinds of training， physicalas well as mental. The present examination system has discouraged students from making such an attempt.

Moreover， since the students try so hard to put their lessons into memory in as short a time as possible， psychologically (心理上来看)， they soon forget the whole subject as soon as the examination is over. Surely this is one of the greatest wastes ever made in the history of civilization.

Lastly， in order to get high marks， there is a great temptation (诱惑) for students to cheat (作弊) in an examination. Indeed， such a practice becomes the means to the end. They cheat their teachers， their parents and also themselves. Such a tendency would impair (损害) our moral standards (道德标准) .

Therefore， I am of the opinion， in conclusion， that the examination system should be abolished.