中考英语作文写作技巧ppt【汇集20篇】

电子手表同机械手表相比较，既方便又经济，作为一种新型的计时工具，已越来越多地进入到人们的生活中。

最初的电子手表主要是由晶体管和钮扣电池组成的。由于结构简单，功能也不完善，一般只可显示简单的时间（精确度为一秒），外型也较笨重、粗陋。现在较简单的电子手表内部结构已有了变化，加入了二极管、简单的电子计算机记忆程序等，精确度提高到01秒。另外还可整点报时、放音乐、指示星期几、夜间亮灯照明等，对方便人们的生活起了不少作用。

随着科学技术的不断发展，电子手表也在不断进步。除了以上所谈到的较普通的功能外，近年来又出现了许多使用高科技成果的新产品。如19XX年日本制的第一只电视手表。它由一个带日历的电子手表和一个12英寸的黑白液晶显像屏组成。外型精巧，体积为487×398×9毫米３，重约50克，兼带耳机及调谐装置，既可作为手表显示时、分、秒、日历等，又可作为电视，收听伴音、短波，还可通过调谐器选择频道，调节音量及调节画面光亮度。还有一种电子脉搏表，重量不到30克，是由一个小型秒表连接一架微型计算机构成。把它戴在手腕上，就可精确地测出每分钟脉搏次数，并用数字显示出来。

这种表可以很好地协助运动员参加体育训练。另外有一种会说话的电子表，没有指针及数字，表盘上只显示一个机器人的脸。那么它是如何向人们报告时间的呢？原来在它的内部装有一个报时的机械装置，只要按动表上的按钮，就会有一个摹拟的女声报时。这种表对于盲人和视力差的人来说是一种极好的计时工具。另一种电子手表能对聋哑人进行帮助，在这种手表上装有一个微型话筒，用来接收3米内发出的声音，将声音输入表内的微型计算机，经过分析，声音信号便可传递给手表附件中一个发光二极管，使其产生视觉信号。聋哑人根据看到的不同符号，就可以判断出对方讲话的内容。

除此之外，各种新型的电子手表还可以测量体温、通讯联络及用作精密的野外观测等。我们相信，在科技飞跃发展的明天，电子手表将发挥巨大的潜力，更好地为人类服务。

在这篇文章中，作者通过将电子手表与机械手表的造型、工艺、使用方法作比较，准确地说明电子表越来越多地走入人们的生活中的原因。

总之，说明的方法很多，还可以列出许多种，如数字法、图表法、拟人法、顺序法等，不再一一列举。但不管是哪种方法都要注意到科学性、准确性，为说明、阐释事物服务。

要写出动人的文章，首先要有能打动人们思想感情的材料。材料动人，文章才有可能动人。下文是小编整理的叙事文章写作技巧，欢迎阅读参考!

事情的发生、发展过程,总是要有起因、经过、结果这三个阶段.而经过部分又是记叙的核心,是头等重要的,是记事文章成败的关键,是必须要写清楚、具体的. 把事情的过程写清楚呢，便于理解全文，同时对人物的言行举止细节描写，有利于突出文章的主题。

一、过程分解

孩子们在叙事写作的时候喜欢把事情的过程猪肚这块写成一个很大很长的段落，文章就成了鲜明的记叙文写作的三段式模式。这样的模式很难得高分，过程也很难清晰具体的呈现在读者面前。三段式模式不可取，要避免。化解三段式模式的高招就是过程分解，就是要按一定的逻辑顺序将一个复杂的过程分解三四个阶段，这种过程分解的逻辑顺序主要有以下三种：

1、一种方法是按照事情发展顺序，即起因，经过，高潮、结局来分成三四段

2、按是按时间的推移顺序，即前中后三段。

3、按据地点的转移来分段，地点转换即另起一段。

一个复杂的过程被分解后三四个阶段后，然后我们要再做就是把每个阶段写清楚，为具体打下基础。

例如：《背影》这篇课文将父亲送别时的起因，经过，高潮、结局来分成四个阶段，写成了，2-6 5个段落。

1、点题，难記父亲的背影。

2：交代这次父子分别时的家庭情况,为写“背影”渲染悲凉的气氛.

3 、送别的原因、

4：送别前父亲的细心关照,.

5：送别过程：进站买票上车后

6、送别高潮：上车后， 父亲为我买橘子，买橘子后告别。

7、送别后 ，对父亲背影的怀念。

进入车站去上车，上车坐在位子，父亲为我买橘子，买橘子后告别。

而对父亲为我买橘子的整个过程做了具体的描写。

《最后一课》是时间推移顺序来写的。按照上课前(上学路上)------上课时------下课时这三个连贯时间顺序来记叙

《从百草园到三味书屋》是按地点的变化顺序来写的， 先写孩提时的百草乐园，再写少年时代的三味书屋。两个地点的变化构成一个少年的成长历程.

二、详略得当

过程分解后，就要注意过程各阶段的详略了。叙事的要做到有所侧重，对一些重要的过程、场面要细致描绘，做到主题突出。

1)、事情的发生和结果要略写，事情的发展过程要详写。

例如《背影》中对而对父亲为我买橘子的整个过程做了具体的描写。刻画了一个感人至深的慈父形象，表达出真挚深沉的父子之情，抒发了作者对父亲深切的思念之情。

2)、几件事时，重要事件要详细描写。

例如：共记叙了七件事：①蔡老师假装发怒;②课外教我们跳舞;③带我们观察蜜蜂;④教我们读诗;⑤我们对老师的依恋;⑥正确处理“我”与同学间的纠纷;⑦睡梦中去找老师.这七件小事,后两件详写,前五件略写.这样安排,从课内到课外,从校内到校外,既使文章结构疏密相间,更能表现出师生感情的步步加深。

3)、面要略写，点在详写。

面的内容往往是渲染气氛，交代背景。点则为重点人物的刻画，是文章的重点，直接体现中心思想的。

例如：

比如《大江保卫战》中，先总写了“四百多名官兵闻讯赶到”的场景，然后由面到点着力描写了“解放军某部四连连长黄晓文”的感人事迹，抓住他的语言、动作等塑造了一个抗洪英雄，产生了震撼人心的力量。

例如：

四百多名官兵闻讯赶到。支队长一声令下：“上!”顿时，一条长龙在崩塌的堤坝下出现了。官兵们肩扛沉重的沙包，在泥水中来回穿梭。有的为了行走快捷......

放军某部四连连长黄晓文正扛着麻包在稀泥中奔跑，忽然觉得脚底一阵疼痛，抬脚一看，原来是一根铁钉扎了进去。团长见状，马上派人去找随队军医。黄晓文大声说：“来不及了!”说着，一咬牙，猛地把铁钉一拔，一股鲜血涌了

出来。......

三、具体细节

“细节决定成败”。细节对表现人物思想往往有独特效果，特别是语言和心理描写是表达中心思想最生动、最有表现力的手法，对那些突出中心的细节，需要精心的设置和安排，着意刻画，会使文章亮点闪烁。

细节的具体操作体现在对事件中的人物，特别是主要人物，当时是“怎么说的”、“怎么做的”，又是“怎么想的”，一定要写具体，生动。

例如：鲁迅在《社戏》中写到：

我的很重的心忽而轻松了，身体也似乎舒展到说不出的大。一出门，便望见月下的平桥内泊着一只白篷的航船，大家跳下船，双喜拔前篙，阿发拔后篙，年幼的都陪我坐在舱中，较大的聚在船尾。母亲送出来吩咐"要小心"的时候，我们已经点开船，在桥石上一磕，退后几尺，即又上前出了桥。于是架起两支橹，一支两人，一里一换，有说笑的，有嚷的，夹着潺潺的船头激水的声音，在左右都是碧绿的豆麦田地的河流中，飞一般径向赵庄前进了。

两岸的豆麦和河底的水草所发散出来的清香，夹杂在水气中扑面的吹来;月色便朦胧在这水气里。淡黑的起伏的连山，仿佛是踊跃的铁的兽脊似的，都远远的向船尾跑去了，但我却还以为船慢。他们换了四回手，渐望见依稀的赵庄，而且似乎听到歌吹了，还有几点火，料想便是戏台，但或者也许是渔火。

那声音大概是横笛，宛转，悠扬，使我的心也沉静，然而又自失起来，觉得要和他弥散在含着豆麦蕴藻之香的夜气里。

那火接近了，果然是渔火;我才记得先前望见的也不是赵庄。那是正对船头的一丛松柏林，我去年也曾经去游玩过，还看见破的石马倒在地下，一个石羊蹲在草里呢。过了那林，船便弯进了叉港，于是赵庄便真在眼前了。

[叙事文章写作技巧

中考英语作文难不难？其实不难，大部分主城区的同学都能得到12分以上，13、14分也是平常，但是要想得到15分甚至以上，就难上加难了。到底什么样的作文能得到16分以上？经过和中考命题组和阅卷组老师的交流，我们对中考英语作文评分标准做出了更深的理解。

一、中考英语写作的概述

关于体裁，本文包含记叙文和议论文两种最容易考到的类型，其他一些文体也有可能会综合涉及。

关于题材，同学们的反应可谓是几家欢喜几家愁。上海中考写作也有自己的特色：一般围绕着生活化、学校化来考察。近几年，考试题目实际上是一些比较贴近中学生活，为中学生能够的认识能力、生活经历所能驾驭的问题。比如：

2009年题目IWanttoDosomethingformySchool(我想为学校做的一件事)

2010年题目I‘mProudofmyself(我为自己感到自豪)

2011年题目Iamamemberof_____(我是 的一员)

2012年题目AlettertoJoe(给Joe的一封建议信)

2013年题目Howtoprotectmyself(如何保护自己)

2014年题目Thetimenextyear(明年此时)

你对于在中考英语写作中拿高分有把握吗？实际考试中，许多学生却常常有无话可说的感觉。那要如何我们才能克服这种无话的状态，取得高分呢？

归根到底这是一个英语基本功单词、短语和句型的问题。

英语作文的前提条件是掌握了一定量的词汇、语法及体裁、题材等方面的知识。学生如果想要在写作方面有本质上的提升，必须进行多次的写作练习。因此，必须合理地设置训练步骤，遵循从初级到高级，从简单到复杂的原则去练习，经过一段写作实践之后，写作水平一定会有大幅度的提高。

二、中考英语写作的评分标准

1、老师拿到的标准

写作水平的高低和文章的好坏，分数是最直接的评分标准，也是考生们最关心的。但是多少考生真正透彻知道中考英语写作的评分标准？什么样的文章才是阅卷老师眼中的好文章？

评分标准：

1.整篇作文满分20分，其中内容8分，语言8分，结构4分。

2.内容贴切，句子流畅，用语准确，加整体印象分1分。

3.不满60个词，少15个词扣0.5分，610个词扣1分。

4.所有给出问题涉及的三项内容，每少一项扣3分。

5.每个拼写，大小写，标点符号等错误扣0.5分；同一的拼写错误不重复扣分，扣分总和不超过2分。

6.语法错误每项扣1分，同一错误不重复扣分，扣分总和不超过2分。

2、老师想看到的标准

语言(8分)：词固定搭配、高频重点词汇；句复杂句(各种从句)、特殊句型、正确的句子！

内容(8分)：(总、分)论点、论据支持句；简洁、切合主题的记叙内容。

结构(4分)：语言结构句子重点突出、内容清晰；内容结构论点、论据以及记叙之间的逻辑关系；句数控制对于相对内容的句数掌握；亮点、出彩点排比、拟人、谚语、成语、押韵等。

中考说明文阅读知识要点及答题技巧

一、什么是说明文

说明文是客观地说明事物特征，阐明事理的一种文体，目的是给读者以科学的知识、科学地认识事物的方法。

二、说明文的分类：

１、说明对象与说明目的的不同：事物说明文和事理说明文。事物说明文旨在介绍某一事物的形体特征，如《中国石拱桥》；事理说明文旨在解释事物本身的道理或内部规律地，如《花儿为什么这样红》.

2、根据说明语言的不同特色的不同：平实的说明文和生动的说明文两种。生动的说明文又叫文艺性说明文（科学小品文或知识小品文）。

3、按写作方法分：

（1）、介绍性说明文：一般是介绍实体（如建筑、用品等）事物，如《中国石拱桥》。

（2）、描述性说明文：说明与描写结合，形象、具体地说明事物，具有一定文艺色彩，如《看云识天气》。

（3）、记述性说明文：说明结合记述，常用以说事物的发展或生产、操作过程，如《从甲骨文到缩微图书》。

（4）、阐释性说明文：说明结合议论，阐释抽象的事理，如《向沙漠进军》。

三、说明文的特点

1、以说明为主要表达方式，兼用叙述、描写、议论等其它表达方式。

2、以解说或介绍事物的形状、性质、成因、构造、功用、类别等或物理含义、特点、演变等为主要内容。

四、说明方式。从语言的表达方式看，说明方式分为：平实说明和生动说明

1、平实说明：就是用通俗、准确的语言客观的说明事物。

2、生动说明：就是用生动、形象的的语言说明事物。在说明事物时，多运用形象性的动词、形容词和多种修辞手法，有时在说明时为了让读者对说明对象有一个全面的了解，还往往引用神话故事、传说和历史故事。大多数说明文采用生动的说明方式。

五、说明顺序。常见的说明顺序有：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序

1、时间顺序：时间顺序是以时间的推移说明事物的变化过程，即以时间的先后安排说明内容，介绍事物的发生、发展、演变，事物的制作步骤、制作过程。主要特征是用一些表示时间顺序的词语。

2、空间顺序：按被说明对象的空间存在形式，或自上而下，或由前到后，或从外到内，或由某一中心点向四面扩散式的进行说明。如《故宫博物院》、《雄伟的人民大会堂》。

3、逻辑顺序：按照事物内部的联系或人们认识事物的过程、规律进行说明的一种顺序。常见有十种逻辑顺序：

①由现象到本质；②由特点到用途；③由原因到结果；④由整体到部分；⑤由主要到次要；⑥由概括到具体；⑦由具体到抽象；⑧由简单到复杂；⑨由特殊到一般；⑩由分析到综合。

六、说明结构说明文的结构一般有两种：

1、总分式：（事物说明文常用的结构形式）（1）总—分，如《苏州园林》（2）总—分—总，如《故宫博物院》

2、递进式：（事理说明文常用的结构形式）各层之间的关系是由浅入深、由表及里、由现象到本质。各层之间的关系是递进的。如《向沙漠进军》。

分析说明文结构的方法：理清段与段、部分与部分之间关系。认清段与段、部分与部分是

怎样组合的，是并列关系还是递进关系。

七、说明方法：举例子、分类别、打比方、列数字、作比较、下定义、作诠释、摹状貌、画图表。

1、分类别：说明事物的特征，往往需要根据其性质、功用等不同的标准、角度，把事物分成若干类别，分别加以说明。如《看云识天气》按光彩分：晕、华、虹、霞。

2、举例子：运用有代表性的例子说明事物或事理的方法。这种方法可以收到对事物认识具体、印象深刻的效果。如《中国石拱桥》在写出了石拱桥的三大特点：历史悠久，形式优美，坚固耐用后，以赵州桥和卢沟桥为例说明，使读者对中国石拱桥三大特点认识具体化、形象化。

3、打比方：运用比喻的方法对事物和事理进行形象化的说明。可以增强说明的形象性、生动性。《看云识天气》中“有时象一片白色的羽毛，有时象一块洁白的绫纱”，运用打比方的方法，不但使卷云的特征更为具体鲜明，而且生动优美。

4、列数字：运用数字来说明事物的方法。数字说明分用确数和概数（约数）。确数，用准确的数字资料加以说明；概数，用概数对事物作准确说明。有些事物用具体数字加以说明更容易突出事物的特征。《中国石拱桥》中“赵州桥非常雄伟，全长50.82米，两端宽9.6米，中部略窄，宽9米。”文中用一系列数字说明，准确具体。

5、作比较：用相关联的相同或相反的事物进行对比的一种说明方法。作比较有横向比较（类比对比）和纵向比较两种，作比较说明更益于把事物或事理说清楚，给读者留下深刻的印象。《大自然的语言》中有这样一段文字“我国大陆性气候显著，冬冷夏热。冬季南北温度悬殊，夏季却相差不大。在春天，早春跟晚春也不相同。如在早春三四月间，南京桃花要比北京早开20天，但是到晚春五月初，南京刺槐开花只比北京早10天。所以在华北常感到春季短促，冬天结束，夏天就到了。”其中用了举例子和作比较。

6、下定义：用判断句对事物的本质特征作简明、概括的说明，就是给事物下一个准确定义，来说明事物的本质属性。如：食物就是一种能够成躯体和供应能量的物质；叶绿体吸收了太阳的光能，把二氧化碳和水合成为含有高能的有机物质，同时放出了废气——氧，这就是光合作用。《食物从何处来》作用：使读者对概念有确切的了解。

7、作诠释：对所说明的对象的属性进行解释、说明，使人们获得明确、清晰的认识。如“几十年前，人们发现地壳是由一些紧密拼合在一起但又在缓慢运动的大板块构成的。一些板块被拉开，而另一些则挤压在一起，一个板块也许会缓慢地向另一板块下面俯冲。”《恐龙无处不在》。这段文字，对“板块构造”说进行了诠释。

8、摹状貌：用描写的方法，摹写事物情状的方法。如“每个柱头上都雕刻着不同姿态的狮子。这些石刻狮子，有的母子相抱，有的交头接耳，有的像倾听水声，有的像注视行人，千态万状，惟妙惟肖。”《中国石拱桥》

9、列图表：通过画图、照片或列表的形式对事物进行说明。

10、引用：引用经典、文献、名言、诗词、歌谣、传说等进行说明。作用：能使说明的内容更具体、更充实。增添文章的趣味性、艺术感染力。

八、说明文语言的准确性:表示时间、空间、数量、范围、程度、特征、性质、程序等，都要准确无误。如何体会说明文的准确性呢？

1、通过确切的数字，体会说明文的准确性。如《死海不死》中有这样一句话：“最近十年来，每年死海水面下降四十到五十厘米。”确切的数字用语科学准确的反映出死海的前景。

2、通过表示揣测、估计的词语，体会说明文语言的准确性。如《中国石拱桥》中“旅人桥大约建成于公元282年，可能是有记载的最早的石拱桥了。我国的石拱桥几乎到处都有。”文段中加横线的词语都是表示估计、揣测的词语。

3、通过抓修饰限制性词语，体会说明文语言的准确性。如《向沙漠进军》中“征服沙漠的

最主要武器是水。”“最主要”修饰武器，明确的表明水是征服沙漠的根本武器。

九、说明文的中心句与支撑句

1.中心句：段落里能体现中心的句子。往往位于段首或段中或段末。有时段中没有现成的中心句，但是有中心，可以通过阅读概括出来中心句。

2.支撑句：对中心句起支撑作用的分析、解释、举例的句子

中考说明文考试内容和目标要求

1、对文章内容的整体把握，对文章主要信息的筛选概括；2、对说明对象及其特征的把握；3．对说明结构及其顺序的理解与把握；4．对说明方法及其作用的辨析与分析；5．对重要词、句的理解及对说明语言的品味；6．根据选文内容联系生活实际或经验进行联想、想象；7．对文章中所体现的科学精神和思想方法的感悟与评价8．对文本与链接材料进行综合理解。

——近年来中考说明文

内容更关心环境保护、高科技或身边的人文环境。

说明文的阅读、解题步骤

一、通读全文，整体感知

1、读标题，明确文章大致为哪一类型的说明文。

2、读全文时，一定要逐段读懂。标出体现段落的重点信息的词、句。据此：

①把握说明对象及其特征或文章要说明的主要内容；

②分析段与段之间的关系，理清说明顺序，把握说明文的结构层次。

③标出文章所使用的说明方法。

3、把握说明文的中心。——整体感知说明文，就是从整体入手，大处着眼，把握说明文的重要信息、行文特点、主旨等，对文章能有一个基本的总体认识。

二、认真审题，把握题干中的重点信息，迅速找准解题的方向。

1、注意提干中修饰、限制性的词语

2、明确括号中的要求

3、理解题目意思和考点所在，避免盲目性

三、带着问题，回读文章，在文中寻找解题的思路或答案。

在第一遍通读全文时，我们对各段的所说明的主要内容就有了印象。这样，我们回答问题时候，再回读文章时，就能很快找出答题的范围和对应句，以帮助我们快速解题，写出答案。要注意的是有些题目在题干中就明确了在哪一段中寻找答案。

说明文阅读的主要试题类型

一、内容概括题型，二、结构分析题型，三、信息提取概括题型，四、词句理解题型，五、说明方法运用题型。

一、内容概括题型

【题型分类】

1、对某一段或某几段内容的概括

2、对相关内容的概括

3、给概括出的内容找对应段落

【题型示例】

例1：北京市语文中考课标B卷“人禽流感”第16题第②要说明的主要问题是什么？——禽流感存在着人人相传的迹象，并造成人员死亡。

【方法技巧】

1、找段落中心句或关键词、关键句；

2、结合段落中说明特征或几方面的说明内容进行概括。

3、结合标点，尤其注意有分层作用的分号、句号，归纳层意，并进行综合概括。

4、对语段中的关键词、句，摘要联合，并简明的表达。

二、结构分析题型

1、着眼全文，是从哪几个方面来介绍说明对象的；

【方法技巧】

答这种题型，首先要对每一段的内容了解，并能对其进行归纳和概括。也有的需要在逐段概括要点的基础上，用“同类合并”的方法，把全文划分为相对独立的几部分，概括出每部分的大意，就能比较清楚地显示出全文是从哪几个方面来进行说明的了。

2、能否调换段落的顺序；

3、文章结构：说明文的结构一般有两种：1、总分式；2、递进式（现阶段，以总分总式最为多见。先总写说明对象的特征，然后分写说明对象的特征。）

【方法技巧】

1、要准确理解文章局部或整体的说明顺序。

说明顺序：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序。近几年说明文选段多为科技类说明文，此类说明文一般是事理说明文居多，故多用逻辑顺序。

2、不能调换段落顺序的理由是。

（1）原文采用由……到……的顺序介绍事物，调换后不合逻辑。

（2）总分关系中分说部分与前文总说部分顺序相照应。

（3）一句话中某两三个词的顺序能否调换？为什么？

不能。因为（1）与人们认识事物的（由浅入深、由表入里、由现象到本质）规律不一致

（2）该词与上文是一一对应的关系（3）这些词是递进关系，环环相扣，不能互换。

3、某一段落在全文的作用，或能否删去某段。

【方法技巧】

（1）立足全文，准确理解全文的结构特点；

（2）理清段与段之间的关系

（3）对局部内容在全文中的地位及作用做出阐述，并根据说明的顺序说明是否删掉的理由。

（4）判断说明的顺序：时间、空间、逻辑

三、信息提取概括题型

【题型分类】

1、说明对象：答题技法：看题目或首尾段。事物说明文一般标题就是说明的对象；事理说明文找准开头结尾的总结句。事理说明文指出说明内容，形成一个短语：介绍了……的……(对象加特征)。（《病毒》一文的说明对象：病毒的危害）,需要强调的是，大多数说明文题目就是说明对象。

2、说明对象的特征：答题技法：尽量从原文中找原词原句，注意段意、中心句。每一段的开头或者结尾尤其是第一段的开头和结尾可多留意。

（1）直接找出说明事物的特征的句子。

对策：A、看题目B、在首段中找C、抓关键词句（比如：运用了说明方法的语句、中心句）

（2）概括说明事物的特征

对策：分析文章结构，抓中心句及连接词，如“首先”“其次”“还”“也”“此外”等词语

3、给被说明的对象下定义；

4、从几句话中提取概括信息；

5、从一个段落中提取概括信息；

6、从几个段落或全篇中提取概括信息

【方法技巧】

1、对重要的信息筛选整合及运用“定义”的方法说明事物，下定义要求准确、严密，语言应简明，常用的是判断句的形式，即“xx是xx”的句式。注意和作诠释作区分。

2、（1）要根据题目的指向意义，明确在文中搜索信息的范围；（2）有的要求筛选的信息可能只涉及几句话，也有的可能涉及到一段甚或几段乃至全篇。有些信息，直接在筛选范围中摘录即可获取，但有的信息不是直接传递的，而需对该确定范围的内容进行归纳、整合后才能获得。（3）将提取的内容进行优化与整合，最后以简洁、恰当的语言加以归纳。

四、词句理解题型

【题型分类】

1、理解重要词语在具体语境中的含义和作用；

2、重要代词所指代的内容；

3、理解重要句子在文章中的意义和作用。

【方法技巧】

1、对重要词语、句子的在理解都要结合具体语境进行分析理解。

2、从文段中找出指代的内容，方法一般是从该代词的前面看这个代词所指的内容。

3、常见代词：“这样、这、这种、那、这些、那些、其他、以上、如此、此…”的指代义，多指代上文距其最近的一句或几句内容。一般是往前找，找到之后，将找到的内容放在指代词所在句中读一读，看是否适当通顺

五、说明方法运用题型

【题型分类】

1、判断运用的说明方法，并说明其作用

2、画线句子运用说明方法及其作用

3、选择一种运用说明方法的句子，说明其作用

4、引用传说、故事、诗句、名联、谜语等的作用

【方法技巧】

1、明确常用的10种说明方法及其作用：举例子、列数字、作比较、分类别、打比方、下定义、作诠释、引用、摹状貌、列图表等。

（1）举例子：具体形象的的说明了（说明对象）的…特征。（多直接说明前面的一句话）

（2）列数字：科学准确的说明了…的…特点。使说明更有说服力。

（3）分类别：条理清晰的说明了…的…特征；对事物的特征/事理分门别类加以说明，使说明更有条理性。

（4）作比较：清楚明白的说明了…的…特征（地位、影响等）

（5）打比方：生动形象的说明了…的…特征，增强了文章的趣味性。

词汇拼写错误较为严重，词汇选用上会有不当的情况。

应对策略就是平时阅读过程中注意单词拼写，关注单词使用语境，多积累高级词汇和句型。

语法掌握不好，句子的基本构成主谓结构掌握不清。

Due to the fact that the mental state, we have to keep a balance between the physical and the mental.

这句话中，due to the fact that后面需要接一个句子，而上句中只是一个名词性短语，所以错误。另外，between...and...需要连接两个名词短语，上句中形容词physical和mental后缺少名词性成分。改正为Due to the fact that the mental state plays a significant role, we have to keep a balance between the physical well-being and the mental health.

格式不正确，结构不清晰，汉语式英文思维太过明显，翻译的过程中常常不合英文写作要求。

应对的策略是多阅读范文，写作前列提纲，注意使用衔接词。

格式不正确常常出现在应用文中，有人会忘记写落款。这是我们在写作过程中特别需要注意的，否则格式错误就要相应的扣分。另外，有些文章结构不清晰，或者没有分段，或者段落之间的内容混乱。开头段就开始论述问题，第二段提出建议，结尾段又给出原因，逻辑混乱不清，抓不住重点。所以我们在写文章时一定要先打腹稿，明确行文结构和大概内容，这样在写作过程中才不至于不知道说什么，甚至瞎写一通。

总而言之，新大纲非常强调大家的英语写作技能，我们在平时的备考过程中一定要多进行英文文章的写作，养成良好的写作习惯，注意单词拼写、语法检查、逻辑结构，这样写出的文章才能过关。

一、形成性评价的概念

形成性评价(Formative Assessment)是美国评价学专家斯克里芬在1967年在其所著的《评论方法论》里提出来的。所谓的形成性评价是相对于传统的终结性评价(Summative Assessment)而言的，指的是对学生日常学习过程中的表现、所取得的成绩及所反映出来的情感、态度和策略方面的发展做出的评价，这种评价是通过对学生学习的整个过程持续观察、记录和反思之后得出来的。

形成性评价的目的是为了激励学生学习，帮助学生调控自己的学习过程。让学生获得成就感，增强其自信心和团结合作精神，让学生从被动接受评价变成一个评价的主体和积极参与者。形成性评价能够帮助教师了解学生的学习情况，从而制定下一步的教学计划。与终结性评价相比，形成性评价不只以考试成绩来衡量学生的学习情况，它更加灵活方便，也更加科学有效。形成性评价注重对学生学习行为和表现的评估，能够有效发挥学生的主动性和创造性，有利于培养学生的学习兴趣，也能够有效提高学生的自信心。

在英语口语教学中运用形成性评价，能够让学生在课堂中互相评价，增强学生参与课堂教学的积极性，在提高英语口语能力的同时体会到成功的快乐，形成一个教师与学生、学生与学生之间良好互动的课堂。形成性评价注重开发学生的创新能力和思考能力，而要培养这些能力就必须依靠坚持不懈的学习和运用来完成。

二、形成性评价的方法与工具

首先，一般而言，形成性评价的方法大致分为：自我评价、同伴互评和教师评价。

自我评价是指学生在学习的过程中就自己学习进程中的某个阶段性成果的总结和评价。自我评价是形成性评价中尤为重要的评价方法，只有通过自我评价才能尽力发挥其的主观能动性，积极主动地参与课堂教学活动。只有主观积极地参与课堂，就自己不同阶段的水平，才能更好地定位自己进一步的目标，并在课程初期、中期及末期分别给予自己相对客观中肯的评价，以促进下一阶段的学习。

同伴互评是指在课堂活动中，就某一活动进行同学之间的评价，评价包括学习态度、学习能力及学习方法的评价。在同伴互评的过程中，学生们可以相互探讨学习方法、交流学习心得、提出改进的建议和意见。同伴之间相互比较、竞争，相互取长补短，既增强了合作精神又促进了学习能力和学习效率的提升。同伴互评作为形成性评价重要的方法之一，其评价形式既增强了课堂的趣味性又增强了学生的学习自信心和学习热情。

课堂学习的主体是学生，但是学习评价的主体却是教师。形成性评价侧重过程教育，在教学过程中，根据需要调整教学计划和内容，该评价尤其重视学生与教师在课堂的共同参与度，而非教师“一言堂”。首先，教师在教学过程中设定好学生自我评价与同伴评价的量化标准，列好学生自我评价和同伴评价的核查表；其次，学生根据核查表才可有的放矢，对照核查表所列的内容一一检查，每节课后，客观公正地给予自己和他人中肯的评价；最后，结合学生自我评价和同伴评价的反馈结果，教师针对学生课堂上的表现，纵向对比某一特定学生评价前后的差异，或者横向比较某一特定组别在同一活动中每位学生各项指标的完成情况，同时，以多种形式反馈给学生并提出整改意见。因而，在教学的不同阶段，根据学生的能力发展状况，教师可适时调整评价方式，不断改进教学方法和教学手段。

只有将自我评价、同伴评价与教师评价结合在一起评价方式才能保证较好的教学效果，才能促进教育改革的进一步深化，真正达到以素质教育培养复合型人才的终极目标。

其次，形成性评价的行为评估工具有课堂观察、学生档案、座谈、问卷调查、访谈和对话周记等。如何运用以及怎样运用这些评价工具要根据所授课程、课程目标和授课对象等诸多因素做适当调整。

课堂观察是教学行为和技巧的基本方式。根据Genesee and Upshur(2001:79)的观点，教师在观察的基础上，可以评估学生已掌握和未掌握的内容。换言之，教师应该评估促进或阻碍学生学习的策略。与此同时，教师还可评估一些特定的教学策略的有效性，确定学生们欣赏哪些课堂活动和形式。课堂观察有助于教师更好地了解课程设计和学生需求的契合度。通过正式或非正式的观察，教师可掌握大多数学生对于教学安排的可接受程度，根据学生的需求改进或调整教学安排等，以提升教学效果。

“questionnaires and interviews can all be thought of as conversations between students and teachers”（Genesee and Upshur，2001:136）。如上所述，问卷调查和访谈都可被看作教师和学生间的对话，访谈和问卷调查是相似的，但决定使用访谈或者问卷调查可依据不同的教学目的。无论是哪种方式，都是老师和学生之间相对正式的会谈，这非常有利于老师对他的教学效果进行评估,诊断学生在英语学习遇到的困难，为学生寻找合适的解决问题,获得良好的学习策略和学习得到更多的进步。访谈和问卷调查设计应该根据学生的个人需求并符合教学目标。

对话周记作为教师和学生沟通的另一种方式，深受学生的喜爱。因课程设置和班级规模的不同，课堂观察、问卷调查及访谈都相对比较片面，而对话周记则可以关注到每个学生的不同需求。师生间定期通信，既增加了教师和学生之间的相互了解，增强彼此的信任，又能解决学生的个案问题，做到因材施教；同时，为了促进“教学相长”，学生可及时反馈教师的课堂教学，对于教师的教学提出较好的建议和意见。

学生档案是一个综合各项评估功能于一体的评估工具。它可以记录学生的成长、课堂变化且兼顾多种需要。如今，众多评价工具只把学生作为评价的对象，而评估的责任和任务的则落到了教师身上。但事实上，几乎没有一种评价工具能很好地管理学生活动并对其课堂行为负责。相比之下, 建立学生档案，需要学生亲力亲为；本着自我负责的原则，他们要更好地自我监督和控制，同时，在建档案的过程中，学生可以见证自己的进步与成长，增强学习的自信，提高学习的效果。

三、形成性评价对于英语口语教学的重要性与紧迫性

众所周知,教育评估在大学英语课程改革中扮演着相当重要的角色。英语教学的重点已从传播知识转移到培养能力。多年来，在中国，人们只注重英语写作和阅读的能力的提升，而一直忽视英语口语交际能力。多年来，教学评价已经被狭义理解为量化教学，而后进一步局限于教学测试。考试作为教学的终极目的，期末考试的成绩也就成为教师评价学生的最重要的依据。而对于口语课堂，单一的这种评估方式和依据增加了大多数学生的心理压力和少部分学生侥幸心理。考试成绩给学生很大压力，危害学生的发展，评估过程中，学生一直被动地参与，无法调动其积极性。当课程结束时，教师将得不到及时准确的学生反馈，无法改善评估方法以助于提高学生的英语口语能力。

“形成性评价源于诊断性测试。与终结性评价相比，形成性评价通过教学过程中多方面的评价发现问题，解决问题，强调过程性、目标性和学生学习的主动性。” (魏薇，2005) 鉴于终结性评价在口语测试评分中的片面性和主观性，大学英语口语表达能力的培养还是受到了这种终结性评价的制约。在大学英语口语教学中，形成性评价最重要的任务的是帮助教师监控学生英语口语的学习过程，提高学生的英语口语学习。如能将形成性评价的理论引入大学英语口语课堂教学与测试中，建立大学英语口语课程与形成性评价相结合的评估模式，则会推动大学英语口语教学和测试的改革进程。

鉴于口语课堂的特点，为了克服传统终结性评价对于口语课堂的制约性，形成性评价与大学英语口语教学相结合有其不可忽视的重要性和紧迫性。

首先，由于口语表达能力除了包含最基本的发音、词汇、语法能力还有语用能力、文化知识储备力等多项复杂的技能，而所有的这些技能无法在某一次测试中完全体现出来。因口语学习的最终目的是运用到相关学科、为了更好地促进国际交流。

而形成性评价尤其注重过程教学，这种评价将教学过程分成了诸多阶段，学生可在每个不同的阶段就自己的学习态度、发音、语言运用的准确性、流利程度以及课堂活动参与的积极性进行横向的同学互评和纵向的自我比较。一方面，横向比较可以找到彼此间的差距，互相帮助已达到各方面的提升；另一方面，学生可在整理学习档案的过程中，纵向比较自己前后阶段的学习情况，时刻了解自己在每个阶段的学习状况，在教师和同学的辅助下，运用不同的学习方法和策略，逐项提高自己的口语能力。 另外，教师在学生进行评价的过程中，可真实地参与并记录学生在各方面的真实水平。

其次，口语课堂实际上是教师与学生、学生与学生之间的互动交际。教师需要花费大量的时间设计口语活动、鼓励学生参与活动、监控课堂活动、诊断学生的需求和问题、记录学生的表现等。学生则在各种学习任务和活动中不断地练习、发现问题、纠正偏差。

与传统的终结性评价不同，形成性评价的最显著特征是评价的主体是学生，学生和教师共同参与课堂，缺一不可。根据多数学生的关注点，学生参与确定研究目标、评分标准和英语口语的性能评估。因而，他们了解每一项活动的任务和目标，他们可合理运用各种评价方式和工具，课前认真准备，课堂上积极参与，能与教师积极互动，课堂上客观地评价自己、同伴和教师。这不仅是一种评价过程，更是学生回归自我认同感的方式。学生增加了学习自信，在评价过程中不断积累经验，逐步获得学习成就感。教师亦可在与学生互动的过程中，更好地了解学生的知识掌握和课堂反馈情况，根据反馈适时调整教学方法。如此良性循环，既增强了课堂的趣味性又提高了学生的学习效率。

四、结语

形成性评价，作为正常教学和学习过程的有机部分，可以全面、客观、科学、准确地提供与其学习目标相关的重要信息，它有助于促进学生的个性化发展和外语教学质量的根本性提高。形成性评价其中的一个重要作用是培养学生良好的英语学习习惯。将英语形成性评价与口语教学紧密地结合在一起，能提高学生学习的兴趣并及时、准确、客观地反映学生的真实水平，使学生的英语口语能力稳步提高。通过采用具体的形成性评价方式，发展学生的自我评价与学生间相互评价的能力，以促进学生的自我反思与自我管理能力。从而提高学生自主学习意识与自主学习能力，并为他们养成终身学习的意识与习惯打下基础。

记事型作文，写不好就成了流水账，正在学写作文的小朋友要学会使用以下七个技巧，一起来看看吧。

1.要交代清楚时间、地点、人物、事件。

让读者明白文章写的是什么人，在什么时候，什么地方发生了怎样的事。

2.找出事件闪光点。

如果根据题目的要求选定了某件事，你就要对这件事进行认真的回忆，并仔细琢磨，反复思考，挖掘出这件事中含有的生活道理，或找出它闪光的地方。

3.必须把事情发生的环境写清楚。

因为任何事情总是在一定的环境中发生、发展的。环境写好了，写出特点来，还能渲染气氛，表达感情，使文章更生动。

4.一般要按事情发展顺序写。

把一件事的起因、经过、结果写清楚，不能颠三倒四，还应把事情的前因后果，来龙去脉写清楚。

5.记事中要围绕中心，抓住重点，不要面面俱到。

重点部分（一般指事情发展高潮处）要详写，写具体，写详尽，给读者以深刻的印象。

6.写事不能离不开写人。

同此在记事过程中，一定要把人物的语言、神态、动作、心理活动等写细致，写逼真，这样才能表达出人物的思想品质，才能更好地表达这件事所包含的意义，即文章的中心思想。

7.必须把事情发生的环境写清楚。

因为任何事情总是在一定的环境中发生、发展的。环境写好了，写出特点来，还能渲染气氛，表达感情，使文章更生动。

方向明确了还不够，还要进一步明确具体写好作文的写作要求，这个要求不是一般意义上的如何写好作文，而是中考分项相加评分标准。2004年中考评分标准依然会沿用去年的评分标准，不会有大的变化，主要分“中心与材料”(20分)、“语言”(20分)和“思路与结构”(10分)三大项以及相关说明，需要细细解读。

以A类卷(45分—50分)为例，“中心与材料”的要求是“题意理解正确，中心鲜明;选材恰当，有新意;对生活的认识正确，且有自己的见解;感情真挚，想象力丰富。”这里有审题的要求，有立意的要求，有选材的要求，还有创新的要求。选材“有新意”是指在选取具有典型性、现实感的材料的基础上，选取能给人新颖独特之感、激发读书阅读兴趣的新鲜动人的材料。“有自己的见解”要求考生作文要有自己的思考，要写自己的独特体会、认识和发现，要说自己想说的心里话;不能停留在一般性的认识上，而是要把表现“独特自我”作为一个指导思想、一个方法在具体的写作过程中体现出来。“想像力”是在知觉材料的基础上，经过新的配合而创造出新形像的能力。它是考查创新能力的一个方面，要求想象的内容

首先必须是合理的，符合人们认知世界的一般规律。

“语言”一项的要求是“能正确表达自己的思想;语言流畅，有一定的表现力”。这实际是要求能综合运用多种表达方式，准确表达中心思想。“表现力”是指在流畅的基础上，词语生动，句式灵活，修辞丰富，文句有意蕴。这一项考查的是语言表达能力，总的要求是语言表达正确清楚，自然流畅，传情达意，生动形象。

“思路与结构”一项要求是“思路通畅，条理清晰，结构安排有特色”。这要求结构完整、严谨，层次分明，体现思路、条理的通畅、明晰，同时能从中心的需要出发，合理安排段落，注意段落间的衔接、过渡、呼应，能根据表现中心的需要采取适当的顺序(如顺叙、倒叙、插叙等)，或采取新颖别致的结构形式，如采用小标题、日记体等。

考生心中有了这一把评分“标尺”，就真正明确了写作的目标和提高了的“达标”标准。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

如何才能写好中考作文呢?下面是小编整理的2017年中考作文写作技巧精选，欢迎阅读。

记叙文在组材时要注意以下三点：

1.疏密有致。这就是人们常说的详略得当的问题。譬如写一个人，必然要通过几件事写一个人。如果每件事都作具体细致的描述，势必冗长，不仅时间和篇幅不允许，而且也会让读者生厌，如果件件都粗粗略述，那人物又不丰满。我们可采用详写一件，略写一件，再概写几件的方法，这样，就疏密有致相得益彰了。

2.大胆舍弃。在一般情况下，记叙文总要交代事情的起因、发展、结局。可有的同学却有意略去其中的一个环节，文章反而更精练了。如有位同学写“我”与爸爸妈妈怄气、发脾气、使性子，终于得到一套新衣的经过。作者开笔就直接插入事情发展过程的叙述：

我一脚踢开了房门，妈妈关心地问：“蒂儿，回来了?”真是明知故问!我径直走进了自己的房间，倒在床上，大叫：“妈妈，衣服买了吗?”其实刚进门我就感觉到，衣服一定没有买。

这个开头用一“踢”字单刀直入，至于爸爸妈妈什么时候在什么情况下承诺买衣给“我”的则一概略去了。这样一开头就营造了一种“逼”的氛围，于是逼得妈妈唯唯诺诺，逼得爸爸惭愧不安。当“我”终于如愿以偿得到了一套新衣服后，才从他人口中得知，衣服是爸爸借钱买来的，“我”感到了无比歉疚。试想一下，如开头从买衣的起因絮絮道来，那文章能如此一气贯通吗?

开头可省，结尾也同样可省。有位同学在一篇题为《在车夫的影响下》的作文中写他骑车撞倒了一位“阿婆”，本想一溜了之，这时，他的脑海中闪现出鲁迅笔下车夫的形象。文章结尾写道：“雨开始往下洒，我向阿婆走去……”这个结尾何等简洁!至于如何关心、护理阿婆的事已不是本文的重点。作者在此戛然而止，既突出了“影响”，又留给了读者想象的空间。

3.自然过渡。要使文章前后浑然一体，就得注意上下文的过渡，这是文章组材不可忽视的问题。过渡的方式是多种多样的，有的是一个词，如“最”、“当然”、“不过”等。有的是一个单句;有的则是一个起着承上启下作用的复句，如有位同学在他的《我和书的故事》中先写自己利用课余时间攒钱买书的经历，后写了书对他书本知识的学习也起了很大的作用，中间的过渡句是：“阅读大量的课外书，不仅丰富了我的课余生活，使我增长了知识，它对我学习书本中的知识也起了巨大的作用。”;还有的是以一个小段来起过渡作用，如有位同学在他的《读父亲》一文中先用一组排比句写父亲在“我”小的时候对“我”的关心和教育：“当我第一次摔倒时，父亲叫我自己爬起来，我从父亲那里读到做人要坚强;当我不屑一顾于桌上的饭菜时，父亲带我走到卖火柴的小女孩擦火柴的雪夜，让我领略到‘谁知盘中餐，粒粒皆辛苦’的真谛。当我第一次背上书包走进学校时，父亲给我讲述了小萝卜头的故事，要我加倍珍惜今天幸福的生活。就这样，在读父亲的过程中，我逐渐长大了。”但是，“我”并不是一直这样顺从父亲的，“我”也有过对父亲的误解和厌烦。怎样过渡到下一个层次呢?作者设计了这样一个过渡段：

可是，当我认为自己已经长大的时候，自以为已经读懂了父亲这本书后，我对父亲产生了隔膜，我不再认真读透父亲的每一句话。然而，那一次却让我刻骨铭心地明白了我的无知和浅薄。

有了这样一些过渡，文章就上下勾连浑然一体了。

上面我们是从内容的角度谈了组材中要注意的问题，下面我们再从形式的角度谈谈怎样的组合方式更容易获得读者的青睐。

1.倒叙设悬式。这种方式就是先把故事的结局置于文首或在开头设置一个悬念，目的都在吸引读者，引起读者的阅读兴趣。如有篇题为《我终于解决了这个难题》的作文是这样开头的：

残月在天的黎明似乎没有往日晓星隐没的诗情。淡淡的晨雾中，一个矇眬的身影沙沙地挪动。仅仅为了一个无从回答的难题，父亲“无情”地将我“逐出”家门，开始了一天的“流浪”。我真不明白：有什么难题连老师和书本都无法帮我解决，而非得自己亲身感受才能领悟?

这个开头留给读者很多疑惑：父亲给“我”出的到底是一道怎样的难题?这道难题为什么“连老师和书本都无法帮我解决”?父亲为什么要把“我”逐出家门来解这道难题?一连串的疑问正勾起了读者阅读的欲望，促使他们要迫不及待地看个究竟。有了这样引人入胜的开头，文章也就成功了一半了。

2.标题串联式。这里所说的标题指的是小标题。用小标题串联全文，醒目而又别具一格。如有位同学写《生活中的发现》就用了三个小标题：“我被感动了”、“美就在身边”、“平凡也是美”。有的小标题设计还很别致，如有的同学用“喜”、“怒”、“哀”、“乐”四个字串联全文;有的则用标点符号为题，如“?”、“!”、“……”;还有的文章的小标题均由上一段的最后一句话引出，自然而又巧妙。如有篇题为《我的欢乐与烦恼》的作文，第一个小标题“欢乐的文学梦”用“17岁的日子有风也有雨，有欢乐也有烦恼，我仔细品味着——”引出，而第二个小标题“烦恼的情感小屋”则由“欢乐之余，也常常困扰于——”引出，读来别有一番情趣。

3.书信日记式。这是在不明确规定用书信和日记形式作文时采用的一种出奇制胜的方法。如有位学生在写《雷锋就在我们身边》的作文时，就以给远方的朋友写信的方式介绍了自己身边的好人好事，语言显得亲切自然，传统题目写出了新意。还有的同学在写《难忘的初中生活》时，把所写的三件事分别融进于三篇日记之中，而三篇日记的日期又代表了初中三年，这就省去了许多过渡和交代，使文章更加简练。我们还看到有篇文章巧妙地以日记标题中气候的变化来暗示故事的发展变化，如“多云——多云转阴——雨——大雨——多云转晴”，这里的气候变化实际上是一语双关，令人拍案叫绝。

4.以物为线式。天津有一年中考考了一个半命题作文《 的回忆》，有位考生便以“一片绿叶”为线索贯穿全文，通过老师爱绿叶、讲绿叶的故事、赠绿叶书签等事件，歌颂了老师如绿叶似的无私奉献的精神。全文始终扣住“绿叶”，以“叶”喻人，使文章格调高雅，耐人寻味。

当然，形式是为内容服务的，组材的方式也是因题而异的，如果为刻意求新而弄巧成拙，那就得不偿失了。

一、写外貌不用“有”

作文如何写外貌？孩子的作文里总会看到类似这样的名子：“XX可漂亮了，她有一头卷卷的黄头发，有一双乌黑的葡萄般的大眼睛，有一个高高的鼻子，还有一张樱桃小嘴。”如果你试着让他们去掉文中的“有”，把文字重新串联一遍，会发现作文顺了很多。写上段文字的同学经蒋老师指导后修改如下：“XX可漂亮啦。一头卷卷的黄头发自然地披在肩上。她的眼睛太吸引人了，乌黑乌黑葡萄一般。高高的鼻子，和樱桃小嘴配合起来，有点混血的味道，同学们可喜欢她啦。”是不是读起来舒服多了？

二、写说不单写“说”

让孩子比较以下三句话。

张三说：“……”；

张三无可奈何地说：“……”；

张三摊了摊手，一副无可奈何的样子：“……”

显然，让人物说话有多种方式，写语言可以不用出现“说”而是在语言前面加上动作和神态，通过一定的训练掌握这样的技巧让孩子的写作水平切实得到提升，让他们学会细节描写，不会仅干巴巴的地写“某某说”。

三、写想不出现“想”

遇到描写心理活动时，这样的句子已经被孩子们写滥：“我脑子里跳出两个小人，一个小人……另一个小人……”不用这个句子又该怎么写？最常用的就是“我心想”。如某学生写：“数学老师出了一道难题要带回家写的。我心想：天哪！这该怎么办呢？”

按照蒋老师“写想不用想”的技巧，去掉：“我心想”三个字如何？“数学老师出了一道难题要带回家写的。天哪！这该怎么办呢？”是不是更简洁精练？别忘了提醒孩子要给心理描写加上适当感叹词。

四、不用成语

作文为什么写不长？都是成语惹的祸！蒋老师此言一出震惊四座。不是说多用成语才显得有文采吗？其实不然，在“就是不用成语”写作技巧中，蒋老师指出：当作文中只会按照套路使用成语时，文章细节就没了，还不如让孩子老老实实把自己看到的感受都写出来。什么天高云淡、风和日丽、桃红柳绿、炯炯有神、心旷神怡……这些被用滥的成语还是少出现为妙。

比如，写春天别用“风和日丽”，而是这样写：“风儿拂过林梢，原本平静的湖面漾起了圈圈涟漪，湖边的柳树轻摇着身姿，我也忍不住张开双臂，任风抚过我的每一寸肌肤，暖暖的，痒痒的。”想办法用具体的句子替换掉别人用滥的成语，解决孩子作文写不长写不细的难题。

五、遇到“很”和“非常”想一想

对于文章写不长的孩子，可以训练的另一个技巧是：遇到“很”和“非常”想一想。看过无数学生习作，蒋老师发现出现频率最高的字眼包括“很，非常”。请老师和家长提醒孩子，遇到要写这几个字时不要轻易下笔，停下来想一想，是不是非要出现这个字眼？

比如写热，别出现“很热”两个字，学会用其他的描写来体现热：骄阳似火，没有一丝风，树叶低垂毫无生气……

六、环境里面有“真”“情”

到了五六年级孩子都要学习环境描写。如有的孩子会写：“早上天气还挺好的，放学回家时，却哗哗下起雨来。雨珠在下，泪珠在滴，老天也好像在为我哭泣。”

孩子能用环境衬托自己的心情首先要表扬。但是很多孩子只要一写环境，肯定就是小花微笑，小草点头、小鸟歌唱、小雨哭泣，成了套路，难道世界上只有小草、小鸟、小花吗？为什么不能写身边更真实的东西呢？云、雾、桌子，哪怕是电线杆都可以写，这个技巧是提醒孩子不仅要让人活在环境里，还要让人活在真实的环境里。

七、要动连着动

文章要一波三折才好看，但现在的孩子生活都很平淡，你不能强求他们写出一波三折的内容，那就让他们学会一波三折地使用动词，就这是要动连着动——学会连续使用动词。

某学生写一场乒乓球球赛：“他发了一个旋转球，让人看得眼花缭乱。”（一句话把文章就给写完了）

学会动词技巧后将修改成：“只见他高高地将球抛起，眼睛死死盯着，球接触球板的一瞬间，他手腕轻轻一抖，脚一跺，球高速旋转着，向这边飞来，让人看得眼花缭乱。”一个动词转瞬变成六七个，文字即刻灵动丰富起来。

八、一秒钟的事写三百字

还是针对作文写不长的一种技巧训练：用三百字来描写1秒钟内发生的事。如关于破校运会跳高纪录瞬间的描写原本只有几十字：只见某某纵身一跳，一下子飞过横杆，新的校运会纪录诞生了！

怎么变成三百字？可以有条理地加上动作解剖：如何助跑、起跳、翻越、落地；加上联想：往届校运会有人挑战失败，平时如何一次次练习等等；还可以加上细节来充实，起跳前如何与同学们进行眼神交流，成功后同学如何向他祝贺……家长可以找一些1秒钟的素材让孩子进行写作练习，学会了这个技巧还怕考试写不出四五百字吗？

九、一段话里至少出现6个标点

很多孩子不会用标点，习作中常只有逗号句号逗号句号，甚至逗号都没有，把老师读到断气为止。针对这个现象，可以让孩子进行“一段话至少出现6种标点”的技巧训练。比如，。？！……：“”这些标点你的作文中都有吗？没有的话请尝试用起来。

经过几次训练后，你会发现孩子的惊人变化：意味深长的句子会写了、人物语言会加进去了，心理活动结合进去了，还会用反问句了，这些句子加进去后，文章当然生动起来。一位作家就曾用这种方法对自己作文写不好的孩子进行训练，收效明显，进步很快。

十、字数三四五

这个技巧说白了就是学习写短句。学了一段时间写作的孩子容易在作文中写长句，而长句写不好就变成病句。事实上很多作家也是以写短句见长的，像沈从文、汪曾祺。家长要提醒孩子注意控制每句话的字数，建议把十几个字几十个字的长句改成只有三四五个字的短句，孩子们会发现这样的作文有语感会舒服很多。如某学生的原文：“高高的绿绿的草散发着诱人的清香。一根一根都看得那么清楚，很挺拔的样子。”

经指导后改成：“草绿了，高了，散发着清香。一根一根，看得清清楚楚，很挺拔的样子。”是不是很有节奏感？

[关于初中语文作文写作技巧分享

1引——从材料中引出论题或论点

或开门见山，或边联系实际边叙述感受，或述读材料，或引用名言警句等方式提出论题或论点。需要注意的是，“引”的语言要精练，概括力要强， 80字左右为宜，否则，会让人觉得拖泥带水，不简洁。“论题或论点”从材料中“引”出，是一种高层次的紧扣“材料”。

简言之，开头要概述材料，提出自己的观点

2议——分析议论材料

通过分析议论，可以挖掘材料的内涵，强调论题或论点。这一部分可以弥补引出论点时因过于概括而造成内容上的突兀、断层等方面的不足。

简言之，详细论述中心论点想要表达的内容

3联——联想议论

“引”“议”之后，作文就完成了对“材料”的处理。“联”是运用材料提供的道理来演绎社会生活，透视社会生活的过程，是理论作用于实践的过程。可以联想类似的道理(从道理上进行论证)，也可以联想相关的社会生活现象(从事实上进行论证)。这部分是作文的主体，要求思路开阔，语言概括，重点突出。正反结合。需要注意的是，由“议”到“联”，过渡要自然、贴切。

围绕自己的中心论点提出不少于三个的分论点，并以论据加以分析论证

4辨——辨析辩证

这是行文思路严密的补笔。通常这一部分不是行文的重点，文字不宜多，可以用“当然”“固然”等词语来畅通行文。

这可使自己的论证更严谨全面

5结——给文章下结论

通常要紧扣“材料”照应开头：开头提论点，结尾提怎么办;开头提论题，结尾作出结论并简要说明怎么办。

一、积累词汇

初中学生在阅读理解方面最大的障碍就是词汇量的缺乏，而扩大词汇量绝非死记硬背就能做到。最有效的方法就是大量接触各种不同体裁的英语文章，利用“在句中记，在文中记”的方法来积累词汇。因此我们指导学生依据英语报刊的特点，按栏目、话题、题材、体裁归类收集常用词，将出现频率较高的常用词汇积累到单词本子上，查字典写例句，初步学会这些单词的运用，放在身边，利用零散时间反复记忆，加强印象。还要求学生给出与单词有关的同义、近义、反义和词形相似的词，使词汇量得到最大限度的复现。如：反义词appear/disappear， crowded/uncrowded，polite/impolite/rude.词形相似的词except/expect，chance/change/challenge.这样，通过大量的词汇练习不仅仅能有效地积累词汇，还为组句打下了基础，同时还能训练学生的发散性思维和总结、归纳、比较的能力，为学生正确使用词句奠定了良好的基础。

二、活用词句

当学生有了一定的词汇量的时候，教师在教学中可以采用先易后难的方法，让学生用简单的词组成句子，再以句子的构成作为学生进行写作训练的起点，引导学生从对单个句型的掌握，逐渐过渡到多种句型的混用，直到学生能连贯自如地表达思想。一句多译，句型转换，是书面表达能力的关键。总的来说，教师在平时的教学中要将日常生活中经常出现的词、句作为材料让学生训练，使学生乐于接受，轻松完成，享受成功感。

例如：以study为中心组成句子。

I study in No.3 Middle School.I study very hard.My sister studies in the same school.But she studies harder than me.等等。

三、创设情景

例如，学生举行运动会，开“生日聚会”，以“A sports meeting”和“My birthday party”为语境，让学生在活动中仔细观察，亲身体验，然后试着用自己所学的语言知识，表达“A sports meeting”和“My birthday party”这些话题。在我们新教材的每个单元中，都设有写作训练题，它们用英语设置语境，用英语提示内容，这些写的练习，与我们平时用汉语给语境、用英语完成段落的方式相比，更为理想。当然，教师在设立语境话题时要与学生的水平和能力相适应，应从简到难，从浅到深进行。否则，学生会无从下笔，久而久之，他们会失去信心。

四、注重听、说和阅读的培养

在英语写作中听、说、读、写应同步发展。写作是一种语言输出形式，只有语言输入大于语言输出，语言输出才有可能。英语写作训练作为英语综合能力训练之一，是与英语的听说读不可分割的，它们是相互影响、相互作用的有机统一体，必须注重听、说、读、写能力的同步发展。

比如笔者实施多年的“五分钟课前演讲”：在上正课前五分钟里，要学生用英语讲述一个故事(积累素材);或者课前朗读一篇短小精 的文章，让大家课后模仿;或者就大家平时关心的话题写一个发言稿或演讲稿进行课前发言;或者让学生自立主题，围绕自己喜欢的主题写一段话。这种课前训练取得了很好的效果。

五、写英文日记

要养成记英语日记勤练笔的习惯。经常用英语记日记等于天天在练笔，这无疑是提高英语写作行之有效的好办法。在记日记时，不要总是用简单句，要有意识地用一些好的词组、句型和复合句等，使文句更优美生动。对一些所给情景写的文章，写好后要对照一些范文，找出差距，然后再去练习，不仅能促使学生及时巩固所学的知识，还能锻炼他们的恒心和学习毅力，同时对提高英语作文也是很有帮助的。只有这样，学生才能通过多练习提高英语写作水平。

总之，学生英语写作水平的提高不是一朝一夕的事，英语写作能力培养的训练方法也是多方面的，因此需要我们英语教师在教学工作中不断探索、不断研究，总结出一些更富有创新活力的英语写作方法。鼓励学生平时要多积累语素材，要求他们坚持长期写作训练，做到善于思考、勤于训练、勇于探究，充分发挥学生的潜力。久而久之，学生的写作水平就会有大幅度的提高。

一、道理论据：

1、什么是路?就是从设路的地方践踏出来的。从只有荆棘的地方开辟出来的。——鲁迅

2、想要做人生竞技场上留下的人，只有不怕创伤去搏斗。——芥川龙之介

3、经过的道路是艰苦的，坎坷不平的。可是，无论如何，那是一条美好的道路。在那条路上，一步一个血迹，也是值得的。——罗曼罗兰

二、事实论据：

牛顿和实验室。牛顿致力于光学、力学和化学的研究，经过长期的努力，发现了万有引力定律，对科学事业的发展作出了极其伟大的贡献。当人们问他是怎么发现万有引力定律的，他简单地回答说：“我一直在想、想、想……”牛顿的大部分时间都是在实验里渡过的，有时成月地呆在实验室里，不分昼夜地苦干。饿了，啃点面包，实在劳累了，就打个盹，直到在实验室里得出明确的结果，他才肯从实验室走出来，稍事休息。

三、拼搏的励志句子：

1、现实是很残酷的，就像战场一样，败者为寇，胜者为王。

2、有很多人都说：平平淡淡就福，没有努力去拼博，又如何将你的人生保持平淡?又何来幸福?

3、人的命运只有两个结果。第一就是穷困，处处都受环境限制，感觉无法展现自己，第二就富裕，可以轻松自如地用钱为自己开路，享受快乐幸福的生活。

4、人生在世，萎缩不前，就只能贫困过一生，又何谈幸福，现实是经济社会，连喝一杯白开水都可能要钱，没有钱就只能过风雨飘摇的日子!连平淡都谈不上。

5、钱虽不是万能的，没钱是万不能的，一切美好都必须以金钱作保障，金钱来源于拼搏，没有拼搏精神，就是富裕也会变贫穷，坐吃山空，及使有金山银山，到最后也会变成穷光蛋，就是做个守财奴，想保持原财产不动，都还需拼搏才行。

6、人生我们要做个强者，要有足够的拼搏精神，幸福才属于我们!

7、人贫困不是错，只要我们有足够的信心去拼搏，仍然可以扭转乾坤，改变命运，走向成功!

8、要改变命运，必须有顽强的拼搏才会成功，现实是残酷的，就像战场一样，我们必须时刻高度警惕，才不会被刺中要害，才不会倒下。

9、人生是战场，需要冲次，需要拼搏，处处布满陷井，一不小心就会中埋伏，就会遭遇失败，永无翻身之日，但我们拼搏一定要方向明确，有目标性拼搏，才会成功，幸福才会属于你。

10、不是所有的拼搏都会成功，我们不能盲目的拼搏，必须带上我们的智慧，将属于我们的机会牢牢抓住，才会多一份成功。

11、人生如战场，遇到劲敌或长久不能取胜时，就必须用智取，人生不可能一帆风顺，在某些关键时候，就必须用计，智慧永远是人取得成功的关键。

12、人生如战场，两军对垒，光有皮夫之勇是不行的，必须有计谋，有一定安排与计划才可以，做任何事，都要仔细思考，不能盲目去奋斗，以免去不必要的浪费与失败。

13、想要生活稳定，想要过得幸福，又谈何容易，冰冻三尺，非一日之寒，我们必须下苦功夫才行，在拼搏的同时，别忘了正确掌握方向与目标，加上足够的信心与智慧，才会成功，才有幸福的生活。

14、如果你们问我的人生如何，我要告诉你们，我还是个穷书生，不过，我正在拼搏中，就像上战场一样英勇奋斗，也许会成功，也许会失败!但是，只要我努力拼搏过，我的心是快乐的，所以，我也是幸福的。

15、我们不说为功名利禄而拼搏，最起码也该为自己的将来奋斗，所以我们一定要富有拼搏精神。

[中考写作素材：拼搏

第一招：审题细心。审题好比驾驶员打方向，方向对了，哪怕开得慢点，也会顺利到目的地。如果审题不清，书面表达的成绩不知道会有多惨。学生真正开始写作 前，必须花相当一部分时间做写前阅读、思考等准备，包含以下四方面：1)审体裁。根据情景提示首先要弄清写何种体裁文章。2)审结构。明确开始部分、正文 部分和结尾部分，定好段落。3)审格式。如日记、便条、书信、通知的格式等。4)审内容。弄清什么必需写，哪些略写，尤其是图画式书面表达，要学会连贯 性，读懂图的意思。5)审人称和时态。弄清书面表达要求用何种人称，根据材料确定短文的基本时态。

第二招：衔接流畅。恰当使用逻辑词语，使各要点间连贯，行文通顺。比如表并列或递进： and, both…and, neither…nor, not only…but also;表选择：or, either…or; 表转折或让步：but, although, though, however, even though, in spite of, on the contrary; 表对比：like, unlike, while; 表举例：for example, such as, that’s to say; 表强调：in fact, of course, besides; 表时间顺序：when, after, before, as soon as, soon after; 表因果关系：because, since, as, for, for this reason，as a result; 表结论：in a word, to sum up. In summary, in conclusion, on the whole;

第三招：短语地道。如果能多用短语，则可回避书面表达中的中式英语，同时也能减少错误几率。尤其在考试时，如果使用短语，会使文章增加亮点。

第四招：句式丰富。一篇可读性强的文章，通常能较好体现学生对英语语言结构、词块、句式的运用。因此各类句式的多元呈现往往可以提升书面表达的成绩。初中 阶段英语写作常用的句式如下：There be…；the more…the more…；It’s adj for sb to do something；I think/believe/suppose…(宾从)； It can’t be put into real experiment。(被动)等。尤其是复合句的适恰运用对提升文章的层次很有帮助。对大多数同学来说，仿写很重要，在教材和很多的阅读书籍中都蕴含着 丰富的好词佳句。

第五招：情感真实。同样的话题，有些文章没什么情感，冷冰冰；有些 文章很有温度，有真情实感。情感真实主要可通过如下方法实现：1)内容的呈现。比如：2012年的中考英语书面表达My dream，大部分的作文都还是停留在表面上。但这个例子：I want to be a good father because my daddy was always so busy when I was a little boy.He had no time with me and my mum…虽然文章的文采并不是很好，但很有真情实感，令读者有心动的感觉，也是好文章。2)副词的运用。在句子的某些位置，添加副词，可以使句子和文段更 有人性味，更有情感性。如：I really enjoy the beauty of the sea in the sun。加了一个really，就有味道了。

第六招：思维多元。从杭州近五年中考书 面表达命题情况看，书面表达话题虽多元，但在设题上基本为半开放形式，因此半控制部分学生需要涵盖题目所给信息并进行适当发挥，而半开放部分，则要求学生 根据话题内容、自己的生活阅历、个人思维层次结合自己的英语表述自己的个人看法。有些学生的英语水平比较好，但因为在思维上比较局限想不出比较有深度、宽 度和广度的观点，这也会在一定程度上约束书面表达的质量。

第七招：整理独到。进入八 年级以来，在平时写作、单元练习、期中期末考试中，考生已积累了一定量与教材同话题的自己写的英语小短文，建议在临考前的最后阶段把自己八年级以来写的不 同话题的文章进行修改，润色、整理、汇编成册，制作一本个性化私人定制的“书面表达秘籍”，以备中考前高效复习用，以不变应万变。

第八招：卷面美观。1)不做涂改。需要在平时的书面表达中养成简列提纲、打草稿，再誊抄到答题卡的习惯。2)及时补救。如果对答题卡上的书面表达有修改， 建议用斜线划掉相应部分。3)勤练规范。临考前一个月，以中考答题卡的行距和长度为参照，设计自己字的大小，字的间距，每行的字数，以看起来舒服为准。

导语：我们有力的道德就是通过奋斗取得物质上的成功，这种道德既适用于国家，也适用于个人。下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的写作素材，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

1.瓜是长大在营养肥料里的最甜，天才是长在恶性土壤中的最好。——培根

2.学习使人丰富知识，知识使人提升才能，才能使人创造业绩。

3.海纳百川有容乃大;壁立千仞无欲则刚。林则徐

4.停止奋斗，生命也就停止了。——卡莱尔

5.与其战胜敌人一万次，不如战胜自己一次。

6.不管发生什么事，都请安静且愉快地接受人生，勇敢地大胆地，而且永远地微笑着。——卢森堡

7.诚实+守信，树立自身形象;勤奋+努力，实现自身价值。

8.一无所有是一种财富，它让穷人产生改变命运的行动。

9.山不厌高，海不厌深。--曹操

10.穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下。孟子

11.你若要喜爱你自己的价值，你就得给世界创造价值。歌德

12.宁愿折断骨头，不愿低头受辱。

13.留得青山在，不怕没柴烧。

14.希望是生命的源泉，失去他生命就会枯竭。富兰克林

15.成功，是人类活动的三大要素--------巴斯德

16.中年是一次毫无期待心情的约会。——董桥

17.土扶可城墙，积德可厚地。——李白

18.奋斗是万物之父。——陶行知

19.任何人要达到自己的目的，爱也罢，追求也罢，目标必须明确。——林海鑫

20.古之君子如抱美玉而深藏不市，后之人以石为玉而又炫之也。——朱熹

21.不患人之不己知，患不知人也。——孔子

22.理想的书籍是智慧的钥匙。——托尔斯泰

23.天行健，君子以自强不息。——易经

24.责任和问题，反省到人生的究竟，所以哀乐之感得以深沉。——宗白华

25.少说些漂亮话，多做些日常平凡的事情……——列宁

26.古之立大事者，不惟有超世之才，亦必有坚韧不拔之志。——苏轼

27.儿童的生活，是游戏的生活;儿童的世界，是游戏的世界。——陈望道

28.一个没有受到献身的热情所鼓舞的人，永远不会做出什么伟大的事情来。——车尔

29.奋斗以求改善生活，是可敬的行为。——茅盾

30.我们有力的道德就是通过奋斗取得物质上的成功，这种道德既适用于国家，也适用于个人。罗素

31.只有满怀自信的人，才能在任何地方都怀有自信沉浸在生活中，并实现自己底意志。-------高尔基

32.罗兰我从来不把安逸和快乐看作是生活目的本身这种伦理基础，我叫它猪栏的理想。——爱因斯坦

33.希望是本无所谓有，无所谓无的。这正如地上的路，其实地上本没有路，走的人多了，也便成了路。——鲁迅

34.幸运是个伟大的老师，而不幸则更伟大。拥有会纵容思想，欠缺却能训练并强化思想。-威廉·哈立特

35.理想是指路明灯。没有理想，就没有坚定的方向，而没有方向，就没有生活。——托尔斯泰

36.一个人必须面向未来，想着要着手做的事情。但这并不容易做到。一个人的过去是一种日益加重的负担。——罗素

37.朝着一定目标走去是“志”，一鼓作气中途绝不停止是“气”，两者合起来就是“志气”。一切事业的成败都取决于此。——卡内基

38.凡是挣扎过来的人都是真金不怕火炼的;任何幻灭都不能动摇他们的信仰：因为他们一开始就知道信仰之路和幸福之路全然不同，而他们是不能选选择的，只有往这条路走，别的都是死路。这样的自信不是一朝一夕所能养成的。你绝不能以此期待那些十五岁左右的孩子。在得到这个信念之之前，先得受尽悲痛，流尽眼泪。可是这样是好的，应该要这样……——罗曼·罗兰

39.每个人都有一定的理想，这种理想决定着他的努力和判断的方向。就在这个意义上，我从来不把安逸和快乐看作生活目的的本身这种伦理基础，我叫它猪栏的理想。——爱因斯坦

40.为世界进文明，为人类造幸福，以青年之我，创造青春之家庭，青春之国家，青春之民族，青春之人类，青春之地球，青春之宇宙，资以乐其无涯之生。——李大钊

不少中学生作文时都没有写提纲的习惯。有的不懂得写提纲的重要性，怕耽误时间，会写而不写；更多的是不会写或不会写合要求的、有用的提纲。作文前应该写好提纲，这是保证作文成功的一项重要举措。老舍先生说：有了提纲心里就有了底，写起来就顺理成章；先麻烦点，后来可省事。由此可见，学会写提纲，养成作文前写提纲的习惯，应该是中学生写作学习的重要任务，是有效提高写作水平的好方法。

提纲犹如工程的蓝图、作战的计划，要力求写得符合要求。有些同学常写1．事情的开始；2．事情的经过；3事情的结果一类的提纲．这太空洞，对作文没有什么用处，不成其为提纲。也有同学把提纲写成文章的内容提要，这又太繁琐，也不好。还有的同学把提纲写得呆板、生硬，缺少变化，缺少特色，这样的提纲当然也不算好提纲，也会严重影响作文的质量。

应该如何写提纲才合要求呢？

一、提纲要切题。例如，有同学写《说功夫不负有心人》的提纲是这样写的：1．有心就是有明确的目的；2．有心就是有正确的方法；3有心就是有认真的态度和创造精神。认真审一下题便可知道，这一种提纲就比较切题。

二、提纲要体现体裁特点。假如要以《门》为题分别写议论文、说明文、记叙文，则其提纲，应该分别体现出不同的体裁特点。

描写景物一般有两种形式，一种是全篇以描写景物为主，一种是在写人、记事中插入景物描写。成功的景物描写所具备的效果是，读来如临其境，如闻其声，如见其形，如嗅其味，且寄情于景。

描写景物最忌的是观察不细，抓不住景物的特征。景物有远景和近景之分，也有静态和动态之别，正是这些特点决定了事物之间的区别。调动自己的感官，努力捕捉景物的色、形、声、味等方面独特而又细微的特点，是写景状物成功的前提。

其次忌语言表达上的欠火候。平时要注意观察事物的特点，用适当的语言描述出来，运用各种修辞方法，才能使文章形象生动，让人身临其境。

第三，忌为写景而写景，所描写景物总要赋予它思想感情。凡景语皆情语，一篇优美的文章只有渗透了作者的真情实感，才能更好地表达文章中心。

[关于中考作文景物描写的技巧

I have nine little goldfish. Eight goldfish are all orange and one is black. I like the black one best. We call it Xiao Hei. Its body is black. It has two big and round eyes, a small mouth, and a big tail. Though its very small, it swims fast.

I often feed them and change water for them. We are good friends.

过渡是文章段落之间的桥梁，在文章中，前后相邻的两层意思之间，不仅要有内在的联系，而且在相连的地方要彼此衔接，语气贯通，让读者思路能够顺利地从前者过渡到后者，而不致发生间隙或阻隔。过渡常用承上启下的段、句子或关联词语。例如《从百草园到三味书屋》一文，在“百草园”和“三味书屋”两大部分之间，有一个承上启下的段落，就是以段过渡的一个范例。

用过渡词语过渡

1、词语过渡的概念。什么是过渡词语?当文章的层次、段落之间意思的转换，并不复杂时，一般用其所长一个词、一个短语来过渡。词语过渡及句子过渡，统称“语句衔接。” “语句衔接”，是文章过渡的一种方法，是文章层次或段落之间的衔接转换。

3、、过渡词语的过渡方法常用的过渡词：

用连词：(因为、所以，因此等。)

用副词：(不过、固然等。)

用方位词：(以上、以下、此外等。)

用序数词：(首先、其次，第一、第二等。一、二、三等。)过渡短语：( 综上所述、由此可见、这样看来、总而言之 等。)

用关联词语： 1、总分关系的：分述如下、综上所述、总之 等。2、两段之间是转折关系的：后一段落常用：但是，反过来说。 3、两段是补充关系的：另外、还有 等。在意思有较大的转折时：用：然而、不过，至于，现在 等词过渡。

用时间、方位词语：如去年、今年，过去、现在(表示时间转换); 前面、后面，东、南、西、北等(表示地点转换)

4、〖词语过渡训练〗写作文

题目1：我站在鲜红的团旗下。提示：1、这是需要发挥联想的题目。2、要通过几个典型的事例，表述自已的成长过程。3、要注意语句衔接。

题目2：《——促使我进步》。提示：1、在半命题中可以填上:爸爸、妈妈、姐姐等。2、“促使”是题眼，“促使”的方法:或是言教，或是身教;可以是学习上的进步，也可写思想认识上的进步。3、要注意语句衔接。

导语：我们无法改变过去，却能用勤奋和智慧创造美好未来。亲爱的同学，你对未来的生活有着怎样的期待呢?下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的英语作文，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

请以“My life in the future” 为题写一篇短文，畅想字迹未来的学习、工作和生活。

要求：

1. 语句通顺，合乎逻辑，书写规范。60-80词。

2. 文中不得使用真实的姓名和学校名称。

参考范文：

My life in the future

My life in the future will be colorful and meaningful.

I’m going to be a good doctor after I graduate from the university. I believe I’ll bring my parents health and happiness. In my spare time, I’ll stay with my family. We’ll travel a lot and do lots of sports. I’ll also read as many books as I can for I want to improve myself. Even if I work, I will never give up studing.

I’m sure my dream will come true because of my hard work and the life in the future will get better and better.

【参考译文】

我未来的生活

我未来的生活将是丰富多彩的，有意义的。

大学毕业后我将成为一名好医生。我相信我会带给我的父母健康和幸福。在我的业余时间，我会留在我的家庭。我们会经常旅行，做大量的运动。我也会读尽可能多的书，因为我想提高自己。即使我工作，我也不会放弃学习。

我相信我的梦想会实现，因为我的努力和未来的生活会越来越好。