四级英语作文写作方法（汇总20篇）

日记是指用来记录其内容的载体，作为一种文体，属于记叙文性质的应用文。小编收集了小学生日记格式的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

1、观察日记。把看到的人物、事物、景物、记下来，每次观察最好截取一个侧面，反映一个中心。

2、剪贴日记。把自己喜爱的邮票、图画、照片贴在日记本上，并按图意写一句或一段完整的话加以说明。

3、信息日记。把看到的、听到的、有价值的最新信息记下来。

4、气象日记。把每天的天气、温度、风力、风向和出现的自然新气象记下来。

5、台历日记。把周围实实在在发生的重要事情如实简要地记在台历上，少则一句话，多则一段话。

6、摘录日记。把看到或读名家语录、格言、座右铭或写人状物的优美词句摘录下来。

7、学习日记。把课本上学到的、课外书刊读、印象较深的心得体会、联想记下来。

8、活动日记。记下参观访问活动和少先队组织的各项活动，参加一次记一次，抓住要点写。

9、实验日记。如养花、种向日葵或搞科技小制作，把过程、结果记下来。

10、思考日记。(或叫心灵日记、自我教育日记、“道德长跑”日记)把自己对现实生活中的优缺点和心理活动或道德品质成长变化过程摘要记下来。最后一种形式要求较高，宜在高年级中有针对性地指导试用。

一、明确记日记的好处。

一是可以记录备查;

二是有利于个人提高修养，磨炼意志品质;

三是可以成为积累知识、积累素材的宝库;

四是可以作为练习写作的重要手段

二、掌握记日记的方法

世界上做任何事都有方法，入门有锁钥，过河有舟桥，记日记也是有方法的：

1、学会观察，懂得观察什么，怎样观察

观察是认识事物的窗口，是作文的基础，是我们把日常生活中的材料变成文章的桥梁，一个人只有对周围事物不断进行系统而周密的观察，才能获得大量感性材料。观察的深浅和文章质量的高低是成正比例的。为此，平时留心各样事情，养成观察的习惯。通过定点观察、移位观察、换时观察、比较观察等方法，发现日常生活虽然平凡，但也色彩斑斓，有事可记，写出了大量精彩的日记。例如写写自己的进步、成绩，对自己作出肯定，作出鼓励，让自己清晰地看到前进道路上的一串脚印，一串虽歪歪斜斜，有深有浅，然而总是在向前延伸的脚印;又如写出对社会现象的认识、感受，把在社会大家庭中耳闻目睹的一些真、善、美的新鲜事，假、丑、恶的奇怪事写下来，从中找到为人的榜样，悟出处世的道理，促使自己慢慢形成正确的爱憎观;再如，四季的美景，构成一幅幅独特的水彩画卷，吸引学生在日记中谱写出春夏秋冬的美妙交响乐;多彩的天象，给了学生许多启迪与教益，激起了学生探索宇宙奥秘的热情;壮美的河山，唤起了学生用手中的笔描绘色彩绚丽的山水画卷的激情;多姿的植物，使学生心旷神怡，浮想联翩;可爱的动物，以多姿的体态、艳丽的色彩、奇特的行为和动听的歌声吸引着学生的视听，打动着他们的心灵。

2、持之以恒，坚持每日记写

坚持每日记日记，一可以练笔，二可以培养观察能力，三可以积累写作材料。俗话说：“好记性不如烂笔头。”要求每天记写日记，做到有话则长，无话则短。或一句个性化的人物语言，或一个显示心理活动的神情、动作，或一个奇特的联想，或一个独特的感受，一种有趣的自然现象等等，长期的训练，我班学生基本做到了坚持每日记日记，且持之以恒。

3、日记必须真实

日记必须讲真话，因为日记是写给自己看的，是个人历史的忠实记录，如果说了谎，岂不是在欺骗自己?要讲真话，就是说每天记的事要真实，每天记的感情也要真实。

不过在生活中可以这样教孩子，你可以先叫他每天记录一些生活中的琐事(例如：在什么时间干了些什么)，再叫他在这些事情后面写下他对这些事的看法(相当于总结)，并且要他在看法后面写下他的感受与明天的计划，时间长了他也就会写日记了。

如今，语文也日渐成为各重点中学选拔学生的标准之一，但是如何在语文上拿高分，让很多学生以及家长备受煎熬。今天我们就从语文的最大得分点——作文入手，为大家讲解""中应该注意的事项。

一篇好的作文除了要具备健康鲜明的主题，优美生动的文字以外，还要有一个完整、连贯、流畅的结构，我们把它归结为八个字，那就是"上下贯通，首尾相援"。

文章结构必须上下贯通，首尾相援，这也是作者思路的连贯性在文章中的体现，这种形式的连贯同时也能够体现文意的连贯，即形式服务于内容。文章的各部分之间，段落之间，前后语句间都要紧密连接，通篇一贯，这样的结构才能严谨、完美。好的结构会使文章主题鲜明突出，内容清晰完整，过渡自然流畅，文章整体和谐统一。否则，如果信马由缰，文章结构势必混乱无章，主次不分，再典型生动的材料恐怕也难以吸引读者去阅读和欣赏。"思想是有一条路的，一句一句，一段一段都是有路的，好文章的作者是决不乱走的。"（叶圣陶《认真学习语文》）。

文章结构必须细密周严，层层衔接，无懈可击，任何一篇文章都应是一个有机完整的整体，因此，我们在写作文时要在选好材料的情况下精心安排语句段落间的过渡与衔接，开头与结尾的关照与呼应，做到前后勾联，相互顾及，防止脱节，顾此失彼。

一、格外重视文章的线索。

所谓线索就是贯穿在整篇文章中情节发展与思想感情发展的路线，它像链条一样穿结着文章里全部的人物、事件和景物，让文章成为一个统一的艺术整体。在记叙文中，它把一个个彼此相关的事件及人物贯穿在一起，推进情节的发展，彰显主题；抒情性的文字中，线索又成了咏物抒怀、托物寓意的凭借，使主题突出，形散神聚。

初中课本中《藤野先生》一文以作者的爱国主义思想为明线，以作者与藤野先生的交往为暗线，把若干情节与事件有机的联系在一起，集中体现了藤野先生对学生严格要求，求实严谨，没有狭隘的民族偏见等高尚品质，这两条线索互相交融，但目标一致，都起到了贯穿全文的作用。如《感受真挚的友谊》一文，小作者以"友谊"为线索，架设小标题，向我们展现了小学生生活中三个典型画面，表现了自己与同学之间深深的友谊。而《感受友情的四季》一文更是以四季中的春、夏、秋、冬为线索，通过恰切、生动的比喻，抒写自己对友情如四季真挚感怀，以四季贯穿全文，新颖别致，使文章结构整齐划一，条理清晰，让人耳目一新。

二、严密紧凑，顺理成章。

这就是说文章的布局应该注重衔接，注重段落语句之间的过渡，前后关联，这样才不会造成各部分内容的疏散与脱离。

1．谈谈过渡。过渡是文章内容连贯的一种重要方法。好的过渡能够使文章前后衔接，自然流畅，天衣无缝。如我们学过的《从百草园到三味书屋》一文第9段"我不知道为什么家里的人要将我送进书塾里去了------Ade,我的蟋蟀们！Ade,我的覆盆子们和木莲们！……"很明显这是一个过渡段，巧妙地将白草园与三味书屋两段生活联结起来。又如《感受幸福》一文开头一段，"现在我终于明白了，原来它就在我的身边"一句，既回答了上文关于"幸福在哪里"的疑问，又自然地引起下文，写"我"对幸福的体验过程。

2．谈谈照应。照应是指文章前后内容之间的关照响应。前面的内容要有呼应后面的情节，前面也要埋下伏笔。在形式上照应有三种方式，一是结尾和开头的照应；二是伏笔和关键语句的照应；三是正文和标题的照应。

首尾照应是写作中常见的照应形式。开头结尾是文章的有机组成部分，好的开头能够帮助读者抓住要领，感受全文，好的结尾能够使文章的主旨更加明确，主题得到升华。而首尾照应则体现了两者的有机结合，更能突出文章的主题。如《感受友谊的枫叶》一文，小作者从不经意间发现的藏在书中的半片枫叶凝神沉思写起，道出了这代表友谊的半片枫叶的来由，结尾处以"很久很久，我才回过神来，又将那半片枫叶放回了书里"收篇，很自然地照应了开头"我将它拿起，放在手中，默默地站在那儿想了很久"，文章首尾圆合，浑然一体。再看《感受团结的力量》一文，小作者以散文化的笔法描述了几个花须经历了风雨的洗礼，造就了脉脉的芳香，但并未注意到首尾的呼应。开头写道，茉莉花虽无艳丽的外表，但香气脉脉而高雅，结尾处写"盛开的花代表了友谊的结晶，花下的世界，永远存在着那几个根须"，让人联想到花开的艳丽，与"脉脉的香气"是不吻合的，这也正是此文的重要缺憾之一。

正文与开头的照应能够使主题更加明确，中心更加突出。我们看一下《感受幸福》一文的结尾："如果有来生，我还要感受一下这辈子的幸福生活"，这一句意在照应文章的标题，然而语言过于平淡，格调低落，使人产生一种消极的情绪，不符合新时期少年儿童所应该拥有的心态，因而降低了文章的格调，这是我们在写作时要十分注意的。

一篇好的作文是讲究构造艺术的，而这个艺术的核心正是使文章"上下贯通，首尾相援"的艺术，做到这一点，也就做到了文章的通篇连贯，和谐一致，我们在作文时千万不要忽视它。

前伏后应的照应也是照应的基本方式之一。《感受友谊的枫叶》的小作者就注意到了这一点。文章的第三段"那是一个深秋的晚上"道出了故事发生的季节是深秋的时节，而此时也是枫叶正红的时候，为后文的"从高高的树上落下了一片火红的枫叶"伏下了很好的一笔，不得不赞叹小作者在构思上的精雕细琢。

怎样写自荐信和自荐信所要表达的内容是一样重要的，因为一份自荐信体现了你与别人交往的能力，没有一位聘用者会愿意招聘一个不善于交流的人。所以我们……

【专稿】怎样写自荐信和自荐信所要表达的内容是一样重要的，因为一份自荐信体现了你与别人交往的能力，没有一位聘用者会愿意招聘一个不善于交流的人。所以我们列出了一些建议，使你的自荐信看上去或读起来都比较专业化。

信要个人化

只要有可能，信应当写给具体的负责人。一般的称呼会显得你不熟悉公司；而读信人会留下一个你对这份工作不够热情的印象。同样，"给有关负责人"这类称呼可能不会有人来关心这封信。至于"亲爱的先生"或者"亲爱的夫人"也是不可取的—不要冒险疏远或冒犯你的读信人。

如果有必要，电话询问，去图书馆或者上网查询招聘人的名字和头衔。还要确定拼写正确。请记住，招聘经理一直在寻找与众不同的人。花时间去查出负责人，也许有一天你会变成那个人。

要自然

语言和句子要简单明了。不要听上去象别人的话，特别是用一些你从未用过的令人费解的词语和句子时（你也许会在写作中误用），也许你本来是想加深印象，但是结果却是令人难懂。写信就象你说话一样。语气要正式但不能僵硬。语言要直截了当，不要依靠词典。至于你的履历表，词语要生动使句子有力。

内容具体，紧扣主题

你的自荐信必须能吸引读信人有兴趣看你的履历表，但自荐信只是履历表的介绍而不是重复。要记得回答这样一个问题"为什么我要聘用这个人？"

避免使用陈词，诸如"很荣幸附上我的履历表"或者"我是一个普通人。"如果你的信和其他人一样，你会很难使自己突出。

语气要积极

不要抱怨你的老板，也不要埋怨现在的工作或者过去的工作很枯燥，因为没有人愿意招聘有这种态度的人。但也不要让人感觉你在乞讨一份工作，招聘经理也许会奇怪你为什么会这么绝望。

要自信但不要自傲

不卑不亢，告诉别人你能胜任这份工作，但不要要求别人做什么。不要夸大其实。要解释你为何觉得公司对你有吸引力（一定要有理由否则就不用写了）

要礼貌，专业

也许你和朋友之间嬉笑惯了，但对招聘者你必须有礼貌。

有效率

不要在不重要的细节上浪费时间。要尊重招聘者的时间，要保证信中的每一句话都与你的解释为何公司有兴趣相关，详细说明你将如何达到公司的要求，以及今后你如何与公司联系。

打印你的信，但要注意你的文字处理。如果你同时寄相似的信给好几家公司，要保证相应地改变以迎合那家公司。没有一个公司会想知道你愿意为它的竞争者工作。仔细地阅读每一份信，然后再签名。

能够与你联系

记得告诉招聘人联系你的方法。所给的电话号码必须是有人接的或者有电话录音。如果有可能的话，写上email地址。

不要坐等招聘者的决定。

要在信中表示你的期待和可能采取的行动。例如，不要在结尾时写上这样的话"期待着您的答复"

校对

检查你的语法和拼写错误，要检查几遍。打印和语法错误很大程度上反映了你的工作态度。不要完全依赖拼写改正的处理机；如果你用"there"代替"their"，处理机是不会检查出来的。备用一本词语用法的字典和一本语法手册。

签名

如果你忘了签名，招聘者会认为是一封申请信。

包装得体

履历表和自荐信应用同种纸张，统一规范会给人感觉比较专业。用打印机会比较整洁，文章就会没有标记和污渍。

以说明为主是说明文与其他文体从表达方式上区别的标志。小编收集了说明文写作常用方法，欢迎阅读。

(1)举例子。举出实际事例来说明事物，使所要说明的事物具体化，以便读者理解，这种说明方法叫举例法。 运用举事例的说明方法说明事物或事理，一要注意例子的代表性，二要注意例子的适量性。

(2)引资料。为了使说明的内容更充实具体，可以引资料说明。引资料的范围很广，可以是经典著作，名家名言，公式定律，典故谚语等。

(3)作比较。说明某些抽象的或者是人们比较陌生的事物，可以用具体的或者大家已经熟悉的事物和它比较，使读者通过比较得到具体而鲜明的印象。事物的特征也往往在比较中显现出来。 在作比较的时候，可以是同类相比，也可以是异类相比，可以对事物进行“横比”，也可以对事物进行“纵比”。

(4)列数据。为了使所要说明的事物具体化，还可以采用列数据的方法，以便读者理解。需要注意的是，引用的数字，一定要准确无误，不准确的数字绝对不能用，即使是估计的数字，也要有可靠的根据，并力求近似。

(5)分类别。将被说明的对象，按照一定的标准划分成不同的类别，一类一类地加以说明，这种说明方法，叫分类别。 分类别是将复杂的事物说清楚的重要方法。

(6)打比方。利用两种不同事物之间的相似之处作比较，以突出事物的性状特点，增强说明的形象性和生动性的说明方法叫做打比方。 说明文中的打比方的说明方法，同修辞格上的比喻是一致的。不同的是，比喻修辞有明喻、暗喻、和借喻，而说明多用明喻和暗喻，借喻则不宜使用。

(7)摹状貌。为了使被说明对象更形象、具体，可以进行状貌摹写，这种说明方法叫摹状貌。

(8)下定义。用简明的语言对某一概念的本质特征作规定性的说明叫下定义。下定义能准确揭示事物的本质，是科技说明文常用的方法。 下定义的时候，可以根据说明的目的需要，从不同的角度考虑。有的着重说明特性，如关于“人”的定义;有的着重说明作用，如关于“肥料”的定义;有的既说明特性又说明作用，如关于“统筹方法”和“应用科学”的定义。

(9)作诠释。从一个侧面，就事物的某一个特点做些解释，这种方法叫诠释法。 定义法和诠释法常采用“某某是什么”的语言形式。形式相同，如何区分呢?一般来说，“是”字两边的话能够互换，就是定义;如果不能互换，就是诠释。 例如，“人是能制造工具并使用工具进行劳动的高级动物”这句话，改成“能制造工具并使用工具进行劳动的高级动物是人”，意思不变。“雪是在云中形成的一种固态降水物”这句话，如果改为“云中形成的固态降水物是雪”就不成。由此可以辨别，前一句是定义说明，后一句是诠释说明。

(10)画图表。为了把复杂的事物说清楚，还可以采用图表法，来弥补单用文字表达的缺欠，对有些事物解说更直接、更具体。 一篇说明文单用一种说明方法很少，往往综合运用多种说明方法。采用什么说明方法，一方面服从内容的需要，另一方面作者有选择的自由。是采用一种说明方法，还是采用多种说明方法，是采用这种说明方法，还是那种说明方法，可以灵活，不是一成不变的。

A good laugh is sunshine in a house.令人愉快的欢笑是房间里的阳光。(英国小说家萨克雷。W.M.)

A man who is never satisfied with himself and whom therefore nobody can please.人要是从来不满意自己，就不会有人能够使他满意。(德国诗人歌德.J.W.)

A smile is ever the most bright and beautiful with a tear upon it. What is the dawn without its dew? The tear, by the smile is made precious above the smile itself.笑容带上泪珠总是最鲜艳、最娇美的。正如没有露水，还算什么清晨?而泪珠带上了笑容，就变得甚至比笑容还珍贵。(美国哲学家、教育家兰格。S.K)

All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. 只工作不娱乐使人愚钝。(英国作家贺维尔.)

Anticipating pleasure is also a pleasure.预期快乐本身也是一种快乐。(德国剧作家、诗人席勒.F.)

Better by far you should forget and smile than that you should remem-ber and be sad.笑一笑而忘掉，比愁眉苦脸地记住要好得多。(英国女诗人罗塞蒂.C.G. )

But headlong joy is ever on the wing. 轻率的快乐总是瞬息即逝。(英国诗人 弥尔顿.)

Energy is eternal delight.精力充沛是永恒的快乐。(美国诗人、艺术家布莱克.W.)

Everything considered, work is less boring than amusing oneself.不管怎样，娱乐比工作更令人乏味。(法国诗人 查尔斯.B.)

Human felicity is produced not so much by great pieces ofgoodfortune that seldom happen , as by little advantages thatoccurevery day.(Benjamin Franklin ,American president).与其说人类的幸福来自偶尔发生的鸿运，不如说来自每天都有的小实惠。(美国总统 富兰克林.B.)

Most folks are about as happy as they make up their mindstobe.(Abraham Lincoln ,American president)对于大多数人来说，他们认定自己有多幸福，就有多幸福。(美国总统 林肯.A.)

The secret of being miserable is to have leisure to botheraboutwhether you are happy or not.(George Bernard Shaw ,Britishdramatist)痛苦的秘密在于有闲功夫担心自己是否幸福。(英国剧作家 肖伯纳.G.)

The supreme happiness of life is the conviction that weareloved.(Victor Hugo , French novelist)生活中最大的幸福是坚信有人爱我们。(法国小说家 雨果.V.)

There is no dise on earth equal to the union of loveandinnocence.(Jean Jacques Rousseau, French thinker)人间最大的幸福莫如既有爱情又清白无暇。(法国思想家 卢梭.J.J.)

To really understand a man we must judge himinmisfortune.(Bonaparte Napoleon , French emperor)要真正了解一个人，需在不幸中考察他。(法国皇帝 拿破仑.B.)

We have no more center to consume happiness without producingitthan to consume wealth without producing it.(George Bernard Shaw,British dramatist)正像我们无权只享受财富而不创造财富一样，我们也无权只享受幸福而不创造幸福。(英国剧作家 肖伯纳.G.)

A lifetime of happiness ! No man alive could bear it ; it wouldbehell on earth.(G.Bernard Shaw ,British dramatist)终身幸福!这是任何活着的人都无法忍受的，那将是人间地狱。 (英国剧作家 肖伯纳.G.)

Happiness is form courage.(H.Jackson , British writer)幸福是勇气的一种形式。(英国作家 杰克逊.H.)

Happy is the man who is living by his hobby.(G.Bernard Shaw,British dramatist)醉心于某种癖好的人是幸福的。(英国剧作家 肖伯纳.G.)

Happiness lies not in the mere possession of money ; it liesinthe joy of achievement , in the thrill of creativeeffort.(FranklinRoosevelt , American president)幸福不在于拥有金钱，而在于获得成就时的喜悦以及产生创造力的激情。(美国总统 罗斯福.F.)

He laughs best who laughs last.远行者见闻多。(英国科学家雷伊.J.)

He who can conceal his joys is greater than he who can hide his griefs.能隐藏欢乐的人比能隐藏悲痛的人更了不起。(瑞士作家 拉瓦特)

I like the laughter that opens the lips and the heart, that shows at the same time pearls and the soul.我喜欢能不开启双唇和心扉的笑声，喜欢能展示皓齿和灵魂的笑声。(法国作家雨果)

I never condider ease and joyfulness as the purpose of life itself.我从来不认为安逸和欢乐就是生活本身的目的。(美国科学家爱因斯坦)

I wish to preach, not the doctrine of ignoble ease, but the doctrine of the strenuous life.我愿宣扬的信条是艰苦奋发的生活，而不是卑微低下的安逸。(美国政治家罗斯福.T.)

It is a curious fact that in bad days we can very vividly recall the good time that is now no more; but that in good days we have only a very cold and imperfect memory of the bad.奇怪得很，人们在倒楣的时候，总会清晰地回忆已经逝去 快乐时光，但是在得意的时候，对恶运时光只保有一种淡漠而不完全的记忆。(德国哲学家叔本华)

It is a poor heart that never rejoices.永远不快乐的心很可悲。(英国小说家马里亚特)

Joys are our wings, sorrows are our spurs.欢乐是人们的双翼，哀愁是人们发愤的动力。(法国作家里克特.J.P)

Labor is often the father of pleasure.劳动常常是快乐之父。(法国哲学家、历史学家伏尔泰)

One of the greatest pleasure in life is conversation.生活中最大的乐趣之一是交谈。(美国作家史密斯L.P.)

Perfect understanding will sometimes almost extinguish pleasure.完全的理解有时几乎会使乐趣消失。(英国学者、诗人豪斯曼.A.E.)

Never less idle than when wholly idle, nor less alone than when wholly alone.要清闲就完全清闲，要清静就完全清静。(英国诗人克莱尔J.)

People who cannot find time for recreation are obliged sooner or later to find time for illness.腾不出时间娱乐的人，早晚会被迫腾出时间生病。(美国商人 霍梅克.J.)

Pleasure is nothing else but the intermission of pain, the enjoying of something I am in great trouble for till I have it.快乐不过是痛苦的间歇，享受之前要进行艰苦的努力。(英国法学家 塞尔登.J.)

Praise is ilde sunlight to the human spirit, we cannot flower and grow without it.对于人的精神来说，赞扬就像阳光一样，没有它我们便不能开花生长。(英国作家 格林.G.)

The winter solstice, the winter solstice as the "holiday" in han dynasty, the rulers to congratulate ceremony known as "He Dong", official holidays, routine officialdom popular each "winter" worship custom. "Were" has such records: "before and after the winter solstice, the gentleman place static body, baiguan, scenes, and then pick an auspicious day Chen save trouble." So on the court and off to rest, to the army on standby, frontier retreat, business travel out of business, family and all distinctions to food, visit each other, a joyous festival "place static body". When in the six dynasties, the winter solstice is called "the age", people to elders to extend holiday greetings to your parents; After the song dynasty, the winter solstice festival gradually become the sacrifice to ancestors and gods.

Tang and song period, the winter solstice is to worship the day of worship ancestors, the emperor held outside the day to worship, the people in this day to the parents or elders worship. Ming and qing dynasties, the emperor have to worship, of "winter solstice jiao days". There has to be given to a emperor, table officials ritual, but also to each other for congratulations, like New Years day.

Winter festival also called yesterday, hand in winter. It is one of the 24 solar terms, is a traditional festival of China, have "the winter solstice as big as a year". Winter solstice supplements, is Chinas traditional customs, folksay: fill a lump-sum winter, in the coming year without pain. Summer volts, winter lump-sum. The winter solstice mend, nutrients.

冬至到了，汉代以冬至为“冬节”，官府要举行祝贺仪式称为“贺冬”，官方例行放假，官场流行互贺的“拜冬”礼俗。《后汉书》中有这样的记载：“冬至前后，君子安身静体，百官绝事，不听政，择吉辰而后省事。”所以这天朝廷上下要放假休息，军队待命，边塞闭关，商旅停业，亲朋各以美食相赠，相互拜访，欢乐地过一个“安身静体”的节日。魏晋六朝时，冬至称为“亚岁”，民众要向父母长辈拜节;宋朝以后，冬至逐渐成为祭祀祖先和神灵的节庆活动。

唐、宋时期，冬至是祭天祀祖的日子，皇帝在这天要到郊外举行祭天大典，百姓在这一天要向父母尊长祭拜。明、清两代，皇帝均有祭天大典，谓之“冬至郊天”。宫内有百官向皇帝呈递贺表的仪式，而且还要互相投刺祝贺，就像元旦一样。

冬至节亦称冬节、交冬。它既是二十四节气之一，是中国的一个传统节日，曾有“冬至大如年”的说法。冬至进补，是我国传统风俗，俗语云：三九补一冬，来年无病痛。夏养三伏，冬补三九。冬至补一补,一年精气足。

gre考试实施，很多考生都感到茫然不知所措，特别是新gre作文部分，新gre作文考察考生完成题目的过程中是否能够融合批判性思维和分析性写作能力，以更好的反应研究生院和商学院所需思维方式，新gre作文考试issue写作如何写?下面是备考gre issue写作的方法，虽然是延用老g issue作文题库，但并不影响备考，我要学的是写好gre issue写作的方法，而不是看案例的新旧!

授人以鱼不如授人以渔，如果大家能掌握几种快速的分析技巧加上一些通用性很强的国际化事例，准备GRE ISSUE文章将事半功倍。

拆分法

分析题目极为有效的一种手段，其基本原理就是面对一个云山雾罩的抽象的大的概念，将其一分为二或者一分为多进行分别讨论。

解析法

通过对题目主体的需求进行分析，从而找到支持论证的有说服力的理由与典型的论据。主体需求，可以是个人，教育，社会，政府与文化发展等方面的需求。

正反法

对题目的主张或者结论分成两面分析。没有绝对对错，哪边理由与例证多我们走哪边。也可写成让步式或者对照式两面论证。

比较法

适用于题干中两个对等概念的比较。

一、写说不单写“说”。

让孩子比较以下三句话。

张三说：“……”;张三无可奈何地说：“……”;张三摊了摊手，一副无可奈何的样子：“……”。

显然，让人物说话有多种方式，写语言可以不用出现“说”而是在语言前面加上动作和神态，通过一定的训练掌握这样的技巧让孩子的写作水平切实得到提升，让他们学会细节描写，不会仅干巴巴的地写“某某说”。

二、写外貌不用“有”。

作文如何写外貌?孩子的作文里总会看到类似这样的名子：“XX可漂亮了，她有一头卷卷的黄头发，有一双乌黑的葡萄般的大眼睛，有一个高高的鼻子，还有一张樱桃小嘴”。

如果你试着让他们去掉文中的“有”，把文字重新串联一遍，会发现作文顺了很多。写上段文字的同学经老师指导后修改如下：“XX可漂亮啦。一头卷卷的黄头发自然地披在肩上。她的眼睛太吸引人了，乌黑乌黑葡萄一般。高高的鼻子，和樱桃小嘴配合起来，有点混血的味道，同学们可喜欢她啦。”是不是读起来舒服多了?

三、写想不出现“想”。

遇到描写心理活动时，这样的句子已经被孩子们写滥：“我脑子里跳出两个小人，一个小人……另一个小人……”。不用这个句子又该怎么写?最常用的就是“我心想”。如某学生写：“数学老师出了一道难题要带回家写的。我心想：天哪!这该怎么办呢?”

按照“写想不用想”的技巧，去掉“我心想”三个字如何?“数学老师出了一道难题要带回家写的。天哪!这该怎么办呢?”是不是更简洁精练?别忘了提醒孩子要给心理描写加上适当感叹词。

四、不用成语，作文为什么写不长?

不是说多用成语才显得有文采吗?其实不然，在“就是不用成语”写作技巧中，当作文中只会按照套路使用成语时，文章细节就没了，还不如让孩子老老实实把自己看到的感受都写出来。什么天高云淡、风和日丽、桃红柳绿、炯炯有神、心旷神怡……这些被用滥的成语还是少出现为妙。

比如，写春天别用“风和日丽”，而是这样写：“风儿拂过林梢，原本平静的湖面漾起了圈圈涟漪，湖边的柳树轻摇着身姿，我也忍不住张开双臂，任风抚过我的每一寸肌肤，暖暖的，痒痒的。”想办法用具体的句子替换掉别人用滥的成语，解决孩子作文写不长、写不细的难题。

五、遇到“很”和“非常”想一想。

对于文章写不长的孩子，可以训练的另一个技巧是：遇到“很”和“非常”想一想。看过无数学生习作，发现出现频率最高的字眼包括“很、非常”，请家长提醒孩子，遇到要写这几个字时不要轻易下笔，停下来想一想，是不是非要出现这个字眼?

比如写热，别出现“很热”两个字，学会用其他的描写来体现热：骄阳似火，没有一丝风，树叶低垂毫无生气……文章自然就能写长。

六、一秒钟的事写三百字。

这还是针对作文写不长的一种技巧训练：用三百字来描写1秒钟内发生的事。如关于破校运会跳高纪录瞬间的描写原本只有几十字：只见某某纵身一跳，一下子飞过横杆，新的校运会纪录诞生了!

怎么变成三百字?可以有条理地加上动作解剖：如何助跑、起跳、翻越、落地;加上联想：往届校运会有人挑战失败，平时如何一次次练习等等;还可以加上细节来充实，起跳前如何与同学们进行眼神交流，成功后同学如何向他祝贺……家长可以找一些1秒钟的素材让孩子进行写作练习，学会了这个技巧还怕考试写不出四五百字吗?

七、一段话里至少出现6个标点。

很多孩子不会用标点，习作中常只有逗号句号逗号句号，甚至逗号都没有，把老师读到断气为止。针对这个现象，可以让孩子进行“一段话至少出现6种标点”的技巧训练。比如，。?!……：“”等等。

这些标点你的作文中都有吗?没有的话请尝试用起来。经过几次训练后，你会发现孩子的惊人变化：意味深长的句子会写了，人物语言会加进去了，心理活动结合进去了，还会用反问句了。这些句子加进去后，文章当然生动起来。一位作家就曾用这种方法对自己作文写不好的孩子进行训练，收效明显，进步很快。

八、字数三四五。

这个技巧说白了就是学习写短句。学了一段时间写作的孩子容易在作文中写长句，而长句写不好就变成病句。事实上很多作家也是以写短句见长的，像沈从文、汪曾祺。家长要提醒孩子注意控制每句话的字数，建议把十几个字几十个字的长句改成只有三四五个字的短句，孩子们会发现这样的作文有语感会舒服很多。

九、环境里面有“真”“情”。

到了五六年级孩子都要学习环境描写。如有的孩子会写：“早上天气还挺好的，放学回家时，却哗哗下起雨来。雨珠在下，泪珠在滴，老天也好像在为我哭泣”。

孩子能用环境衬托自己的心情首先要表扬。但是很多孩子只要一写环境，肯定就是小花微笑，小草点头、小鸟歌唱、小雨哭泣，成了套路，难道世界上只有小草、小鸟、小花吗?为什么不能写身边更真实的东西呢?云、雾、桌子，哪怕是电线杆都可以写，这个技巧是提醒孩子不仅要让人活在环境里，还要让人活在真实的环境里。

十、要动连着动，文章要一波三折才好看。

现在的孩子生活都很平淡，你不能强求他们写出一波三折的内容，那就让他们学会一波三折地使用动词，要动连着动——学会连续使用动词。某学生写一场乒乓球球赛：“他发了一个旋转球，让人看得眼花缭乱”(一句话把文章就给写完了)。

学会动词技巧后将原句修改成：“只见他高高地将球抛起，眼睛死死盯着，球接触球板的一瞬间，他手腕轻轻一抖，脚一跺，球高速旋转着，向这边飞来，让人看得眼花缭乱”。一个动词转瞬变成六七个，文字即刻灵动丰富起来。

作文写作除了掌握写作方法外，多读书，提高自己的语言表达能力也是很重要的。下面是小编为你带来的语文作文写作方法有哪些，欢迎阅读。

一、提高认识事物和表达事物的能力。

我国著名教育家叶圣陶先生指出：“写任何东西决定于认识和经验，有什么样的认识和经验，才能写出什么样的东西来。反之，没有表达认识的能力，同样也写不出好作文”。

二、把认识结构作为作文的核心。

认识结构包括学习知识，观察积累，记忆储存，训练思维，丰富想象，培养情感，锻炼意志;从说到写，推敲修改，多读勤写。

三、树立大作文观，听、说、读、写有机结合

一要注重审题;二要明确写作目的，立意要新;三是选材要有根据;四要讲究谋篇技巧，安排好篇章结构;五要注意文章分段，事先列小标题，作文提纲;六要注重文章写法，因文用法;七要妙用语言，用思想调遣语言。

学会五种立意法：以事赞人，直抒胸臆，借物喻理，触景生情，托物言志。

四、作文大目标的逐年级分解。

一年级字词，二年级句子，三年级片断，四年级篇章，五年级综合，六年级提高。

五、实施五项训练

根据认识是作文的核心这一原则，围绕这个发展学生心理机制的核心，扎扎实实地进行了五项训练：

(一)字词训练。学习掌握大量字词。掌握运用字词的金钥匙：联系自己熟悉的事物;联系自己生活实际;联系自己学会的语言及字词知识。

运用“十引说”的方法，把字词学习与说话训练相结合。“十引说”是：1、分析字形;2、利用教具;3、凭图学词;4、组词扩词;5、选词填空;6、词 语搭配;7、调整词序;8、触景用词;9、词语分类;10、联词成句。丰富了说话训练内容，使自己积累大量会说会用的字词，为写作文打下坚实基础。

(二)句子训练。只要是一个句子，都包括两个方面：一是说的人、事、物、景，二是说目的。可有些教师指导学生说一句话时，没有很好凭借图画和事物， 认真教学生观察、认识、分析、表达的方法，只是拿出一张图或一事物让学生说写一句话，学生不知道为什么要说写一句话，怎样说写一句话，说写一句什么句型、 什么句式的话，导致作文中语调单一、呆板、不活泼生动。可以改让学生凭图、看物、对话、练习说写一句时间、地点、人物、事件四要素完整的话，四种句型，九 种句式的话。学生才会在作文中运用不同句型、句式，表达不同的思想、感情、态度、目的。

(三)段的训练。结合八种段式：以事物发展为序段，时间先后为序段，空间变换为序段，总述、分述结构段，因果段、转折段，递进段，并列段。以此认识 客观事物的发生、发展规律。不论哪种段式，都是记叙事物的发展和人们对事物的认识，即段的内容，段的中心。它和一句话一样，也是对人、事、物、景的叙述， 也是表达一个意思。只不过是把一句话进一步说得更清楚、更深刻。

(四)篇章训练。篇是由段组成的。通过对审题、立意、选材、谋篇、定法、用语的知识与方法，通过记叙、描写、抒情、议论四种表达方法，文章开头与结尾、过渡与呼应方法，各种文章体裁的知识与方法。学会写中心明确，意思完整，详略得当的记叙文和应用文。

(五)生活现场训练。采用生活现场训练，更好地体会“从内容入手”写作文。 通过各种作文教学活动，如“确定中心讨论会”、“选材讨论会”、“作文会诊会”、“小诸葛审题会”、“妙用词语比赛会”，从活动中生动具体地学到作文知识 与写作文的方法。另外，还可开展各种校内外活动，如跳绳、拔河、踢毽、球类、背书比赛，从而学会如何写比赛作文;开展校内外义务劳动，学会如何写劳动场 面;举行诗歌朗诵、讲演会，学会如何写会议场面及会议上的见闻;通过参观访问，浏览名胜古迹，学会如何写参观访问记、游记。学习观察方法，留心周围的事 物、事件，“处处留心皆学问，人情练达即文章”。通过现场生活作文，进一步认识到：生活是作文的沃土。从而学会写真事、抒真情，陶冶真、善、美的情操，培 养良好的文风。

同学们掌握了初中语文作文写作方法，在平时的写作中我们就应该按照这样的方法进行学习，作文的写作是比较主观的题型，是需要我们的实力的，所以应该多读书，提高自己的语言表达能力，使成绩提高。

写作是语文的半边江山，我们都很重视它，也在不断地探讨提升其水平的方法。但就具体操作和实际效果来看，可谓各具千秋、难分伯仲。我也曾想过：语文的写作教学能不能总结出一种实际可运用的模式呢？现实告诉我，那是可能的。写作教学，系统性与灵活性相结合，方能有持久的生命力。

曾经走过的困惑之路

一、不知该让学生写些什么，临阵随便定一个题目让学生写。

平时总是觉得没有话题可供学生写，因为选个学生感兴趣又能让学生有话可说的话题真的很难，即使选了一个觉得不错的话题给学生写，学生写出来的东西往往又不合己意。快到写作课了，对写作的内容，没有预想的系统的构思，“临上轿了现包脚”，匆忙找几个话题，上网查查，有没有例文范文，有的话就用，没有的话就放弃另找。因为自己也不知道怎么立意怎么写，所以就借助于网络，网络上怎么说的自己也跟着怎么立意、怎么讲评。

二、不知道作文该怎么指导。

大多数情况下是给学生一个话题接着就让学生写，而且因为按照课标要求，高中生45分钟要写600字，高考对作文的要求则是800字左右，所以学生每次正规作文练笔大约要60分钟。我上作文一般是两节连堂，这样带上课间一共是100分钟。全给学生觉得有些浪费，所以就在一开始的半个小时里进行点其他内容，然后再给学生六七十分钟的时间去写作，要求当堂上交。可想而知，当堂上交的往往只有少数。

这样的写作课，让我很疲惫，让学生很厌倦。我觉得对不起学生，也对不起自己。想一想，老师疲于应付的课，学生又怎么会感兴趣呢？我们又有什么资格去要求学生感兴趣呢？于是一直想改变这种写作的窘态。

实际总结出的方法

一、写作要有系统性。

临时才确定话题的方式，使得学生完全没有规律可循，老师在讲解时也缺少连贯性与层次性，效果可想而知。其实，写作是需要打好基础、逐步提高的。比如我们高一一般会先训练学生写记叙文，那我们不能一开始就让学生写“母亲”、“老师”、“同学”等等，分层次引导，学生水平才能逐步提高。我在实际教学时，在第一阶段会先让学生进行人物外貌的刻画，提前让学生细致全面地观察自己要写的人物，做好准备后再进行课堂限时练笔。这样学生课前有了一定的准备，课堂上也就不会再愁眉苦脸了，而且有了目标性，他们的作文写得也的确不错。接下来，我依次训练语言动作、神态心理等的刻画。学生逐步把握了刻画人物的方法与技巧后，我再统一确定话题，让他们运用学过的所有方法来全方位刻画一个人物。就实际效果来看，比随意给个话题就让学生写要好很多。

二、写作方式多样化，鼓励学生坚持写日记、周记。

新课改后我们语文一周才四节课，我们一般两周（有时还会更久）才上一次两节连堂的大作文课，仅仅依赖于此，作文是很难提高的，我们必须引导学生要坚持随时随地练笔。学生们每天的生活可谓大同小异，可人是一个有情感的主体，每天的所思所想是不同的，而且有些奇思妙想会稍纵即逝，所以我们要引导学生及时地把这些“灵感”写下来。写的多了，思的多了，写作水平必有提高。鉴于学生的时间是有限的，所以我要求他们每周的周记必须写，而日记则可灵活处理。而且我对他们的这些随笔不做统一要求，字数、体裁都不限。可能有些老师会质疑:字数不限，那学生岂不偷懒，能少写就少写吗？对于这个问题，我是这样想的：发自内心、经过精心润色的一句话，也胜似搜肠刮肚、硬生生地凑起来的一篇文章。在这方面，我要明确一点，那就是学生的日记、周记，老师要定期批阅，并给出贴切的评价与修改意见，这是对学生比较有效的认可鼓励措施。

三、巧借新闻大事，引导学生自由讨论。

语文的课堂是需要激情的，作文课尤其如此。虽然我们的训练是系统性的，但偶尔我们也不妨变换方式，吊吊学生的胃口。现实生活中有利于我们语文学习的媒介其实很多，我们不一定非要局限于课本上的固定内容与要求。学生们每天只能在校园内过着比较封闭单一的生活，他们还渴望了解外面的世界。而外界每天都在发生剧烈的变化，其中的一些有价值的新闻大事，其实是学生们非常感兴趣的。那我们就可以利用这一点，在课堂上拿出点时间组织学生自由讨论发言，学生只有有了说的冲动，才会诉诸笔端，写出更好的文章。记得前段时间日本发生事件时，我便搜集了一些资料，在课堂上展示给学生，让他们就这一事件发表自己的看法。一开始，有些学生还有所顾忌，在几个学生的带领下，大家都放开了胆量，畅所欲言。结果本来准备用时十分钟的，到了二十分钟，学生的情绪依然高涨。于是，我临时调整教学计划，趁热打铁，让学生把自己说过的话写成文字，进一步表达自己的观点，体裁不限，字数不限。大多数学生当堂就把文章写完了，而且写作水平都高于平常的一般练笔。在这方面，也必须明确一点，口头的表达必须与笔头的落实相结合，效果才能显现。

未尽的路

写作的提高，是语文教学的一个重点也是一个难点，我总结出的也只能算是不成熟的个例。语文各方面的教学都不能模式化、死板化，我们要根

1、随时变化法

【特点】

随时变化法一般运用于描写日出、月上、日落、月夕等天空的景色变化，以及描写刮风、下雨、下雪等气色变化。采用随时变化法描写景物，一定要注意仔细观察时间的推移过程中，景物所发生的细微变化，这样才能言之有物。在描写景物时，要把时间的变化交代清楚，这样能反映景物变化的时间进程感。其次要把景物在各个时间里自身特征的变化描写具体，使读者好像看到一场景物变化的小电影。

2、日内变化法

【特点】

同一景物在一天内不同的时刻，景色是不一样的。采用日内变化法描写景物，我们必须随着时间的变化而变化，去勾画景物的不同画面，并做到各有侧重，避免画面相似。（next88）采用日内变化法描写景物，不能只改变景物的地点，但是侧重点可以变化。这样，才能做到同中有异。

3、定点换景法

【特点】

运用定点换景法描写景物，首先在观察景物时要注意选择好观察点。因为表现同一事物时，立足点不同，观察的“方位”、“角度”不同，呈现的面貌也各不相同，表达效果大不一样。其次描写时要注意把观察点交代清楚，即使不用文字作专门说明，也应该让读者能从描写中领会到作者观察的立足点和角度方位。此外，描写时要按照一定顺序，即由近及远或由远及近，由高到低或由低到高，从左到右或从右至左等等。这样可以把景物写得层次清楚，鲜明逼真，有立体感，给读者以如临其境，如在目前的感受。

4、定景换点法

【特点】

同一景物，从不同的位置去看，所呈现的面貌是完全不同的。采用定景换点法描写景物就是把不同位置观察到的景物的差异写出来。采用定景换点法描写景物首先要把观察点的变化情况交代清楚，使读者知道是在什么地方观察到的。其次交代观察点时要按一定的顺序，或由下至上，或由上至下，或由远及近，或由近及远，或由左到右，或由右到左。此外描写景物时，注意从不同的侧面去反映，使读者对景物有整体感。

5、移步换景法

【特点】

移步换景法一般适合于游记或参观记，描写景物时，人走景移，随着观察点的变换，不断展现新画面。采用移步换景法描写景物时，首先要把观察点的变换交代清楚。这样，读者才能清楚地知道游览或参观的路线。其次要把移步中或移步后所见到的景物具体地展现出来，使读者看到一幅幅绚丽多彩、内容丰富的生动画面。采用移步换景法描写景物时，要注意围绕一个中心展示不同的画面，避免有支离破碎的感觉。其次要进行精心的剪裁，要把一路上最有特色的景物描绘出来，删去一般性的描写，避免记流水帐。

[常见的作文五大写作方法

all the same 仍然,照样的

as regards 关于,至于

anything but 根本不

as a matter of fact 实际上

apart from 除...外(有/无)

as a rule 通常,照例

as a result(of) 因此,由于

as far as ...be concerned 就...而言

as far as 远至,到...程度

as for 至于,关于

as follows 如下

as if 好像,仿怫

as good as 和...几乎一样

as usual 像平常一样,照例

as to 至于,关于

all right 令人满意的;可以

as well 同样,也,还

as well as 除...外(也),即...又

aside from 除...外(还有)

at a loss 茫然,不知所措

at a time 一次,每次

at all 丝毫(不),一点也不

at all costs 不惜一切代价

at all events 不管怎样,无论如何

at all times 随时,总是

at any rate 无论如何,至少

at best 充其量,至多

at first 最初,起先

at first sight 乍一看,初看起来

at hand 在手边,在附近

at heart 内心里,本质上

at home 在家,在国内

at intervals 不时,每隔...

at large 大多数,未被捕获的

at least 至少

at last 终于

at length 最终,终于

at most 至多,不超过

at no time 从不,决不

by accident 偶然

at one time 曾经,一度;同时

at present 目前,现在

at sbs disposal 任...处理

at the cost of 以...为代价

at the mercy of 任凭...摆布

at the moment 此刻,目前

at this rate 照此速度

at times 有时,间或

back and forth 来回地,反复地

back of 在...后面

before long 不久以后

beside point 离题的,不相干的

beyond question 毫无疑问

by air 通过航空途径

by all means 尽一切办法,务必

by and by 不久,迟早

by chance 偶然,碰巧

by far 最,...得多

by hand 用手,用体力

by itself 自动地,独自地

by means of 用,依靠

by mistake 错误地,无意地

by no means 决不,并没有

by oneself 单独地,独自地

by reason of 由于

by the way 顺便说说

by virtue of 借助,由于

by way of 经由,通过...方法

due to 由于,因为

each other 互相

even if/though 即使,虽然

ever so 非常,极其

every now and then 时而,偶尔

every other 每隔一个的

except for 除了...外

face to face 面对面地

君不知作文灵感何处来，抓耳挠腮无文思;君不见绝妙素材随处有，旁征博引非难事。每一场语文考试中，最决定成败的无疑是作文--分数占比高，所需时间长，不定因素又太多。从审题破题到立意定论再到起承转合行文结论，步步惊心。然而大多数人从第一步便彳亍难前，解药在何方?

提高写作这件事儿，可小可大。大者，众所周知，150分钟150分的试卷中，唯独她，大笔一挥便耗你50分钟至70分钟不等，分数一出幸运者轻轻松松60分收入囊中，不幸者只能流着泪挥手告别20分，写作抢分水平一旦提高，语文战场便一举拿下;小者，作文提高在于平常生活中一点一滴的积累，以及考场上审题破题行文时的灵光一闪厚积薄发。下面就与大家分享一些干得榨不出汁儿的平时积累与临场发挥中可以使用的一些小技巧~

平时积累：

1)练字

一张整洁的作文卷面能够在改卷老师看见你卷子的第一眼就给你打一个比较好的印象分。当然整洁的卷面并不一定要求你出手就是极其标准的正楷瘦金，但至少你得保证你的字压着方格底线、左右留出十分之一的空格，上下占三分之二，避免字体低空飘过空格的三分之一;更重要的是，避免用"大片横线涂抹错字"的方式改正错字、错句，用从左上到右下的斜线轻轻划掉需要更正的部分即可，一来不影响整体的美观度，二来改正了错误信息确保心安，从而保证整体的观感美观度。平时写字随意惯了的人是无法在考场上突然就交上一份整洁的答卷的，所以平时练习时(无论哪一科作业)，都应当强迫自己减少笔误，训练自己想好再下笔的慎重，并且避免用粗壮的涂抹修改错误信息。平时养成良好的习惯才能在考场上彰显出来。

2)多读多看多记多背

大家翻看满分作文集的时候，一定会发现许多满分作文无论记叙文议论文散文，共同的特点就是辞藻华丽，文笔或沉郁顿挫充满思想，或清逸俊秀洋溢着青春的气息，更有甚者，从开头到结尾时不时引一句古诗词抒发情感发表议论。大家在为这些华丽的文风所倾倒时，有没有想过他们是怎么做到的呢?要想在考场中写出这样的文章，平时一定要多读多看多记多背多积累。

首先要确定自己喜欢怎样的风格，对症下药。喜欢古诗词且有一定改编兴趣的同学可以拿着唐诗宋词三百首隔几天背几首，然后把大纲必备的一百篇左右记熟理解透，背的时候就多联想联想自己遇到过的作文主题，看看哪几句可以用在哪几类主题上，再大脑中建立一个对应的突触，考场写作中就能够比较快地反应出可以用的古诗词了;喜欢沉郁文风的同学呢，平时刷数学理综刷累了换脑子的时候可以多看看类似的思想性的文章，经典如鲁迅、瞿秋白，流行如《特别关注》、《读者》、《意林》等杂志，均是取材的好原料。但涉猎一定要广，不要把自己局限在高考满分作文大全的桎梏里，这样不仅会给自己创造无形中不必要的压力，也会使得自己的脑洞无法推陈出新。

遇到自己触电的文段后，最轻松的法子就是准备一本素材本，剪下来之后粘在上面随时翻阅;也可以自行抄录背诵时常回忆联想，所谓"念念不忘，必有回响"，将这些文字在脑中不停地反复，考场上即便大脑一片空白，也能在下笔时蹦出相应的灵感。

3)一天破三题，一周一文章

光说不练假把式，积累了许多素材输入，不提高输出也是无法提高能力的。我的建议是非高/初三的同学可以一周练三到五个破题，写一篇文章，高/初三的同学一天练三个破题，一周保证一篇文章。

破题怎么练呢?找到题库，审题，先审题目的中心思想，将思路尽可能地与出题老师贴近，找对最正确自己也最拿手的角度切入，尽量选用不落窠臼的分析方式列好提纲，写好标题，一道题的破题训练就完成了。不需要写出完整的文章，只写出标题、中心论点和分论点，这样的训练方式既能够提高审题速度避免选择困难症在考场上频繁发作，也能够节约写作时间提高写作练习的频率避免厌倦长时间枯燥的写作练习。当然，节约出来的时间勤奋的同学们也可以用来想一想每一个分论点可以用哪些事例，可以配怎样的古诗词句，可以用一段怎样有力的论述，标题怎样取可以更加抓人眼球打动人心。破完题一定要去看看标答是如何分析的--这就要求挑选题库时一定不能找那种答案是"略"的题库--努力让自己的思维往答案上靠，调试多了就校准了;有疑惑的地方一定要多与老师沟通交流，保证思维不脱轨。

每周的那篇文章可以从这几篇写好了的破题中选择，然后拿给老师看，多与老师沟通交流，及时调整自己的审题风格，保证自己的思路在正轨上剑走偏锋，既有创新之处，又不会离题千里导致跑题丢分。这样也保证了自己连缀文章的能力不过快退化。

无论是破题还是写完整文章，时间都必须给予自己一定的限制。破题的时间可以限制在10-15分钟，完整文章的写作时间不要超过一小时，这样才能保证自己在考场上能够有充足的时间把前面的基础题做好。当然，平时贵在"琢磨"，琢磨的时间当然越长越好，毕竟磨刀不误砍柴工嘛。

4)多开脑洞多联想，创造自己的事例素材库

前面说过要多积累素材多训练审题破题，闲来无事多"琢磨"，联想的好处便在于此。如果说你记录下来的素材是珍珠，那么"琢磨"能够让你把这些珍珠磨成粉喝下去最大程度地提高你将文字连缀成篇的能力。在脑中建立属于自己的素材库，每几个素材贴上属于他们自己的标签，一个素材往往可以用在多个主题之上，一个事例也往往有多个角度可以分析，所以，在脑中把这些标签贴好，就像建造一座"mindpalace"，考试时就能够信手拈来不会感慨书到用时方恨少了，也再也不用依赖万能的李白杜甫司马迁了。

学科间的融会贯通也是不容小觑的一个技能，许多理化生史地政的许多现象、事例都可以用在文章中，尽显理科生、文科生独有的风范和魅力，多用一用相关的素材也不愧对平时在文综理综上花的大把大把的时间嘛。

标题也是很重要的一部分，一个好的标题能够给人一种愿意读下去的动力，所以平时读书积累素材的时候，也可以多看看"别人家的标题"是如何抓人眼球的，自己又可以用怎样的方式让自己的标题变得狂拽酷炫吸引人。

临场发挥：

1)审好题后即下笔切莫太犹豫

如果平时有了一定量审题积累，考场上审题就不会是太难的事情。确定分析角度找准立意写好分论点确定标题之后尽快开始写作，可以等灵感出现，但不要再立意上摇摆太久，否则选择困难症一定会把你逼到时间不够最后匆匆行文害了自己。记住，标题是考场作文的重点之一，能新颖不陈旧，但一定不能词不达意让人不知所云，否则就还不如循规蹈矩地扣上一顶傻帽子然后凭内容出彩了。记叙文虽然不被提倡因为很少会有改卷老师有那个耐心去认真看你的细节和感情，但是如果有十足的保证确保细节描写能够打动人心，也可以试一试。

2)厚积薄发多用脑洞多联想

有了平时如此多的积累，到考场上想要厚积薄发也就不会太难了。最关键的一点是不要给自己太大的心理压力使得自己脑洞被强行压制没法调用，放轻松，多想想自己平时积累了什么记下了什么，灵活运用便好。当然，如果脑子里全是那些烂掉牙的万能素材，我只能说，少年，您还是多看看时事积累点素材再来考试吧。

3)九分力雕琢龙头凤尾内容不在话下

开头和结尾的重要性想必不需要我再强调，但是不仅仅是开头和结尾两段。首段保证在一百字以内言简意赅地提出响亮的中心论点，结尾收束全文呼应开头升华主题当然也不需要我再强调。特别有必要说的一点在于，中间各论述段的开头和结尾也必须可圈可点，如果能适当地用上排比，保证对应的格式与字数，在宏大的论述气势中有条有理地把论点论述清楚是最好不过的了。格式一致的分论点在让你自己更好地组织语言的同时其实也能够让改卷老师更快更全面地掌握你的思路，这时只要你思路正确，改卷老师也就更愿意给你高分了。在有条理有逻辑有气势的开头结尾的帮助下，写好段落中间的几句话就完全不是问题了。

看完了上述的"葵花宝典"，是不是觉得平时"念念不忘"，考试时才能"必有回响"?

所以为了提高作文，在考场上攻克下这一片核心战场，把平时的积累方法好好落实吧~

做任何事情都是有规律可循的，申论考试也是这样，那么申论作文有什么写作方法呢？本文是小编为大家收集整理的申论大作文写作方法，欢迎参考借鉴。

一、如何明确主题

这里要重点说明一下，每个申论材料只有一个主题，如果你不是这个主题，那么就偏题，直接低分。不理解出题人的意图就是读不懂领导的心思，不按照出题人的心意来就是对抗上级，打低分都算轻的了。

这里的主题我理解的有两种，一种是材料围绕的中心对象，比如13年的联考，“让……大放异彩”，研读材料，通篇围绕“中华文化”来展开，但是文化出现了问题，那么如何让中国文化大放异彩呢，由此去发现问题，分析原因，提出对策。另一种是文中出现问题但是给出了一个对策，这个对策就是主题，但是这个对策是有问题的，需要去解决，写作思路与第一种一样的（但是主题需要进一步推敲）。比如14年的国考，围绕科技展开，科技出现了问题，需要解决，怎么办，让其具有“人性化”，但是科技并不具备人性化或者在具备人性化的过程中出现了问题，需要分析原因，提出对策，从而让科技具有人性化。再如15国考，题干中“自在有为的人活急不得，要慢下来”（自己回忆的，大致是这个意思），这句话提出了一个对策“要慢下来”，为什么要慢下来，因为我问太“快”了，出现了问题，噼里啪啦，按照上面的思路顺理成章。16年国考的“好政策”亦是如此，在我看来如是！

再举几个谬误百出的省考，比如某年作文“什么时候，在土地上耕耘成了食之无味弃之可惜的营生”，为什么这么说，因为在土地上耕作出现了问题，怎么办？文中也提出了对策“土地流转”，但是土地流转出现问题，分析原因，提出对策解决他！（我看了某君写的文章，开头那是文采飞扬，是我的调调，但是真的偏题了）再如“家底”这篇文章，首先需要考生弄清楚“家底”是什么，其次怎么才能摸清“家底”，材料提出对策“人口普查”，但是人口普查出现问题，分析原因，提出对策解决它！

当然，如果有能力的考生能直接提炼出主题，自然用不着上面的方法，如果能力稍微弱一点的考生，还是多捉摸一下材料吧，但是一定要结合题干，题干隐藏这太多的信息，要细心去挖掘，多问几个问什么！

二、如何找问题

1、有些材料会直接提出问题，或者A使B产生了不好的影响，那么A必定存在问题！

2、举国内外一些好的例子，从侧面反映出问题。所以看材料不要只停留在表面，要看得深一些。比如某年考题举了美剧韩剧的成功，之所以举这个例子，不就是因为国产剧很sui吗？这就是问题！

3、从给出的对策中反推出问题。比如：通过努力学习（对策）来提高申论，从反面反映出申论水平还不够高。

4、材料中要求解决的事情。比如：要大力保护中国传统文化，这就说明传统文化保护力度不足！这也是问题！

即便有个别材料不是如上所述，那么它也一定是为主题服务的！

三、如何分析原因（根本原因，直接原因，主要原因）

这里也要重点说明一下，在要求里面通常有一个“自选角度”“联系实际”等，自选角度其实说的是分析角度、提出问题的角度，而不是立意角度，主题是唯一的，如果大作文没有一个统一的主题，立意自选角度，那么这个考试能考出花来，该有的问题也得不到解决，同时也增加了阅卷难度（这些都是次要的，主要是出题人本来就给了有且只有一个主题）。之所以联系生活实际，是因为每个人的经历不同，阅历不同，感受不同，看待问题的角度也不同，其思想境界也不同，所以分析角度因人而异，解决问题的手段也殊途同归，自己选择！这一点，大家一定要理解透彻！由于分析能力和分析深度不同，我个人觉得这里也是一个拉分的关键点！

在材料中出题人基本不会直接给出问题产生的原因，需要考生去动脑子分析，要不然如何考察考生的能力。分析不是抄材料，如果只是一味的抄材料觉得就行了，那为何每年的申论都那么低？所以申论不是想当然的那么low，要有自己的见解（要求中也有“见解深刻”），材料中的终究不是自己的，抄材料又如何能体现出的考生真实水平呢！

如果有搞不懂这三个原因关系的盆友自行补脑！！！分析能力稍弱的同学可以看一些好一点有思想性的评论文章，我看的东西很少很low，所以分析能力较弱，这里就不能为大家提供素材了，怕大神笑话我。如果申论搞定了，面试就是小儿科！

四、提出对策

找到了问题的原因，对策自然就水到渠成了。诚然，在有些材料中也会涉及到一些不错的对策，可以借鉴！

我觉得原因和对策也未必一定要对称，如果你觉得你能分析出更多的原因，那你就多写点分析，反之亦然。因为一个对策可能解决几个问题，一个问题也可能需要多个对策来解决。当然，如果你有能力，能够一一对应是最好不过的！可以参照政府工作报告，自己多摸索！申论写作没有什么模板，随心所欲而不逾矩！

根据以上的讲解不难得出大作文的写作思路，如下：

1、主题背景—谈与主题有关且无争议性的内容，就是大家都懂都认可的内容点名主题。

2、找出问题：简单罗列出材料中存在的问题，或者联系生活实际中的问题。

3、分析问题出现的原因并论证。

4、提出解决问题的对策、方法并论证，让阅卷人信服你的对策是可行的，而不是全部都是铺天盖地的对策。

5、展望未来，呼应主题。

我们都知道，想在小升初英语写作拿高分，就要摸透老师的喜好，引起“读者”的注意。而在写作中句子偏长恰恰会适得其反，很容易让人漏听一、两个单词，影响对整个句子的理解，所以我们要教大家一些化繁为简的技巧——

1、巧用单个词：即用一个单词代替一组意义相同的单词。比如：

用forget(忘记)代替do not remember(没有记住)

用ignore(忽视)代替do not pay attention to(不注意)

用now(现在)代替at this point in time(此时此刻)

用because(由于)代替due to the fact that(鉴于下列事实)

2、省略同义词或近义词。比如在下面例句中，形容词important(重要的)和significant(有重要意义的)，就是两个同义词(也可以说是近义词)，我们可以省略important，只保留significant。

The government project is important and significant.(这项政府计划是重要的，有重要意义。)

The government project is significant.(这项政府计划有重要意义。)

3、在不改变句子含义的前提下，省略所有可以省略的单词。比如在下面例句中，the cover of the book(书的封面)可以省略成the book cover，is red in color(是红色的)可以省略成is red。

The cover of the book is red in color.(书的封面是红色的)

The book cover is red.(书的封面是红色的)

现在我们把这三种方法结合起来，将一个冗长、绕嘴的句子，改写成一个简短、易懂的句子。

University malls must be accessible and free from congestion in order that students, faculty and employees may have unobstructed passage through those areas of the campus.(校内道路必须是便于通行的，不拥堵的，以便让学生、教师和职员能够无阻碍地通过，到达校园的各处。)

University malls must be free enough from congestion to allow people to walk through easily.(校内道路不应当拥堵，以便人们顺利通行。)

4、用介词短语替代从句。比如：

原句：While they were playing tennis, she started an argument that lasted all morning.

修改后：During tennis she started an argument that lasted all morning.

原句：When you come to the second traffic light, turn right.

修改后：At the second traffic light turn left.

5、删除诸如"who is”或"that is"之类的关系代词，变从句为短语。比如：

原句：The novel, which is written in three parts, told a story that took place in the Middle Ages.

修改后：The three-part novel told a story set in the Middle Ages.

注：把句中的"three parts"改用形容词来表达，节省了四个不必要的单词"which is written in"。我们经常可以将关系代词如"that"去掉，这只会引起最少的变动。

写文章都是具有针对性的，比如说写给什么样的人看;写文章也是有目的性的，比如通过文章要解决一个什么样的问题。小编收集了说明文写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、抓住事物特征，把握说明中心

任何事物都有其自身的特征，它是区别于其他事物的标志。写说明文时只有抓住事物的特征，才能把被说明事物准确清晰地介绍给读者，让人们对事物有确切的了解。抓住事物的特征进行写作，也就是抓住了说明的中心。当然，事物往往有多方面的特征，想在一篇说明文里面面俱到地加以介绍是不可能的，只能根据需要一次谈一两个特征。例如：鸭与鸡都是家禽，都会走路，都有两翼，都可以做肉食。但要写一篇关于鸭的说明文，就要抓住鸭区别于鸡和其它家禽的特征。与鸡相比，它喜欢在水上生活，尾部能分泌油脂;有一双掌状的蹼，会划水;嘴又长又扁，等等。抓住鸭的这些特征进行说明，就可以使人对鸭的生活习性和外形有了一个清楚的认识。不同的事物固然有各自不同的特点，同类事物也往往有着差异，这些差异也就是它们的特征，写说明文时要紧紧抓住这些特征。如《中国石拱桥》一文写的是赵州桥和卢沟桥，两桥都是石砌的拱桥，相同的地方很多，但也各有特色。茅以升先生就抓住了它们各自特色，进行对比说明，使读者认识了两座桥的不同形状、结构和艺术风格。

抓住事物特征，把握说明中心，这是写好说明文的一个基本要求。要做到这一点，关键是要对事物进行深入细致的观察、分析、比较、研究，做到真正熟悉被说明的事物，并且掌握这一事物本身的特点和规律。只有这样，才能很好地说明事物。

二、针对具体情况，选好说明角度

写文章都是具有针对性的，比如说写给什么样的人看;写文章也是有目的性的，比如通过文章要解决一个什么样的问题。例如，写关于落花生的说明文，如果读者对象是农民，目的又是为了向农民传授栽培落花生的技术，那么，就要根据落花生的生长规律，从如何栽培才能夺高产的角度去说明，重点说明怎样选种、选地、播种、施肥、管理等。如果对象是厨师或食品加工厂的工人，目的又是为了介绍如何加工食用落花生，那么就应侧重说明花生仁的营养价值以及如何加工、配料才能使花生仁更加可口等等。我们中学生在写说明文的时候，可先设想为谁而写，这样就能针对具体情况进行说明，不至于把文章写得散乱无章，目的不明确。

三、讲究结构安排，做到条理分明

文章的条理性是客观事物、事理本身特点、规律在文章结构上的反映。说明文解说事物、阐述事理就要按这些关系来安排说明次序，使之层次清楚、主次分明。例如，四川大邑县“地主庄园陈列馆”中的“收租院”里，有若干泥塑人物像，……。这些画面相对独立，是并列关系。地主收租时设有四道关口，依次是验谷关、风谷关、过斗关、算帐关。每个交租农民都要过四关。从第一关到第四关，是先后关系，这些个别的实例共同揭露地主对农民进行残酷剥削和压迫的罪恶，这就是“收租院”的总体概貌。这个总体概貌与各体实例成为总分关系。《收租院解说词》一文就把握了这些关系。采取先总后分的写法，开头扼要地介绍了地主刘文彩残酷剥削和压迫农民的罪恶，接着按照泥塑画面排列顺序，分别介绍，突出了有压迫和剥削就必然有革命和反抗的基本思想。

并列关系的事物，还要注意方位顺序，或从上到下，或从前到后，从左到右，从外到内，从近到远，等等，只有按照这些顺序去写才能条理清楚。例如《故宫博物院》全文是介绍一座古建筑群，作者按照先总后分的办法，条理明了地介绍了这座雄伟的建筑群。写建筑物局部时，层次也十分清楚。如写太和殿的一段，先从外后到内，介绍大殿外面时又按照从上到下的顺序，由天空到殿顶直到台基。介绍其内部时又按从中间到两旁，从前到后，由上到下，由远及近的顺序依次说明，给人以清晰的印象。

介绍生产过程的说明文，应按生产的时间顺序说明;介绍植物生长的说明文应考虑其生长顺序，依次说明，当然不管哪类说明文都应注意主次分明。

四、注意语言艺术，提高说明效果

说明文语言的特点是朴素平实，且常使用专门术语，容易给人枯燥乏味的感觉。为了提高说明的效果，必须在语言上下一番功夫。说明文的语言不在于堆砌华丽的词藻，而在于用语确切、精当、通俗、风趣。

怎样才能做到这一点呢?

首先，在仔细观察事物，透彻了解事物特征的基础上选用最能确切地反映客观事物的词语加以说明，尤其要注意恰当选用限制范围大小、表明条件关系之类的词语。如《中国石拱桥》中说到卢沟桥：“桥宽约八米，路面平坦，几乎与河面平行”。一个“约”字说明桥面并不恰好是八米，这里只取约数;一个“几乎”说明路面平坦的程度基本上与河面平行，但还不是完全平行。《看云识天气》中“天空的薄云，往往是天气晴朗的象征;而那些低而厚密的云层，常常是阴雨风雪的预兆”。这里形容云的形态特征的词语和表明时间性的词语配合用，十分确切，十分精当。

其次，要注意掌握和运用好必要的专门术语，防止说“外行话”，例如“航天”和“航空”是两个不同的概念，飞机在大气层内飞行，称为航空;卫星、飞船在大气层外飞行称为航天。它们是采用不同的飞行器在不同的空间来完成飞行任务的。写文章时必须注意诸如此类的区别。

再次，适当运用比喻、拟人、拟物等修辞手法。例如《中国石拱桥》一文开头：石拱桥的桥洞成拱形，像天上虹。用“虹”来比喻石拱桥，很形象生动，使读者清楚地了解了石拱桥的外形特征。再如《大自然的语言》中，作者用比喻、拟人的手法说明“花香鸟语，草长莺飞”都是大自然的语言，劳动人民根据这些现象掌握季节规律，安排农事。这段文字由于运用了比喻、拟人等修辞手法，不仅通俗易懂，而且生动有趣，饶有兴味。

要做到短期内拿下雅思小作文

一、寻觅小作文需要表达的重点

见到图形表达题，你心中就需要思考这个图形题需要表述的重点在哪里。作答时先说明再梳理数据。切不可将文章写成账本式的文字，否则，你就会得到很低的分数。

例如：The graph shows how the amount of water used worldwide changed between 1900 and 2000. Throughout the century, the largest quantity of water was used for agricultural Purposes, and this increased dramatically from about 500 km to around 3,000 km in the year 2000.

文章的主句应该对文章要表达的趋势，量的大小作出说明，相关的数据则补充在后面。雅思小作文考察的精髓还是查看考生的英文表达能力，精简凝练。你的描述要让阅卷者脑海中浮现出图形的样本，数量和趋势等等相关变量。如果你能达到以上这些要求，那么小作文本身也就基本上合格了。

二、了解图形的分类规律

图形描述题，按照标准图形来分，可以分为line graph (curve), bar chart, pie chart以及table，按照表达重点来分，分为趋势类和大小类，分类依据于题中的时间列表。一般来说，出现时间段的图形题都是以描述数据变化趋势为主。

三、准备必要的表达方式

1. 与趋势有关的词语：

上升(动词)：increase, rise, climb, ascend, surge, shoot up

下降(动词)：decrease, decline, drop, fall, descend, plunge

持平(动词)：remain stable, keep constant, level o第一文库网ff, flatten out

波动(动词)：fluctuate, wave, go up and down

快速(形容词/副词)：considerable/considerably, significant/significantly,substantial/substantially,remarkable/remarkably, dramatic/dramatically

稳步(形容词/副词)：steady/steadily, stable/stably, moderate/moderately, modest/modestly

缓慢(形容词/副词)：slight/slightly, minimal/minimally, marginal/marginally

顶点(名词 /动词)：peak

趋势 (名词)：trend/ tendency

2. 与大小相关的词语：

Outnumber (动词)：在数量上超过The demonstrators were outnumbered by the police

Exceed (动词)：在数量上超过

Triple (动词)：变成三倍The figure has tripled.

Double (动词)：变成两倍The price of houses has virtually doubled over the past few years.

Mount to (动词)：达到

Counterpart (名词)：对应的另一方，比较的另一方 this product is better than its counterparts

此外，建议考生还应考虑一下题中数据和百分比有没有联系，如果有的话还应添加一些数据所占百分比的语句。

3. 相关词语：

百分比(名词)：proportion, rate, percentage, share

占据 (动词)：occupy, comprise, constitute, account for, represent.

数字：number, amount, data, figure

比例：rate, proportion, percentage, share

大约：roughly, about, nearly, approximately, a little less than, slightly more than

各自地：respectively, for each，severally

四、注重连词的使用

连词在语句中起着承上启下的作用，添加连词，可以增加文章的逻辑感，使得文章更加严谨，同时，文章中连词的使用也要讲究一定的形式，我们在文章中一般称之为形连。

五、Integrity and Perfection

文章有了恰当的表达方式，还需要进行一些细节方面的修饰，添加数据时，形式要整齐划一，有不随便删除和添加数量单位，增加连词的使用，加强文章的严谨度，采用一些多样化的数据添加方式，是文章看起来有理有据，中心思想贯穿全文。

主要数据添加方式有：

1. 利用标点，如括号和破折号

2. 利用介词，如with, at, to, by等

3. 利用分词或从句，倒装句

考生在备战雅思小作文的过程中，考生应按照以上的基础因此分析相关的真题和范文，多多总结经验，找出思想上的共性和有亮点的语句，并且进行模仿练习。我们有理由相信，同学们通过专门的训练，一定能在雅思小作文写作中取得好成绩。

一、什么是毕业(学位)论文

毕业论文是毕业生提交的一份有一定学术价值的文章。它是学生完成学业的标志性作业，是对学习成果的综合性总结和检阅，是研究生从事科学研究的书面总结。

二、写毕业论文的目的

主要有两个方面：一是对学生的理论知识与能力进行一次全面的考核。二是对学生进行科学研究基本功的训练总结。

三、毕业论文的种类和规格

从文体上看，毕业论文归属于议论文中学术论文的种类。即它是一种证明自已观点正确的文章。

就其内容来讲，毕业论文可以是解决学科中某一问题的，用自己的研究成果加以回答;也可以是只提出学科中某一问题，综合别人已有的结论，指明进一步探讨的方向;再一种是对所提出的学科中某一问题，用自己的研究成果，给予部分的回答。毕业论文注重对客观事物作理性分析，指出其本质，提出个人的学术见解和解决某一问题的方法和意见。

就其形式来讲，毕业论文具有议论文所共有的一般属性特征，即论点、论据、论证是文章构成的三大要素。文章主要以逻辑思维的方式为展开的依据，强调在事实的基础上，展示严谨的推理过程，得出令人信服的科学结论。

(一)毕业论文的种类

1、 按内容性质和研究方法的不同可以把毕业论文分为理论性论文

与描述性论文。

理论性论文具体又可分成两种：一种是以纯粹的抽象理论为研究对象，研究方法是严密的理论推导和数学运算，有的也涉及实验与观测，用以验证论点的正确性。另一种是以对客观事物和现象的调查、考察所得观测资料以及有关文献资料数据为研究对象，研究方法是对有关资料进行分析、综合、概括、抽象，通过归纳、演绎、类比，提出某种新的理论和新的见解。

2、

按议论的性质不同可以把毕业论文分为立论文和驳论文。立论性的毕业论文是指从正面阐述和论证自己的观点和主张。立论文要求论点鲜明，论据充分，论证严密，以理和事实服人。驳论性毕业论文是指通过反驳别人的论点来树立自己的论点和主张。

3、按研究问题的大小不同可以把毕业论文分为宏观论文和微观论文。凡届国家全局性、带有普遍性并对局部工作有一定指导意义的论文，称为宏观论文。它研究的面比较宽广，具有较大范围的影响。反之，研究局部性、具体问题的论文，是微观论文。它对具体工作有指导意义，影响的面窄一些。

4、 另外还有一种综合型的分类方法，即把毕业论文分为专题型、论辩型、综述型和综

导语：要使得人物立起来，就必须注重细节描写，下面我们就来详细看看。

“人物”是文章的灵魂，但在学生的习作中常见的人物形象往往是千人一面，既无个性，又不生动，整篇文章显得干瘪乏味，缺少感染力。仔细阅读这些作品，就会发现这样一个共同的问题：往往只是一味地追求把某件事写完整，而忽略了进行生动具体、细致入微的细节描写。

细节描写的范围很宽广，它的作用也是多方面的，但主要还是刻画人物性格，塑造人物形象。一个个传神的细节，犹如人体身上的细胞，没有了它，人就失去了生命;文章少了细节，人物形象就失去了血肉和神采。作家李准说：“一个细节在揭示人物的性格特征的作用上，有时和一个情节、一场戏肩着同样的作用。”正如平常所谓的“于细微处见精神”。

文学大师的创作，就非常重视对细节的描绘。鲁迅的《阿Q正传》中有一段阿Q刑前画押的细节描写：“要画圆圈了，那手捏着笔只是抖，于是那人将纸铺在地上，阿Q伏下去，使尽平生的力画圆圈。他生怕被人笑话，立志要画得圆，但这可恶的笔不但很沉重，并且不听话，刚刚一抖一抖的几乎合缝，却又向外一耸，成了瓜子模样了。”这个行为细节，具体、形象、生动地反映了阿Q的性格特点──直到死还恪守着自欺欺人的“精神胜利法”。当人们读到这一细节描写时，谁又能不觉得阿Q的可笑、可悲、可怜?又怎么会不“哀其不幸，怒其不争”，进而深思国民劣根性?

不仅中国作家如此，外国作家亦然。如巴尔扎克的《欧也妮·葛朗台》中写葛朗台死前，当神甫把镀金的十字架送到他唇边让他亲吻基督的圣像时，“他却作一个骇人的姿势想把十字架抓在手里，这一下最后的努力送了他的命”，只这一细枝末节就活画出了这个守财奴贪婪成性、至死不变的丑恶形象。正是细节描写，使人物有血有肉，性格鲜明，形象栩栩如生;有了鲜活的人物，整篇文章因之而充满生机，产生强烈的感染力。

当然，并不是所有生活上的细节都具有价值，也不是只要写得“细”就可以了。好的细节描写必须是有用的、真实的、典型的。它必须为展示人物的精神风貌和深化文章的主题服务，它必须符合人物的性格特点，符合现实生活的实际，应最能突出人物的个性特征。

细节从哪里来?文学来源于生活，细节就在丰富多彩的生活之中。做个生活的有心人，时时处处留心观察身边的人和事，特别是自己的描写对象。绍兴街头，咸亨酒店，鲁迅潜心观察短衣帮与长衫客，才“画出沉默的国民的灵魂”。都柏林阴暗的咖啡室，乔伊斯冷峻地打量着游荡的女、骗子、精神病患者、乞丐和富人，酝酿着震惊世界的《尤利西斯》。古往今来，伟大的作家，总是终生用心捕捉那些使灵魂颤栗的人和事，熔铸成千古流传的篇章。捕捉细节、运用细节，让这一把金钥匙为你所用，使你的文章散发出熠熠光彩!

通过几件事写人，作者所选择的几个事例，可以是一件事表现人物某一方面的思想品质，全文连起来，表现一个人物几个方面的精神和品质；也可以几个事例紧紧围绕一个中心，表现人物某一方面的特点。采用几事写人法写人时，首先要注意几件事的内容不能互相矛盾，人物的性格、特点在几件事中是和谐统一的。其次要注意尽量用不同的事情反映人物的性格的不同侧面，类似的事情应避免重复出现。

此外，文章的开头和结尾要交代与这几件事的有关内容，或对人物作概括介绍。第四写几件事时，可以按时间顺序；可以以某一事物为线索；也可以详写一件，略写几件；还可以按事情的分类排序。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分