英语说明文写作方法有哪些(推荐20篇)

导语：小编给大家整理了小学生书信的写作方法，欢迎大家阅读~

亲爱的xx：

你好!......(此处写问候语)

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.(信件内容)

此致

敬礼!

你的xx：xxx

x年x月x日

①称呼：顶格，有的还可以加上一定的限定、修饰词，如亲爱的等。

②问候语：如写“你好”、“近来身体是否安康”等。独立成段，不可直接接下文。否则，就会违反构段意义单一的要求，变成多义段了。

③正文。这是信的主体，可以分为若干段来书写。

④祝颂语。以最一般的“此致”、“敬礼”为例。“此致”可以有两种正确的位置来进行书写，一是紧接着主体正文之后，不另起段，不加标点;二是在正文之下另起一行空两格书写。“敬礼”写在“此致”的下一行，顶格书写。后应该加上一个惊叹号，以表示祝颂的诚意和强度。 称呼和祝颂语后半部分的顶格，是对收信人的一种尊重。是古代书信“抬头”传统的延续。古人书信为竖写，行文涉及对方收信人姓名或称呼，为了表示尊重，不论书写到何处，都要把对方的姓名或称呼提到下一行的顶头书写。它的基本做法，为现代书信所吸收。

⑤具名和日期。写信人的姓名或名字，写在祝颂语下方空一至二行的右侧。最好还要在写信人姓名之前写上与收信人的关系，如儿×××、父×××、你的朋友×××等。再下一行写日期。 如果忘了写某事，则可以在日期下空一行、再空两格写上“又附”，再另起行书写未尽事宜。

作文的开头是非常重要的，它对理清思路、引出下文、凸现文章的中心，都有着重要的作用。开头要引人入胜，激发读者阅读的兴趣。文章记叙了同学们帮洗鼻血这样一件事，从而揭示了同学们互相关心，团结友爱，生活在集体中多么幸福这一中心。

作文开头的方法，还有很多，像引用法，叙事法，故事引入法，提出问题法等等，不同体裁，不同内容的文章要行选用不同的开头方法，即使是同一篇文章，也可以有不同的开头方法。你看，同样一篇文章就有不同的开篇方法。因此，一篇文章怎样开头，采用哪种方法，一定要从文章中心表达的需要出发，适应不同体裁的特点做到新颖明快，言简意赅。

俗话说，良好的开端是成功的一半，我们只要掌握作文开头的方法和技巧，联系实际，勤于练习，就能写好开头，为写好全文打下基础。

开头的方法很多，常见有：

1．开门见山法。

这种方法是文章一开头，就直入正题，把文章所要叙述的主要内容直截了当地交代出来，让读者一看就知道这篇文章描写的是什么人、什么事、什么活动。这种开头一下子就能吸引读者的注意力，而且还不会跑题。例如《课间十分钟》一文开头：

下课铃响了，同学们快步走出教室，到操场上参加自己喜欢的课间活动，校园里顿时沸腾起来。这个开头就点明了时间——“下课”，地点——“操场上”，人物——“同学们”，事情——“课间活动”。非常直截了当。

2．提示中心法。

这种方法是一开头就点明全文的中心，使读者对文章的中心思想有一个明确的了解，我们看看下面的开头。

“生活在集体中间是幸福的，两年前，我深深地体会到这一点。”

这是《生活在温暖的集体里》一文的开头，

3．描写引入法。

描写人物和景物来开头，这种方法就是描写引入法。描写人物就是在文章的开头，对人物的肖像、服饰、神态、等进行描写，以达到人物在读者面前树立一个鲜明形象的效果，描写引入法中还有一种是以描写景物来开头，也就是在文章的开头对故事情节所处的自然环境或社会环境必要的描写，以起到交代背景、渲染气氛突出中心的作用。

4．设置悬念法。

在写事的文章中，我们常常把事情的结果或文中的某个片段放在开头来写，以引起读者的疑问，然后再记叙事情的起因和经过，这种开头的方法叫设置悬念法。这种方法可以激发读者强烈的兴趣，如《智斗奸商》一文的开头写到的：放暑假的第二天旱上，我和表姐一块儿去买菜。走到菜场的北口，我就看前面很多人。我和表姐紧走几步，也围了过去……

5．对比法。

在文章的开头，把不同的人和事物或同一个人和事物的不同时间，不同方面的情况作对比介绍。运用对比法可以使描绘的形象更为突出，增强文章的表达效果，给人留下深刻的印象。

6．回忆联想法。

由人、事、景、物、等引起回忆，联想、引出下文，展开情节，这种方法就叫回忆联想法。运用回联想法开头，给人一种亲切，自然的感受。

7．对话开头法。

以人物的对话开头。这种开头起笔自然，往往给人以新鲜的感觉。采用对话的形式开头，一定要把对话写得精彩有意义，紧扣中心。

语文写作复习方法，就是要通过检视自己写作中的不足进行改进，来提高写作能力。下面这些指导，希望对同学们有帮助。

一、结合复习课文，纠正自己的作文弊病

不少同学复习课文，往往是孤立地记忆课文中的字词句和听老师讲解时写下的课堂笔记，不能把课文跟自己的作文挂起钩来。这样复习是不利于提高自己的写作能力的。如何把课文跟作文挂起钩来呢?

1、对比法

复习课文跟学新课文不同，因为课文都是熟的，每读一篇都很容易想到和它体裁相同、写法相似的其他题目。因而我们不妨把课本原先排列次序打乱，把类似的课文连到一起复习。这样便于对类似课文进行仔细比较，从而掌握这类文章的基本写作要领。再用这些课文跟自己的同类文章认真比较，就容易纠正自己文章的弊病，缩短自己作文跟范文的差距。

2、设想法

读课文，感到某个地方写得很好，就设想一下，假若让我写这篇文章，这个地方我将怎样处理呢?这样一边读，一边联系着自己的写作实际想法就会从范文中学到更多的东西。

当然，复习课文并非全为了提高作文能力，还有个学习有关知识，提高阅读能力的任务。这些就不具体说了。

二、系统总结自己作文中的经验教训

作文复习并非无本本作依据。都是在老师指导下写的，有些还是由老师认真批改、讲评过的。从这些作文中，大家既能总结自己的成功经验，又能总结出自己的失败教训。如果你时间充足，还可以挑选其中写得较好的文章，进行认真修改，编成一本自己写的“作文选”。这是很有意义的。由于回顾以往自己作文练习走过来的路子，从自己作文实践中把写各种常见文章的经验整理一遍，临场应考无论碰到哪种类型的题目，都容易中心有底，思考有路，这比猜题碰运气好多了。同时，升学之后继续练习作文，也容易提高的快。

三、归类整理自己作文中的错字病句

别看同学们作文每篇都有错字病句，但归纳起来无非下列几种类型：错字，有因增笔、减笔、误笔写错的。有因辨别不清而写成与之形相近、音相同、义相似的另一个字的;病句，有成分残缺的、重复罗索的、用词不当不合事理的，等等。这些错字病句，平日老师在批改、讲评中屡次指出过，但是有的同学硬是不注意。如能借总复习之机，把这些错字、病句一一抄出，按不同类型归并起来，容易引起自己的警惕，查明其产生的原因，防止它们再次出现。

在写记叙文的时候，我们要有条理性，先要想好先写什么，后写什么，小编收集了小升初作文叙事文具体写作方法，欢迎阅读。

在会写记叙文之前我们首先要学会怎么去记叙好一件简单的事情

一、要交代清楚事情发生的地点、时间;要把事情的经过、因果写明白。一件事，总离不开时间、地点、人物、事件、原因、结果等六个方面的内容，因此，只有把这些方面写清楚了，才能使别人明白你写了一件什么事。

然而，交代这六个方面内容不应该呆板，要根据文章的需要灵活掌握。时间、地点也并不是非要直接点明不可的，有时候可以通过描述自然景物的特征及其变化，将它们间接表示出来。

如“鸡喔喔叫了起来”，就是指天将亮了;“西边的太阳就要落山了”，指的是傍晚，等等。

二、要把事情经过写具体，并做到重点突出。在记叙文六个方面的内容中，起因、经过和结果，是构成事情最主要的环节。为了把事情写得清楚、明白，在记叙中一定要写好事情的起因、经过和结果，特别要把事情的经过写具体，给人留下完整而深刻的印象。

三、记叙的条理要清晰。一件事都有发生、发展和结果的过程，按照事情发展的顺序记叙，文章的条理就会清楚明白。

确定记叙的顺序以后，还要安排好段落层次。适当地分段，可以使文章眉目清楚。要做到记叙的条理分明，必须在动笔之前，仔细地想一想，文章应该先写什么，再写什么，然后写什么，把记叙的轮廓整理出来。

在写记叙文的时候，我们要有条理性，先要想好先写什么，后写什么，安排好记叙的顺序，不然就会头绪杂乱，条理不清。那么我们要怎么写才能让文章条理清楚呢

一、运用顺叙。

顺叙，是按照事物发生、发展的先后次序进行叙述。这样写，可以将事物的发展过程，有头有尾地叙述出来，来龙去脉，十分清楚。运用顺叙写成的文章，它的层次、段落和事物发生、发展的过程是基本一致的。

顺叙有以时间为顺序的，有以事物发展规律为顺序的，也有以空间变换为顺序的。在叙事性的文章中，大多是以时间为顺序和以事物发展规律为顺序的。

按时间顺序进行叙述时，必须严格地安排好顺序，写清楚叙述的时间。现实生活中任何事情都不会突然发生，它总有一个发生、发展的过程。因此，作者常常要根据事情发生、发展、高潮、结局这一事情发展的规律来进行叙述，文章的层次也是清楚、明了的。

当然，有的文章事情比较简单，因而不一定非要写出事情过程的四个层次(发生、发展、高潮、结局)。

二、运用倒叙。

倒叙，就是把事件的结局或某个最突出的片断提在前面叙述，然后再从事件的开头进行叙述。

需要指出的是，运用倒叙的写法，必须注意交代清楚倒叙的起讫点，顺叙和倒叙的转换处要有明显的界限、必要的文字过渡。这些地方处理不好，会使文章脉络不清，头绪不明，影响内容的表达。

三、运用插叙。

插叙是指在叙述中心事件的过程中，由于某种需要暂时中断叙述的线索而插入的关于另一件事情的叙述。

需要指出的是，在运用插叙时不能打乱原来的叙述线索，要注意与上下文的衔接。这样，文章的结构不仅富有变化，而且叙述事情的条理非常清楚。

下面小编为大家整理了一篇雅思写作技巧的相关信息，是关于间接表达法的。间接表达法这种在雅思写作技巧是用在这样的情况下的：有的时候，发言者为了充分地表达自己的观点，或者为了使自己的观点显得不偏激，会很委婉地表述观点。下面我们一起来看看。

间接表述观点

比如：

Well， I dont think you should start with the case study too early unless you have made full preparation or you might find you cant meet the deadline. However， it really is the best approach you can try to get peoples response though it is somewhat time-consuming. If you think you can spare your study time， just go for it.

第一句话出现dont think，转折词However引出了意思上大的转变，这里的it really is the best approach就是很大的一个转折，说明持支持的态度的。此外，最后一句话是总结性的观点，一句just go for it非常清楚地再次表示其支持观点。

间接观点表达：

Through observation study， you can just watch and take notes. And you can get some unforeseeable results from peoples behavior， but it can only cover certain aspects. Therefore， you need other research method to assist it. But you can try if you want.中立

“作文、作文，作得头疼。”怎样写作文呢？面对这个问题，相信无论对于国内的孩子还是我们这群海外的孩子都是一个大难题，一个困扰大家很久的大难题。但所幸的是，国内的孩子，面对写作文，即使再难也会七拼八凑地给你写上一大段。可怜的是我们这群海外的孩子，在缺少语言环境，缺少时间的情况下，又要让他们接触陌生的写作。这无疑又加重了他们学习的负担。这“写”吧，孩子犯难。不“写”吧，老师犯难。这学习语言哪有光听、读、说，不写之理。下面结合自己的教学经验，谈谈自己的点滴体会。

一、擦亮慧眼，从身边寻找作文材料

俗话说“巧妇难为无米之炊。”孩子们常常会在拿起笔写作文的时候，显得茫然不知所措。孩子们经常会抱怨着：“我没有东西可以写”，“我不知道该写什么”。在这时，老师的首要任务便是要帮学生找到习作的素材。针对不同的学龄水平，可以区别对待。例如教学中文教材第四册的班级中，针对孩子的年龄特点，我拿出了自己心爱的玩具猫，然后用已有的材料指导学生讲一段话，要求根据从头部到尾部的顺序讲清楚，让学生个个有话可说，让他们觉得作文原来并不难，只要把自己的看到的和感受写好就行了。此外在看图写话上，要求做到先来讲，后来写的过程。这样一来，一方面锻炼了学生的口头会话能力，一方面又帮助学生练笔。其实，文章的素材生活中处处都有，在高学年的班级里，就要求孩子自己去寻找作文的素材。如：郊外的旅行，学校举行运动会了，学校组织去工厂参观访问了……老师若能有意识地提前给学生辅导，学生当然能学会有目的地观察生活，去抓住生活中感人的镜头。因为这些材料来自大家熟悉的真人真事，同学们也自然而然地会从五彩缤纷的生活中去寻作文的源头。

二、利用范文，让孩子学会模仿学会创作

有了材料，不等于就能写出好的文章，写作文方法的指导是学生作文的拐杖，对于我们海外学中文的孩子们，我提倡学生模仿和借鉴范文。如今海外学中文的孩子们普遍存在着以下几个问题。

1、词汇缺乏。比如在写作时形容“开心”的事，通篇都是“开心”，没有考虑到别的形容词。

2、句子不通顺。在学习中我们的孩子们虽然掌握了一定量的词语和句型，但是在碰到写作时，运用这些词语和句型的时候，他们往往会先在脑海中构造一个日文的句式，然后把它翻译成中文。例如“书我读了”（正确是“我读了书”）、“我吃先”、“我走先”等（正确是“我先吃”、“我先走”）。

3、观察力不够，描写不深入。例如在写人物作文时，对描写人物特点时，没有举例具体说明，缺少人物的心理活动。

针对以上一些特征，如果选用一些同年龄孩子的佳作，印发给学生阅读，对文章中好的手法或好的构思作适当的评点。这么一来既增加了学生的阅读量，又给不会读书和写作的同学作一点指导。日积月累，他们自然会掌握不少新的形式。

三、多看、多读、多记，多积累

写作是一种创作。要写好作文的关键在于，观察积累，记忆储存；从说到写，推敲修改，多读勤写。在教学中，我建议学生们多多阅读，在条件允许的范围内，让学生多收集模范文章和剪报，抄写和背诵好词好句好段，让他们记熟和运用。熟能生巧，经过练习，笔头熟了，素材多了，写起文章来也就能得心应手了。海外孩子学中文不是一个简单的过程，但我相信只要下定决心肯学，一定能学好

1994.6

Directions:

For this part , you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: The Career I Pursue.

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

1994.1

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic We Need to Broaden Our Knowledge.

You should write no less than 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1. 科学技术是社会发展所不可缺少的

2. 社会科学和自然科学相互渗透

3. 现代大学生需要广博的知识

1993.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic My View On Opportunity. You must base your composition on the following instructions (give in Chinese):

有的人认为机会是极少的，另一些人则认为人人都会有某种机会。你的看法如何？

写出你的理由并且适当举例。在你的文章结尾处不要忘记写出你的结论。

Your composition should be no less than 120 words. Remember to write it neatly.

1993.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: Motorcycles And City Traffic. You should base your composition on the following outline (given in Chinese).

1.近年来中国城市的摩托车

2.摩托车的优点和缺点

3.你对我国城市中摩托车发展的前景的看法

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

1992.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic Looking Forward to the Twenty-First Century. Your composition should be based on your answer to the following question written in Chinese:

1.新世纪科技发展的前景如何？

2.新的科学技术会给社会带来什么好处？

3.新的科学技术会带来什么问题？

4.你怎样对待新世纪的挑战战？

Your composition should be no less 120 words.

1992.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the following graph which shows the change in the number of film - goers and TV - watchers in a certain city. The title of the composition is: Film Is Giving Way to TV. You should write no less than 120 words for your composition and it must include the following ideas (given in Chinese):

1.电影观众越来越少

2.电视观众越来越多，因为……

3.然而，还是有人喜欢看电影,因为…….

Quote as few figures as possible. Remember to write your composition in readable handwriting.

1991.6

Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the graph below.

The suggested Title is: Car Accidents Declining in Walton City. Remember that your composition

must be written according to the following outline:

1.Rise and fall of the rate of car accidents as indicated by the graph;

2.Possible reason(s) for the decline of car accidents in the city;

3.Your predictions of what will happen this year.

Your composition should be no less than 120 words and you should quote as few figures as

possible.

1991.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition about Man Is to Survive. You should base your composition on the following outline:

1.人类面临的问题（如能源，疾病，污染，人口等）

2.悲观的看法（如人类将无法生存）

3.人类的智慧出路

Your composition should be no less than 120 words. Be sure to write your composition in readable handwriting.

1990.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic: How to Solve the Housing Problem in Big Cities. Four suggested solutions to this problem are listed below. You are supposed to write in favour of one suggestion (ONE only) and against another (ONE only). You should give your reasons in both cases. You should write no less than 120 words. Remember to give a short introduction and a brief conclusion. Write your composition clearly.

四种可能解决住房问题的方案：

1.多造高层建筑

2.向地下发展

3.建造卫星城市

4.疏散城市人口

1990.1

Directions: For this part you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic How to Solve the Problem of Heavy Traffic according to the following OUTLINE. Your composition should be no less than 120 words. Remember that the contents of the OUTLINE should ALL be included in your composition. But you are not supposed to translate the OUTLINE word for word.

OUTLINE

问题：城市交通拥挤

解决方案（solution）

1.建造(lay down)更多道路

优点：(1) 降低街道拥挤程度

(2) 加速车流（flow of traffic）

缺点：占地过多

2.开辟（open up）更多公共汽车线路

优点：减少自行车与小汽车

缺点：对部分人可能造成不方便

结论：两者结合

2016六级写作突破笔记(七)

题型分类 (Classification of every essay):

一、第一种题型（对比观点选择题；Essay I）:

(一)题型特点：

1、 大多为三点提纲，提纲模式一般为：有一些人……；还有人……；我的看法或观点；

2、少数时候也会出现两点提纲的情况，此时可以补充成三点提纲来写作。

(二) 历年真题：

2000.6； 1999.6； 1998.6； 1997.6； 1996.1；1995.6；1993.6； 1993.1

二、 第二种题型（社会热点话题；Essay II）:

(一)题型特点：

1、 应该为三点提纲，但是通常以两点提纲出现的题目居多，所涉及主题为当时社会热点；

2、如果是两点提纲，则补充成三点提纲写作。

3、通常模式为：现象概述--细节（原因、危害、方式等）--自我评论

(二)历年真题：

2002.12； 2000.12； 2000.1； 1999.1； 1997.12； 1995.1；

三、第三种题型（图标题；Report; Essay III）:

（一）题型特点：

1、 以图表作为信息来源的写作模式

2、通常模式为：描述图表--解释原因--自我评论

（二）历年真题：

2003.6; 2000.6； 1996.6； 1992.1； 1991.6

四、第四种题型（书信题； Essay IV）:

(一) 题型特点：

1、写书信

（二）历年真题：

2001.6； 2002.1；

五、第五种题型（谚语格言题； Essay V）:

(一) 题型特点：

1、文章题目为一句格言或谚语

2、通常模式为：解释谚语--举例论证--画龙点睛

(二) 历年真题：

1997.1；

1999.1

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic. Dont Hesitate to Say "No"

You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1.别人请求帮助时，在什么情况下我们说"不"。

2.为什么有些人在该说"不"的时候不说"不"。

3.该说"不"时不说"不"的坏处。

1998.6

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic Do "Lucky Numbers" Really Bring Good Luck?

You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1. 有些人认为某些数字会带来好运。

2. 我认为数字和运气无关，……

1998.1

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic My View on Fake Commodities.

You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given on Chinese) below:

1. 假冒伪劣商品的危害。

2. 怎样杜绝假冒伪劣商品。

1997.6

Directions: For this part you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic My View on Job-Hopping

You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1. 有些人喜欢始终从事一种工作，因为…

2. 有些人喜欢经常更换工作，因为…

3. 我的看法。

1997.1

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic Haste Makes Waste. You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1. 为什么说"欲速则不达"。

2. 试举例说明。

1996.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the grouphs below.

Heaalth Gains in Developing Countries

Life Expectancy Infant Mortality

1996.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: Why I Take the College English Test Band 6, You should base your composition on the following outline (given in Chinese).

1.有人认为没有必要参加大学英语六级考试

2.我参加CET－6考试的理由

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

1995.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: Should Firecrackers Be Banned? You should base your composition on the following outline (given in Chinese).

1.有人认为放鞭炮是好事，为什么？

2.有人认为放鞭炮是坏事，为什么？

3.我的看法

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

1995.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: My View on the Negative Effects of Some Advertisements. You should base your composition on the following outline (given in Chinese).

1.现在有些不良的商业广告

2.这些广告的副作用和危害性

3.我对这些广告的态度

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

2016六级写作突破笔记(三)

典型的对比观点选择题的文章逻辑结构：四段比较好

（启）Paragraph I：（1）引出将要评论的事物或者是观点；可以用问句开头How should people ……

（2）简明扼要的提出人们在这个问题上的两种不同看法。

（承）Paragraph II：（1）提出一种观点或优点；

（2）本段的支持性分论点；

（3）本段总结（可以省略）。

（转）Paragraph III：（1）承上启下的过渡句；

（2）提出另一种观点或缺点；

（3）本段的支持性分论点

（4）本段总（可以省略）。

（合）Paragraph IV：（1）平衡两种看法；

（2）给出自己的观点。

④14分

How should we read? Should we read selectively or extensively? Everyone has his own view.（启）

注：1.第一句提出问题，第二句提出两种见解

Some people think we should read selectively. They argue that with the development of modern science and technology, more and more books are published. It is impossible for us to read all the books. Whats more, there are many bad books that are poisonous to our mind, and we shouldnt read them. Since we cant read all the books and we shouldnt read bad books, we must read selectively.（承）

注：1.本段总分总结构

2.they argue that = they think that

3.with the development of...

4.whats more 递进关系，moreover

But others may not agree, they emphasize that todays society is not what it was. If one man has many kinds of knowledge, he will have more chances to succeed. If a man knows much in one field but knows nothing in other fields, he may be useless. Since we must have many kinds of knowledge, we must read extensively.（转）

注：1.But 转折词

2.they emphasize that = they think that

3.todays society is not what it was 现代社会今昔非比

4.许多知识 a wide range of/a large scope of/much；获取知识 acquire/get knowledge

5.knows nothing→little；he may be useless→he may not be of great use to the society 后者比前者更委婉

Whos right? I think both of them have something right. But I think we should read extensively first. We should read books in many fields, and read selectively in one field.（合）

There is a lot to be said for both sides on the argument. But I hold the opinion that……

①11分

When it comes to reading, some people think that reading selectively is a good way, but some other people do not agree with them, they think that reading extensively is better.

Those people, who think that reading selectively is better, believe that good books are as many as bad books. Those good books can give us pleasure and knowledge, while those bad books can only lead us to the wrong way. So, they suggest that we should only choose the good books to read and never touch the bad books.

注：1."people, who"应去掉逗号，改为非限制定语从句。

2.they suggest that = they think that

3.touch 碰，闪光点词汇，如教材P7：shoulder the responsibility of doing sth. 肩负起责任

But, the other people, who hold that reading extensively is better, think that one kind of books can only give us one aspect of knowledge. Even the best book only contains one field of information. So, they can easily come to the conclusion that "to know more, to read more". So they believe that reading extensively is better.

To my point, we should choose good books to read and read good books as many as possible. By this way, we can increase the quality and quantity of reading.

实例二 99年6月真题

Reading Selectively Or Extensively?

Outline: 1.有人认为读书要有选择

2.有人认为应当博览群书

3.我的想法

①11分

When it comes to reading, some people think that reading selectively is a good way, but some other people do not agree with them, they think that reading extensively is better.

Those people, who think that reading selectively is better, believe that good books are as many as bad books. Those good books can give us pleasure and knowledge, while those bad books can only lead us to the wrong way. So, they suggest that we should only choose the good books to read and never touch the bad books.

But, the other people, who hold that reading extensively is better, think that one kind of books can only give us one aspect of knowledge. Even the best book only contains one field of information. So, they can easily come to the conclusion that "to know more, to read more". So they believe that reading extensively is better.

To my point, we should choose good books to read and read good books as many as possible. By this way, we can increase the quality and quantity of reading.

②5分

I think reading not only selectively but also extensively. Because the two sides are not contradict. Our time is limited. So we can not read every book in the world. However, we will not be interested in every book. We should read those books may be useful to ours, read those books which we like. But those books which we choose must be extensively so it can give ours all kinds of knowledge, news and so on, it also make ours become a wise man. On the one hand reading selectively let ours not waste our time which it is limited. Moreover it can emphasis among all books that we can read. On the other hand reading extensively can deal with all kinds of need in our life. They are all useful to ours.

失分原因：分段太少，语法错误太多

③2分

Most people thought that read books should have been selective. But others believed reading extensively was correction.

Selective books or reading extensively?

Sure, you can choice one from previous ideas,

on one hand, There are too book to read for us. We should choose those which we interested, and it would be helpful for us.

On another hand. Someones interesting was wide. Each book could bring you specific contain we couldnt reading at only one level.

I confirmed all of these ideas were good but werent wise.

As a reader, the main task is to discover more and more books the second task is to held some which wonderful and helpful for us. Dont treat these books with reckless abandon.

The best technology of reading is connect.

失分原因：分段太多，语法错误太多

④14分

How should we read? Should we read selectively or extensively? Everyone has his own view.

Some people think we should read selectively. They argue that with the development of modern science and technology, more and more books are published. It is impossible for us to read all the books. Whats more, there are many bad books that are poisonous to our mind, and we shouldnt read them. Since we cant read all the books and we shouldnt read bad books, we must read selectively.

But others may not agree, they emphasize that todays society is not what it was. If one man has many kinds of knowledge, he will have more chances to succeed. If a man knows much in one field but knows nothing in other fields, he may be useless. Since we must have many kinds of knowledge, we must read extensively.

Whos right? I think both of them have something right. But I think we should read extensively first. We should read books in many fields, and read selectively in one field.

⑤8分

Some people think reading shall be chosen. Because some books are good to human beings and some books are harmful to people.

Some people think that men should read books widely. Because wide reading can help man get much knowledge. And man can use it to change the world.

It is my point that reading must be selectively. Because reading is important to man. Some books can help man but some books can lead some people to crime. It can be seen in the newspapers and watched on TV. We can make full use of some good books and gain more useful knowledge. It can make our life more beautiful. We must give up those unhelpful books. They are not good to us. Reading them is wasting time and money. So reading selectively is an important part in reading.

失分原因：结构失调，表述方式单一

写作原则

内容简单化

结构模式化（主题句-分论点-总结）

语言要包装

错误要回避

万能理由 (Omnipotence)：

1、方便：convenient/convenience

2、效率：efficient/efficiently/efficiency

3、节省和浪费：save time/money/space; economical, thrift

waste time/money/space; costly, lavish

4：人的心理健康：independent, cooperative, competitive,

considerate, confident, creative, sociable,

perseverance; selfish, isolated, conservative

5、人的身体健康：health, disease, strong, strength, energetic

6、娱乐：colorful, pleasure, joy, recreation, entertainment, relax

tired, boring, lonely

7、环境：environment, pollute, poisonous, dirty

8、安全和危险：safe, danger, risk

9、经验：experience, social experience, enter the society

10、人际：humane, fair, unfair, help, assist, freedom, freely

基本表达(Basic Elements of English Writing)：

越来越：be increasingly + adj., be on the rise, the growing number of

人们认为：it is generally/widely believed/held/agreed that

许多问题：a host of/a number of problems

引起人们注意：claim call/attract general/public/world attention to sth.

意识到：there is a growing awareness/realization of/that, awaken sb. to the fact/danger

适应新的形势/变化：adapt/adjust/accommodate oneself to new environment/change

接触各种思想/经历：be exposed to new ideas/experiences/problems

接触社会：come into frequent/close contact with the world/society

获得成功：achieve/accomplish success

提出观点/建议：advance / put forward / come up with the arguments/ideas/suggestions

作出努力：make tremendous/persistent/sustained effort to do sth., take great pains to do(with work/study)

影响学习/工作：interfere with studies/work

产生影响：have/exert a profound influence on life/personality, have a dramatic/undesirable effect on

较好地驾驭生活：be a better pilot of ones life

剥夺机会/权力：deprive oneself of the chance/right/opportunity

取代就的方式：substitute for/take the place of the old way

采取措施：take effective steps/measures to

控制我们的环境：take/gain increasing control over our own environment

躲避危险/挑战：shy/run away from the dangers/challenge

满足要求：meet/satisfy/accommodate the demand of

补偿损失：compensate for/make up for the loss/damage

解释某现象：account for/explain the phenomenon

对……很好的了解：have a better understanding/appreciation of, have a new perspective on. provide/gain an insight into

把某因素考虑进去：take sth. Into account(consideration), give much thought to

品位人生/自由/青春：savor the life/freedom/youth

培养对……的信心：develop/foster ones interest/confidence in

经历变化/困难/艰险：undergo/experience great changes/hardships/experience

表现出自信心等：project ones confidence/feeling/image

生活充满不公正的地方：life is full of minor irritation/injustice

追求学习/职业：pursue ones academic interest/professional career

学习知识/技术：pursue/acquire knowledge/technology/skill

被看作学习的……榜样：be held up as a good example

交流经验/知识：share experience/ideas/problems/knowledge

发挥/起到重要作用：play an (important/active/great) role/part

逃学/缺课：skip school/a class/a meeting/a lecture

知识/经验丰富：rich in knowledge/experience

确立/追求目标：set/pursue a goal/higher standard

到达目标：achieve/accomplish/stain the goal/aim/objective

克服困难：overcome obstacles/difficulty

面临危险/困难：be confronted/faced with/in the face of danger/difficulty

阻碍了成功：stand in the way of success, be an obstacle/barrier to success/growth

阻碍了发展：hamper/impede/stunt the development of

持传统的看法：hold conventional wisdom

发表看法：voice/express ones opinion

持相反/合理的观点：take the opposite/fresh view

揭穿某种一贯的说法：shatter the myth of

求得帮助：enlist ones support/help

缩小差别：bridge/narrow/fill the gap/gulf (between city and country)

把成功/错误归咎于：attribute/own the success/failure to

对……重要：be indispensable/important/vital to

施加压力：put/exert a academic pressure on

重视：assign/attach much importance/significance to

强调：place/put much emphasis/stress/value on

把注意力集中在：focus/concentrate ones attention/efforts/thoughts upon

提供机会/信息：provide/offer/furnish an opportunity/information for sb.

抓住机会：grab/seize/take the opportunity

得到机会：enjoy/gain access to a opportunity/information

有可能：there is (little/much) possibility/likelihood that, chances/the odds are that

展开竞争：compete against/with sb. for the prize/position/control/the mastery of

开展运动：conduct(carryon/undertake/initiate/launch/wage) a (vigorous/nation-wide/publicity/advertising) campaign (for/against)

对我很有/没有什么意义：make much/little sense to me

带来无穷的幸福/满足：be a source of happiness satisfaction/contentment/pride/complaint

献身于：devote/dedicate/commit oneself to a cause/career

大不（没什么）两样：make much(little/no) difference

真正重要的是：what really matters/accounts is …

改变生活旅程：change/alter the course of life

建立在大量的学习/实践上：built on tremendous amount of study/practice

进行调查/执行任务：conduct/carry out an study/task/experiment

辞去工作/学习：leave/quit ones job/work/school

参加考试/竞赛等：enter (for) the examination/contest, race

参加活动/讨论：take part/participate/be engaged in sports/activities/discussion

影响思想/态度/事件的形成：shape ones thinking/attitude

进入大学/社会/家庭/劳力市场/职业：enter a school/college/society/the work force/professionals

实现自己的理想/愿望：realize/fulfill/achieve ones dream(hops/wish/desire)

减轻压力/紧张：reduce/alleviate/relieve the stress/pressure/tension

提高社会地位：enhance/improve/upgrade social status/position/standing rise to the position of leadership

提高技术/能力：sharpen (increase/improve/enhance/boost) ones skill/ability

加快/促进发展：accelerate/facilitate/advance/enhance/boost the development of

随着生活节奏的加快：with the quickening pace/rhythm/tempo of modern life/society

开阔眼界/兴趣：broaden ones interest/outlook, expand(broaden/enlarge) ones mental horizons

有助于了解/发展/宣传/解决：contribute much/little/greatly/to a better understanding of/the popularity of/the growth of/the solution of

有助于解决问题：go a long way to(towards) solving the problem

迷恋名利/分数：be obsessed/preoccupied with grades/fame/fortune

把时间花/浪费在：spend/waste time doing sth., put in hours doing sth.

利用机会/技术：make (full/better) use of/take advantage of opportunity/time, tap/harness technology potential/skills/talent

把知识/经验运用到…：apply/put the theory/knowledge/experience… to practice/daily life/good use

取得进步：make much progress/strides/gains in

充分发挥潜力/能力：develop ones ability/potential to the full, give full play to ones ability

充满激情/渴望：have a burning desire/a great passion for

在多年的雅思教学中，我发现学生在实际考试中面临着不同的写作障碍，影响了考试成绩，雅思考试中应该如何克服写作障碍。归纳起来大致有以下几个方面:

一、真情流露，无从下笔；

有的考生在考试时见到作文题，顿感思路塞车，好像有许多话要说，但又不知究竟应从那里写起。明智的做法是“投其所好、尽情发挥。”考生不妨把作文的要求量化到每一个段落，一篇250词左右的作文一般不会超过15句话，把这15句话根据题目要求分配到各段中去，每一段大概只说那么几句话，事实上往往是说得越多错误越多。因此，每句话紧扣提纲，见好就收,这才是最稳妥的对策。

二、心里明白，难以表达；

在考场上有的考生题目看得懂，提纲也明白，就是不知道该说什么，头脑里一片空白。这是在雅思写作考试中的一种常见的现象，针对这一现象，最有效的办法就是要善于联想到一些具体的事实，具体的例证和具体的现象。事实上，雅思的作文题目一定是一个具有社会普遍型话题，其目的是让不同教育背景的考生都有话可说。因此，考生一定能就题目联想起具体细小的事情再形成观点。把看得见摸得着的事物带来的思考变成作文里的实质内容，这不失为一种很好的策略。

因此，当头脑出现空白时，应该由具体细小的、琐碎的、微不足道的事物所引发的思考形成观点，再进行论述。这种定式思维的形成需要多下功夫多练习。

三、一味追求标新立异，导致无从下笔；

考试时通常发现有的考生聚精会神的坐在那里冥思苦想，非要想出一个与众不同的观点。陷入这种境地的考生，显然犯了一个根本性的错误，参考时间为40分钟的作文，一般应在35分钟之内完成,再用几分钟的时间检查语言错误。可有的考生十几分钟一句话都写不了，就是因为他太进入角色了，这是考试中一个很大的误区。

考作文的目的纯粹是通过这一命题形式，考查考生的英语水平如何，其它英语写作《雅思考试中应该如何克服写作障碍》。命题人关注的是书面表达能力，而不是看一个人有没有内容，思想有没有深度，所以“一味追求标新立异”是没有必要的。

四、构思、写作不统一，落实有困难；

实事求是的讲，要求考生完全运用英语思维来写作文是不现实的。很多考生在实际写作过程中，脑子里想的是中文句子，然后再把中文句子译成英文。因此采用“得其意，忘其形”的方法，忘掉中文的语法结构，句法形式则可能要整个地打乱.，“钻进去，跳出来”。所谓“钻进去”就是要看意思是否到位了，“跳出来”就是要忘记中文的语言形式。实际上把英文译成中文，关键是要在转换中把意思表达出来。

针对构思、写作不统一，落实有困难情况。必须摒弃翻译中追求一一对应的关系，并机械地把中文译成英文的方法，应该把中文句子结构彻底地忘记，然后用比较简单的“万能”英语表达。平时不妨做一做这样的练习，通过阅读不认识词条的英文注解，然后试着把单词译成中文词，再去对照英汉词典的汉语释义，慢慢地就会开始领会用英语表达的门道了。

五、被动心态压抑新构思。

尽管雅思考试作文为规定式命题，但考生仍可积极主动地发挥。其主动性在于采取回避的策略，表达上采取迂回的方式，即运用不很复杂的语言。内容的取舍上避重就轻地写比较易于表达的内容。很多人在写作过程中从头至尾都处于被动状态，当有内容想要表达清楚的时候，却又发现种种途径都不可能表达好，只好硬着头皮把自己意识到没把握的东西勉强写上去。连自己都意识到可能是错误的东西，只会产生于己不利的负面影响。所以，当有的内容感觉一点找不着，英语实在表达不清楚的时候，就应该彻底地放弃。单词拼写错误也是雅思考试作文写作的一大问题。常用单词是不能拼错的，有的单词平时会拼写，考试时突然没把握了，不妨换一下或许还能想起另外一个难度大一点、拼写有把握的来代替。应该回避明确知道自己不会拼写的词。如果没法换一个词，将句子改换一种说法亦未尝不可。有的考生在考卷上没把握的地方标上问号，或者把两种可能都写上，让判卷老师选择，这个方法是不可取的。

总之，不能让自己陷人被动，想说什么，用什么方式说。说多少，说到什么程度。一切都应由考生主动把握，这样才会减少心理上的压力，更好地发挥出自己应有的写作水平。

如何把作文写好一直困扰着各年级的学生，下面小编来给大家介绍提高写作的方法，希望对大家有帮助!

1.阅读优秀的作品：这是显而易见的，但立竿见影的方法。如果你不读更多的好作品，你就不知道如何写出更好的作品。优秀的作家都是从阅读别人的佳作开始，接着开始模仿，最后超越他们，形成自己的风格。尽可能的多读名著，在看内容的时候，更要留意文章的问题和写作的技巧。

2.尽可能多的写：每天都写，如果可能话，每天写几次。你写得多了，也就写得好了。学习如何写作和其他的学问道理是一样的，熟能生巧。写写你自己，写写博客，向出版社投稿。只是写，全情投入的写，练得越多，你的写作水平就提升得越快。

3.随时随地记下你的灵感：随身带一本小笔记本(纳博科夫身上装满了小卡片)，当你对你构思的小说，文章，或是小说里的人物有什么灵感的时候，马上记下来。当你听别人谈话时的只言片语而所有顿悟时，或看到一段散文诗或是一句歌词让你很感动时，都可以马上当他们记下来。灵感总是转瞬即逝，你及时的记录下来，便可以成为你写作的素材。我的习惯是，为我的博客要写的文章列一个清单，不断的补充它。

4.专门的写作时间：每天找一个没有任何打扰的时间段作为专门的写作时间，让这成为习惯。对我而言，清晨的时间是最佳的，午饭，傍晚，或者深夜的那段时间也可以。无论你是做什么工作的，把写作当作每天必须完成的任务去做。每天至少写半个小时，当然有一个小时更好。若你同我一样，是一个全职的作家，那么你需要写更多的小时，请你不要担心，这只会让你写得更好。

5.随便涂鸦：面对整张的白纸，整版的白屏，无从开始，肯定恐怖。你会想：我还是看看邮件或是小憩一会了吧!先生，千万别这样。马上开始写，马上打字，你写什么没有关系，只是让我听到你敲键盘的声音吧。只要你开始写了，什么都好办了。像我的话，我喜欢先敲上我的名字和文章的标题，这应该不难吧，然后再慢慢的展开情节，全身心地融入进去…关键是：开始可以随便写写，随便涂鸦，但是尽快开始写正文。

6.集中精神：写作是一件一心一意的事情，在嘈杂的环境或是同时干着别的事情，是不可能写好的。写作需要一个安静的环境，需要一点点柔和的背景音乐。即使是最低要求，你也需要在全屏(没有其他软件得干扰)的条件下，使用WriteRoom， DarkRoom，Writer这些写作软件，不受打扰的写作。关掉邮箱，关点MSN和Gtalk，关掉电话和手机，关掉电视，清理掉书桌上无用的东西。清除与写作无关的一切杂念，现在就是写作的时间，好像把自己放进一个盒子里，在没有任何打扰下进入写作状态。

7.先计划，再写： 这好像和“随便涂鸦”有些矛盾，实际上不是这样。在坐下来正式写之前，先做个计划或是脑子里先预演一下，这是非常管用的办法。每天跑步的时候想想要写的东西，或是散步的时间来个头脑风暴;然后把想到的记下来，做一个扼要的提纲;等真正准备好开始写了，可以很快的展开，因为思路和想法都有了。这里，有一个构思小说的三部曲，可以参考这个：Snowflake Method.

8.创新： 你需要模仿名家，这并不意味你要跟他们写得一模一样。你可以试试新的写法，从这里学一点，从那里学一点。渐渐地，你就会有了自己的风格，自己的文体，自己的思路。试试一些不一样的表达，或创造一些与众不同的表达方式，每一方法你都可以尝试，看看它到底怎么样，不好就不用呗。

9.修改： 你开始构思你的文字，然后试着写，让故事情节展开，最后你需要回过头再看看你都写了什么。这点很重要，很多写手一旦写好就不想修改，已经费时费力地写好了，还要再花时间修改，实在是一件吃力不讨好的活。但如果你想写得更好，你就要学会如何修改。好的作品是经过反复的推敲和修改而成的，这会让你的作品从平庸中脱颖而出。看看你写的东东，不仅仅是那些拼写和语法错误，还有那些无意义的词，混乱的结构，和让人搞不懂的句子。修改的目标是：更清晰，更直接，更鲜活。

10.简明扼要： 这是你在修改的过程中，最重要的一件事情。一句句，一段段的修改，把无关主题的统统都删掉。一个短句比一段冗长的废话更具说服力，大白话比晦涩的专业术语更受欢迎。记得：简单就是力量。

11.富于感染力的句子：在短句中使用富有感染力的动词，当然，并没有要求每一句都是这样，你需要变化。但是，多试试能够吸引人的句子。而且，你没有必要等到你要修改的时候再用，你刚开始写的时候就要考虑这个问题。

12.获取别人的反馈： 闭门造车不会有任何进步，让别人读读你的文章给你回馈，最好有经验的作家和编辑。他们见多识广，会给你很中肯和有见地的建议。认真的听，即使是一些批评，也接受它，忠言逆耳，这样只会让你写得更好。

13.是骡子还是马，拉出来溜溜：就你而言，你需要让别人读到你的作品。你的作品不是你想谁看谁就看的，让所有的人都读到你的文章。你就要出版自己的书，发表自己的短篇小说和诗歌，给出版社供稿。如果你已经开始写博客了，恭喜你，这是一个好的开始。若现在还没有人浏览过，你就需要把它放到流量更大的博客服务网站上去，让读者给你留言，给你提出建议。所有的人都会看你写东西，也许刚开始时会是件伤脑筋的事情，但这是每一位作家成长的必由之路，马上发表你的文字吧。

14.采用对话式的文体： 很多人的写作都很正式，但是我发现像我们说话一样写作会使文章更流畅(没有叹生词)。这样一来，读者看起来会更舒服。刚开始这么写并不容易，你需要坚持这么做。也许，会带来另一个问题，为了读起来更口语化，你需要打破一些语法规则(就像我的前一句那样)。因为如果生搬硬套语法，会让你的文章看起来很不自然。若没有其他原因，就不要破坏语法规则。你需要知道你在做什么和为什么这样做。

15.好开头和结尾： 开头和结尾是文章的重点。特别是开头。如果你不能在故事的开始就吸引读者，那他们就很难有耐心把整篇文章读完。所以投入更多的时间去考虑怎么写好开头，读者一旦对你开头感兴趣，他们会想知道得更多…写好开头后，再弄一个精彩的结尾，这会让读者更加期待你的下一篇佳作。

记叙文以叙事为主， 记叙文以叙事为主，我们要把事情发 生的经过， 生的经过，时间、 时间、地点、 地点、人物写清楚。 人物写清楚。

还有就是对这些事情的态度和看法。

还有就是对这些事情的态度和看法。

写谁(作文对象) 发生在活动场 写谁(作文对象)：发生在活动场 地的竞赛、劳动、爬山等事情。 地的竞赛、劳动、爬山等事情。

写什 竞赛 等事情 么(作文目的)：反映作者对这些事情 作文目的) 的态度和看法。 的态度和看法。

怎样写： 怎样写：通过一件事或几件事说 明作文的目的。 明作文的目的。

写法：叙述事件，还可以在事件 写法：叙述事件， 中进行有效的肖像、语言、心理、 中进行有效的肖像、语言、心理、动 肖像 作、细节描写。

注意事项：作文过程 细节描写。注意事项： 中，必须坚持始终要与所写这些事情 的态度和看法相联系。 的态度和看法相联系。

一、交代清楚事件发生的时间、 交代清楚事件发生的时间、 地点、人物、起因、经过和结果， 地点、人物、起因、经过和结果，即 六要素。一件事总离不开这六要素 六要素。一件事总离不开这六要素， 把这方面写清楚了， 把这方面写清楚了，才能使读者了解 事件的来龙去脉。 事件的来龙去脉。

二、要围绕作文的中心选择事 件，要选择最能表现作文中心思想的 事件做为材料， 事件做为材料，生活中有不少新鲜有 趣和激动人心的事。因此， 趣和激动人心的事。因此，我们平日 要多观察，多想生活中遇到的事。 要多观察，多想生活中遇到的事。选 材要新颖，在别人的作文中常出现的 材要新颖， 事要少写或不写， 事要少写或不写，这样写出来的作文 才有吸引力，有新鲜感。 才有吸引力，有新鲜感。

三、事件的主要部分要写具体。 事件的主要部分要写具体。 每件事都有起因、 每件事都有起因、经过和结果这样一 个过程，只有把这个过程写清楚， 个过程，只有把这个过程写清楚，给 读者的印象才能完整而深刻。

读者的印象才能完整而深刻。在事件 中要进行有效的肖像、语言、心理、 中要进行有效的肖像、语言、心理、 动作、细节描写，这一点很重要， 动作、细节描写，这一点很重要，这 样写出来的作文才生动。 样写出来的作文才生动。要突出中 心，详略得当，与主题无关的事不写 详略得当。

例文： 一次难忘的经历

那天是我的生日，爸妈带我去购 天是我的生日礼物。出来的时候看到几十个人围在路边，天生喜欢看热闹的我便不自觉挤 到了人群中—— 到了人群中—— 啊，原来是一位乞讨者。

她衣衫褴褛，满头银丝，她露在嘴唇外面牙齿参差不齐的裸 露在嘴唇外面，左眼失去了光彩。跪在地上，嘴中呢喃着，仿佛在说：求求你们可怜可怜我， 给我几块钱 吧，我已经好几天没吃东西了。

我已经好几天没吃东西了。 看到这里我毫不犹豫地拿出十块钱，刚要给她，手却又收了回来， 十块钱，刚要给她，手却又收了回来， 因为我看到她面前的铁罐里只有几毛钱。看看围观的人群，人们无动于衷毛钱。看看围观的人群，人们无动于衷观看的人群，只是好奇地看着她，并且指指点 只是好奇地看着她，指指点点议论纷纷，好可怜啊， “指指点点议论纷纷 ，好可怜啊， 快点救救 她啊! 她啊! ”“给她些钱吧! 给她些钱吧! ”

“ 甚至有几个年轻人说 Ho,my God! 好恐怖啊，快点走! ” 好恐怖啊，快点走!说给钱的却也不给钱，说走的却也不走，只是围在那里看着……我厌恶的看着这群围观的人，心里 鄙视他们： “ 鄙视他们：难道你们连一块钱也拿不出来吗?”却不知自己把钱收回的 那一刻，已经和他们一样了。

这时，挤进来一个小男孩，满脸的 天真稚气，摇着手，把一块钱硬币丢 入了她的钱盒里， 入了她的钱盒里，硬币与铁盒相撞发 出清脆的响声……这声音在人群中荡开去，人们不再议论纷纷，人群一下子安静下来，大家纷纷开始从身上掏钱……

我也掏出身上所有的钱悄悄放入铁盒 中……

感谢这个小男孩 ， 这清脆的响声，不经唤醒了麻木的人群，也涤荡了人们的灵魂，抚慰了人们即将冷漠 的心灵。

多长时间过去了这响声还时 常回荡在我耳边，激励着我： 常回荡在我耳边，心怀悲 悯，与人为善……

怎样写好文章 古人说： 凤头，猪肚，豹尾。 ( “ 古人说： 凤头，猪肚，豹尾。”

元 朝陶宗仪《南村辍耕录》 朝陶宗仪《南村辍耕录》中引乔梦符 的话)意思是要重视文章的开头， 的话)意思是要重视文章的开头，设 计一个好的开头会使文章增加色彩， 计一个好的开头会使文章增加色彩， “凤头”的意思是“美”。

要美，不 凤头”的意思是“ 要美， 能单纯认为就是词藻美，语句美， 能单纯认为就是词藻美，语句美，而 是能抓住读者， 引人入胜， 这也是美。 是能抓住读者， 引人入胜， 这也是美。

开头引入的要求是切题， “ 开头引入的要求是切题 ， 美 ” ， 吸引读者。 吸引读者。

渲染就是能用简要的语句 将其意突出，抓住读者， 将其意突出，抓住读者，正如李渔在 《闲情偶寄》中说“以奇句夺目，使 闲情偶寄》中说“以奇句夺目， 之一见而惊，不敢弃去。 之一见而惊 ，不敢弃去 。

当然这是 ” 写诗的要求， 写诗的要求，写文也如此， 写文也如此，不是“奇” 不是“ 而是真， 逼真” 如同在眼前。铺垫 而是真， 逼真” 如同在眼前。 “ ， 就是做些必要的铺陈和垫衬 引入、渲染、铺垫的方式很多， 引入、渲染、铺垫的方式很多， 如： 交待环境，引入人物、事件。 交待环境，引入人物、事件。

如 《孔乙己》 孔乙己》 点出所写的对象、 点出所写的对象、人、事。如《我 的老师》 的老师》 开门见山，点明题旨，交待写作开门见山，点明题旨， 动机。 《一件珍贵的衬衫 动机。如《背影》 一件珍贵的衬衫》 背影》 一件珍贵的衬衫》 《 解题，为全文奠定感情基调。 解题，为全文奠定感情基调。

如 《白杨礼赞》 白杨礼赞》 紧扣叙事，直抒胸臆。 紧扣叙事，直抒胸臆。如《谁是 最可爱的人》 最可爱的人》 描写环境，渲染气氛， 描写环境，渲染气氛，为情节发 展作铺垫， 如 多收了三五斗》 《故 、 展作铺垫， 《多收了三五斗》 《故 乡》 设置疑团， 制造悬念， 引人入胜。 设置疑团， 制造悬念， 引人入胜。

结尾要引出、照应、 升华， 结尾要引出 、 照应 、 升华 ， 就是 把读者从具体的事件、人物中引出， 把读者从具体的事件、人物中引出， 使记叙完整， 使记叙完整，并把读者引回更为广阔 的社会现实中， 的社会现实中 ， 引向更为深远的境 界 。古人说“豹尾” 就是结尾要有 古人说“ 豹尾” ， 画龙点睛” 有精神， 力 ，且 “画龙点睛 ” 有精神， 有神 ， 采，就是余味无穷，发人深思，给读 就是余味无穷，发人深思， 者以精神境界或思想认识上的飞跃 提高。这就是升华。 提高。这就是升华。 结尾引出、照应、升华的方式 结尾引出、照应、 很多， 很多，如：自然收束，回味无穷。

如 自然收束，回味无穷 《小桔灯》、《背影》 小桔灯》、《背影》 》、《背影富有感染力的抒情。 富有感染力的抒情。如《谁是 最可爱的人》 最可爱的人》 含蓄深刻带有启发式，发人深思。 含蓄深刻带有启发式，发人深思。 如《荔枝蜜》、《故乡》、《多收了 荔枝蜜》、《故乡》、《多收了 》、《故乡》、《 三五斗》 三五斗》 呼应开头，点明主题。

呼应开头，点明主题。如《一件 小事》、《一件珍贵的衬衫》 小事》、《一件珍贵的衬衫》 》、《一件珍贵的衬衫 古人讲究“首尾圆合”，“首句 标其目， 卒章显其志。 (白居易 ” 《新 乐府序》“标其目”就是揭示文章的 题旨。 “卒章”就是文章结尾。 “志” 就是主旨。 强调开头夺目， 结束升华。 清朝李渔《闲情偶寄》中“务使开门 见山，不当借帽覆顶”，形象地说明开头不应该把“山”，题旨遮挡住。 宋朝沈义父《乐府指迷》中强调“结 句须要放开， 含有余不尽之意。 “须 ” 要” 必须要放开， 结尾要 “长留余味” ， 要响亮，像唐朝白乐天《金针诗格》 中说 “落句欲似高山放石， 一去不回。

一.概念

记叙文也称叙述文，是一种以记叙/叙述的手法来表述人物、事件的文体。常见的属于记叙文文体的作品有：故事、游记、通讯、新闻报道、历史、 人物传记、日记和回忆录等。记叙文大致可以分为两大类：以记人为主的记叙文和以叙事为主的记叙文。前者主要是对人物的经历、活动或者性格特征进行叙述;后者则是对某一事件的发生、发展过程和结果进行叙述。前者重在描述人物的活动，而后者则重在表述事件的发生发展过程。

二.六大要素

记叙文的写作要注意交待清楚六大要素，即时间(time)、地点(place)、 人物( character)、事件的原因(cause)、经过(process)和结果( effect)。

由于记叙文中所涉及的要素比其他文体相对要多、要复杂，所以整篇文章的结构安排就显得尤其重要，安排不合理就会使读者产生混乱的感觉。

记叙文的展开一般都是以时间为主线来组织所要叙述的内容，使读者对文章中的人物或事件有一个比较清晰的了解。记叙文的结构安排通常有三种形式:正叙、倒叙和插叙。正叙是英语叙述文中最常用的一种结构，即以人物出现、活动或事件开始发生的时间点作为记叙的起点，然后按照人物活动的展开、事件发生发展的自然顺序进行叙述。倒叙则是在文章的开头就交待人物活动或事件发展的结果。插叙这一结构在我们的英文写作中很少用到。

三.时态

记叙文讲述的大多是过去已经发生的活动或事件，因此用过去时态(一般过去时、过去进行时、过去将来时、过去完成时)的作品比较多。但有时为了使文章显得更加真实、亲切和生动，也可以使用现在时态(一般现在时、 现在进行时、现在将来时、现在完成时)。

四.人称

记叙某个人物的经历、活动或某件事情的经过离不开叙述的主体，即 “人称”。记叙文中的人称大多采用第一人称或第三人称的形式。第一人称的叙述主观色彩较浓，可以增强文章的真实感，有利于表述细腻的情感和细节的过程;第三人称的叙述可以超越时空的限制，更加真实、客观地表述某一人物活动或事件的全过程。

无论采用第一人称，还是采用第二人称，都要保持全文叙述主体的人称的一致性。注意：句式尽量要多变，不要通篇文章的句子都以人称代词开头，否则文章会显得单调沉闷。例如: I loved the book first because of its beautiful heroine. Then I found it a romantic love story which greatly moved me. I now find that it is better taken as the growth story of a naive girl into a strong-willed woman. I realize that it is the essence of the book that attracts such big number of faithful readers.

这一段描述在用词、内容、逻辑上都不错，但过多地使用了以“I”开头的句子，使文章略显单调乏昧，给读者的印象大打折扣。

五.措辞与表达

在全国大学英语四级考试的各种作文体裁中，记叙文需要应试者具有更全面的语言技能与篇章组织能力。四级考试中常见的议论文和说明文分别要求语言的准确性和论证的合理性、可信性;而记叙文的语言则以生动、真实、 贴切为准则。同一个记叙文题目，不同的人会描述不同的人物经历或事件，又很少有固定的表达或句式可供参考，这时作者的综合语言水平就会表现出来，对能否取得高分起到了相当重要的作用。 这就要求考生平时要多注意语言的磨练和积累。

六.记叙文写作技巧

1. 仔细审题，明确主题，选准素材，罗列提纲。

2. 写好第一段

最好能采用一个复句并且用上几个四级水平的单词或词组。这样的文章开篇方式会使读者或阅卷人确信接下来的文章也一样精彩。

我们来看这样一段文章的开头:

The results of the college entrance examination came. I tore open the envelope. As soon as I saw the score，tears streamed down my face. I fell into my bed and did not get up the whole day. All was over. What is the meaning to live on earth? For the first time， I thought of death， of being a vagrant and of being single all my life. I was only seventeen. Wasn’t it cruel to me? My father was hurt and he could not stand it that his son was a disgrace. He was angry beyond words. My mother kept silent，and often I saw her in tears. Horror filled the house.

怎么样，你自己是否也被一种失落与绝望的气氛所笼罩，并且期待着看到作者接下来会做些什么呢?

3. 结构要清晰

下笔之前一定要对整篇文章的结构有一个完整的构想，作文的框架、主题和脉络是最重要的采分点。要清楚每一段要陈述哪些内容，这样不仅可以增强文章的逻辑性和可接受性，还可以使整篇作文的行文水到渠成，不会有凑字数的烦恼。

4. 尽量多使用表示转折、顺接、因果和时间的连接词

如first、second、moreover、for one thing…for another、on the one hand…on the other hand等。这样既可以显示语言功底，又增强了记叙内容的连贯性和生动性。

5. 文章不要写得太长

有的考生遇到触动自己内心情感的记叙文题目时就“一发不可收拾”，但由于时间有限，结果草草收尾，甚至没有结尾。四级作文毕竟是应试作文， 只要充分发挥出自己的英语语言水平，表述出所规定的内容就可以了。

6. 要多用四级词汇，要使句式多样化

没有语言错误并不是高分作文的保障(基本没有语言错误只是8分的基本要求) ;作文想达到11分以上，四级词汇和句型必须达到一定的比例。如，表示“重视”的词汇有stress，emphasize等，但选用短语attach importance to更能吸引阅卷人的注意;disagree和frown on sth. 都表示反对或不赞成，前者就平淡，后者表达意思很生动，更能引起阅卷老师的注意。

简单句和复合句合理搭配，长短句交替使用，会增强文章的节奏感，使描写更生动，给阅卷老师留下深刻印象。如：

(1) 名词化手段：用名词或名词词组替换一个句子或句子的主要部分，然后使这个名词或名词短语成为另外一个句子的组成部分，以达到合并句子的目的。如：

We were very much surprised. Mary refused the invitation.

We were very much surprised at/by Mary’s refusal of the invitation.

(2) 定语化手段：根据语义关系，可以把其中一句转换成形容词或形容词性成分、分词短语、定语从句等，如：

The winnerwas in no mood for speeches. The winner was hot and tired.

Thewinner，hot and tired，was in no mood for speeches.(转换成形容词短语) 7. 字迹清楚，卷面整洁。尽量不涂抹。 8. 最后的2—3分钟，进行修改检查。

检查的内容不是“大处着眼”，而是“小处着手”;不是考虑作文的框架结构，而是留心细枝末节。

“书写规范，标点正确”属于文面问题，是文章内容的视觉化。在考场作文中，文面的好坏会给阅卷教师留下非常重要的第一印象，一定要引起充分的重视。

(一)达到基本的书写要求。有些考生认为反正自己的字不美，因而放弃了书写要求。其实只要稍加注意，就能使文面提高一个档次。不求书法之美，但求字字端正;不求遒劲有力，只求笔笔清楚。忌写连笔字，忌写细长不稳定的字，忌忽大忽小，忌挤扭成团;字形大致统一，笔画少的字也不要挤在一起。

(二)不用修改液。使用修改液，虽然改掉了一个字，却在文面上留下了污迹，再补上的字往往字道加粗，字迹不清，弄得脏兮兮的一片，影响文面整洁。

(三)不用浅色笔书写。纸白色浅，对比度不强，即使是好字，也显不出良好的文面效果。特别是浅圆珠笔写出来的字，细软无力，难以辨认。建议考生用纯蓝墨水书写(不宜用炭素墨水，因为容易污损文面)。

(四)正确使用修改符号。文章尽量少修改，非改不可，要使用规范的修改符号，并讲究修改的位置。即使是加在上下左右边框处的修改文字，也应整整齐齐，给人眉目清楚之感。修改时画出的线条能直勿斜，能少勿多，切忌横竖交叉呈蛛网状，更忌随意涂画。

(五)熟练使用标点符号。具体应注意：第一，熟悉各种标点的用法，注意标点的位置，比如不在一行之首出现句号、逗号、问号、顿号、分号，可以将这些标点放在上—行的末尾;省略号、破折号占两格，不要简化成占一格，也不能断开，等等。第二，不能随意加标点，比如一个逗号到底，或者句号只是一个黑点。第三，注意停顿的层级，比如由短到长的停顿，依次用顿号、逗号、分号和句号。

(六)掌握基本的行款格式。主要包括：(1)每段开头空两格。(2)一篇800多字的文章，分四到六段为宜。人物对话可分行书写。(3)写书信类记叙文，要注意书信的行文格式。①称呼：第一行顶格写，后面用冒号。“称呼”用语可视收信人身份而定。②正文：另起一行空两格写。一般先写问候语(如“您好”)，再写主要内容。③结尾：写祝颂语。这类用语应根据对方的身份、职业、写信的时令等而定。“此致”等可写在正文末尾，也可另起一行空两格写;“敬礼”“夏安”等要另起一行顶格写。④署名：写于另起一行的偏右处。亲朋好友之间写信，可在署名前写上与“称呼”相应的自称。⑤日期：写在署名下一行的右边。(4)要有统一的有层次的序号。一般来说，最高层序号用一、二、三;第二层次序号用(一)、(二)、(三);第三层次用1、2、3;第四层次用(1)(2)(3)。(5)标题写在第一行居中位置，副标题前要加破折号。

(七)准确控制字数。高考评卷中，我们经常见到两种情况：一是字数不够800字，按评分标准，每少50个字就要扣1分。实际上，字数不够往往会被认为内容单薄，分数很难上档次。二是字数太多，洋洋洒洒千字以上，给人以臃肿的感觉，对此阅卷者也会反感。

议论性的散文应该怎么开头才能吸引读者呢？以下是小编整理的议论散文写作的开头方法，欢迎参考阅读!

1．比喻入题，直接扣题 。

“理智和情感是人类生活中的两只脚印，人类在认知事物的道路上的每一次成长都和他们的理智及情感有关。”《天平和七弦琴》解说：将理智和情感比作是人类生活中的两只脚印，首句入题，就形象地点出了情感与理智的内在关系——情感与理智对认知具有重要的影响。这样的开头，入题迅速，闪烁着思辨的色彩，令人耳目一新。

2．拟人入题，激发想像 。

“在蝶的眼中，花是天使，因为花给予她生命的甘露；在花的眼中，蜂是挚友，因为蜂给予她生命的延续。然而在蝶眼中，蜂不过是埋头苦干的笨蛋，在蜂眼中，蝶不过是游戏花间的浪子。” 《学会历史的旁观》）解说：文章开头赋予蝶、蜂、花以人的性情，连物都会带着情感的眼光来评价、认知事物，更何况是情感丰富的人？通过生动贴切的拟人手法，将话题的内在含义巧妙点出，不仅唤起了人们对美好事物的相关联想，更体现了作者的睿智。

3．设问入题，启人深思 。

“人有七情，自有喜好与厌恶之情，然而，当这种好恶之情掺入对真理的认识时，又会有怎样的影响呢？”《勿以好恶论断之》）解说：一起笔就紧扣情感与认知，以一种假设将读者的思维引向对本质问题的思索，文章的立意显得十分深刻。这样的入题方式，将设问的修辞作用发挥得淋漓尽致，简洁，却分量十足。

4．排比入题，先声夺人 。

“你会因喜爱北国的皑皑白雪，而对南国的椰树海风不屑一顾吗？你会因沉迷于江南的小桥流水、青瓦白墙，而否定西北‘大漠孤烟’的美吗？你会介意林黛玉‘使性子’，而不看经典名著《红楼梦》吗？你会钟情流行音乐，而厌烦‘沉闷乏味’的古典音乐吗？——古希腊哲人曾说，人是感情的动物。因此，面对大千世界，感情上的亲疏远近、喜好憎恶往往会影响到对人对事的看法。相信每个人的心中都会有架天平，有个自己的标准，用来衡量周遭的一切。”（《心中的天平》）解说：优雅的语言、和谐的音节、丰富的形象还不足以触动你的情感吗？还不足以让你在美的品味中恍然大悟“原来对美的感知，对人对事的看法，都是要受到心中那架天平的影响”吗？

5．抒情议论入题，入情入理 。

“ 常常是一位亲人的生命如流星般陨落，我们才悲哀于死神的无情；常常是一位朋友在与疾病殊死斗争，我们才诅咒病魔的猖獗横行；常常是我们自己的利益受到了侵犯，我们才正视社会上的毒瘤......感情的叶片时常遮挡住我们理智的目光。”（高考优秀作文《放下感情的叶片》）解说：这样的语言是不是很容易唤起你的共鸣？这样的开头，既饱含着深厚的情感，又折射出理性的色彩。如此入情入理的文字，引导我们触摸到了这样的本质——“感情的叶片时常遮挡住我们理智的目光”。

6.名言警句入题，彰显底蕴 。

“人是有感情的，正如古语所说的‘人非草木，孰能无情。故而，在认知事物时便不自觉地附着了浓浓的个人情感。于是有了‘情人眼里出西施’的缠绵，有了‘感时花溅泪’的悲戚。（《怎一个“情”字了得》解说：文章开头即紧扣住一个“情”字，在三句话中嵌入了三句有关情感的名句，显示出了考生较为扎实的写作功底和文学底蕴。

7．对比入题，表明立场 。

“有时候，感情是一剂善变的药，融在爱人的酒杯中，苦涩里也能品出甘润；有时候，感情是一把双刃剑，握在敌人的手里，纵轻轻挥下也觉得伤痕累累。”（《真情诚可贵 理智价更高》）解说：感情既是能化苦涩为甘润的“善变的药”，又是可以带来累累伤痕的“双刃剑”。精致的比喻将情感的两重性揭示出来，构成巧妙的对比，非常形象地点出了文章的中心：真情诚可贵，理智价更高。

8．假设情景入题，埋下伏笔 。

“如果你正赶时间，可是走到路口却被人告诉前面过不去。如果这个人是你认识的人，你会怎么办？如果这个人是陌生人，你又会怎么办？”《不要和陌生人说话》）解说：是啊，假如遇到这种情景，我们该怎么办？是从感情亲疏的角度出发，对所认识的人相信多一点，对所不认识的人相信少一点，还是反过来？假如其他类似的情景，又该怎么办？很自然地，我们便顺着作者的思路追寻下去，去看看作者预设的答案到底是什么。

9．品评时事入题，追踪本质 。

ApEC让全世界刮起了‘唐装热’。看着那不同肤色、不同国籍的人们着一身相同的唐装时，我不禁呐喊，我爱唐装！曾经，这样的传统服装让国人排斥，单调乏味，不及洋装轻便舒适，人们抱怨过，人们责难过，穿着这样的衣服甚至让他们羞愧，我不禁要问：一件衣服，有那么多过错吗？我看是感情在作祟吧！”（《我爱唐装》解说：直接以ApEC会议引起的“唐装热”入题，联系对唐装前后情感态度的不同，引出了对本质的追问——衣服自然不会有对错，错的是人们的情感和认知。假如能在入题时用时事材料来紧扣话题，通过品评时事来追踪本质，你的作文的开头就也能带着几分新鲜，闪烁着几缕智性的光芒。

从以上的例子就可以看出，这些精巧的开头并非只是简单套用某种入题的技巧才显示出新意来，而是结合了几种或多种技巧，并且，从优秀考场作文的开头中，我们可以感受到的是这些考生驾驭语言的能力和良好的语文素养，这才是他们获高分的根本原因。

下面是小编为大家整理的毕业论文写作方法。欢迎阅读，希望文章对大家有帮助!

一、毕业论文写作意义

1、撰写毕业论文是检验学生在校学习成果的重要措施，也是提高教学质量的重要环节。大学生在毕业前都必须完成毕业论文的撰写任务。申请学位必须提交相应的学位论文，经答辩通过后，方可取得学位。可以这么说，毕业论文是结束大学学习生活走向社会的一个中介和桥梁。毕业论文是大学生才华的第一次显露，是向祖国和人民所交的一份有份量的答卷，是投身社会主义现代化建设事业的报到书。一篇毕业论文虽然不能全面地反映出一个人的才华，也不一定能对社会直接带来巨大的效益，对专业产生开拓性的影响。实践证明，撰写毕业论文是提高教学质量的重要环节，是保证出好人才的重要措施。

2、通过撰写毕业论文，提高写作水平是干部队伍“四化”建设的需要。党中央要求，为了适应现代化建设的需要，领导班子成员应当逐步实现“革命化、年轻化、知识化、专业化”。这个“四化”的要求，也包含了对干部写作能力和写作水平的要求。

二、毕业论文写作要求

(一)论文——题目科学论文都有题目，不能“无题”。论文题目一般20字左右。题目大小应与内容符合，尽量不设副题，不用第1报、第2报之类。论文题目都用直叙口气，不用惊叹号或问号，也不能将科学论文题目写成广告语或新闻报道用语。

(二) 论文——署名科学论文应该署真名和真实的工作单位。主要体现责任、成果归属并便于后人追踪研究。严格意义上的论文作者是指对选题、论证、查阅文献、方案设计、建立方法、实验操作、整理资料、归纳总结、撰写成文等全过程负责的人，应该是能解答论文的有关问题者。现在往往把参加工作的人全部列上，那就应该以贡献大小依次排列。论文署名应征得本人同意。学术指导人根据实际情况既可以列为论文作者，也可以一般致谢。行政领导人一般不署名。

(三)论文——引言 是论文引人入胜之言，很重要，要写好。一段好的论文引言常能使读者明白你这份工作的发展历程和在这一研究方向中的位置。要写出论文立题依据、基础、背景、研究目的。要复习必要的文献、写明问题的发展。文字要简练。

(四)论文——材料和方法 按规定如实写出实验对象、器材、动物和试剂及其规格，写出实验方法、指标、判断标准等，写出实验设计、分组、统计方法等。这些按杂志 对论文投稿规定办即可。

(五) 论文——实验结果 应高度归纳，精心分析，合乎逻辑地铺述。应该去粗取精，去伪存真，但不能因不符合自己的意图而主观取舍，更不能弄虚作假。只有在技术不熟练或仪器不稳定时期所得的数据、在技术故障或操作错误时所得的数据和不符合实验条件时所得的数据才能废弃不用。而且必须在发现问题当时就在原始记录上注明原因，不能在总结处理时因不合常态而任意剔除。废弃这类数据时应将在同样条件下、同一时期的实验数据一并废弃，不能只废弃不合己意者。

实验结果的整理应紧扣主题，删繁就简，有些数据不一定适合于这一篇论文，可留作它用，不要硬行拼凑到一篇论文中。论文行文应尽量采用专业术语。能用表的不要用图，可以不用图表的最好不要用图表，以免多占篇幅，增加排版困难。文、表、图互不重复。实验中的偶然现象和意外变故等特殊情况应作必要的交代，不要随意丢弃。

(六)论文 ——讨论 是论文中比较重要，也是比较难写的一部分。应统观全局，抓住主要的有争议问题，从感性认识提高到理性认识进行论说。要对实验结果作出分析、推理，而不要重复叙述实验结果。应着重对国内外相关文献中的结果与观点作出讨论，表明自己的观点，尤其不应回避相对立的观点。 论文的讨论中可以提出假设，提出本题的发展设想，但分寸应该恰当，不能写成“科幻”或“畅想”。

(七)论文——结语或结论 论文的结语应写出明确可靠的结果，写出确凿的结论。论文的文字应简洁，可逐条写出。不要用“小结”之类含糊其辞的词。

(八)论文——参考义献 这是论文中很重要、也是存在问题较多的一部分。列出论文参考文献的目的是让读者了解论文研究命题的来龙去脉，便于查找，同时也是尊重前人劳动，对自己的工作有准确的定位。因此这里既有技术问题，也有科学道德问题。

一篇论文中几乎自始至终都有需要引用参考文献之处。如论文引言中应引上对本题最重要、最直接有关的文献;在方法中应引上所采用或借鉴的方法;在结果中有时要引上与文献对比的资料;在讨论中更应引上与 论文有关的各种支持的或有矛盾的结果或观点等。

(九)论文——致谢 论文的指导者、技术协助者、提供特殊试剂或器材者、经费资助者和提出过重要建议者都属于致谢对象。论文致谢应该是真诚的、实在的，不要庸俗化。不要泛泛地致谢、不要只谢教授不谢旁人。写论文致谢前应征得被致谢者的同意，不能拉大旗作虎皮。

(十) 论文——摘要或提要：以200字左右简要地概括论文全文。常放篇首。论文摘要需精心撰写，有吸引力。要让读者看了论文摘要就像看到了论文的缩影，或者看了论文摘要就想继续看论文的有关部分。此外，还应给出几个关键词，关键词应写出真正关键的学术词汇，不要硬凑一般性用词。

有的人书读的不少，可是收获不大;有的人书读得很快，可是忘得也快。这是什么原因呢?在很大程度上跟他们读书的时候不爱动笔有关系。小编收集了读书笔记的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

“不动笔墨不看书”，这是革命老前辈徐特立向青年介绍的一个学习经验：意思是说，读书一定要动笔，不动笔就不看书。他说的动笔，就是做读书笔记。

记忆，对于积累知识是重要的，但是不能迷信记忆。俗话说：“最淡的墨水，也胜过最强的记忆。”列宁具有惊人的记忆力，他却勤动笔，写下了大量的读书笔记。俄国文学家托尔斯泰也要求自己：身边永远带着铅笔和笔记本，读书和谈话的时候碰到一切美妙的地方和话语都把它记下来。

有的人书读的不少，可是收获不大;有的人书读得很快，可是忘得也快。这是什么原因呢?在很大程度上跟他们读书的时候不爱动笔有关系。古人曾经总结出这样一条教训：“读书不做笔记，犹如雨点落入大海，无踪无迹。”做读书笔记虽然费点时间，但是好处很多：一，可以帮助我们进一步领会和记忆读过的书的内容;二，动手又动脑，可以培养独立思考和分析问题的能力，因为做笔记的过程，也是思考和消化的过程;三，可以丰富知识，积累材料，便于经常复习，温故知新;四，可以提高写作能力，写读书笔记也是一种练笔。马克思认为做读书笔记是学习、工作所必需的。他为了写作《资本论》，做过一千五百多种读书笔记。仅在一八四三年到一八四七年，他摘录经济学的笔记就有二十四本，这些笔记的数字比《资本论》多两倍。克鲁普斯卡娅说：“列宁并不靠他的记忆，虽然他的记忆力是很好的。……他阅读了很多资料，他把必需的材料都记入笔记本，而且在那笔记本上还不断地加添新的笔记，然后又不止一次地去读它们。”俄国作家果戈理一生最大的“嗜好”是记笔记，人们称他“笔记迷”。他成年累月象蜜蜂采集花蜜一样，不知疲倦地把读到的佳句名言，听到的奇闻趣事，看到的人情乡俗，都一一记入随身携带的笔记本上。功夫不负苦心人，经过不断积累，笔记为果戈理提供了五彩缤纷的写作素材，在他著名的中篇小说集《狄康卡近乡夜话》里，许多乌克兰的风俗习惯、传说故事、民歌谚语，都是从笔记本里摘录下来的。果戈理自己把这种笔记本称为“万宝全书”。毛泽东年轻的时候听老师讲课有“课堂录”，课余自学有“读书录”，还有专门选抄文章的“摘录”本。他写的笔记就有五网篮。毛泽东读过一本《伦理学原理》，他在这本书上详细地做了圈点和批注，还写了一万二千多字的批语。革命导师的这种认真读书的精神，很值得我们学习。

做读书笔记的方法很多，下面介绍我几种常用的几种方法：

一、在书上做笔记：就是一面读书一面用笔把书上重要的地方划出来，或者做上各种各样的记号(如：～～，△△△，○○○等)，便于找出重点，加深印象。你如果对文章的观点材料有疑问，可以在页边的空白处画上“?”号，或者加上旁注和眉批。对那些比较长的段落，还可以用阿拉伯数字标出层次，使其眉目清楚，条理系统，便于复习和记忆。这种在书上做笔记的方法只限于自己的书。如果是借别人的书，可以用书签或小纸条代替，便于复习的时候引起注意。

二、做摘录：就是把书中主要的观点，重要的内容，或者精采的章节、段落、名言、警句等抄录下来。在摘录的时候，注意不要断章取义，不要改动字句和标点，还要注明出处，包括书名、作者、版本、页数和日期，以后引用的时候便于查找核对。摘录笔记可以记在笔记上，也可以记在卡片上。有的同学看书的时候专门抄录一些华丽的词藻，作文的时候生搬硬套，这不是好的学习方法。

三、做提要：这种方法比较复杂。首先要把原文读通，读懂，抓性要点，然后把基本内容概括出来，文字力求简明扼要，但是不要把自己的看法或感想写进去。同学们在练习写提要的时候，可以经常看一看每本书前面的内容提要，也可以练习编写文章的段落提纲，从中找出规律性的东西。

四、写心得：就是读了一篇文章或一本书以后，将自己的感想和体会用自己的话写下来。写心得笔记，一要注意联系实际，这个实际可以是当前的社会实际，也可以是自己的思想、学习、工作的实际;二要有真情实感，不要只做检查、表决心、发誓言;三要紧扣原文，突出重点，不要脱离文章的内容空发议论或者不分主次，面面俱到。

“应知学问难，在乎点滴难。”让我们从现在起就养成认真读书和做读书笔记的良好习惯，一分耕耘，必然会有一分收获。

作文，是语文综合水平的体现。但是，对于好多同学来说，总觉得作文很深奥，不好写。其实不然，我觉得，要写好作文，只要注意下面这几点，并持之以恒，经常练习写作，写出一手好作文也是不难的。

第一，就是词语积累。作文，要有佳词妙句才有文采，才能吸引人。一篇文章，假如没有佳词妙句，无论这件事情多么精彩，你写出来的文章也是平淡无味，怎么能够吸引人，让人去欣赏呢？你写的这篇文章也就等于白写。在平时的学习中，我们班的黎老师就很注重在这方面对我们的教育和引导。我在看文章、阅读时也很注意这点。

第二，就是注意留心观察。写作文，不是在屋子里憋出来的，而是要到实际生活中去观察、去体验。因为，生活是写作的源泉嘛！有些人，他是出去“观察”了，可是他只是走马观花，忽略了细节。所以写出来的作文只是条条纲纲，根本没有要点、细节。所以，在观察时要留心，要仔细，才能写出与众不同的好作文。记得外出时，爸爸经常会指这指那，问这问那，以引起我的注意与思考。

第三，就是多看课外书。这是积累词语的重要渠道，也是写作文的关键所在。包括家里订阅的书籍和书店的各种图书。只要有空，我就会到书店看看各种各样的课外书。当然，不是只看就能写出完美无缺的作文的，关键还要注意积累、牢记和运用。才能实现“人为我用”，这样在写作文时，才能做到随心所欲、挥笔自如。

一、作文要学会积累

“读书破万卷，下笔如有神”，“巧妇难为无米之炊”古人这些总结，从正反两方面说明了“积累”在写作中的重要性。“平时靠积累，考场凭发挥”，这是考场学子的共同体会。

（一）语言方面要建立“语汇库”。语汇是文章的细胞。广义的语汇，不仅指词、短语的总汇，还包括句子、句群。建立“语汇库”途径有二：第一是阅读。平时要广泛阅读书籍、报刊，并做好读书笔记，把一些优美的词语、句子、语段摘录在特定的本子上，也可以制作读书卡片上。第二是生活。平时要捕捉大众口语中鲜活的语言，并把这些语言记在随身带的小本子或卡片上，这样日积月累、集腋成裘，说话就能出口成章，作文就会妙笔生花。

（二）要加强材料方面的积累。材料是文章的血肉。许多学生由于平时不注意积累素材，每到作文时就去搜肠挂肚，或者胡编或者抄袭。解决这一问题的方法是积累素材。平时有条件的可带着摄像机、录音机、深入观察生活、积极参与生活，并与写生、、写日记、写观察笔记等形式，及时记录家庭生活、校园生活、社会生活中的见闻。记录时要抓住细节，把握人、事、物、景的特征。这样，写出的文章就有血有肉。

（三）要加强思想方面的积累。观点是文章的灵魂。文章中心不明确，或立意不深刻，往往说明作者思想肤浅。因此，有必要建立“思想库”。方法有二：第一要善思。“多一份思考，多一份收获。”平时要深入思考，遇事多问问“为什么”、“是什么”、“怎么样”。这样就能透过现象看本质。还要随时把思维的“火花”、思索的结论记录下来。第二要辑录，也就是要摘录名人名言，格言警句等。

总之，作文要加强积累，建立好“语汇库”、“素材库”、“思想库”这三大写作仓库，并要定期盘点、整理、分门别类，且要不断充实、扩容。

二、写好作文先学会观察

鲁迅先生在回答文学青年“如何才能写出好文章”的问题时强调了两点：一是多看，二是多练。这里的“多看”即指多观察。这就说明：要写好文章，要掌握娴熟的文章写作手法，就要多观察，学会观察，观察是写作的必要前提和基础。

俄国小说家契诃夫就这样谆谆告诫初学者：“作家务必要把自己锻炼成一个目光敏锐永不罢休的观察家！——要把自己锻炼到观察简直成习惯，仿佛变成第二个天性。”把观察锻炼成习惯，锻炼成第二天性，这是一种很需要时间去磨练的功夫，是很有作用，很了不起的功夫。

要留心观察身边的人、事、景、物，从中猎取你作文时所需要的材料：你要对一些看似不大实则很有意义的事情产生兴趣，注意观察起因、过程和结果；你要留意校园花坛里的植物一年四季如何变化它的颜色，学会刨根问底，弄清这些变化的来龙去脉；你要走向社会，同更多的人接触，观察他们的一言一行，要思索一些东西，随时将它们汇入自己思想的长河。这就是观察的过程，观察过程中要注意以下几点：

（一）观察决不要仅仅局限于“用眼看”。广义的更有实际意义的观察是指要将人的五官全部调动起来：用耳朵去聆听，用身体去感受，更重要的是要用心、用脑去思索，这样的观察才会更加细腻、深刻。

（二）观察过程中要注意运用好“烂笔头”。俗语说得好：好记性不如烂笔头。好多同学每天看到的挺多，思索的也挺多，但是不善于随时记下来，这样就会使观察到的材料付之东去，许多有价值的东西也会白白浪费掉。

（三）观察尤其要注意持之以恒。别犯“脑热病”，三分钟的热度对与写好作文是没有益处的，你要将观察生活、思索生活贯穿于你生活的每一天，这样你才会写出妙文佳作来。

学会观察对于写好作文有着巨大的奠基和推动作用，离开了观察，你往往会感到难以下笔。愿你学会观察，不断培养，提高赞成的观察能力，在写作实践中取得得大的进步。

三、意高则文胜

立意，就是确立文章的中心和意图。那么文章在立意时要注意哪些问题呢？

（一）立意要正确

正确是文章立意的第一要义，所谓正确就是要保证文章的感情和思想观点正确，符合客观事物的本质和规律，符合我国基本政治原则，符合人的基本道德要求，能给人以积极的启发。

（二）立意要专一

“作文之事，贵于专一，专则生巧，散乃人愚。”无论多么复杂的事情，主旨不能分散。一篇文章如果既想说明这个问题，又想阐述那个观点，东拉西扯，必然立意不明确。其实，想面面俱到肯定会面面不到位，况且一篇文章只能有一个中心，与其“贪多嚼不烂”，不如集中笔墨表现一个中心，即使是通过数件事来表现中心，也要做到紧帖中心行文，目标始终如一，着墨于材料与中心的结合点，使材料蕴涵的力量全部直指中心。

（三）立意要新颖

文章最忌随人后，人云亦云，新颖的角度是作文创新的核心。立意新颖要求跳出陈旧的框框、不按顺向思维、习惯思维或原有的心理定式进行立意构思，而是以独到的视角去审视题目中所蕴涵的另类内容，避开他人所常写，写别人所未写。即使同一写作对象，总是可以从许多角度切入，只要我们打破思维的定式，站在时代的高度，避“俗”求“异”，多角度、多侧面思考，或联想、或扩展、或类比、或逆向，发人之所未发，就能在五颜六色的天空里构筑属于你的最美的彩虹。

（四）立意要深刻。

立意的深刻是指确立的主题不是人所共知的肤浅的道理，而要透过现象看本质，挖掘出更深层的意蕴。

（五）立意要巧妙

在习作有限的文字内，要表现较为深刻的思想，就只能一粒沙里看世界，从生活中的一斑一点、一枝一叶去再现生活的全貌，从一个点、一个片段、一个瞬间、一个现象入手，对社会、对人生进行描述和深思，即立意要大处着眼，小处落笔，角度虽小，却能小中见大，平中见奇。

每件事都有起因、经过和结果这样一个过程，只有把这个过程写清楚，给读者的印象才能完整而深刻。小编整理了小学生常见类型作文写作技巧，欢迎欣赏与借鉴。

第一类写家里的事

1.写家里的日常生活，表现家庭生活中有意思或有意义的内容；

2.写参加家里的劳动或跟家里人学习家务；

3.写发生在家庭中的一件事，反映出家庭成员的个性素质或思想品质；

4.写我与爸爸妈妈之间发生的事情，说明自己从中受到的教育和启发；

5.写家庭中的突发事件，来抒发自己的一种情感。

第二类写班级学校的事

1.写学校的一件事，表现学校的新面貌新气象；

2.写班级的一件事，反映出班级的班风和同学的精神面貌；

3.写发生在班级的一件事，表现班级同学之间的深厚友谊；

4.写发生在班级的一件事，表现出师生之间的亲密关系；

5.写发生在班级的一件新鲜事，反映新时代的少年风采；

6.写班级的一件大家议论纷纷或有争议的事情，表明自己的态度和想法。

第三类写校园外的事

1.通过一件事情，反映出社会的新面貌新风尚；

2.写一件在校外发生的事情，表达自己的思想感情，表现自己对社会的认识。

第四类写自己的事

1.写自己遇到的一件事，表现社会的新风尚；

2.写自己个人的一件事，写出自己从中所受到的教育；

3.写自己的一件事，表达自己的一种感情，表明自己的一种愿望；

4.写自己遇到的一次挫折，说明自己从中所得到的一种启示；

5.写自己的一件事，说明自己已经长大懂事了；

6.写自己的爱好和追求；

7.写自己的业余生活；

8.回忆自己童年生活的一件事，写出童年的可爱与美好。

第五类写与同学朋友的事

1.通过一件事情表现同学之间的友谊和合作；

2.写一件事，表明自己从同学身上学到的做人的道理或向上的精神；

3.写一件事，表达自己对同学朋友的深切思念；

4.通过与同学之间发生的矛盾，揭示某个道理或赞颂同学朋友的思想品质。

景色是作文里常常出现的话题，写景的作文也是数不胜数，但写景也并非像我们说看到的情况那样如实的写进去，我们应该懂得如何写景才能把文章的整体水平有所提高。让我们一起来看看，写景的作文写作技巧吧。

1、方位顺序。写景作文要有方位的条理性，由近及远，由远及近，由上而下，由下而上，由里到外，由外到里，或由中间到四周等等有次序地描写，要主次分明，详略得当。

2、景物的类别。来写，如山、水、花、鸟;瀑、石、峰、洞;亭、台、楼阁等。要写出景物的光、色、味;既要写它的静态，也要写它的动态，还可以写出它的环境气氛。

3、要仔细观察，抓住在不同季节里景物的不同特点进行描写，不要硬编乱造，凭自己的想象来写。

4、写景中也可以具体地写些人和事，若让人、景、事三者交融一体来写，可以使作文更为感人。

5、写景物时不要忘掉自己与景物之间的关系，要有意识地把自己的感情、感受写进去，这样使人读了会产生一种身临其境之感。叶圣陶老爷爷写的《记金华的双龙洞》不是具有这样的特点吗?

6、适当地、正确地引用前人描写景物的诗词歌赋，也可以为作文增色。这就需要你平时多加阅读和积累，别等用时再去找。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

1

主语＋谓语(不及物动词)：S+V

It will rain tomorrow.

He often runs in the morning.

They cried.

Tom exercises every day.

2

主语＋谓语(及物动词)＋宾语：S+V+O

I miss my mother very much.

She wants to go home now.

The English club is going to hold an English party.

They all love her.

3

主语＋系动词＋表语：S+V+P

The music sounds wonderful.

The leaves have turned red.

She is a student.

We keep silent about that.

4

主语＋谓语(及物动词)＋间接宾语（人）＋直接宾语（物）：S+V+IO+DO

The teacher gave a book to him.=The teacher gave him a book.

They told me an interesting story.

The waitress offered me a bottle of wine.

My father will buy me a bike.=My father will buy a bike for me.

Miss Smith teaches us English.

5

主语＋谓语(及物动词)＋宾语＋宾语补足语：                                      S+V+O+C

They call me Xiao Wang.

I saw him swimming in the river.

We elected him monitor of the class.

1)议论文常用的方法议论文的方法有：举例论证、分析论证、引证论证、对比论证和类比论证。还有反证法，证明对方论点是错误的，自己的观点是正确的，从而驳倒对方。

2)议论文的要求

(1) 论点要正确、鲜明。

在论证中，无论是对正面观点的阐述，还是对反面观点的反驳，自己的论点都必须正确，鲜明，赞成什么，反对什么，必须鲜明地表示出来，不能含糊不清。

(2) 论据要充实可靠。

这就要求作者选择论据要典型，要真实可靠。只有充实的论据，文章才有说明力。

(3) 论证要合乎逻辑。

这就要求论证时，说理要严谨，推理要合乎逻辑。最常见的议论文结构是纵贯式，就是按提出问题、分析问题、解决问题的逻辑顺序来安排层次，即：开头(引论)→本论(正文)→结尾(结论)，也就是我们常说的“三段式结构”。

Challenge (向…挑战)Old Beliefs(信念,信仰)

There are many things in the world which are accepted as certain when they are not certain, and what an expert(专家) says or thinks must not be accepted or rejected(抛弃) hastily(急忙地). The following example may help to make us less rigid in our beliefs.

When helium(氦) is cooled to very low temperature, it forms an astonishing liquid which does not appear to agree with the laws of gravity. It can go upwards.(向上) If it is put into a bottle which is open at the top, it empties itself out of the bottle; and if an open bottle is stood in this liquid, the liquid will move up the outer (外部的)side of the bottle and run down inside it until the levels outside and inside are the same.

So anyone who is determined(坚决的,有决心的) to advance science must have a capacity(能力,能量) for original thought and for action based on that thought.

本文是三段式结构，用举例的方法进行论证。第一段提出论点，第二段举例加以论证，第三段得出令人信服的结论。本文论点明确，论据科学可靠，由此而得出的结论非常有说明力。