自考英语写作基础教程【优秀20篇】

英语书面表达是体现个人水平的一个主要因素，也是各种考试考查的重要内容。怎样才能提高英语写作能力呢?方法是多种多样的，但最重要的是夯实学生的语言基本功，打好坚实的基础。语言的基本功在写作教学中体现为准确应用词汇和正确使用句型结构的能力，语句的组织衔接和谋篇布局的能力。在学生真正地掌握语汇用法的前提下，比较行之有效的方法是把句型教学放在写作情景中进行教授，培养学生的应用和运用能力。

在句型结构教学中，应尽多设计一些写作情景，使句型结构服务于教学，这样不仅提高了学生的写作兴趣，也加强了教学的目的性和针对性。为了提高写作能力和写作水平，本文主要归纳和总结了英语写作中常用的一些重点句型。希望能给同行们在教学中，学生在学习上有一些帮助。

以形式主语it引导的句型。

句型1.

It (so) happened(chanced) that +clause. = sb. happened /chanced to do sth. =sb.did sth. by chance. 如：

It happened that he was out when I got there. 当我到那儿时，碰巧他不在。=He happened to be out when I got there.= It chanced that he was out when I got there= He was out by chance when I got there.

句型2.

It seems that sb. do/ be doing/ have done/ had done= Sb. seems to do/ be doing/ have done/to be done/to have been done(还有动词appear等可这样使用)如:

It seemed that he had been to Beijing before.他好象以前去过北京。=He seemed to have been to Beijing before.

句型3.

It is / was+被强调的部分+that(who)+剩余的部分.如：

It wasn’t until he came back that I went to bed.直到他回来我才睡觉。(一定要注意被强调句型中的谓语动词否定的转移)。 It was because he was ill that he didn’t come to school today.只因为他有病了今天没有来上学。(只能用because而不能用for, as 或since)

It is I who am a student. 我确实是个学生。(句中am不能用are来代替。)

句型4.

It is high time (time/ about time)+ (that) 主语+should do / did+其它。(从句中的谓语动词用的是虚拟语气。)如:

It is high time that we should go / went home.我们该回家了。

句型5.

It is / was said ( reported…)+that+从句. 如：

It was said that he had read this novel.据说他读过这篇小说。=He was said to have read this novel.

句型6.

It is impossible / necessary/ strange…that clause.(从句中的谓语用should+do / should have done，其形式是虚拟语气。)如：

It is strange that he should have failed in this exam.真奇怪，他这次考试没有及格。

句型7.

It is + a pity/ a shame…that clause.(注意从句中的谓语动词用should do或should have done的形式，但should可以省略。)如：

He didn’t come back until the film ended. It was a pity that he should have missed this film. 他直到电影结束才回来。他没有看到这部电影真可惜。

句型8.

It is suggested / ordered/ commanded /…that +clause.(从句的谓语动词用should do, 但should可以省略。)如：

It is suggested that the meeting should be put off.有人建议推迟会议。

句型9.

It is/was+表示地点的名词+where+从句。(注意本句不是强调句型，而是以where引导的定语从句。)如：

It was this house where I was born.请比较：It was in this house that I was born.(后一句是强调句型。)

句型10.

It is / was +表示时间的名词+when+从句。(注意本句型也不是强调句型，而是以when引导的定语从句。)如：

It was 1999 when he came back from the United States. 请比较：It was in 1999 that he came back from the United States.

句型11.

It is well-known that+从句。如：

It is well-known that she is a learned woman.众所周知，她是个知识渊博的妇女。

句型12.

It is +段时间+since+主语+did. 请比较：

It was +段时间+since+主语+had done. 如：

It is five years since he left here.他已经离开这儿五年了。

It was five years since he left here.(同上)

注意下列句型的翻译:It is five years since he lived here.他从这儿搬走已经有五年了。

句型13.

It +谓语+段时间+before+主语+谓语.( before引导的是时间状语从句。) 如：

It wasn’t long before the people in that country rose up.没有多久那个国家的人民就起义了。

It will be three hours before he comes back.三个小时之后他才能回来。

句型14.

It is +形容词(possible, impossible, necessary等) +for+ sb.+ to do. 如：

It is impossible for me to finish this work before tomorrow.我明天之前完成此工作是不可能的。

句型15.

It is +(心理品质方面的)形容词+of + sb. +to do.= 主语+ be +形容词+to do.(常用的形容词有：kind, stupid; foolish, good, wise等。)如：

It is kind of you to help me.=You are kind to help me.你真好给我提供了帮助。

一篇完备的医学论文应该具有科学性、首创性、逻辑性和有效性。 小编收集了医学论文基础写作，欢迎阅读。

1.医学论文的基本特性

一篇完备的医学论文应该具有科学性、首创性、逻辑性和有效性。

1.1 科学性： 这是科技论文必须具有的首要条件，是它与其他文学、艺术、神学等文章的根本区别。科学性就依靠实验方法，得出可靠的数据和结果并加以论证，提出新的立论或观点。如果论文的实验方法无可复性，实验数据存在拼凑嫌疑，也就是说他人重复实验后不能得出相同的结果或结论，这就不具备科学性。

1.2 首创性：这是科技论文的灵魂和被录用的最具说说服力的依据。首创性是前人尚未发现的事物或尚未完成的实验。科技论文的关键是求异而非求同，重复与模仿前人的实验，就会使科技论文丧失生命力和发表价值。诚然，在某些特殊情况下，重复也是必要的。

1.3 逻辑性：这是科技论文写作水平的具体体现。一篇逻辑性强的医学论文应该是脉络清晰、结构严谨、推论合理、前后呼应。如果论文写作杂乱无章、偏离主题，对实验结果没有科学的推理分析，只有一堆的原始数据，即使该项研究是科学的、前人没有发现的，它也不能是一篇好的科技论文。

1.4 有效性：这是科技论文的发表方式。科技论文只有通过同行专家审评或在学术会上答辩通过或在科技刊物上发表，才具有有效性和被认可。

2.医学论文的构成

论证型医学论文应该由文题(篇名)、著者、摘要、关键词、正文(前言、材料方法、结果、讨论)、图说明、参考文献等几部分组成。

2.1 文题：应尽可能简明扼要、突出主体并包括主要的关键词。我国的科技期刊论文题名用字一般不超过20个汉字，外文题名一般不超过10个实词。如因题名用字受限而表达之意未尽时可以用副题名，但应尽量避免使用副题名，题名还应避免使用化学结构式、英文缩写、简称等。

2.2 著者：应该是该项研究或实验的主要参与者，能对发表内容的科学性负有责任，并能对读者的讯问作出适当的回答。为了要名誉或凑论文篇数而没有参加实际工作只是挂名，这种行为不可取。科技论文著者署名应用真实姓名，不用笔名[1]，人数以不超过6人为宜。如果著者不是同一单位，应在著者姓名的右上角加注不同的阿拉伯数字序号，并在其工作单位名称前加注与作者姓名序号相同的数字。中国著者姓名的汉语拼音采用姓前名后，中间空格，姓氏的全部字母均大写，复姓应连写;名字的首字母大写，双名中间加连字符[2]。在实验过程中给予帮助或参加常规工作的人员不应按著者身份署名，可以在文末以致谢的方式对他们的工作给予感谢。通讯作者是指该项研究或实验的负责人。

2.3 摘要：应简明、准确地提供论文梗概，不加评论和补充解释，使读者一看即对全文有所了解。医学论文摘要应以报道性摘要形式、单数第三人称陈述，不要使用“本人”、“作者”等。采用结构式四要素书写，即在行文中标出：目的(objective)、方法(methods) ，结果(results)，结论(conclusion)。中文摘要不宜超过400字，英文摘要不宜超过250个实词。英文摘要尽可能与中文摘要一致亦或较之略详。注意英文书写中不要用“～”号和“、”号，因为英文中没有这两个符号。摘要中不要使用图、表等，避免使用不常用的缩写。

2.4 关键词：是反映论文主题及特征的专业术语。可以给出4～6个，不超过8个，应尽量采用《医学主题词表》和《MeSH》中的规范性词，也可以用未被收录的新产生的专业术语。中、英文关键词应一致。

2.5 分类号：是为了便于论文进行统计、分类、检索而新立的项目。应根据论文的主要关键词，依照《中国图书馆分类法》(第4版)进行分类，可选1～2个分类号。

2.6 前言：是论文的开场白，应简明扼要地说明研究或实验的目的和意义，可简明介绍论文的背景和理论依据，也可适当引用过去的重要文献，作为研究设计的依据。但不要轻易用“文献未见报道”、“国内外首创”等写法，以留有余地，以200～400字为宜。

2.7 材料和方法：这是别人能够重复实验的重要依据。应对实验选择的对象、所用的材料和采取的方法进行必要的说明。例如：动物的性别、重量、数量，试剂的化学名称(不要用商品名称)和计量单位(涉及到浓度时统一用升表示基准单位的分母，如μg/ml应换算成mg/L，ng/ml换算成μg/L，pg/ml换算成ng/L)[3]。时间天、时、分、秒应分别用英文字母d、h、min、s表示，而年、月、周用汉字而不用英文字母表示。材料和方法的叙述应以他人可以重复实验为度，常规方法可简述或引用文献，新方法或特殊方法应详细叙述。

医学论文应重视研究中的对比、随机和重复，进行前瞻性的研究，以保证研究结果的客观性。动物实验应严格分组，在种系、性别、年龄、体重、健康等方面应力求一致，并应进行随机分组和设置对照。每组动物应达到一定的数量。各组实验方法之间应力求只有一项规定的变动因素，并且有明确的观察指标

2.8 结果：这是论文的关键部分。研究或实验的新进展、新发现，应在结果中体现出来。结果应对实验得到的各种数据进行归纳分析，并进行统计学处理得出结论，然后用文字及图、表等表示出来，但不要用图或表重复反映同一组数据。结果应真实、准确，不能虚假或模凌两可，结果中不应进行讨论。

统计学字符均应用斜体，如P值，t检验等、均值标准差应用x±s，均值标准误应用x±sx。

2.9 讨论：是对研究和实验进行的评价和总结。讨论一定要紧紧围绕着研究和实验结果进行，突出新发现和新观点，不应满足于与他人的报道“相一致、”“相符合”，讨论还应前后呼应、客观、实事求是并留有余地，对他人相关的研究结果可以用引文献的方式交代，但不应进行讨论，以免偏离主题。

2.10图版和图版说明：图版的好坏是反映医学形态学期刊质量的重要方面。

2.10.1线条图绘制一定要清晰、准确，可用计算机绘制也可用硫酸纸墨绘，横纵坐标上的刻度应在坐标的内侧，坐标的文字说明应在外侧，绘制曲线时，不同浓度、剂量或时间的坐标点可相同而曲线可分别用虚线、实线、点线等表示。图中的文字和图说明应中英文对照。表格均应制成三线表，表题及表中文字也应中英文对照。

2.10.2图版：形态学的照片应清晰、反差适度，图版制作应整齐美观，大16开本的图版要求：宽≤17cm，高≤22cm，图与图间距约1mm，图中的结构应用箭头或字符标示，图的左下角应附有标尺，右下角应用4号宋体字标出图的序号。

2.10.3图版说明：是对图的解释。应简明扼要、重点突出，主要描述新的发现或与他人发现的不同之处，众所周知的或教科书中已有的不必赘述。图版说明应中英文对照并尽可能保持一致。

2.11参考文献：是反映论文的科学依据和尊重他人研究成果而向读者提供文中引用有关资料的出处。引用的文献应是作者直接阅读过的，不要用转引文献，尽可能不引用文摘。内部刊物、资料汇编、私人通信和未发表的著作均不能作为参考文献引用。文献引用条目不应过多，论文一般不超过15条，综述一般不超过40条，短篇报道不超过5条。

著录格式采用1979年在蒙特利尔会议上修改通过的温哥华格式，即：

期刊参考文献著录内容及标点符号依次为：作者(列出前3位姓名，无论中、西文姓名均姓在前、名在后，西文姓用全称，首字母大写，名用缩写字母大写，每名之间用豆号隔开，3人以上用“等”或“et al”表示。文题(如有副题，中、日文文献两题之间符号同原文，无符号者副题加圆括号;西文的主副题之间用冒号隔开，主题首字母大写，副题首字母小写)。刊名(西文缩写应参照《Cumulated Index Medicus》 的缩写法 )，年份，卷[如为增刊，则在卷后加圆括号标注“(增刊)”或“(suppl)”字样,并在括号内标出增刊号码]，期，起页～止页。

参考文献类型标识：专著为M，期刊文章为J，论文集为C，报纸文章为N，学位论文为D，报告为R，标准为S，专利为P。标识应放在文题之后。例如：

[1]Hamilton RB,Ellenberger H,Liskowsky K,et al.Parabrachial area as mediator of bradycardia in rabbits[J].J Auton Nerv Syst,1981,4(2):261-281.

[2]赵钧铭，褚建新，丁顺利，等.bcl-2基因转染小鼠造血干细胞重建造血的生物学特性[J].中华医学杂志，1999，79(1)50～53.

书籍索引格式分两种，其著录内容及标点符号依次为：(1)编者(列名同期刊，但姓名后应用逗号加写“主编”或“ed”，“eds”)，书名，卷次(西文用“vol)，版次(西文用“ed”，第1版不写)，出版地：出版商，年份，起页～止页。(2)作者，文题，见(西文用“in”)：编者，书名，卷次，版次，出版地：出版商，年份，起页～止页。例如：

[1]贲长恩，李叔庚，主编.实用酶组织化学[M].长沙：湖南科学技术出版社，1996：195～198.

[2]Paget GE,Barnes JM.Surface area ration of some common laboratory animal species and man.In: Laurence DR,Bacharat AL,eds.Evaluation of Drug Actions:pharmacometrics,[M].vol.1.New York:Academy Press,1964:161-163.

综述所引参考文献的形式基本同上述，但参考文献可不列文题。例如：

[1]Medvinsky A,Dzierzak E.[J].Cell,1996,86(6):897-899.

[2]裘奇，刘志红.[J].肾脏病与透析肾移植杂志，1997，6(3)：246～248.

参考文献的正确书写是一项细致、繁杂的工作，应该认真对待。

3.其他文章的书写

3.1 短篇报道：短篇报道的格式基本同论文，但要求全文在3 000字以内，结果和讨论合并书写，参考文献引用不超过5条。

3.2 研究通讯：它是将最新的研究结果以通讯报道的形式快速发表。它的书写不需要“摘要”、“前言”、“材料和方法”、“结果”和“讨论”的段式，可将以上内容简明扼要、一气呵成书写成文。全文不超过600字，不附图、不引参考文献。

4.应注意的问题

4.1 阿拉伯数字的使用：(1)凡是可以使用阿拉伯数字而且不会造成歧义的地方均应使用阿拉伯数字; (2)世纪、年代、年、月、日、时刻要用阿拉伯数字(年份必须用全称);(3)科学计量和具体统计意义的数字要用阿拉伯数字(凡在计量单位和计数单位前面的数字，包括9以下的个位数字，除个别特例外均应使用阿拉伯数字，包括整数、小数、分数、百分数、约数);(4)序数词和编号中的数字应用阿拉伯数字;(5)千位数以上的数字，废除千位撇(，)，改用3位分节法，即每3位空1/4格。

4.2标题层次的书写：标题层次一律用阿拉伯数字连续编号(材料和方法、结果、讨论的编号不连续。)层次一般不超过4层，不同层次数字间加下圆点相隔，如：1.、1.1、1.1.1、(1)。

一项有价值的科研成果，如果最后完成于一篇富有科学性、逻辑性，结构严谨，书写通顺的科技论文，那它将迅速被科技期刊发表。反之，则将延误刊出时间，甚至会失去研究成果的首创性，而被他人先期发表，使自己的劳动成果功亏一篑。所以不仅要重视科学研究，而且也要重视科技论文的书写，做一个能文能武的科研工作者。

如何写好高中话题作文，话题作文的基本要求：要审题，所写内容必须在话题范围之内。“立意自定”，关键要读懂话题关键词的意旨，若给出导语提示，还应划出导语中包含归结的关键语词。一般初学者，首先要注意让这些关键词贯穿在自己作文的始终，统帅自己的文意。今天小编给大家分享如何写好高中话题作文。

一、文章形式的革命——夹叙夹议

尽快脱离初中只重记叙，笼统归结的写法。高中的作文记叙只向最高水平开一条缝，你得复杂记叙，融情思与哲理于一炉，有最动人的细节和最精美的表达，巧妙蕴含深刻的思辨和无穷的回味，这不是一般人能做到的，更不是学不会议论抒情的同学的避难所。所以，比自己多练议论，远比固守初中记叙的窠臼要有前途。高中的记叙必须简约，只提炼能说明自己观点的内核，而尽量舍弃叙述的完整过程与细节。叙，惜墨如金;而起始学写议，应力求具体多点分析阐述。

二、文章立意的升华——深入浅出

叙完笼统归结是初中模式作文的又一通病，常常文章的结尾具有宽泛的普适性，而缺乏对文章应有之义作具体针对性的挖掘阐发，常常文章的“穿鞋戴帽”大到可以套在无数篇文章上，却没什么真正的思考。高中作文倘使还用夹叙夹议，也要对叙的材料反复推敲，找出几例可以统一在一个观点里的材料，就材料的不同侧面来评析议论，最后上升归结出恰当切题、言之有物的中心。

三、文章表达的提高——点睛生花

好的文笔追求更高效率、更多意蕴。描述中就渗透情思与评析，这是较高水平的表达。一般的叙议分段，也应注意所叙材料紧贴自己的议论，议论应采取逐层推进，前后分界，避免相互缠绕。但又必须前后连贯，形成一个整体。在文章中一定写好精心组织的关键议论，努力使文章多处呈现运用一定修辞的文采。

话题作文训练举隅

话题作文的基本要求：话题作文还是要审题，所写内容必须在话题范围之内。“立意自定”，关键要读懂话题关键词的意旨，若给出导语提示，还应划出导语中包含归结的关键语词。一般初学者，首先要注意让这些关键词贯穿在自己作文的始终，统帅自己的文意。

规定“题目自拟”，一定不要用话题作标题。1、标题范围尽量要小，不要太大太泛;要合理出新，不落俗套。2、标题不能过长，可以采用副标题的方式对主标题加以限制。3、标题要含蓄，把思维蕴涵于形象的标题之中。

想象力是十分强烈地促进人类发展的伟大天赋，那么大家知道学生如何写好想象文章呢？下面一起来看看！

想象是以感觉、知觉和记忆为基础的。三者的区别在于：感觉、知觉反映当前事物的形象；记忆反映过去感知的事物的形象；想象则反映未曾经历过的或现实中不存在的事物的形象，例如《西游记》中的孙悟空、猪八戒及各种妖魔鬼怪，都是想象的形象，是非现实的。?想象在科学论文和文学作品的写作中有着重要的作用。大量的科学研究成果是受想象的启发而获得的，无数文学人物的形象是通过想象而创造出来的。所以，爱因斯坦说：“想象力比知识更重要，因为知识是有限的，而想象概括着世界上的一切，推动着进步，并且是知识进化的源泉。严格地说，想象力是科学研究中的实在因素。”（《爱因斯坦文集》第一卷）

古今中外的许多作家都认为想象力是文学创作绝对必需的。例如，茅盾说：“创作文学时必不可缺的，是观察的能力与想象的能力：两者缺一不可。”（《茅盾文艺杂论集》上集）

想象力的基础是敏锐的观察力和牢固的记忆力。较强的想象力表现为：善于控制想象的方向，围绕一个中心展开想象；善于提高想象活动的新颖程度；善于在现实的基础上创造非现实的新形象；想象的内容是丰富的、多层次、多侧面的。这种较强的想象力主要是经由人的后天教育与环境熏陶，通过实践的锻炼而逐步发展起来的。

重视并且认真培养、锻炼想象力，就可使想象活动在写作中发挥开拓思路、强化感情、促进独创、深化主题的作用。

想象分为有意想象和无意想象。梦是无意想象的极端表现，与写作有着密切的关系。然而，写作中的想象按其创造性的本质来说，则都是有意想象。有意想象又可以分为再造想象和创造想象。科学写作中的想象具有客观性和精确性，而文学写作中的想象具有主观性和虚构性。

文学创作想象的主要特点是进行表象的分解与综合。只有在理解想象的特点的基础上，才能经过不断的写作实践，培养出丰富的想象能力。

[写作基础：学生如何写好想象文章

写作训练是掌握技能的必经途径，所以，要掌握应用文的写作，学生必须多练。因此，作为《应用写作》课的科任老师必须要掌握一套激发学生愿意甚至喜欢进行应用文写作的教学技巧。

一、兴趣与写作的联系

(一)兴趣的概念

兴趣是人积极探究某种事物的认识倾向。这种认识倾向使人对某种事物有稳定的指向、倾向，并具有向往的心情。如对书法感兴趣的人，不论是现场观摩即席挥毫还是观看电视上的书法讲座，都会全神贯注;在日常的谈论中，对书法也会津津乐道;对报刊杂志上有关书法展览和比赛，也总是予以极大的关注。

由此可见，要使学生喜欢应用文的写作，我们作为老师的，就是要想方设法使他们对应用文的写作产生兴趣。

(二)兴趣与需要的关系

兴趣和需要有着密切的联系。兴趣的发生以一定的需要为基础。当一个人有某种需要时，他必然会对有关事物予以关注，也就是对有关事物发生兴趣，不仅反映已有的需要，又可产生新的需要，不断探究，并在需要的基础上激发动力，去做好或完成感兴趣的事情。

需要对于兴趣的产生是直接的，而应用文是一种在日常生活中非常实用的文章，在学习、生活、工作中经常用到，所以，只要我们做老师的，做个生活的有心人，就不愁找不到写应用文的需要。学生一旦对应用文有了需要，也就对应用文的写作产生了兴趣，那学生怕写应用文的难题就迎刃而解了。

二、激发学生进行写作兴趣的种类

激发学生对应用文的写作兴趣，按照对象的不同，可以分为以下几种:

(一)学校实际的需要

《应用写作》是一门应用性行极强的学科，即使在学校读书期间也可能经常用到。在一个学期里每个阶段都可能会用到一些应用文。一般来说，开学初估计要用到的应用文有计划、规章制度、通知等;学期中可能遇到的有:申请书、演讲稿、广播稿、新闻、调查报告等;期末可能用到的有求职信、总结等。读书期间运用的知识，对于学生来说是最感兴趣和最容易掌握的，所以，作为《应用写作》的科任老师，应该要因地制宜，因势利导，利用学生要写好这类文章，争取得到好的结果这个心理需求，学习和掌握所学的应用文。

(二)社会现实的需要

社会上每天都会发生很多新事情新情况，这些新事情新情况有些是意义重大，如汶川大地震、中国2008年的奥运会、神舟飞船上天、爱国人士保钓行动等大事可以写成新闻;有些社会上的事情与学生有直接的关系，如有关禁止中小学生进入某些娱乐场所的通告、青少年犯罪的通报等，都可以通过引导，激发学生的写作兴趣和热情。

(三)学生家庭的需要

一个家庭就是一个社会的缩影，一个家庭不管是贫穷的还是富裕的，都会经历很多事情，这些事情都很有必要用到一些应用文，从而获得较大的利益和保障。如果一些比较富裕的做生意的家庭，可能要写的应用文将会有:广告、合同、法律文书、请柬等;比较困难的家庭也可能要用申请书、感谢信等。不管哪一种情况，老师都可以引导学生进行写作，帮助学生，为家庭提高经济效益，创造幸福和谐的生活，。

(四)学生自身的需要

学生在读书过程中，也会很多时候要用到应用文，如入学时学生干部竞选，可以学习演讲稿的写作，提高竞争能力，为班级、为自己写计划，做好一个学期的打算;一个学期里可能有的活动如演讲比赛、田径运动会、晚会，这些活动就可以写演讲稿、新闻稿、解说词;期末如果是毕业班的学生，就要引导写求职信，以期通过有创意、水平高的求职信，谋得一份好工作。

(五)创设情境的需要

应用文虽然也被称之为实用文体，但并不是所有的应用文在学生的读书时期都可以用得上。实际上，《应用写作》这本教材里，有很多文体学生在读书期间是用不上的，如公文的大多数文种、经济应用文、涉外应用文等，对于这些文体，科任老师只能创设一定的环境和情景，让学生有一种身临其境的感觉，从而使之不写不快，这样同样能达到训练写作，巩固和提高应用文写作水平的目的。

三、激发写作兴趣的运用

学生对写作训练有了兴趣，这只是写作训练的第一步，也是非常重要的的一步。但要学生真正达到提高学生应用文写作水平的效果，还要做好一系列的工作。

(一)在教学过程中一定要把握好时机,

人们常说，机会是属于有准备的人。学校、社会、家庭、学生个人并不是任何时候都有应用文等着去写的，所以，我们做老师的就要做个有心人，把握好每一种文体练习的机会。

1.对于写学校需要的应用文，科任老师接到上课任务后，就要了解在一个学期中，学校、班级要开展什么活动，需要那些文体，做到心中有数。

2.对于写社会需要的应用文，科任老师要像抓小偷的警察一样时刻竖起耳朵，及时捕捉社会上出现的新事物新情况，然后把材料发给学生或者引导学生何如获取材料，最后要求按要求进行写作。

3.对于写家庭需要的应用文，科任老师应该在开学的第一节课后，就布置学生，关注自己的家庭需要，如有需要写的及时提出来，让大家一起写，把写得最好的应用文交给他的家里。这样，学生得到了锻炼，需要应用文的学生家庭又得到了一篇质量较高的应用文，真正起到了一箭双雕的作用。

4.对于写学生需要的应用文，方法与第一点差不多，只不过写作的目的而已。第一点的写作目的是为集体，这一点所说的写作目的是为个人。

5.对于创设情境而写的应用文来说，就不需要把握什么时机了。这种教学方法，不受现实的限制，更能发挥老师的能动性，只要老师充分发挥想象力，从趣味性以及从学生的切身利益相关的角度出发，创设出生动有趣的情景就可以说已经成功了。

(二)要根据需要调整上课的内容

应该说，绝大部分的应用文的文体都不会与上述五点需要同步，科任老师应该把需要用的文体调前或者推后来学习，然后按照学校、社会、家庭、学生的需要指导写作，由于所写的文体与学生的需要关系密切，学生一定会仔细听，认真写，从而达到学好应用文的目的。

(三)要做好指导工作

对应用文的教学，并不只是引导学生对写作感兴趣就行了，在教学中，首先要上好应用文的文体知识，然后指导学生认真审题，特别是指导好学生运用所写的文体知识，选取有用的材料进行写作。这个方面很重要，指导得好，学生就会觉得应用文并不难写，就会有兴趣写下去，指导得不好的话，结果也会相反，从而大大地影响应用文的教学效果。

(四)注意反馈信息，不断总结提高写作水平

学生把需要写好的应用文用到需要的地方之后，科任老师要时刻注意学生所写的应用文的效应和反响。例如是学生为自己写演讲稿的，就要了解学生的演讲是否成功、是否获奖。是学生为自己写求职信的，就要了解他们的求职是否成功，是为班级写规章制度的，要向班主任了解有没有采纳;是为家庭而写的法律文书，就要了解有没有帮助打赢官司;写的广告是否提高了经济效益;为社会而写的动态新闻稿件是否得到广播或发表等等。对于取得好结果的，要及时给予总结，找出成功的地方，便于今后继续发扬，取得更大的成功;对于失败的应用文，也要找出失败的原因，避免重蹈覆辙。

四、注意事项

运用上述方法进行应用文的写作教学时，还要做好以下几点:

(一) 兴趣与强制结合

兴趣这个东西，并不是人人都可以激发，种种文体都可以引起学生的兴趣，对一些启而不能发的学生或者难以激发写作兴趣的文体，做老师的必须实行强制的措施，强调写作的要求和交文时间。这样，才能达到全班步调一致的整体效果。

(二)方法交叉运用

以上五种激发学生进行写作的方法只是为了说明清楚而分开说明，并不是每一种文体只能用一种方法，有时候，同一文体可以用两种甚至几种激趣法。例如，写经济合同，既可以是为自己写的，也可以是为家庭和社会某些企业而写。通过多种方法进行引导，学生的写作兴趣就会更大，写作就会更积极，写作水平也就提高得更快。

(三)注重训练实效

按照唯物主义的观点，世界上没有一成不变的事物，也没有绝对最好的方法，激发学生对应用文写作兴趣的方法不是唯一，相信除了本文所列的方法意外，还有很多好方法，只要在实际训练效果明显的，就应该采用哪一种(包括本文没有列举的)。

一位著名的教育家说过这样一句话，没有教不好的学生，只有不会教的老师。的确，只要我们做老师的从多个方面、多种渠道去想，是有很多方法和技巧可以激发中职学生的对应用文的写作兴趣，从而提高他们应用文的写作水平。

一、优化词汇输入教学，丰富词汇知识积累

词汇是一篇文章最基本的组 成要素。头脑中如果没有一定数量的、且处于鲜活状态的词汇，就无法写出好文章。要写出好的文章，就必须善于从众多的词语中选择和运用最恰当的词语。因此， 加强词汇教学、扩大和丰富学生的词汇量是提高学生写作能力的基础工作。克拉申的“语言输入假说模式”认为：正确和恰当的语言输入将会使语言学习的效果更 佳。

最佳语言输入的两个必要条件：

1)密切相关的

2)大量的。因此，将密切相关的常用词汇、习惯搭配适当集中教学，反复归纳、不断循环和强化是较好的词 汇输入方法，同时也保证了常用词汇在头脑中的鲜活状态，为写作输出提供可靠保障。

二、加强基础写作训练，活化基础知识积累

在学生写作过程中，我们 常常会发现许多学生的词汇量与运用能力不成正比的现象，写作中经常出现词汇贫乏和用词不当等问题。这种问题的出现实际上是学生获得的知识没有有效的活化。 配合词汇和句型教学，教师可以经常以所教学词汇为关键词拟定一些与时事或生活相关的话题，让学生用词、句做翻译练习，一段时间(4-5天)之后，再让学生 用这些词、句进行写作，多写多练以达到活化知识的目的。

三、广泛阅读，拓展知识积累

“熟读唐诗三百首，不会作 诗也会吟”。在大量的阅读过程中，可使学生开拓视野，拓展知识，增加语感，为写作提供必要的语言材料。写作和阅读是互相促进、相辅相成的。有些词汇和句 型，学生只是似曾相识，通过广泛的阅读能促使学生把这些东西运用得更熟练，表达得更准确。反过来，这也会有效地提高学生的阅读理解能力。

掌握应用文写作语言的特点，即语言的信实性、针对性、规范化和专门化，小编收集了应用文的写作基础知识，欢迎阅读。

一、语言的特点

掌握应用文写作语言的特点，即语言的信实性、针对性、规范化和专门化

作者运用语言的能力，主要体现在对各种文体语言的敏感和自觉把握、开拓上。应用文因其要交流业务、传递信息、宣传政策、一探讨问题，甚至需录存凭证的实用要求，其语言必然具有一些自身的特点：

1、信实性

要使各种信息得到读者的信任，其语言就应信实可靠，去伪存真，弃浮留实，不言过其实，在真实中获得自己的生命。要做到语言的信实必须做到以下几点：

(1)要掌握表述的分寸。在当用与不当用、偏高与偏低、偏大与偏小之间加以区分;事物的范围、性质要描述和归纳得恰如其分。要求表述的含义清楚，词语的内涵、外延明确，一切会导致歧义、多义和似是而非的象征、隐喻等等都应在排除之列，以免引起误解而致误导。如"成绩"与"成就"之分，"错误"与"缺点"之分，"大多数"与"绝大多数"的不同，"部分"与"大部分"的界限。

(2)表现要诚达。"诚"，就是要求有实实在在的内容，不能空话连篇，言之无物;不能装腔作势，哗众取宠;"达"，就是要求语言能原原本本地把内容表达清楚，忌浮言、假话。如介绍商品，性质、功能、售后服务、价格等都须实事求是，不吹嘘、不护短，才能在感情上取得顾客的信任。那些"王婆卖瓜，自卖自夸"的花言巧语，那种动辄"领导世界新潮流"、"誉满全球"的陈词滥调只会失信于读者，最终削弱商品的竞争力。

(3)数字要精确，字词运用要恰当。借助极富科学性和说服力的数字，发现问题、分析问题、解决问题。但应慎重，不能混用。如数字发生变化时表达要清楚，"增加了多少"与"增加到多少"并不一样;有关数字的词语要概念明确，比如"以上"、"以下"、"不足"、"超过"、"小于"、"大于"的用法不应给读者造成疑窦，如不要在"100公斤以上的"、"100公斤以下的"之后给读者留下"100公斤的"该怎么办的问号。

2、针对性

即看对象说话。许多应用文的语言，受客观环境和政策法规的制约，都应看准表述对象，因人、因事、因时、因地而异，不可千篇一律。给领导看的，要求语言庄重，文字简约;给群众看的，则要求深入浅出，语言通俗;介绍一件商品，要注意具体的对象、环境、内容和要求，做到随机应变，以获得最佳的传播效果。针对性强，就能使文章有的放矢，有助于解决问题。

3、规范化和专门化

应用写作的语言不同于其他写作，以书面语言为主。尤其在某些文种中，如命令等，只能用书面语言而不能掺杂其他语体，并大量使用规范化、专门化的词语。体现出以下特点：

(1)具有词语的稳定性与选择性的统一。所谓词语的稳定性，是指某些固定的词语相对稳定地使用于某些应用文。如介绍信的开头总以"兹有"开启下文，许多公文的结尾都以"特此"收束全文。所谓词语的选择性大多数的应用文都有一套比较固定的规范性习惯用语，供人们在写作时选用。这些习惯用语多用于应用文的标题、开头、引文、过渡与结尾处。例如：开头用语中的鉴于、为、为了、由于、遵照、按照、根据、随着、兹有、奉、近来等;结尾用语中的本、为荷、为要、为盼、此令、此复、希即遵照执行、希酌情办理、现予公布。特此函达、以上报告，请审核、当否，请批示、以上妥否，请指示等。

(2)具有句法的稳定性和灵活性的统一。所谓句法的稳定性，是指某些类型的句子在应用文中占有很大的分量。如总结中要汇报情况，请示时要阐述原因，求职信中要作自我介绍等，主要使用陈述句。应用文在有所陈述的基础上，往往要提要求，无论是上级对下级，还是下级对上级。如"以上通知，请遵照执行"，"以上请求，望领导批准为荷"等等。所谓句法的灵活性，是指在稳定性的基础上，适当地求新、求变。灵活恰当地选用句式，可使行文变化多姿，从而增强文章语言的表达效果，增强文章的外在美。例如，对事物下定义时宜用长单句、判断句;叙述事物时宜用短句;发号施令时宜用短句、单句、主动句。总之，选用什么样的句式，要根据表述内容灵活掌握。

(3)力求简洁，具有庄重感。应用文中，经常使用一些文言词语，如常用的有"经、业经、业已、兹、兹有、兹将、特、者、荷、取、于、而、则、为、为此、与之、依、逾、至、其、亦、以、尚、须、未、予、示、之……"，可增强文章的庄重感。

(4)用图式替代语言文字。图式包括图、画、符号、照片、表格、公式等。在应用文特别是科技应用文中大量使用，成为一种常见的辅助书面语言，从而形成应用文语言的又一大特色。

二、语言运用的要求

掌握语言运用的基本要求，即：语言要准确清晰、简洁明了、平实自然、得体妥帖、生动具体

1、准确清晰

准确，即用最恰当的词语和句子如实反映客观事物，表达作者思想。清晰，是指表达时要条理清楚，意思明白。具体应做到：

(1)用词造句要准确。用词准确是指能把握词语遣用的分寸感和合适度。应精选中心词，用准修饰语。能仔细辨析同义词、近义词的用法，对词义轻重。范围宽窄、程度深浅、感情褒贬、语体雅俗、词性差别等都能烂熟于心、姻熟于手。如："分散"和"涣散"都有"不集中"的意思，"涣散"是具有贬义性质的形容词;"分散"是具有中间性质的动词。"士气涣散"就准确，"士气分散"就不准确。另外，应用文常用数字说明问题，揭示事物之间的数量关系，所以数字运用要准确无误。

(2)用词造句要通顺。指合乎语法，合乎逻辑。通顺也是实现语言准确的保证。

(3)要注意语意鲜明。有时由于特殊需要，还必须使用一些模糊语言，即用一些在外延上不确定、表意比较含糊，以及在运用上具有弹性的词语，如"近年来"、"各地"、"时有"、"大多数"。"有关部门"、"条件许可时"等。该类词语使用恰当，不仅能增加行文的灵活性，而且有助于准确地表达意思，但应谨慎使用。

2、简洁明了

(1)简洁。所谓简洁，就是用较少的文字清楚表达较多、较丰富的内容。要抓住问题的关键，把话说到点子上。主要应做好以下四点：

一要善于观察事物，深刻理解事物，明确认识写作对象，把握住问题的关键。

二要反复锤炼，提高概括能力，杜绝堆砌修饰语现象;适当使用缩略语，如"五讲四美"等。

三要删除一切套话、空话、意思重复的话，向繁冗开刀。克服繁琐冗长的毛病是语言简洁的前提。

四要适当地采用文言词语及短语。文言词语(包括成语、典故)行文简练，富有表现力，写作时适当采用，言简意赅。然而，"简"要得当，"简"得让人不明白或产生歧义也不行。绝不能为简而生造词语。乱缩略、滥用文言以及一概排斥某些行文必需的程式化语句。(2)明了。所谓明了，就是指明明白白、清清楚楚，一是一，二是二。要做到明了，一是要考虑周到，言尽意止;二是要注意用词通俗，不用生僻晦涩的字句;三是在运用数字的时候，只须写出计算的结果，而不须表述具体的计算过程。

3、平实自然

应用文用语应平易通俗，浅显流畅。说明事实、讲清道理即可。不搞"曲笔"，不作夸饰，不堆砌辞藻，不追求华丽，不矫揉造作，不用生僻词语，以明白、实在、自然为上。

4、得体妥帖

(1)得体。应用文实用性强，讲究得体。主要应做到以下三点：

一是要适合特定的文体。按文体要求遣词造句，用词、语气、语体风格应符合特定的要求。保持该文体的语言特色和语言风格。如公文宜庄重，调查报告须平实，学术论文应严谨，祝谢哀问需较浓的感情色彩，广告就常用模糊的语言，使用说明书则需具体实在，商业交际文书语言要委婉，合同书的语言则要精确，颁布政策法令应庄重严肃，报喜祝捷要热烈欢快，提出申请该委婉平和，分析问题须有理有据。

二是语言适用于所写的应用文体的需要，做到需要文雅时，决不粗俗;需要委婉时，决不直露;需要明确时，决不含糊;需要模糊时，决不精确。

三是要考虑作者自己的身份，阅读的对象，约稿的单位，写作的目的，甚至还要考虑到与客观环境的和谐一致、恰到好处。比如需要登报或张贴的，语言要通俗易懂;需要宣读或广播的，语言应简明流畅，便于朗读;书信的写作，要根据远近亲疏、尊卑长幼的关系使用相应的语言;公文的写作要根据不同的文种和行文关系而使用相应的语言，否则就不得体。(2)妥贴。语言的妥帖则是指语言要合乎语法的一般规范。

5、生动具体

生动，即言词形象、逼真、有活力，能吸引人。应用文中有些文种的语言也是要求生动的，如讲话稿、调查报告、总结等。选择词语(尤其是动词的运用)时要精心，恰当、传神地运用一些修辞手法，如引用、比喻、拟人、排比等。如某篇调查报告中写当今择偶观时说："婚姻的含金量增大了。"就十分传神。语言具体，可使文章内容有血有肉，说理深刻有力。其关键在于对事物的仔细观察和深入了解。

下面是由小编收集的锻炼思路的方法，欢迎阅读。

(1)拓展法。目的是为了求广、求新、求异，使思维活跃而开阔。思路可作如下拓展：

一是平面拓展。平面拓展主要包括顺向、逆向、纵向和横向等。顺向是指沿着人们惯常的思维轨道来思考，反之则为逆向。纵向是指按时间顺序或事物发展过程来思考，横向则为将不同的事物加以比照联想。例如，一则手表广告词的写作，既可从“准确、耐用、美观”作正向构思，又可从“该公司在各地的维修人员闲得无聊”作反向思索;既可对其作发展、换代历史作纵向介绍，又可从它与其他牌子手表的比较中作横向说明。

二是立体拓展。立体拓展是将平面拓展重叠交叉起来，建构起立体交叉的文章框架。这种方法适用于调查报告、经济分析、专业论文一类较为大型的文章。

三是发散。发散是指由一点向四周辐射的开放式思维方式，即对一个问题从多个角度引出思路。既要从宏观上作全方位的考虑，又要从微观上找出各个零散的无系统的思考方向之间的有机联系。如写关于“如何扩大产品销路”的文章，就可围绕“如何”二字引出“运用科学管理”、“提高员工素质”、“加速品种更新”、“改善广告方式”、“做好售后服务”、“开辟国外市场”等多条辐射思路，然后再对各个思考方向之间的内在联系加以考察。这样就可以加大思维跨度，弥补单向思维没有涉及的空白，健全文章的结构，丰富文章的内容。

(2)挖掘法。

目的是为了求深，使文章有内涵、有深度。多向拓展思路之后，就应迅速将广思变为深思。深思指的是层层挖掘，寻根刨底，纵深推求，由外在到内在，由现象到本质，由具体到抽象;或由现实追溯过去，由结果探求原因，乃至更深层的缘由。例如，对“如何认识市场经济”这一问题进行思考，可以从市场经济与商品经济的关系，社会主义市场经济与资本主义市场经济的区别，计划经济与市场经济的关系，如何发展社会主义市场经济等几个方面加以论述，也可向深处挖掘。向深处挖掘的方法如下：

一是在探讨上述第一个问题时，先对两个概念分别加以解释，再进一步区别其特征，然后更进一步挖掘过去提商品经济、现在又提市场经济的原因。

二是探讨上述最后一个问题时，可先论述社会主义市场经济的提出是具有战略意义的理论突破，并分析其原因，然后深入思考如何发展社会主义市场经济。在论述“如何发展”的具体策略时，对每一个方面再进行纵深推求，在这些步步深入、层层递进的开掘中将问题论述明白，最后顺理成章地得出结论。

(3)控制法。目的是为了求得集中——对多向的、支离散乱的思维活动加以搜索，以形成一条清晰。严密、连贯的思路。控制法主要包括以下方面内容：

一是筛选。筛选是指对多种信息和大脑中闪现的种种想法进行重重筛选，然后加以归类，形成多层次的文章框架的思考方法。筛选的优点是便于先集中内容相似的材料，然后从中筛选出需用的东西并形成相应的观点。对总结、典型经验、调查报告等文书的写作构思较为适用。

二是综合。综合是指在多向思考中迅速挑出最切实际、应用性强的几项加以综合，然后从中提炼出最佳议项。综合的优点是使文章有新思想、新提议，同时又切实可行。它适用于可行性研究、决策、建议、计划等文书的写作。推测，是将盘根错节的各种信息、各类条件和多条“初步思路”按一定的规律进行多次清理和推论，从中导出由小到大的层层假说，并由此构成一幅明晰的“思路图”。三是推测。推测的优点是可直观地审视和比较有关条件及现象，推理过程一目了然。它较适用于可行性研究、市场预测、经济分析等文书的写作构思。

(4)梳理法。以拟写提纲的形式将思路理清。定型。这是锻炼思路的一种极为有效的方法，有助于快速成文。梳理法包括以下两方面内容：

一是标明主题，用“主题句”把构思时确定的主题列在提纲首位，以统领下面各项;二是安排层次，用概括的文字逐层排列，由小到大。由粗到细地展开思路。

会写文章，善于写文章，需要若干条件，其中一个条件就是练好基本功。以下是为大家分享的小学写作基础：锻炼思路的方法，供大家参考借鉴，欢迎浏览!

一、锻炼思路的方法

（一）拓展法

目的是为了求广、求新、求异，使思维活跃而开阔。思路可作如下拓展：

一是平面拓展。平面拓展主要包括顺向、逆向、纵向和横向等。顺向是指沿着人们惯常的思维轨道来思考，反之则为逆向。纵向是指按时间顺序或事物发展过程来思考，横向则为将不同的事物加以比照联想。例如，一则手表广告词的写作，既可从“准确、耐用、美观”作正向构思，又可从“该公司在各地的维修人员闲得无聊”作反向思索；既可对其作发展、换代历史作纵向介绍，又可从它与其他牌子手表的比较中作横向说明。

二是立体拓展。立体拓展是将平面拓展重叠交叉起来，建构起立体交叉的文章框架。这种方法适用于调查报告、经济分析、专业论文一类较为大型的文章。

三是发散。发散是指由一点向四周辐射的开放式思维方式，即对一个问题从多个角度引出思路。既要从宏观上作全方位的考虑，又要从微观上找出各个零散的无系统的思考方向之间的有机联系。如写关于“如何扩大产品销路”的文章，就可围绕“如何”二字引出“运用科学管理”、“提高员工素质”、“加速品种更新”、“改善广告方式”、“做好售后服务”、“开辟国外市场”等多条辐射思路，然后再对各个思考方向之间的内在联系加以考察。这样就可以加大思维跨度，弥补单向思维没有涉及的空白，健全文章的结构，丰富文章的内容。

（二）挖掘法

目的是为了求深，使文章有内涵、有深度。多向拓展思路之后，就应迅速将广思变为深思。深思指的是层层挖掘，寻根刨底，纵深推求，由外在到内在，由现象到本质，由具体到抽象；或由现实追溯过去，由结果探求原因，乃至更深层的缘由。例如，对“如何认识市场经济”这一问题进行思考，可以从市场经济与商品经济的关系，社会主义市场经济与资本主义市场经济的区别，计划经济与市场经济的关系，如何发展社会主义市场经济等几个方面加以论述，也可向深处挖掘。向深处挖掘的方法如下：

一是在探讨上述第一个问题时，先对两个概念分别加以解释，再进一步区别其特征，然后更进一步挖掘过去提商品经济、现在又提市场经济的原因。

二是探讨上述最后一个问题时，可先论述社会主义市场经济的提出是具有战略意义的理论突破，并分析其原因，然后深入思考如何发展社会主义市场经济。在论述“如何发展”的具体策略时，对每一个方面再进行纵深推求，在这些步步深入、层层递进的开掘中将问题论述明白，最后顺理成章地得出结论。

（三）控制法

目的是为了求得集中——对多向的、支离散乱的思维活动加以搜索，以形成一条清晰。严密、连贯的思路。控制法主要包括以下方面内容：

一是筛选。筛选是指对多种信息和大脑中闪现的种种想法进行重重筛选，然后加以归类，形成多层次的文章框架的思考方法。筛选的优点是便于先集中内容相似的材料，然后从中筛选出需用的东西并形成相应的观点。对总结、典型经验、调查报告等文书的写作构思较为适用。

二是综合。综合是指在多向思考中迅速挑出最切实际、应用性强的几项加以综合，然后从中提炼出最佳议项。综合的优点是使文章有新思想、新提议，同时又切实可行。它适用于可行性研究、决策、建议、计划等文书的写作。推测，是将盘根错节的各种信息、各类条件和多条“初步思路”按一定的规律进行多次清理和推论，从中导出由小到大的层层假说，并由此构成一幅明晰的“思路图”。三是推测。推测的优点是可直观地审视和比较有关条件及现象，推理过程一目了然。它较适用于可行性研究、市场预测、经济分析等文书的写作构思。

（四）梳理法

以拟写提纲的形式将思路理清。定型。这是锻炼思路的一种极为有效的方法，有助于快速成文。梳理法包括以下两方面内容：

一是标明主题，用“主题句”把构思时确定的主题列在提纲首位，以统领下面各项；

二是安排层次，用概括的文字逐层排列，由小到大。由粗到细地展开思路。

二、思路可作如下拓展：

1、是平面拓展。

平面拓展主要包括顺向、逆向、纵向和横向等。顺向是指沿着人们惯常的思维轨道来思考，反之则为逆向。纵向是指按时间顺序或事物发展过程来思考，横向则为将不同的事物加以比照联想。例如，一则手表广告词的写作，既可从“准确、耐用、美观”作正向构思，又可从“该公司在各地的维修人员闲得无聊”作反向思索;既可对其作发展、换代历史作纵向介绍，又可从它与其他牌子手表的比较中作横向说明。

2、是立体拓展。

立体拓展是将平面拓展重叠交叉起来，建构起立体交叉的文章框架。这种方法适用于调查报告、经济分析、专业论文一类较为大型的文章。

3、是发散。

发散是指由一点向四周辐射的开放式思维方式，即对一个问题从多个角度引出思路。既要从宏观上作全方位的考虑，又要从微观上找出各个零散的无系统的思考方向之间的有机联系。如写关于“如何扩大产品销路”的文章，就可围绕“如何”二字引出“运用科学管理”、“提高员工素质”、“加速品种更新”、“改善广告方式”、“做好售后服务”、“开辟国外市场”等多条辐射思路，然后再对各个思考方向之间的内在联系加以考察。这样就可以加大思维跨度，弥补单向思维没有涉及的空白，健全文章的结构，丰富文章的内容。

(2)挖掘法。

目的是为了求深，使文章有内涵、有深度。多向拓展思路之后，就应迅速将广思变为深思。深思指的是层层挖掘，寻根刨底，纵深推求，由外在到内在，由现象到本质，由具体到抽象;或由现实追溯过去，由结果探求原因，乃至更深层的缘由。例如，对“如何认识市场经济”这一问题进行思考，可以从市场经济与商品经济的关系，社会主义市场经济与资本主义市场经济的区别，计划经济与市场经济的关系，如何发展社会主义市场经济等几个方面加以论述，也可向深处挖掘。

三、向深处挖掘的方法如下：

1、是在探讨上述第一个问题时，先对两个概念分别加以解释，再进一步区别其特征，然后更进一步挖掘过去提商品经济、现在又提市场经济的原因。

2、是探讨上述最后一个问题时，可先论述社会主义市场经济的提出是具有战略意义的理论突破，并分析其原因，然后深入思考如何发展社会主义市场经济。在论述“如何发展”的具体策略时，对每一个方面再进行纵深推求，在这些步步深入、层层递进的开掘中将问题论述明白，最后顺理成章地得出结论。

(3)控制法。

目的是为了求得集中——对多向的、支离散乱的思维活动加以搜索，以形成一条清晰。严密、连贯的思路。

控制法主要包括以下方面内容：

1、是筛选。

筛选是指对多种信息和大脑中闪现的种种想法进行重重筛选，然后加以归类，形成多层次的文章框架的思考方法。筛选的优点是便于先集中内容相似的材料，然后从中筛选出需用的东西并形成相应的观点。对总结、典型经验、调查报告等文书的写作构思较为适用。

2、是综合。

综合是指在多向思考中迅速挑出最切实际、应用性强的几项加以综合，然后从中提炼出最佳议项。综合的优点是使文章有新思想、新提议，同时又切实可行。它适用于可行性研究、决策、建议、计划等文书的写作。推测，是将盘根错节的各种信息、各类条件和多条“初步思路”按一定的规律进行多次清理和推论，从中导出由小到大的层层假说，并由此构成一幅明晰的“思路图”。三是推测。推测的优点是可直观地审视和比较有关条件及现象，推理过程一目了然。它较适用于可行性研究、市场预测、经济分析等文书的写作构思。

(4)梳理法。

以拟写提纲的形式将思路理清。定型。这是锻炼思路的一种极为有效的方法，有助于快速成文。

梳理法包括以下两方面内容：

1、是标明主题，用“主题句”把构思时确定的主题列在提纲首位，以统领下面各项;

2、是安排层次，用概括的文字逐层排列，由小到大。由粗到细地展开思路。

主题是文章的统帅和纲领，是文章的核心;主题源于材料，主题不能先行，必须从实际出发，从材料中引出主题。实用文体主题的表现表式主要有：①直接阐述;②单一集中;③以意役法;④片言居要;⑤善用标题。

文章结构安排的环节主要包括：选择角度;设置线索;安排层次;划分段落;设计开头与结尾;处理过渡和照应等。文章的结构应达到严谨(严密精细，无懈可击)、自然(顺理成章，开阖自如)、完整(匀称饱满，首尾圆合)、统一(和谐一致，通篇一贯，决不相互抵触，自相矛盾)

文章常用的表达方法有叙述、描写、议论、说明，其中议论的方法又可具体分为：①例证法;②喻证法;③类比法;④对比法;⑤反驳法;⑥归谬法。

语言运用的基本要求：合体、得体，准确、顺达，简洁、明快，生动、有力。

领导讲话是秘书部门常见的文字材料，是秘书人员必须熟悉和掌握的一种文体。怎样撰写领导讲话，笔者根据自己十年办公室工作的实践认为，应从以下三个方面去努力。

一、在写作特点上，注意奏好四部曲

第一，进入领导角色。进入领导角色是写好领导讲话的前提。因为领导讲话是领导意志的直接反映和完整表述。如果不能站在领导的高度，就写不出符合领导要求的好稿来。因此，秘书人员要有意识地使用领导眼光，运用领导魄力，高屋建瓴，观察问题，分析问题，处理问题，使所写的讲话材料既有气势，又有魄力;既有广度，又有深度。不能脱离领导，站在局外，凭自己的主观想象去东拼西凑。

第二，展示领导艺术。领导讲话是一种论事说理的文字材料，是一种展示领导才华的公开形式，应认真对待。讲话的内容一般包括三个方面：上级机关要求做什么，为什么;我们要做什么，怎样做;不能做什么，为什么不能。因此，它要求讲话材料既要体现一定的理论水平，又要展示高超的领导艺术。

第三，推出领导举措。领导讲话通常是为了部署某项工作或开展某项活动而作出的。因此，必须有明确的指导思想和过硬的工作举措。常见的领导举措有：提高认识、加强领导、抓点带面、督促检查、总结评比等。

第四，运用领导语言。正确运用领导讲话时的特殊语言，可以起到加强效果的作用。必须认真研究语言表述问题，努力做到全面、完整、准确、肯切。讲话材料中常见的领导语言有：传达精神的概括语言;分析形势的完整语言;布置工作的肯切语言;开展动员的激励语言。

二、在写作方法上，注意定好六步棋

一是查阅文件，吃透精神。对上级机关下发的正式文件和上级领导作出的重要讲话，要认真阅读，细心研究，把握要点，吃透精神。只有这样，才能使所撰的讲话材料体现上级文件精神，符合上级政策规定。

二是深入调查，摸清情况。要写好领导讲话，就要熟悉基本的和全面的情况。只有深入细致的调查，才能得到准确的情况。“没有调查，就没有发言权”，道理就在于此。调查没有深度，讲话就没有力度。因此，起草讲话稿之前，要主动深入基层，运用多种方式，从不同角度、各种层次、多个侧面做“解剖”性调查。通过实地调查，获得来自基层单位的实际情况。

三是研究消化，提炼升华。对调查获得的材料进行梳理筛选，去粗取精，去伪存真，再经过理性的分析研究，使零乱松散的素材达到凝炼升华的高度，形成一个鲜明的主题。

四是征求意见，罗列提纲。形成文字材料之前，必须慎重地向领导本人征求意见，包括篇幅的长短、内容的多少、表扬事项与批评事项等等。征求意见之后，就可以根据领导的要求、调查的情况和会议的主旨，拟定提纲了。

五是挥笔疾书，一气呵成。文章的框架扎好了，就如画家画梅有了主干，下一步就是添枝加叶、排花润色了。经过一番构思酝酿之后，若要动笔行文，最好找个安静的地方，集中精力，一次完稿。如果断断续续，“三天打鱼，两天晒网”，就可能影响到文章的连贯性和逻辑性。

六是字斟句酌，严审细核。一次写成的稿子毕竟有点粗糙，必须认真细致地进行修改和校核。讲话材料的修改，要从整体着眼，从局部入手。不仅要从大的方面如观点、材料、结构等方面考虑，而且要从小的方面如题目、语言、标点等方面加以修改。

三、在写作技巧上，注意把好三道关

领导讲话的结构一般包括导言、主体和结尾三部分，也就是通常所说的“三道关”。

(一)导言。导言是文章的先导语言，是讲话稿的开头，类似于新闻报道中的导语。其内容可以是全文提要，也可以是概括介绍。一般介绍会议的性质、背景、主题、任务、形式、程序、目的以及方法步骤等。这段文字尽管在整个报告中份量不大，但颇为重要。它既是标题及事由的承接，又是主体内容展开的序幕，对全文起着提纲挈领的作用。

(二)主体。主体部分是领导讲话的核心，可分为“上级指示精神”和“本地工作部署”两个部分。“上级指示精神”主要包括：会议的性质和概况;对当前形势的最新看法;对某种工作的评价和估量;对下级工作的指示和要求。传达上级指示精神应坚持详尽的原则，该写的一定要写清楚。“本地工作部署”，主要包括的内容有：本地区在全局范围内所处的位置;过去工作积累的经验;当前的有利条件;落实上级机关或领导指示精神的举措;总结评比和奖惩办法。进行工作部署是落实上级指示精神的关键环节，要注意必要性和可能性的有机结合，注意全局利益与局部利益的有机协调。安排“上级指示精神”与“本地工作部署”所占篇幅时，应注意两点：当领导讲话的重点是传达精神时，“上级指示精神”所占篇幅要长;当领导讲话的重点是部署工作时，则“本地工作部署”所占篇幅要长。

(三)结尾。结尾是领导讲话的收尾部分。一般表明讲话人对会议的看法、希望和祝愿，是对全篇讲话内容的总结、概括和升华。领导讲话的结尾通常可分为“升华主题”和“祝愿会议”两个部分。“升华主题”所起的作用是强调前面的讲话内容，把会议的气氛推向高潮，其形式有五种：一是总结式。对全文进行总结概括，起强调作用。二是召唤式。向参加会议的同志或一定范围内的同志发出号召。三是预测式。对某项工作的完成情况作出分析与预测。四是希望式。对会议或某项工作寄予的希望。五是鼓舞式。为完成某项重要工作任务而鼓劲加油。“祝愿会议”所起的作用是表明对会议的态度。常用的祝词有“预祝大会圆满成功”、“祝各位代表身体健康”等。

写作领导讲话的各个部分应遵循三条原则：一是导言部分的简明原则;二是主体部分的详尽原则;三是结尾部分的升华原则。

关于领导讲话稿的写作基础：

第一部分 起草领导讲话稿的基础工作

领导讲话稿是情况信息的积累与凝聚、政策的阐发、理论的深化、工作的要求、研究的结晶、实践的总结和领导意图的体现。要起草好领导讲话稿，关键是要做好与起草领导讲话稿相关的基础工作。

一、起草领导讲话稿的主要基础工作

起草领导讲话稿的基础工作主要包括三个大的方面:一是政策理论和业务准备。二是情况资料准备。三是对领导意图、脉搏的把握、准备。具体包括以下七个方面内容:

(一)资料工作。第一，尽可能全面、客观、准确地掌握情况信息，即做到搜集资料不厌其多、整理资料不厌其烦、储存资料不厌其杂。第二，搜集的资料必须分门别类，分专题或专卷存放。第三，对搜集的资料要及时学习、分析、研究，真正把“死东西”变成“活东西”。第四，搜集资料的方式既可以个人单独搞，也可以集体统一搞，理想的模式是个人与集体结合起来搞。

(二)综合工作。第一，根据起草领导讲话稿的需要，经常自觉地开展自我服务性的综合工作。第二，根据领导的决策需要，开展为领导决策服务的综合工作。第三，综合工作贵在经常有用。第四，为起草领导讲话稿所做的综合工作，应有别于一般的综合材料工作，应以短小精悍的小综合材料为主。

(三)调查研究。第一，要经常围绕领导决策和公安中心工作，抓住一些鱼待解决的重大问题和突出矛盾，深入调查研究，力争发现一些重要的倾向性问题，提出一些有重要参考价值的意见或建议。第二，要通过调查研究摸到重要的有用情况，研究出有价值的成果。

(四)形势分析。第一，当前情况与未来发展趋势相结合。第二，既要看到有利形势，又要看到不利形势。第三，要有深入、精辟的分析，既有鲜明的论点，.又有充足的论据，一还要有科学的论证。

(五)政策理论学习与研究工作。一是马列主义、毛泽东思想、邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想。二是党和国家历史与现实的路线、方针、政策，三是法律、法规尤其是与公安工作有关的法律、法规。四是历史的和现实的公安工作的大政方针。第一，提高政策理论水平的唯一途径是学习、学习、再学习。第二，要多研究政策理论，多研究问题。第三，一要注意把理论与实践结合好，创造性地提出工作措施和要求。

(六)渊博的知识基拙。要具备文学知识、社会学知识、政治学知识、历史学知识、经济学知识及科技知识等。

(七)把握领导意图。第一，多留心、多留神，精心捕捉领导意图。第二，对于捕捉到的领导意图及时进行文字处理、归纳和提炼。第三，要注意加强对领导意图的研究、升华与正常发挥。

二、做好起草领导讲话稿基础工作的主要途径

(一)思想重视，增强意识。

(二)突出重点，有的放矢。

(三)注重实用，讲究实效。

(四)分工协作，共同负责。

(五)处处留心，时时动手。

(六)运用科技，提高质效。

(七)不断总结，逐步提高。

第二部分 领导讲话稿的起草工作

一、领导讲话稿的特点

(一)领导讲话稿本身的特点。第一，要有一定的高度，有的还要求有一定的理论色彩。第二，要有很强的实战性。第三，要有很强的针对性。第四，格式非常灵活。第五，语气特征非常讲究。第六，领导讲话的个性语言非常突出。

(二)领导讲话稿起草过程中的特点。第一，起草时间的有限性和时间分配的不确定性。第二，起草内容的不确定性。第三，领导讲话稿定型时间的后延。

二、领导讲话稿的种类

(一)从领导讲话的场合看，可以划分为汇报稿、发言稿、指示稿。

(二)从领导讲话的内容看，可以划分为工作报告、形势报告、动员报告、情况介绍、经验介绍等。

(三)从讲话的形式看，可以划分为正式发言稿、即席讲话稿、开幕词、闭幕词、电视讲话稿、广播新闻稿、讲课稿。

(四)从会议上讲话的具体时间看，可以划分为开始时的报告与结束时讲话两种基本形式。

三、领导讲话稿的基本结构

(一)“三段论”结构:第一部分主要是情况、工作，第二部分是问题、原因，第三部分是措施、建议。

(二)“独联体”结构:领导讲话稿的每一部分都独立成篇，各个部分可连接起来成文。 第一，领导讲话稿的长短要考虑讲话的时间要求。第二，根据讲话的重点，合理安排结构。第三，领导讲话稿的结构中，要注意导语部分、过渡段和结束语，以免使文章显得干瘪和突兀。第四，领导讲话稿的标题一般有直录式、点题式或主附式两种。

四、起草领导讲话稿的步骤

起草领导讲话稿的步骤一般要经过明确起草目的即审题，搜集、整理资料，确定主题和设计提纲，写作、修改、成文等过程。

(一)确定提纲。第一，要事先征求讲话者本人的意见，拟出提纲后交讲话者本人审定。第二，提纲最好是比较详细的纲目式的。第三，拟定提纲要尽量有新意。

(二)起草工作。第一，要注意提炼观点。第二，要特别强调逻辑性。第三，内容要高度概括，用语简炼、明快。第四，初稿起草时，要多从内容上、从大的方面考虑问题。第五，大、小标题都要准确、鲜明地概括本段、层的内容。

五、领导讲话稿的语言特点

(一)语言要符合讲话人的身份和场合。从身份上来讲，不同职位身份的人，讲话语言的虚、实程度不同。从场合来看，不同的场合，语言特点就有很大差别。

(二)语言要符合讲话人的个性特征。要在注意适当口语化的同时，从讲话者本人的角度出发，写出符合讲话者个人风格、特征的稿件。

(三)语言要讲究准确。包括情况、观点要准确，概念要明确，判断要恰当。

(四)语言要鲜明。一要观点鲜明。二要在布局谋篇上做到突出重点，论据充分，论点、证据、论证融为一体，能够纲举目张。三要在结构安排上层次清楚、分明。四要讲究方法。五要句子结构规范、简炼。

(五)语言要讲究生动。一要内容充实，分析精辟透彻。二要注意修辞方法的运用。三要注意提炼出有特色的文字。

六、领导讲话稿修辞上的特点

(一) 用词避免太专业化。

(二) 绘性用词要注意变换。

(三)恰当地使用限制性词语。

(四)规范地使用简化词。

(五)一些名词排列要规范。

七、起草领导讲话稿需要注意的一些问题

(一)要体现领导意图。

(二)要有新意或者说要求变化。

(三)要突出重点，不要面面俱到。

(四)要把握好起承转合。

第三部分 领导讲话稿的修改工作

修改领导讲话稿主要是在领导审定前、领导提出修改意见之后、正式印刷之前及形成正式文件之前。

一、领导讲话稿修改的重点

(一)主题思想:一是领导讲话稿的主题和提出的观念、观点、思路、目标、口号以及引申等，是否领导意图。二是这些观点、思路、目标是否符合客观形势和工作实际的要求。三是是否非常重要而又非讲不可。

(二)政策措施:包括方案、意见、政策、措施等方面，是否符合国家的法律、法规;是否符合党和政府的方针、政策及有关规定;是否符合本地实际，是否符合人民群众的根本利益和要求;是否具有较大的适用性和可操作性。

(三)文字表达:包括结构、层次、标题、语言、材料、引文、典型、事例等方面，是否符合事实、_符合逻辑、符合语法，是否鲜明生动。

(四)文面要求:即体式、款式、字体、字号、书写、序号、时间、页码、署名等是否规范。

二、领导讲话稿修改的原则

(一)在指导思想上:必须遵循实事求是、精益求精的原则。

(二)在工作作风上:必须遵循谦虚谨慎、认真负责、讲究效率的原则。

(三)在工作组织上:必须遵循多方求教、集思广益的原则。

(四)在具体工作上:必须遵循服从主题、提高质量、从大到小、从粗到细的原则。

三、领导讲话稿修改的组织形式

(一)集体修改。一是起草人员集体讨论，专人修改。二是起草人员集中一起，边讨论边修改。三是向会议或非与会人员印发征求意见稿，书面广泛征求意见。四是专门邀请有关领导或其他人员讨论修改。五是讲话者与起草人员共同修改。六是有重点地走访上级、基层，面对面地征求意见。

(二)个人修改。一要舍得割“爱”，并力戒片面性。二要多换一个角度认识问题，换一个思路考虑问题，换一种提法表述问题。三要与有关领导和人员多沟通，多虚心求教。

四、领导讲话稿中常见的问题

(一)主题思想方面:主题没有体现领导意图，认识不深刻，观念不新颖，概念不对，概括不当，观点不鲜明、不清晰、不全面、不准确等。

(二)政策体系方面:与上级政策相悖，与有关政策不衔接或政策不配套，政策界限模糊、失度等。

(三)文字材料方面:篇幅冗长、布局不合理、标题大而空、 典型不鲜明等。

(四)文面要求方面:行文不规范。

五、领导讲话稿修改的具体方法

(一)集体修改领导讲话稿的具体操作方法:边读边改法、 读后修改法、综合整理书面意见法、现场听取意见法等。

(二)个人修改领导讲话稿的具体操作方法:抓住重点深入 思考与推敲的多思法、反复阅读修改法、请人指正法等。

读后感，就是读了一本书或一篇文章，或读了一段话，或读了几句名言后，把具体感受和得到的启示写成的文章，读后感也可以叫做读书笔记， 是读完一篇文章的感受以外的总结、点评。所谓感，可以是从书中领悟出来的道理或精湛的思想，可以是受书中的内容启发而引起的思考与联想，可以是因读书 而激发的决心和理想，也可以是因读书而引起的对社会上某些丑恶现象的抨击。读后感的表达方式灵活多样，基本属于议论范畴，但写法不同于一般议论文，因为它 必须是在读后的基础上发感想。要写好有体验、有见解、有感情、有新意的读后感，必须注意以下几点：

首先，要读好原文。读后感的感是因读而引起的。读是感的基础。走马观花地 读，可能连原作讲的什么都没有掌握，哪能有感?读得肤浅，当然也感得不深。只有读得认真，才能有所感，并感得深刻。如果要读的是议论文，要弄清它的论 点(见解和主张)，或者批判了什么错误观点，想一想你受到哪些启发，还要弄清论据和结论是什么。如果是记叙文，就要弄清它的主要情节，有几个人物，他们之 间是什么关系，以及故事发生在哪年哪月。作品涉及的社会背景，还要弄清楚作品通过记人叙事，揭示了人物什么样的精神品质，反映了什么样的社会现象，表达了 作者什么思想感情，作品的哪些章节使人受感动，为什么这样感动等等。

其次，排好感点。只要认真读好原作，一篇文章可以写成读后感的方面很多。如对原文中心感受得深可以写成读后感，对原作其他内容感受得深也可以写成读后感，对个别句子有感受也可以写成读后感。总之，只要是原作品的内容，只要你对它有感受，都可以写成读后感。

第三，选准感点。一篇文章，可以排出许多感点，但在一篇读后感里只能论述一个中心，切不可面面俱到，所以紧接着便是对这些众多的感点进行筛选比较，找出自己感受最深、角度最新，现实针对性最强、自己写来又觉得顺畅的一个感点，作为读后感的中心，然后加以论证成文。

第四，叙述要简。既然读后感是由读产生感，那么在文章里就要叙述引起感的那些事实，有时还 要叙述自己联想到的一些事例。一句话，读后感中少不了叙。但是它不同于记叙文中叙的要求。记叙文中的叙讲究具体、形象、生动，而读后感中的 叙却讲究简单扼要，它不要求感人，只要求能引出事理。初学写读后感引述原文，一般毛病是叙述不简要，实际上变成复述了。这主要是因为作者还不能把握 所要引述部分的精神、要点，所以才简明不了。简明，不是文字越少越好，简还要明。

第五，联想要注意形式。联想的形式有相同联想(联想的事物之间具有相同性)、相反联想(联想的 事物之间具有相反性)、相关联想(联想的事物之间具有相关性)、相承联想(联想的事物之间具有相承性)、相似联想(联想的事物之间具有相似性)等多种。写 读后感尤其要注意相同联想与相似联想这两种联想形式的运用。

记叙文是以写人、记事、状物为主要内容，以叙述和描写为表达方式的文章。

以写人为主的记叙文，应该注意肖像描写、行动描写、语言描写、心理描写以及对细节的描写，考生应根据写作的要求，灵活掌握，突出重点。

以写事为主的记叙文，应该注意交待六要素(时间、地点、人物、事件、原因、结果)，应该注意描写先后顺序以及记事的相对完整，注意把握好事情的开始、发展、高潮及结局。

以与景为主的记叙文，应该注意景物的主要特征，景物描写的层次，以及人与物的情感交融。

记叙文写作要点如下：

1. 明确写作目的和叙述的中心思想，段落叙述始终围绕着主题而展开，避免空间的叙述和与主题无关的内容。

2. 一篇好叙述文需要直接或间接表达以下六个问题，即：when?该事发生的时间， where?该事发生的地点，who?人物角色是谁，what?发生的是什么事，why?该事发生的原因，以及how?事件的结果是如何造成的等等。

3. 一篇记叙文，无论长短如何都应该是一个完全独立的事实，因此，在下笔时必须明确：该从何处开始叙述，该在何处结束叙述，以及应该提供何种事实才能使叙述完整。

4. 写作顺序可以采用“顺叙”、“倒叙”和“穿插叙述”的方法，但初学者最好采用“顺叙”的方法进行训练，以情节发生时间的先后为序。

记叙文高考指引

记叙文是高考书面表达中比较常用的一种形式。

1)记叙文要写作者比较了解的人或事物。

2)仔细审题，看准题目要求，确定文章的主题。文章的内容、结构、层次及所用语言都应围绕主题进行。

3)具体详细地描述。要使文章有说服力，叙述就必须繁简疏密相间。详细具体的描写有助于读者对所叙述的人物或事件等有个深刻的印象。

4)写作时要避免句子单调、毫无花样。这就要求写作时长短句结合，注意衔接词的运用。

5)叙述要生动。要使文章叙述生动，具有吸引力，必须请注意词汇的选择，时态的运用以及上下文的一致问题。词语的运用应注意是否恰当、通顺、简洁和准确。时态的运用应注意上下文的相关性、连续性，要与表达的内容一致。

6)叙述的顺序。大多数情况下叙述都是按照事情的发展及时间的先后进行的，但有时也可以采用其它顺序，如倒叙、插叙等。

7)人称。一般说来，记叙文用第一人称或第三人称来叙述。用第一人称叙述的优点是：文章比较生动、形象，使读者有身临其境的感觉，因而加强了故事的真实感和感染力。其缺点是，描写的范围受到限制。一篇文章中，由于角色的变化，人称也要随之而变，但应注意前后一致性。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

训练指导者方针的好坏是一个前提条件。合理地设置训练程序，使英语习作从初级到高级沿着一条循序渐进，由简到多的进程发展是成功训练者必须具备的指导思想。本篇认为，在习作训练的初期，应采纳一条从有材料可依的习作方式过渡到脱离本本进行自由写作方式的途径。从有材可依到元材可依的训练过程应包括三个阶段：

一、短文缩写(Summary)阶段。

短文缩写可以是就所学课文进行缩写，也可以采用其它阅读材料，但要求被缩写的材料难易程度不超过所学课本。被用于进行缩写的课文或其它材料必须观点明确，层次分明，叙述有条理。缩写时应做到简明扼要，抓住重点，不要拖泥带水，没有主次。初学阶段的被缩写材料不宜太长，以不超一千词为佳，缩写文以不超过2m词为佳。以下就一篇短文进行缩写，限于篇幅，短文内容有所节略。

Most shops in Britain open at 9.00 a.m. and close at 5.00 or 5.30 in the evening. Small shopsusually close for an hour at lunchtime. On one or two days a week-usually Thursday and/or Friday-some large food shops stay until about 8.00 p.m. for late night shopping.

Many shops are closed in the afternoon on one day a week. The days is usually Wednesday orThursday and it is a different day in different towns. Nearly all shops are closed on Sunday. News-paper shops are open in the morning, and sell sweets and cigarettes as well. But there are legal restrictions on selling many things on Sundays. Many large food shops(supermarkets)are self-service. When you go into one of these shops you take a basket and you put the things you wish to buy into it. You queue up at the cash-desk and pay for everything just before you leave. If anyone tries to take things from a shop without paying they are almost certain to be caught. Most shops have store detectives who have the job of catching shoplifters. Shoplifting is considered a serious crime by the police and the courts. When you are waiting to be served in a shop, itis important to wait your turn. It is important not to try to be served before people who arrived before you. Many people from overseas are astonished at the British habit of queuing.

将短文缩写如下：

This article tells us about British shops. British shops usually open at 9.00 a.m. and close at 5.00or 5.30 p.m. Many shops are closed in the afternoon one day a week. Nearly all shops are closed on Sundays. In Britain, many large food shops are self-service. And when you wait to be served in a shop, you have to wait patiently for your turn.

这是一篇不超过100词的缩写，句子基本上由原文各段落的主要内容构成。个别段落被完全删除以保证缩写重点突出，前后连贯。缩写是一种“依材剪贴”的习作方式，基本上采用原材料中的词语和句子，仅作了部分调整，是最初级的习作方式。

二、短文评论(Brief Comment)阶段。

短评是就所学课文或阅读材料进行评论。通过分析原文中的内容和观点，提出一定的看法。短评可以是对原文观点表示赞同，也可以提出异议或不同看法。如对前文便可作以下评论：

From the article we learned about British shops, about their opening and closing time and their service. But we find that there are something inconvenient with British shop service. First is the time. Shops in Britain open very late and close too early. Second is that there is almost no Sunday service. Where can people go if they suddenly need to buy something? The last is the habit of queuing. It will be a waste of time if the queue is too long.

初学阶段，短文评论的字数一般也应在150字左右，不宜写大多。短评是一种“一半依材一半发挥”的习作方式。在内容上，一部分取自原文，一部分靠自己的思考。在用词上，可以部分地依赖原文，也需使用一些其它词汇。此外，短评的行文布局和用句也是一半模仿，一半创造。短评的这种特点使它非常适合承接短文缩写阶段，而又为后期阶段打下一定的基础。

三、引导写作(Guided Writing)阶段。

引导写作可分为重新编排句子顺序。规定情景作文。看图作文。提纲作文。关键词作文等形式。这些形式均可以用于训练，但以提纲作文和关键词作文多用为佳. 提纲作文是一种给出题目和段落提纲的习作方式，其段落写作提纲可以采用段落主旨句的形式，也可以是短语。关键词作文是一种给出作文题目和一些关键词或词组的命题作文形式。由于有段落写作提纲或主旨句等，进行习作时，减少了审题环节，且写作思路受到引导。在训练初期，引导写作的命题应尽量与所学英语书本的内容挂钩，使学生能够参照一部分课文所学的词汇与结构，避免大多生词。如针对上篇短文便可出一道相关命题引导学生习作：

题目：shops in China

提纲：(1)中国商店的作息时间 (2)中国商店的周未服务情况 (3)中国商店服务态度的好坏 以上是关于英语习作初级阶段的训练步骤。三个步骤的三种形式，相承相继，循序渐进，为进入自由命题写作打下了良好的基础。既适合教师指导学生习作课使用，也适合学习者自我训练。事实证明，这三个步骤是英语习作人门的有效做法。

1. According to a recent survey， four million people die eachyear from diseases linked to smoking.

依照最近的一项调查，每年有4，000，000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children haveunpleasant associations with homework.

最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.

没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

4. People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.

人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。

5. An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete withgraduation.

越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。

6. When it comes to education， the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.

说到教育，大部分人认为其是一个终生的学习。

7. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.

许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

8. Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great effortsshould be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful effects of internationaltourism.

应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量，努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。

9. An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on constructionof city. However， this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents， whocomplain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.

越来越多的专家相信移民对城市的建设起到积极作用。然而，越来越多的城市居民却怀疑这种说法，他们抱怨民工给城市带来了许多严 重的问题，像犯罪和卖淫。

10. Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend muchmore time waiting for a bus， which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.

许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少，以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车，而车上可能已满载乘客。

对于考研英语的应用文写作来说，考生平时复习时不仅要注意应用文写作特点、格式要求，还要有意识的掌握各类应用文的写作方法。考研辅导专家建议广大考生不要简单认为应用文的复习就是复习相应的格式，格式只是应用文写作的最起码要求，除了应用文特定的格式外，还要背诵一些经典的套话，在平时的写作训练中培养迅速构思成篇的能力，注意词句的多样性和准确性训练。下面，我们就针对应用文写作中的私人和公务信函、备忘录、摘要、报告几种形式介绍一下写作技巧。

一、私人和公务信函

信函是很重要的一种应用文。私人和公务信函是用以交涉事宜、传达信息、交流思想、联络感情、增进了解的重要工具，与同学们的生活、学习比较密切，也是以后工作中用的最多的一种沟通方式。所谓私人信函就是给家人、朋友或者同学等写信，谈事情的同时又交流感情，是四级考试(专业课历年考研试卷)中常见的一种信函，研究生英语考试(专业课历年考研试卷)中常考的是公共信函。所谓公务信函就是给亲朋好友之外的人写信，主要是为了办事，比方说给老板或是客户写信都属于公共信函。

信函一般都是由写信时间、信内地址、称呼、信的主要内容和信尾几个主要部分组成。收信人地址要写在左上角，寄信人地址要写在右上角，寄信人地址也可以不写，姓名写在地址上面，地址排列顺序依次为门牌号、街区名、城市和国名。在信的开头人名前一定要加Mr.,Mrs.,Dear等比较尊敬的称呼，信的结尾注意使用常用的客套话如：sincerelyyours,faithfullyyours或者yourssincerely,yoursfaithfully。英文书信写作要遵循五个原则，即正确、清晰、简洁、礼貌和体贴。

正确是指信中所谈的事情要准确、具体，不用含糊抽象的词如：本月、明天等。清晰要求的是主题要明确，层次要清楚，让读者看后了然于心。简洁是现代英语发展的一大趋势。书信写作要做到行文简洁流畅，避免迂回冗长的长句，使书信尽可能写得明白清晰。书信交往，同样需要以礼待人，因而在写信过程中，要避免伤害对方感情，措辞上多多使用would,could,may,please等词，要自然得体，彬彬有礼。体谅对方也是写书信时要注意的一个原则，不能以自己为中心，要尊重对方的习俗爱好，即便是拒绝，也要委婉而不失去友谊。书信的写作也要注意格式，避免语法、拼写、标点错误，信中所引用的史料、数据等也应准确无误。

二、备忘录

备忘录是一种录以备忘的公文，主要用来提醒、督促对方，或就某个问题提出自己的意见或看法。包括书端、收文人的姓名、头衔、地址，称呼，事因，正文，结束语，和署名，备忘录上一定要说明什么时间，谁写的？写给谁？什么事？并且正文、结束语和署名等项与一般信件的格式相同。

三、摘要

接着谈谈摘要。摘要分成两种，一种是文章摘要，一种是论文摘要。

文章摘要就是给一篇文章让写一个摘要，文章摘要是对文章主要内容的简练概括，内容上要涵盖全文，语言上要尽量简练。写摘要前一定要仔细阅读全文，弄懂文章大意；摘要涵盖原文的主要观点并与原文的观点保持一致；摘要应该简明扼要，字数在规定的字数范围内；摘要最好不要照搬原文，应该用自己的话概括原文的主要观点；并且注意千万不要照抄，也千万不要评论，只需要写出中心思想或者段落大意即可。

第二种摘要是论文摘要。比方说是大家写一篇学术论文，硕士博士论文需要写一个英文的摘要。相对来讲我们认为考论文摘要的可能性稍微大一点。写这种摘要时要注意时态和语态。叙述研究过程，多采用一般过去时；说明某课题现已取得的成果，宜采用现在完成时。摘要中多数情况下可采用被动语态。但在某些情况下，特别是表达作者或有关专家的观点时，又常用主动语态。英文摘要有一些常用句型，比如表示研究目的，可以用Inorderto……Thispaperdescribes……Thepurposeofthisstudyis……，表示表示结论、观点或建议可以用Theauthors[suggest/conclude/consider]that……。

四、报告

最后一种是报告。报告其实也分为两种，第一种是读书报告。比如读一本书或者看一本小说写一个读书报告。读书报告中首先要交代背景知识，比如作者生平，时代简介等，接下来对书的内容做一个简单的概括，与摘要不同的是读书报告最后一段可以发表评论。与摘要相同，读书报告也要注意时态，比如像科普类的知识应该用现在式。另一种报告就是书面报告，书面报告考试(专业课历年考研试卷)的可行性和可能性更大一些。书面报告与备忘录的写法很类似，所不同的就是书面报告一般是下级写给上级，它也需要交代清楚四件事：什么时间？谁写的？写给谁？什么事？

当然，应用文写作能力的提高必须经过长期的实践锻炼。在复习阶段，首先要熟悉不同类型的应用文写作格式，注意事项，写作特点等。其次要背诵大量的优秀范文，要整段整段的背，不仅是背会而且要脱口而出，并且转换成自己的语言，写作时可以随心所欲支配。再次，是要多动手写作，要写出属于自己的文章，多动手写作才能快速写出好文章来。写好的文章要注意检查，看有无语法错误，有无用词不当，能否用其他的句式表达相同的意思，可以让同学帮忙检查，让同学提一些宝贵的意见和建议。总的来说，虽然大家对应用文的写作还比较陌生，但是只要认真对待，只要花时间背范文了，花时间写文章了，就一定能取得理想成绩。

一、写作决窍

总体把握，要点齐全;人称时态，逻辑清楚;

关键词汇，动词第一;组词成句，结构完整;

组句成文，连词增色;此路不通，绕道迂回;

字迹工整，留好印象;从句适量，高分有望。

二、写作步骤

1.认真审题。审题包括要点、格式、词数以及此篇文章要传递给读者什么样的信息，告诫读者什么(即写作目的)。

2.确定文体和时态。确定文体后，根据不同文体的特点和要求进行组织材料;同时确定出该篇文章的总时态与时态的变化。

3.写完要点，但不随意发挥。

4.先草稿，后抄写。

三、作文案例

[2004年全国中学生英语能力竞赛初赛初三组] (14分)

Choose one of your hobbies and write an article for the school magazine about it. Tell the magazine readers.

·What exactly your hobby is;

·When and how you became interested in this hobby;

·Why you enjoy your hobby;

·About your hopes and plans for the future.

写作要求：

1.根据所提供的内容，适当拓展想象空间，灵活地将提供的信息体现在文章中。

2.条理清楚，语句通顺，书写清晰、规范。

3.词数60-80.

[学生解答A]

My hobby is read books①.When I was seven years old.I became interested in reading books.I like needing books because there are a lot of useful things in books.I can learn a lot of knowledge from books. Books also② can teach me how to be a good person.Books even can solve many problems for me.I will read more good books to improve myself.

①改为reading books，动词作表语时应该用动名词。

②also的位置应放在can之后。

[点评]：档次9-11分。

①要点不全，漏掉最后一个要点。

②句子基本无误，能正确传递信息给读者但文章不流畅，句子与句子之间过渡不自然，给读者感觉在回答上述问题。

③有少量错误。

[学生解答B]

My hobby is reading.Reading books is very enjoyable.When I was young ,my mother used to tell me a story before.I went to bed every night.The stories were so interesting that I always felt they weren’t enough.So I began to read books by myself.Little by little I became interested in reading.I can learn much knowledge and many interesting things all over the world.When I read books,I can enjoy the beautiful sentences.At the same time I can improvemy writing.I want to be a writer in the future,so I must study hard and read more books so that my dream can come true.

①开门见山、点题。

②真情流露，理由充分。

③文中带圈的连词使用得恰当，使文章过渡自然、

④巧妙使用句型以表决心。

[点评]：档次13-14分。

①清楚表达写作目的，要点齐全。

②语言表达灵活多样，字里行间流露出真情实感，文章有感染力。

③恰当使用连词和从句，语言流畅，且无错误，是一篇高质量的作文。

[高分突破]

①文体：记叙文。

②要点：what → when →how → why → hope and plan for the future.

③时态：一般现在时，一般过去时，一般将来时的自然变化。

内容具有开放性，但它也是“控制性”的写作试题，因此不能随意发挥，要善于抓信息，写完要点。选用这两篇学生真实习作，一是因为他们选材相同，二是因为他们都是英语成绩优秀的同学。同学B灵活使用连词so…that,so,little by little,when,so that等，恰到好处地使用新句型和短语used to,became interested in,come true……等，使内容丰富，读起来优美流畅。其实这些表达同学A也会，只是缺乏技术加工。通过这两篇作文点评，同学们便能悟出其中的奥妙。

四、培养途径

1.根据老师布置的写作内容，独立完成一篇写作。

2.与同伴合作，交流自己的写作，通过交流找出各自作文中写得好的地方和优美的句子，合作创造一篇新的文章，供大家欣赏。

3.找老师点评，请求老师指点，尤其是怎样润色。

4.自己纠错，写下反思。

五、备考演练

A

缙云山是重庆著名的游览胜地，每天有大量的游客。请你根据下面提供的信息写一篇报道，说明现在的游客在环境保护方面的变化。

写作要求：

1.词数在100左右。

2.条理清楚，语句通顺。

3.开头已写好，但不计入总词数。

Jinyun Mountain is a famous place of interest …

B

阅读电视广告词：“If we don’t save water,the last drop of water will be a tear-drop.”根据提示，写一篇60-80词的短文。

提示：

1.生活离不开水。

2.可饮用水在减少。

3.水污染严重。

4.应保护水源，再利用水。

思路点拨与参考答案

A. [思路点拨]：

①文体：记叙文。

②时态：一般过去时态，一般现在时态。采用正反对比的写作手法，增加感染力。

③写作目的：告诉读者保护环境的重要性。

Jinyun Mountain is a famous place of interest.Every day a lot of tourists come here to enjoy its beauty. But a few years ago,some of them paid no attention to protecting theenvironment.They threw their rubbish,such as plastic bags,fruit skins and waste paper on the ground.Sometimes they broke trees,picked flowers and killed birds. Some even made fires in the woods to cook food.How dangerous it was.Luckily,great changes have taken place here.Tourists are used to putting their rubbish into dustbins,and they are doing their best to protect the birds and plants as well.They bring their own meals instead of cooking to preventstarting a forest fire in the mountains.All these changes make us very happy.

B. [思路点拨]：

①夹叙夹议(说明现状，谈谈感想)。

②时态：一般现在时态。

③广告词的含义——水很重要，应保护和再利用(写作意图)。

Water is very important to humans.We can’t live without water.The water we can drink is falling.But some people don’t seem to care about it.They waste a lot of water.They pour dirtywater into rivers and lakes.Water pollution is getting more and more serious.So we must do something to stop the pollution.We not only protect the water but also find ways to reuse it.If we don’t do this,the last drop of water will be a tear-drop.

小升初英语写作技巧之一：用介词短语替代从句，例：

原句：While they were playing tennis， she started an argument that lasted all morning.

修改后：During tennis she started an argument that lasted all morning. 原句：When you come to the second traffic light， turn right. 修改后：At the second traffic light turn left.

小升初英语写作技巧之二：删除诸如"who is"或"that is"之类的关系代词，变从句为短语，例：

句：The novel， which is written in three parts， told a story that took place in the Middle Ages.

修改后：The three-part novel told a story set in the Middle Ages.

注：把句中的"three parts"改用形容词来表达，节省了四个不必要的单词"which is written in"。我们经常可以将关系代词如"that"去掉，这只会引起最少的变动。

小升初英语写作技巧之三：剔除你不需要的单词，例：

Two joint partners will present their views over a long-distance telephone call. 写完这样的句子后，你自己再读一遍，挑出单词"joint"和"telephone"，注意删去不必要的词。

阅读是写作的基础，古人说：“熟读唐诗三百首，不会做诗也会吟”，就很好的讲明了阅读与写作的关系。我们初学诗歌写作，只有多读多思考，才能体会到佳作的精髓，在加上不断的练笔，便在不知不觉中学到了写诗的技巧，写出优美的诗句那是很轻松的事情。

要学写儿童诗，必须引导学生多阅读诗歌精品，引导孩子学会欣赏儿童诗。为此，我们可以搜集摘抄一些优秀的儿童诗，让学生朗读它，欣赏它。要学会体会、感受儿童诗所表达的意境，努力用自己的审美去探索美、发现美、创造美，这样往往能从所欣赏到的儿童诗中折射出儿童诗创作的灵感。

古代名家李白、杜甫、白居易、骆宾王等创作的诗歌，很多适合孩子阅读，除选中教材的之外，教师还可以筛选、补充一些。

当代作家中，比较有名气的儿童诗人有冰心、柯岩、樊发稼、金波、高洪波等，郭沫若、叶圣陶、艾青等名家也创作过儿童诗，教师可以为学生搜集整理或引导学生借阅、购买一些相关书籍，开阔学生的视野，触动学生创作的灵感。

一、【名诗欣赏】

我在教学生写以“春天”为话题诗歌，师生先共同欣赏着名儿童诗作家金波的《春的消息》

风，摇绿了树的枝条，

水，漂白了鸭的羽毛，

盼望了整整一个冬天，

你看，春天已经来到!

让我们换上春装，

像小鸟换上新的羽毛，

飞过树林，飞上山岗，

到处有春天的欢笑。

看到第一只蝴蝶飞，

它牵引着我的双脚，

我高兴地捕捉它，

又爱怜地把它放掉。

看到第一朵花迎春开放，

我会禁不住欣喜地雀跃，

小花朵，你还认得我吗?

你看我又长高了多少?

来到去年叶落的枝头，

等待它吐出新的绿苞，

再去唤醒沉睡的溪流，

听它唱歌，和它一起奔跑。

走累了，我躺在田野上，

头顶有明媚的太阳照耀。

是谁瘙痒了我的面颊?

啊，身边又钻出了嫩绿的小草……

熟读后，师生一起总结出这首诗的写作特点：诗人以一颗童心与大自然无拘无束地交流，冬去春来，大自然苏醒了，那小鸟、蝴蝶、花朵、新芽、溪流都显得如此亲切。当“我”躺在初春的田野上与大地共享明媚阳光时，那嫩绿的小草竟悄悄地又来和“我”玩耍，诗人巧妙地运用了拟人的写法，把人与自然之间那种和谐，那种默契，表达的妙不可言。

二、【争做小诗人】

1、让我们以“春天”为话题，可以写春山、春水、春花、春雨还可以写春天的人们。自定题目，写首诗歌。

2、小组评议，选取佳作，全班交流。

3、佳作展示。

春雨

龚伟

春雨，是一位着名的音乐家

听，他又开始演奏了

沙沙沙，沙沙沙

那悦耳的声音

是青蛙苏醒的闹钟声

是小草冲出地面的拥挤声

春雨，是一个百宝箱

看，宝物正送给人们

什么宝物

哦!是桃花的清香

是柳树那长长的辫子

是大自然的五彩芬芳

点评：小作者把春雨比喻成音乐家和百宝箱，通过合理的想象写出了春雨给大自然带来的生机。小作者通过春雨写出了大自然美丽壮观的景象，写出了生命对春天的渴望。

导语：英语作文是最容易拿分，也是最容易丢分的题型。写作上面有什么技巧呢?下面是yjbs作文网小编为您收集整理的资料，希望能够对您有所帮助。

一：开头

句子的开头方式，不要一味地都是主语开头，接着是谓语、宾语，最后再加一个状语。可以把状语置于句首，或用分词做状语等。

〔原文〕We met at the school gate and went there together early in the morning.

〔修正〕Early in the morning we met at the school gate and went there together.

〔原文〕The young man couldn’t help crying when he heard the bad news.

〔修正〕Hearing the bad news， the young man couldn’t help crying.

二：经过

2.在整篇文章中，避免只使用一两个句式，要灵活运用诸如倒装句、强调句、主从复合句、分词状语等。

①强调句

〔原文〕I met him in the street yesterday.

〔修正〕It was in the street that I met him yesterday.

It was yesterday that I met him in the street.

②由with或without引导的短语。如:

He sat in a chair with a newspaper in the hand.

③分词短语。如:

Satisfied with the result，He decided to go on with a new experiment.

④倒装句。如:

Only in this way can we achieve our goal.

Never before have I seen such a wonderful film.

Not only should we study in the college, but also learn how to be a decent person.

⑤省略句。如:

If so，victory will be ours.

You can make some changes wherever necessary.

3.通过分句和合句，增强句子的连贯性和表现力。

〔原文〕He stopped us half an hour ago. He made us catch the next offender.

〔修正〕He stopped us half an hour ago and made us catch the next offender.

〔原文〕We had a short rest. Then we began to play happily. We sang and danced.

Some told stories. Some played chess.

〔修正〕After a short rest， we had great fun singing and dancing， telling jokes and playing chess.注意使用不同长度的句子，要结合使用，不能只用短句或只用长句。

4.学会使用过渡词。如:

①递进: then(然后)， besides(还有)， furthermore(而且)， moreover(此外)等。

②转折: however(然而)， but(但是)， on the contrary (相反)， after all(毕竟)等。

③总结: finally(最后)， at last(最后)， in brief(总之)， in conclusion(最后)等。

④强调: indeed(确实)， certainly(一定)， surely(确定)， above all(尤其)等。

⑤对比: in the same way(同样地)， just as(正如)， on the one hand…on the other hand(一方面……另一方面……)等。

相似的比较： similarly, in the same manner 相反的比较： on the other hand, conversely, whereas, while, instead, nevertheless, in contrast, on the contrary, compared with …,

5.注意使用词组、习语来代替一些单词，以增加文采。如:

〔原文〕A new railway is being built in my hometown.

〔修正〕A new railway is under construction in my hometown.

6.避免重复使用某一单词或短语。如:

〔原文〕I like reading while my brother likes watching television.

〔修正〕I like reading while my brother enjoys watching television.

I like reading while watching television appeals to my brother.

三、 结尾

1、 All in all, what really matters is, in fact, that……(比如说到和谐社会 All in all, what really matters is, in fact, that we should build our society a harmonious society.)

2、 Therefore, it’s not difficult to draw a conclusion that……

3、 As a result , we should take effective measures to do sth.(我们必须采取一些有效的措施来做些什么)

4、 From what has been discussed above , we may conclude that ……

5、 Obviously(此为过渡短语), we can draw the conclusion that good manners arise from politeness and respect for others.