英语写作教学方法推荐四篇 作文题目【汇编20篇】

如何提高信息的产出率、命中率，这是每位组工干部所关注的。现结合自身工作实践与学习体会，就如何写好组工信息，与大家共同进行探讨和交流。不当之处，敬请各位批评指正。

一、信息的概念、特点和作用

信息就是反映工作的文稿，是有价值的、客观情况的反映。层次高的信息是对原始信息的归纳、综合，是各级领导科学决策的重要依据。

信息的特点，主要表现在三个方面。一是具有宏观性。信息主要是为领导决策提供服务的，它所产生的效应直接或间接体现在决策方面。要求撰写信息人员围绕工作主题、单位工作中心工作抓大问题，抓有碍全局的实际问题，抓政策性问题，抓重要的监管动态以及重大的社情民意，而不是摄取小镜头，捕捉小花絮。二是具有真实性。与新闻报道不同，新闻报道要注重政治影响，而信息则要求实事求是。不管是喜是忧，都必须如实报告。一就是一，二就是二，决不允许在数字上来大概加估计。三是具有权威性。信息必须经过本级领导审查后方可报出，应该是具有严肃性的官方消息，决不是不加约束混淆视听的小道消息。

信息具有四个方面的作用，简单讲就是，宣传、协调、交流和引导。

二、信息的采编技巧

(一)要学会取材。有的同志反映，身边眼前都是平平常常的业务工作，哪有那么多具有价值的信息呢？信息从哪里来呢？通过积累和实践摸索，有14条采集信息的途径可以利用，用言简意赅的98个字加以概括，那就是：文件堆里挖；翻阅材料筛；讲话稿中捡；领导口中理；联系上下摸；会议之中捕；参与活动追；重大事件抢；深入基层拾；关注新闻抓；掌握规律掏；情况反馈传；跟踪问效知；利用网络选。信息就在我们的实际工作中，只要我们勤奋加刻苦，敏锐而深入，还会拓展出更多的渠道来，也一定会发现信息取之不尽，用之不竭。

(二)要注重时效。信息就像山里的药材，适时是宝，过时是草。要勤写快报，准确性中求快，新中求活，实中求深，是提高信息产出率的高招实招。同样一件事，你抢先一步，可能被录用，如果滞缓半拍，很可能被打入冷宫。

（三）要体现特色。条条块块承担的职能不同，信息的产生势必各有侧重。只有注重挖掘工作中的亮点，聚焦工作中的难点，采集领导关注的热点，信息工作才能源头活水滚滚来。

（四）要实事求是。编撰信息必须树立实事求是的文风，不做假大空的文章。不乱提诸如战略、战役、战术、方略等过高的口号。语言要求准确、朴实、精练、明快、提神，避免客套话和空话。

（五）要对号入座。要根据信息层次不同，需求不同，量体裁衣，看菜吃饭，适合于哪一级信息刊物用的就报给哪一级，内外有别。各有侧重，不搞一刀切，一锅煮。

三、信息的写法

(一)细琢鲜明标题。标题是信息内容的统帅、纲领。题常意要新，意常题要新，这是对标题较高的要求。如何写好标题：是题文一致。标题必须与内容一致，不能用一些不适当的副词、形容词，以免华而不实、故弄玄虚。同时，标题的观点在信息中要有充分的依据，语言精准，让人想看下去。内容准确，少不了时间，地点、人物、事件、效果等。

二是选择句式的艺术。陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句是汉语的四种基本句式。陈述句是将所要叙述的事情直接陈列表述出来。信息标题大量使用的是陈述句，并且多用主谓型结构。

Learning to pay attention to learning methods, I found a set of learning methods, it has brought a great improvement to my study.

If you are a primary school scholar, take back English, you dont have a day back ten words, then not only to waste much time, also can not remember cooked, but every day you memorize a word or sentence, which save time and remember, remember the steady, according to this count: three hundred and sixty-five a year two thousand one hundred and ninety, six years. Two thousand one hundred and ninety words! And, Many a little make a mickle. this will bring much shooting two birds with one stone, the harvest for you!

If you are a medium reader, you can read a general book at a speed of 300 words per minute. Although the statistics is not always practical, but may wish to look at these numbers: a general read an average reader to read 300 words per minute, fifteen minutes to read 4500 words, read fifteen minutes a day, a week to read words a month reading a year can reach the word, and the word length ranging from books, average about words, read fifteen minutes a day, a year can read twenty books, this number is objective.

You read fifteen minutes a day, or even more than fifteen minutes, so you can get twenty books a year and one thousand and eight hundred books in your life.

As a result, learning is not just rote learning, to improve learning performance, or to have a good set of learning methods.

感要多 读要少，要善于灵活掌握。小编整理了读后感的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

通常有三种写法:一种是缩写内容提纲，一种是写阅读后的体会感想，一种是摘录好的句子和段落.今天，咱们就重点来谈谈第二种.题目可以用《×××读后感》，也可以用《读×××有感》.

首先要审清题目.在写作时，要分辨什么是主要的，什么是次要的，力求做到"读"能抓住重点，"感"能写出体会.

其次要选择材料.读是写的基础，只有读得认真仔细，才能深入理解文章内容，从而抓住重点，把握文章的思想感情，才能有所感受，有所体会;只有认真读书才能找到读感之间的联系点来，这个点就是文章的中心思想，就是文中点明中心思想的句子.对一篇作品，写体会时不能面面俱到，应写自己读后在思想上，行动上的变化，摘取其中的某一点做文章.

第三，写读后感应以所读作品的内容简介开头，然后，再写体会.原文内容往往用3~4句话概括为宜.结尾也大多再回到所读的作品上来.要把重点放在"感"字上，切记要联系自己的生活实际.

最后，写读后感的注意事项:①写读后感绝不是对原文的抄录或简单地复述，不能脱离原文任意发挥，应以写"体会"为主.②要写得有真情实感.应是发自内心深处的感受，绝非"检讨书"或"保证书".③要写出独特的新鲜感受，力求有新意的见解来吸引读者或感染读者.

例文

我要把自己炼成一块真正的钢铁

——《钢铁是怎样炼成的》读后感

《钢铁是怎样炼成的》这本书使我爱不释手，保尔 柯察金那顽强的品格多么令人钦佩!如果你读了这本书，就会明白具有钢铁品质的人是"大写"的人.

保尔一生十分坎坷，在双目失明的情况下他还坚持写书，对自己毫不顾惜.书中写道:他呕心沥血写的稿件丢失了，多么令他灰心失望啊，但他重新振作起来，用顽强的毅力完成了巨著.书中有段名言脍炙人口:"人的生命是最宝贵的.当他回首往事的时候，不应该为碌碌无为而悔恨……."保尔可谓强者的化身.

对照保尔，想想自己，感到脸上一阵阵烘热.记得今年大年初一，家家户户沉浸在节日的气氛中，我家却十分冷清.爸爸工作繁忙出差了，妈妈因病卧床不起.听着孩子们在外面的嬉闹声，我的眼泪在眼眶里直打转，片刻就"簌簌"落下眼泪来.妈妈见我落泪了，指着床头的书说:"轩轩，那本《钢铁是怎样炼成的》你看完了吗

"我再次把这本书翻阅，保尔的形象又浮现在眼前.对，我该做一个坚强的男子汉!我应该为家人分忧解难，决定下厨做饭菜.妈妈脸上露出了笑容，紧紧拉住我的手说:"你真是咱们家顶天立地的男子汉啊!"我指着《钢铁是怎样炼成的》这本书说:"是它教会我的!"

每当我遇到困难而退缩时，每当我受挫折而落泪时，我就会想起保尔那高大的身影，要把自己炼成一块真正的钢铁!

评语:这篇读后感的特点是:有感而发，情感真挚.小作者阅读了《钢铁是怎样炼成的》一书后，对保尔这一主人公产生了敬仰之情，称赞他是"强者的化身".当自己在生活中遇到困难时，用保尔这一榜样鞭策自我做生活中的男子汉.篇末紧扣文题，用"每当……就……"的句式表明了自己的抱负，是画龙点睛之笔.

写好读后感活用"四字诀"

读后感是议论文中最常见的文体之一，也是初高中学生必须掌握的一种文体.但从以往读后感训练的情况来看，效果并不尽人意.其实，写好读后感也有章可循.若活用"四字诀"，则更容易生效.

一，引--围绕感点，引述材料.读后感重在"感"，而这个"感"是由特定的"读"生发的，"引"是"感"的落脚点，所谓"引"就是围绕感点，有的放矢的引用原文:材料精短的，可全文引述;材料长的，或摘录"引"发"感"的关键词，句，或概述引发"感"的要点.不管采用哪种方式引述，"引"都要简练，准确，有针对性.

二，议--分析材料，提练感点.在引出"读"的内容后，要对"读"进行一番评析.既可就事论事对所"引"的内容作一番分析;也可以由现象到本质，由个别到一般的作一番挖掘;对寓意深的材料更要作一番分析，然后水到渠成地"亮"出自己的感点.

三，联--联系实际，纵横拓展.写读后感最忌的是就事论事和泛泛而谈.就事论事撒不开，感不能深入，文章就过于肤浅.泛泛而谈，往往使读后感缺乏针对性，不能给人以震撼.联，就是要紧密联系实际，既可以由此及彼地联系现实生活中相类似的现象，也可以由古及今联系现实生活中的相反的种种问题.既可以从大处着眼，也可以从小处入手.当然在联系实际分析论证时，还要注意时时回扣或呼应"引"部，使"联"与"引""藕"断而"丝"连.

四，结--总结全文，升华感点.总结既可以回应前文，强调感点;也可以提出希望，发出号召.不管采用哪种方式结尾，都必须与前文贯通，浑然一体.读后感始终要受"读"的约束，开头要引"读"，中间还要不时地回扣"读"的内容，结尾也要恰当回扣"读"的内容不放松.

当然要写好读后感，关键还要读透材料，抓准感点.怎样读透材料

一般说，如果是记叙文，就要抓住人物最突出的某种品质，最有价值的语言行动或事件所包含的深刻意义;如果是议论文，就要把握中心论点;如果是寓言或哲理性的散文，就要领会其深刻的寓意.当然，读一篇文章，感可能是多方面的，要在分析，思考的基础上，选择最值得发表，感受最深，见解新颖独到，最有针对性和现实感的感受来写，一篇读后感只能容纳一个感点，其他感点无论多么好，都要忍痛割爱.明智之举是抓住一点，不及其余，并围绕一个感点，联系实际，谈深谈透.

如何指导学生写读后感

学生写好读后感，历来是一件较辣手的问题.要写好读后感，指导是关键.我是如何指导学生写好读后感呢 体会是:

一，指导审题，理清题意

写好读后感，审题理清题意是关键.例如指导学生写《养花》一文的读后感.

养花

我爱花，所以也爱养花。我可还没成为养花专家，因为没有工夫去研究和试验。我只把养花当作生活中的一种乐趣，花开得大小好坏都不计较，只要开花，我就高兴。在我的小院中，到夏天，满是花草，小猫儿们只好上房去玩，地上没有它们的运动场。

花虽多，但是没有奇花异草。珍贵的花草不易养活，看着一棵好花生病要死，是件难过的事。北京的气候，对养花来说不算很好，冬天冷，春天多风，夏天不是干旱就是大雨倾盆，秋天最好，可是会忽然闹霜冻。在这种气候里，想把南方的好花养活，我还没有那么大的本事。因此，我只养些好种易活的自己会奋斗的花草。

不过，尽管花草自己会奋斗，我若是置之不理，任其自生自灭，大半还是会死的。我得天天照管它们，像好朋友似的关切它们。一来二去，我摸着一些门道：有的喜阴，就别放在太阳地里，有的喜干，就别多浇水。这是个乐趣，摸着门道，花草养活了，而且三年五载老活着，开花，多么有意思呀!不是乱吹，这就是知识呀!多得些知识决不是坏事。

我不是有腿病吗，不但不利于行，也不利于久坐。我不知道花草受我的照顾，感谢我不感谢;我可得感谢它们。我工作的时候，总是写一会儿就到院中去看看，浇浇这棵，搬搬那盆，然后回到屋中再写一会儿，然后再出去。如此循环，把脑力劳动和体力劳动得到适当的调节，有益身心，胜于吃药。要是赶上狂风暴雨或天气突变，就得全家动员，抢救花草，十分紧张。几百盆花，都要很快地抢到屋里去，使人腰酸腿疼，热汗直流。第二天，天气好转，又得把花儿都搬出去，就又一次腰酸腿疼，热汗直流。可是，这多么有意思呀!不劳动，连棵花儿也养不活，这难道不是真理吗?

送牛奶的同志进门就夸"好香"，这使我们全家都感到骄傲。赶到昙花开放的时候，约几位朋友来看看，更有秉烛夜游的味道——昙花总在夜里放蕊。花分根了，一棵分为数棵，就赠给朋友们一些;看着友人拿走自己的劳动果实，心里自然特别喜欢。

当然，也有伤心的时候，今年夏天就有这么一回。三百株菊秧还在地上(没到移入盆中的时候)，下了暴雨。邻家的墙倒了，菊秧被砸死者约三十多种，一百多棵，全家都几天没有笑容。

有喜有忧，有笑有泪，有花有果，有香有色。既须劳动，又长见识，这就是养花的乐趣。

首先让学生明白"感"是什么

"感"就是要求写自己怎样体会文章的思想感情.接着要求学生要联系自己的实际来写，可以先讲作者怎样说，怎样做，然后写自己"悟"出什么道理.

如何给文章定目呢

读后感题目多种多样，既可以直接题目，如:《养花》读后感;也可以用一句话或一个词做正题，如:学习要善于摸门道—《养花》有感.

总之，要使学生弄清题目要求，写作上要求，审题最关键.

二，抓中心，定要点

《养花》这篇文章写读后感，就是要体会文章的思想感情.所谓"文章的思想感情"即是中心思想，写体会的读后感，"感"应该围绕中心思想去开展.

第一步:先让学生回忆《养花》一文的中心思想，理清要点.第二步:我归纳习作要求，《养花》这篇文章抓住三个要点:①，养花能增长知识.②，养花能调节脑力劳动.③，养花可以创造劳动果实，发展友谊.

三，抓住要点，联系实际，理清结构

首先我让学生讨论《养花》一文几个要点，有几个方面体会较深.接着指导如何联系实际谈体会，最后介绍写读书笔记的两种方法:

1，先叙后议.方法是:先介绍什么书，讲了什么内容，反映什么中心思想，围绕中心结合自已例子说感受，最后写对自己的教育.

2，夹叙夹议.即围绕中心抓两三点，联系实际，扣紧原文发表感情，或者抓住文章的中心句去开展议论.

四，指导几种开头方法

1，开头谈总的感受.如:最近我读了老舍先生《养花》一文，觉得越读越有味道……接着再谈自己领会最深的那几点.第二段逐点谈体会，结尾小结全文，谈谈自己的打算.

2，开头提出问题.如:学习上难免有挫折，一个学生该怎样对待挫折呢

最近学习了老舍《养花》一文很受教育.然后参照上一种写法，从第二段开始，逐点谈体会.

3，开头指出某种不良现象.如:班上有些同学把读书看成是苦差事，在操场上生龙活虎，在课堂上垂头丧气，这是什么原因呢

然后引出《养花》这篇文章，逐点谈体会.

写作是一种语言输出的过程，这种语言输出的能力不是一天就练出来的，而是要经过长期不懈的训练才能获得。然而在实际写作过程中，有的学生感到无从下笔，即使能写，也仅仅是简简单单的句子；有的学生甚至对英语写作望而生畏，消极应付；总体上学生存在严重的英语表述上的困难。写作能力不高主要表现在：母语影响、词汇量少；单词造句、搭配不当；不懂句型、语法不通；信息不全、条理紊乱；语言连贯性差，缺少锻炼；缺少整体的谋篇布局和前后呼应。因此，如何有效地改进英语写作教学，结合自己的教学心得，我认为，培养学生的写作能力可从以下三方面入手。

一．扩展语言输入，奠定写作基础

英语作为一门语言，它具有一定的工具性和人文性，它的结构应是：词—句—篇。“词”是基础，“句”是过渡，“篇”是则是目的。整个训练遵循“词不离句，句不离篇”的原则，由浅入深，循序渐进，不断提高。为了提高学生的写作能力，我在日常教学中，尝试了“词、句、篇”三步曲的写作教学。在教学中做到 “教、学、用”三者的统一。

（一）巧记单词

书面表达需要一定的词汇量，学生书面表达时容易忘记单词或把汉英词汇等同起来。因此，要求学生坚持每天听写、默写、循环记忆单词，掌握巩固词汇。还要求学生给出与单词有关的同义、近义、反义和词形相似的词，使词汇量得到最大限度的复现。

（二）用词造句、连词成句

造句是英语写作中极其重要的一环。可以说，会造句就会写作。要学会造句，需要注意以下几方面。

1、熟练记忆词汇和短语

这个环节是最基本、最重要的。记忆单词和短语时，可以从五个方面入手：词性、拼写读音、意思、用法。抓住了这一点，就像打好了万丈高楼的地基。否则，写作就无从谈起。

2、熟练记忆各种句型和结构

在牢记词汇和短语的基础上，还要记忆各种句型和结构，为造句进一步打下坚实的基础。像There be / How many / How much / be+adj / be+V-ing / make sb. do sth /plan/wish/hope/want to do sth.等句型和结构。在表达某个意思时，注意让学生尽量使用学过的结构造句，不可随心所欲地造出汉语式的英语句子。

3、掌握各种时态及语态的含义和用法

要写出一个英语句子，就要明白时态和语态。也就是说，谓语动词使用什么形式。这就要求学生对八种常用时态和两种语态非常清楚。因此，熟练地使用各种时态语态对于造句尤为重要。

4、掌握句子类型和成分

简单句的五种基本句型是句子类型中最基本的型式，每个英语句子都是以它们为模型写成的。掌握了它们，适时引导学生扩大句式，鼓励学生利用课文中的句型造句。另外还要训练学生“一句多译”的能力。有时候，拿到一个中文句子，可能不会译，这时，就要想办法，换成其他的表达方法，迂回曲折，达到目的。通过这样的训练，可以增加学生的多渠道的语言思维，提高应变能力，从而避免“中国式”的英语。

（三）连句成篇

此项训练的主要目的是培养学生把语法项目、教材内容和文章体裁有机结合起来的能力。

1.要求学生仿写。掌握在英语学习中所学到的连词。只有连词才能把句子连成语篇。

八年级所学课文都有一定的篇幅，老师在引导学生理解课文的基础上，可要求学生用所学过的短语和句型，用自己的话把课文的基本内容简要的表达出来。如在教授八年级第二单元阅读理解，说明篮球的发明者是谁？是在说明情况下发明的。在老师的帮助下，学生可以吧短文改编为对话的形式展现出来。这样既吧学生的读、说的能力和写的能力同时训练了。也大大的提高了学生的兴趣

2.列出提纲，引导学生写作。

引导学生书面表达有许多形式，教师要从学生“学”的角度来设计教学活动，使学生的学习活动具有明确目标，并构成一个有梯度的连续活动。我首先采用给出文中的关键词或短语，整理素材和文章要用到的信息和关键词。帮学生做好铺垫和理清思路，让学生的大脑里有东西，这样学生才有可能写出东西来，帮学生树立信心，克服心理恐惧，从写作中获得了成功的快乐，树立了写作的信心。

3．注重平时的词句积累

鼓励学生收集好词好句，以便于在写作时能信手拈来。

二．进行有效指导，扎实写作训练

1.巧设课堂，限时作文

训练时当场发题，促使学生瞬间接受信息，快速理解信息，迅速表达信息，提高实际应用和应试能力。这一步是关键，也是学生的难关。首先必须使学生明白书面表达题既不是汉译英，也不是作文，不可任意发挥，要求的是将所规定的材料内容经整理后，展开思维，目的在于考查学生运用所学英语知识准确地表达意思的能力。必须要求学生在写作过程中牢牢记住以下口诀：“先读提示，弄清要点与格式；时态语态要当心，前后呼应要一致；句子结构和搭配，语言习惯莫违背；文章写好细检查，点滴小错别忽视。”学生明确目的并掌握要领后，要严格在规定时间内完成作业。训练的初级阶段，每次时间可放宽一点。随着学生写作能力增强，时间相应缩短，逐步做到20分钟内完成任务，决不能养成拖拉的坏习惯。

2．优化习作批改，及时讲评

作文的批改与讲评是写作教学的最后一个环节，也是其重要的一个环节。由于班级人数多，批改的工作量很大。因此，教师可以让学生动手参与，互相评改。由于学生之间的了解更深刻，他们之间的相互交流往往能收到很好的效果。而当学生意识到教师并不是他文章的唯一读者时，他们会更认真地写好作文。因此，让学生相互传阅和批改作文不仅增加了写作时的真实感，更重要的是，能训练学生的语言意识和语境。

导语：如何写好高中作文，对于学生作文的写作基础也要好好的训练，以下是小编为大家分享的高中话题写作方法与技巧，欢迎借鉴！

摘 要：从生活体验、增加阅读量、思想角度、表达能力和文章结构等方面阐述了如何写好命题作文的方法和技巧。围绕命题作文的趋势和特点，对高中生如何写好命题作文提供了很好的参考方向。

关键词：命题作文；感悟；阅读个性；表达能力

近些年话题作文一直是高考的作文主流，可以说是称霸“考坛”，因此，是平时作文训练的重点。笔者认为，话题作文大大增强了对学生语言表达能力、分析概括能力以及个性思维能力的要求。只有敏锐的洞察力、较高的概括与表达能力以及真正属于自己的思想与体悟，才能较好地具体操作一个话题，因此，对处于对人生理解还在起步阶段的中学生来说，如何写好话题作文是一个很有研究价值的课题，在此笔者简单提供以下几点写作方法与技巧以供参考。

一、体味生活，感悟人生

我们都知道思想离不开生活，一切皆从生活中来，一切也皆将回归生活，话题作文中的话题也更是如此，它们有的是对世界本质的反思，有的是要表达人们的一种愿望或想象，在课改教材中，这一部分内容也倍受重视，更有对人生经历、生命内涵的体悟。

话题作文是要求学生对身边的一切都有敏锐的感悟力的一种作文形式，虽然它看似没有任何硬性要求，但学生的分数这些年来却呈下降趋势，这说明话题文比人们想象中的要难得多，中学生还处在人生旅程的起始阶段，必须培养自己在这个人生阶段的独特视角与感悟力。每个人只要细心观察，都可以轻易地从中领会出自己的真谛。因此，想写出一篇出彩的话题文，就必须善于观察生活、分析生活、总结生活。

二、认真阅读教材，同时尽量增加课外阅读量，从而积累词汇与语言，善于调遣各种知识储备

积累词汇的方法有许多种，当然最主要同时也是最重要的途径莫过于阅读书籍。书籍是人类的精神食粮，是千百年来人类圣哲思想的经典总汇，因此，要尽量增加自己的课外阅读量，多读些经典名著，陶冶自己的情操，认识这个世界。

有的学生课业繁重，对于课外阅读恐怕是有心无力，这也不要紧，每个学生身边都有一份非常好的阅读资料，那就是人手必备的语文教材。教材可以说是无数教育学家按照学生心理年龄与认知水平而打造出的完全符合其自身智力与能力发展的呕心之作，因此，只要能够有效地利用好自己的教材，调动多年学校学到的知识，那么成为一个有思想且能够出口成章的儒林学士则不成问题。

三、要有质疑与批判精神，只要思想积极，就要忠于自己的情感与体悟，勇敢、尽情地表达自己对世界、社会、历史、人生以及未来等的见解

这一点可以说是话题作文的本质所在，它没有固定的要求，却有最佳的选择角度，那就是理智、积极、个性、真实，而这所有的种种却又都取决于真实，如果你敢于把自己真实的想法付于笔纸，那么“文情并茂”中的“情”就可以轻易地表达了，而一篇优秀的文章也会“接近”完成。

但要注意的是个性并不等于不同，批判也并不是叛逆，两者不可混淆，不能一味地用“异于常人”作为个性的最佳代言，也切忌用叛逆来代替批判精神，这样很容易步入阅读与写作的误区。对理解文意毫无帮助，也最终会导致思维的一种批判模式，一旦这种模式在其心中根深蒂固，那么不仅会影响其阅读写作，其一生也终将活在吹毛求疵的误区中。

四、发挥自己形象思维的特长，经常练笔，挖掘自身的述说能力，从而写出真正符合自己特点的话题作文

在现实的作文写作中经常有这样一种怪现象，有很多学生在进行写作时，心中明明已满载乾坤，等到真正落笔时却词不达意，文章显得苍白无力，这种表达能力的缺乏必须经过“艰苦”的练笔来克服。我们现在的学生一般在小学阶段就开始接触作文，而所写的作文一般都是具有强烈叙事色彩的记叙文，因此，对于一个学生来说形象思维能力在小学阶段就得到了一定的锻炼，相对于议论思辨等能力来说具有更多的优势，因此，学生只要有意识地练习写作或诵读片段式记叙文（或称作叙事散文）、微型小说、故事、童话、寓言以及抒情散文等，就能够比较轻松地增强自己的表达能力，从而达到“我手写我口”的境界。

五、掌握最基本的一种话题作文结构，即“三段式”结构

在初中阶段学生在尽量提升作文布局的同时，必须掌握话题文，也同样适用于议论文与记叙文的一种基本结构形式，那就是

“总—分—总”结构，也可以说是“凤头、猪肚、豹尾”结构。初中语文教材上的课文范文，70%以上都是这种三段式结构，熟练地掌握这种文章结构，不但可以作为写文章的基本保证，而且当学生随着年龄的增长，认知能力进一步发展，对文章的理解达到更高一层的境界时，自然就会举一反三，以此为基础写出更多优异结构的美文了。

总的来说，提高话题作文的写作能力，只有教师平时多关注社会动态，感悟生活，再综合多方面的方法和技巧，方能写出精彩，写出创新！

参考文献：

［1］何雨蓉。高考语文作文命题分析与对策研究［D］。东北师范大学，2012.

［2］郝玲君。高中作文有效教学指导策略和原则［D］。河北师范大学，2012.

Recently, Amy Chua, or the “Tiger Mother”, aroused heated discussions both in US and in China with her book, Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother. The following are the ten things she lists in her book that she strictly forbids her two daughters to do:

a. Attend a sleepover (a party for children in which they stay the night at someone’s house);

b. Have a play date (in which children hang out with their friends);

c. Be in a school play;

d. Complain about not being in a school play;

e. Watch TV or play computer games;

f. Choose their own extracurricular activities;

g. Get any grade less than an A;

h. Not be the No. 1 student in every subject except gym and drama;

i. Play any instrument other than the piano or violin;

j. Not play the piano or violin. You are invited to write under either of the following two topics. The length of your writing should not exceed 300 words.

(1) Suppose you are a “tiger parent”. Write a letter to your child and explain to her/him your ideas about tiger parenting.

(2) Suppose you are a child who has tiger parents. Write a letter to your parents and explain to them your ideas about tiger parenting.

[创新英语作文大赛初赛题目

一篇文章有一个好的开头能影响到一篇文章的好与次，下面是小编分享的小升初作文开头写作方法，一起来看一下吧。

一、开头抒发真情实感

例：母亲，您是一股清澈的甘泉!我是一棵绿油油的禾苗;您是早晨的太阳!我是一株刚冒出嫩芽的小草;您是湛蓝的大海!我是一条小小的鱼儿……妈妈呀!请接受女儿的这份爱!作文的题目是《……笑了》，小作者写自己为妈妈做了一件事情，看到了妈妈欣慰的笑。在开头中使用了排比、比喻的修辞直抒胸臆，赞美了妈妈，也表达了对妈妈的感恩之情。抒发了真情实感，打动读者并引起了下文。

二、开头突出文章中心

例：一直以来，我有一个高远的梦想，就是能挺起胸、昂起头，做一个成功者!然而，殊不知，没有洒下汗水的土地怎能收获丰收的喜悦?没有精心培育的大树怎能长得叶繁枝茂?只有坚持不懈、永不言弃，才可以到达成功的彼岸!

作文的题目是《成功其实离我们很近》，小作者在文章开头就点明了文章的中心，写出了要想取得成功就要“洒下汗水”、就要“精心培育”;只有坚持不懈、永不言弃才能成功。开头直接进入主题，使中心突出，读者读起来也容易抓住要领。

三、紧扣作文题目写开头

例：成功时，我会听到妈妈的声音：“孩子，你是我的骄傲!”失败时，我会听到妈妈的声音：“别灰心，下次一定行!”骄傲时，我会听到妈妈的声音：“你还可以做得更好!”……

作文的题目是《声音》，小作者紧紧围绕“声音”两个字开篇，“声音”一词出现三次，每一次还都直接写出了“声音”的具体内容。让读者感受到成长中的小作者在关键的时候总会得到来自妈妈的赞扬、鼓励、提醒的声音!显示了审题和遣词造句的能力。

例：生命是一段牵挂的行程，即使是一把伞，也是父母对儿女一份暖暖的爱。在人的一生中，有许许多多是可以淡忘的，但是有些东西却无法忘却，譬如这生命中的伞。

这是一篇课外阅读《生命中的伞》的开头，作者紧紧围绕自己的题目中“生命”和“伞”开篇，强调了一把蕴含父母之爱的伞令作者终生难忘，开篇点题，引人深思。

四、开头渲染环境气氛

例：冬季，雪花翩然飘向大地，窗外是一个粉妆玉砌的童话世界，眼前是一片晶莹的白，我的思绪也如同轻灵的雪花，舞动起来。

作文题目是《财富》，小作者写了雪花纷飞的冬季里妈妈关爱自己的一件事，通过这件事感悟到伟大的母爱是一笔最大的财富。开篇描写了特殊的自然环境，渲染了气氛，为后文对人物的描写，事情的记叙做了铺垫。

例：夜好静好静，月光悄悄洒进我的房间，我躺在床上，想着白天的事情，久久不能入睡。

作文题目是《我做的对》，小作者写的是有一定朗诵水平的自己在朗诵比赛的复赛中被淘汰了，心情不好，但当进入决赛的同学需要帮助练习时，自己经过思想斗争，毫无保留地去帮助同学。同学在比赛中胜出，自己在分享别人的快乐的同时也慨叹自己做的对。文章开头只一句话，描写了“静静的夜”，“悄悄洒进房间的月光”，营造了一个恬静的夜晚，一如小作者“做对了”后那颗坦然、满足、平静的心境。

五、结合文章内容写开头

例：小时候，听外婆讲过吃到双黄蛋的人运气好、有福气，偶尔吃到双黄蛋的我总是高兴得不得了。前一段时间尽管我一直很努力，但学习成绩总是不理想，很是郁闷。最近，爸爸为我准备的早餐中总会出现双黄蛋，每次爸爸惊喜地把双黄蛋端给我看时，我就会拥有一份好心情，学习状态也越来越好。在我庆幸双黄蛋带给我好运的时候，我发现了爸爸为我“制作”双黄蛋的秘密……

作文题目是《这就是幸福》，小作者的这篇文章是写父亲为了调整孩子的心情，故意买小鸡蛋制作出“双黄蛋”给孩子吃，孩子发现了“秘密”后被父亲感动，也感悟到自己的幸运、福气与双黄蛋无关，自己的幸福是父亲用爱给搭建的。文章的开头将这件事的内容基本概括了一遍，令读者对文章的内容有所了解。

不管是作文本身，还是开头，都没有固定的写法，就看作者用什么样的方式让各种重要的元素串联起来。有些人习惯在开头设置些悬念，有些人习惯开门见山点题……不管怎么写开头，都要符合文章的中心思想。大家根据小升初作文的具体要求，灵活运用吧，尽量寻找出一条适合自己的开头方式。

本文是由语文教案工作室上传的：总分·点面·动静·景情——《第一场雪》的写作方法。

课文《第一场雪》,运用了总分、点面、动静、景情结合的写作方法，值得我们认真琢磨：“推开门一看，嗬！好大的雪啊！山川、河流、树木、房屋，全都罩上了一层厚厚的雪，万里江山，变成了粉妆玉砌的世界。落光了叶子的柳树上挂满了毛茸茸、亮晶晶的银条儿；而那些冬夏常青的松树和柏树上，则挂满了蓬松松、沉甸甸的雪球儿。一阵风吹来，树枝轻轻地摇晃，美丽的银条儿和雪球儿簌簌地落下来，玉屑似的雪末儿随风飘扬，映着清晨的阳光，显出了一道道五光十色的彩虹。”

总分结合。引文的第1句总述雪下得“好大”，照应课文的第4节“雪纷纷扬扬，下得很大”。接着，在第2句中用的“全部”、“一层厚厚”、“粉妆玉砌”分述，突出了雪大。

点面结合。先概括写了“山川、河流、树木、房屋”、“万里江山”都“变成了粉妆玉砌的世界”；然后，运用特写的方法抓住了柳树上、松树和柏树上“挂满”的“银条儿”和“雪球儿”，进一步说明了雪大、景美。

动静结合。第2、3句对事物进行静态描写，写出了“万里江山”披上“银装”后的静态美；第4句抓住风“吹”，树枝“摇晃”，银条儿和雪球儿“落下”，雪末儿“飘扬”，写出了雪后景物的动态美。

景情结合。在作者的眼中，雪霁天晴，景色太美了。因此，作者在字里行间无处不流露出喜悦之情。用“粉妆玉砌”赞叹雪后世界，用“毛茸茸、亮晶晶”写银条儿，用“蓬松松、沉甸甸”写雪球儿。这些生动形象的描写无一不是作者真情实感的流露。

只要我们能抓住课文的上述写作手法，对欣赏文章、把握中心，会有极大益处。

要写好一个人物，无外乎是写人物的语言、行动、外貌（肖像）、心理等等。下面我就自己的感受和经验谈几点切实可用的方法或注意点：

首先，要写好人物作文，就要写自己熟悉的人。只有自己熟悉的人，才能感受得最真切最鲜活，对他（她）的一言一行，一颦一笑，才能有最直接的、深刻的印象。如下面例文《我是你爹》（见后文），写的是作者非常熟悉的人，所以全文写来既栩栩如生，又给人非常亲切的感觉。如果你写一个陌生的人，虽然也能够写，但写出来的就可能毫无特色，会是千千万万个中的一个，这样写来不要说感动别人，有时就连自己都觉得别扭、生造。

其次，要凸显人物与众不同的个性。共性的东西人人都有，写得再多作用也是不大的。只有有特色的、独具个性魅力的东西，才能给人以冲击，才能给人留下深刻的印象，才能让人拍案称奇。

第三，不要什么都写，更不要事无巨细地写，要择其一二浓彩重墨地写。这当然是要根据主题需要去择取了，决不能无的放矢。如《我是你爹》中，“爹”的话语很少，前后加起来总共才三四句而已，可一个独特的“爹”的形象却跃然纸上了。

第四，要让人物的言行、心理、个性特征等符合人物的年龄、经历、身份、文化教养等特点。不要让一个两三岁的孩子说六十岁人的话，也不要让一个无文化的老太太专说些理论大话等，否则就是无视人物的年龄、经历、身份、文化教养等特点而乱写人物，是不能写好人物的，更谈不上写出个性特点了。

第五，写人物离不开写事、写细节。要仔细地观察人物的日常行为，挖掘他们的典型事例，而且事例要新颖，因为人物的性格和品质，是通过具体的事例表现出来的。比如我们要写一个热心肠的人，就要写他怎样帮助周围的人，或哪里有困难他就在哪里出现等事例。写事的时候，我们完全可以从细节方面入手。细节描写包括对人物的动作、语言、神态和心理活动以及特定的环境等的描写。描写一个人的时候，我们要把这个人的每一个能体现人物特点的动作都描写清楚、具体、详细。

我们来看这一段话：“回到教室，大家全都涌到郭枫面前，问：”坏小子，你捐一毛钱怎么能代表我们呢？‘郭枫眨了眨眼，骄傲地说：“其实我捐了100元！说捐一毛钱，那是逗你们玩的！’听了郭枫的话，同学们哭笑不得……”这一段话把细节描写得很好，“眨了眨眼”“骄傲地说”“哭笑不得”等词语把“郭枫”可气又可笑的性格描写得淋漓尽致。

点评：

人物描写着重于刻画人物的性格，表现人物的精神面貌，应力求具体生动，能做到绘声绘色地再现“人物”，让读者如见其人，如闻其声。我们生活中会遇到形形色色的人，这时我们应该仔细观察他们外部情态的特征性表现，进而深入他们的内心，了解他们的思想性格，学习长处，获取启示。

[人物作文的写作方法

人们常说，“文无定法”，此话并不错。然而，面对初学写作的初中生，教一些基本的写作知识，有步骤地进行写作训练，这对提高他们的写作水平，使其少走弯路，是完全必要的。

一、指导学生学会观察

生活是创作的源泉。中学生写作文，也不能脱离生活。中学生的生活是丰富多彩的，可是有相当一部分学生，一提起写作文就有畏惧心理，总觉得无话可说。这是为什么呢？归根结底是平时不留心观察。写作时冥思苦想，也写不出好文章来，只有去胡编乱造了。而虚构的作文是不真实的，自然没有感人的力量。可见，观察生活是写作的前提。只有全面、细致、认真地观察生活，才能直接从生活中获取鲜活的写作素材，为写作提供丰富的营养。指导学生学会观察生活，不仅能培养学生的生活热情，写好作文，而且对学生将来从事社会科学和自然科学的研究，以及从事其他工作，也是大有裨益的。

怎样观察生活，对初一学生来讲，是个难题。作家艾芜在指导初学写作的同志时说：“要练习我们的眼睛，善于观察人的动作、态度和表情。练习我们的耳朵，善于听取别人讲话的语句、声调和他的特殊用语。”这就是说，观察生活，一是要看，二是要听。

初一学生天真活泼，好奇心强，富于激情，乐于参加活动。尤其是他们刚进入中学的时候，想了解中学的校史、设施，特别是很想了解老师和同学。抓住他们这一心理特点，开学不久，我就让他们自选一位任课教师作为观察对象。观察的内容是：年龄、性别、身高、体型、脸型、肤色、发型、衣着打扮（颜色、款式、质地）、表情，特别是眼神，以及老师上课的语言和动作等。观察的时间是四个星期。对观察的要求是：

第一，要抓住人物的特征。人物的外貌、性格、感情各不相同。只有抓住观察对象的与众不同之处，才能写出人物的个性，才能避免“千人一面”的弊端。

第二，观察要细致。所谓细致，不是说在观察人物时不分主次，而是要发现观察对象与别人不同的细微之处。不同性格的人，说话、做事时的表现是不同的。人物的一个动作，一丝微笑，往往带有性格化的特征。所以，观察必须细致入微。观察得越细致、越深入，印象就越清晰，理解就更深刻，描述就更具体、更生动形象。

第三，比较观察。有比较才有鉴别。比较的目的是求异。在观察时，要抓住老师在各种情形下所表现出来的不同特征，即生气时、高兴时、严肃时……言谈举止和精神状态的不同点。这样，才能使人物形象跃然纸上。

四个星期后，每个学生都按要求写了观察笔记。写作之前，我再次强调，描写必须突出人物特征，不要求面面俱到。在我的指导下，大多数学生的作文，对老师的描写颇为生动逼真。

例如王瑞琦同学，在描写数学郭老师的外貌时，突出了老师眉毛和眼睛的特征。她是这样描写的：“他的眉毛非常黑，长得像两个锐角三角形，挺有个性。眼睛不大，可很有神。”她在写郭老师上课时，突出了“教学有方”的特点。文中写道：“每当我们上数学课时，班上总是很活跃，时时传出爽朗的笑声。最有趣的是提问。郭老师叫同学回答问题时，嘴角总是微微向上翘，流露出一丝笑意。有的同学答错了，一见老师的表情，以为自己答得挺不错，竟很得意，就稀里糊涂地说起来，惹得大家哄堂大笑。有的同学答对了，郭老师反会问上一句：‘对吗？’这个同学也就犹豫起来。在这种情况下，郭老师就会让同学们互相讨论，最后他才把正确答案告诉我们。这样，既能让我们认真思考、活跃思维，又能使我们对所学的概念有了深刻的理解。”这篇作文之所以写得成功，关键是观察的细致。

为了进一步调动学生写作的积极性，巩固在观察中的收获，我要求学生认真总结观察的过程和体会。王瑞琦同学总结道：“我是数学课代表，与郭老师接触得多，我不放过每一次见面的机会，认真观察他的外貌，我发现他的眉毛很有特色。他给我的主要感受就是提问时很有趣。所以上课时，我就仔细观察他提问时的神态、说话的语气、语调以及动作上的一些特点。如果我不用心观察，就无法获得具体的感受与认识，也就不能把人物的外貌及性格特征真切地表现出来。”通过这次作文，同学们都尝到了观察的甜头，作文时再不愁没有可写的了。

二、写熟悉的人和事

指导学生写作，我还要求学生写自己熟悉的人和事。因为熟悉的人和事，都是自己了解透彻、认识深刻、感受深切的，写作时就能准确地把握住写作对象的个性特征，就能写得真实自然，生动形象，具有感人的力量。

日常生活中，学生接触最多的是父母、老师和同学。因此，学生对他们的外貌、性格、爱好、思想品质等了如指掌，描写时自然容易抓住人物的特点。但是要想让学生把人物写得有血有肉，还必须在写法上给他们以具体的指导。我的具体做法是：

第一，写人物说了什么，做了什么。

描写人物大体是从外貌、语言、动作和心理入手。但是在一篇写人为主的记叙文中，这四个方面并非要全写，有时外貌和心理可以不写，当然，要根据具体情况而决定。然而人物说的话、做的事必须要写，而且还要写得具体、真切。否则，就难以表现人物的思想品质或精神风貌。

第二，写人物怎样说的，怎样做的。

写人物说话，要写出在不同场合说话时的表情、姿态和神色。写人物做事，要一步步地写出人物的动作，或处理问题的方式方法等。不管是语言描写，还是动作描写，都要符合人物的年龄、身份、职业、习惯等，否则就会平平淡淡、干干巴巴，不能表现出人物的个性化特征。

第三，让人物自我表演。

学生写作前，我强调指出写人物说话、做事，最好让人物自己说、自己做。作者要像故事片中的导演，在幕后指挥，让人物自我表演。而不要像纪录片中的解说员，自己一味地介绍。这样，笔下的人物才富有立体感，才能产生“如见其人”、“如闻其声”的良好效果。

例如沈静同学的作文《一位让我敬爱的人》，描写的人物是我校的张校长，作文选取了两个事例，表现张校长对工作认真负责、关心同学的好品质。其中的一个事例是这样写的：“星期六上午我们也得上课。早晨，我早早来到教室，刚脱下外衣，就冷得打颤。一个声音在我耳边响起：‘冷吗？教室里暖气热吗？’那么亲切。我回头一看，原来是张校长。她走到暖气前，摸了摸，摇摇头，显出几分焦急和不安……快上课了，张校长又来了，对我们说：‘同学们，这几天冷，大家要多喝热水，有条件的要每天喝两袋板兰根，预防感冒，记住了吗？要当作业来完成。’然后用手扶了一下眼镜，到别的班去了。”这篇作文，注意让人物自我表演，所以，给人留下了较深刻的印象。

指导学生写熟悉的事，我主要是让他们写自己经历的事。学生自己是参与者，对事情发展的全过程以及各个阶段的特点，都十分清楚，写起来自然比较容易。尤其能够把自己的感受与认识写进去，从而揭示出事情的意义。那么，怎样叙事才能具体、真切呢？我是这样指导的。

第一，要交代清楚记叙的要素。

记叙的要素包括时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过和结果。叙事时，要交代清楚什么时间、什么地点、什么人物、什么事情以及事情发生的前因后果。这六要素，只有在不妨碍别人看明白的情况下，才可以省略其中的一两个。

学生在叙事时，一般都能写清时间、地点、人物、事情的起因和结果，却往往把事情的过程叙述得非常简单、空泛，不能给人留下什么印象。为解决这一难点，我就强化训练学生写好事情的发展过程，力求在短期内，达到一定的效果。

第二，写好矛盾冲突和结局。

由于年龄、时代的差异，学生在家里会与家长发生矛盾冲突，在学校会与老师、同学发生矛盾冲突，即使自己，也会在思想上产生矛盾冲突。经过双方的共同努力或自己的觉悟，矛盾冲突最终会得以妥善解决的。我要求学生写作文尽量写好事物发展过程中的矛盾冲突，并且力争写出出人意料之外，又合乎情理之中的结局，使文章曲折动人，富有吸引力。

例如罗飞雪同学的作文《一字之争》，就写得很好。他在作文中写道：他爸爸让他背诵唐代贺知章的诗《回乡偶书》。当他背到“乡音无改鬓毛衰”时，他爸爸严肃地批评他，为什么把“衰”字读成“ｃｕī”了。罗飞雪听了，很委屈地说：“爸，是您错了，（衰）字在这里就读（ｃｕī）。”他本以为父子之间又得来一场面红耳赤的唇枪舌战。而他爸爸却搬出几本字典、词典，与他一同查找，结果费了一个半小时的时间，也没有查到。罗飞雪就不耐烦地说：“爸，算了吧，就听您的念（ｓｈｕāｉ）吧。”他爸爸听后，反而更加严厉地对他说：“什么叫算了，做学问，就要老老实实，认认真真，有错必改！”他只好硬着头皮继续查找。两个小时过去了，他爸爸忽然捧着《古代汉语》高兴地叫起来，说这里就是读（ｃｕī），“爸爸错怪你了，向你认错！”作文最后写道：“爸爸是个工程师，知识渊博，竟然向我认了错，可在‘认真’二字上，我却输给了爸爸。”这篇作文写得成功的根本原因是把矛盾冲突表现得合情合理，结局出人意料，作文的主题也突出了。

三、片断写作训练

写整篇作文固然重要，但费时较多。因此，在指导学生写整篇作文的同时，我还指导学生写片断练习，以突出写作训练的重点，二者交叉进行，不断提高学生的写作能力。

所谓“片断”就是一篇文章中的一段。一篇完整的文章都由不同的片断组成。所以，写好片断对写好整篇文章是很有帮助的。

怎样写好片断呢？我向学生提出四点要求。

第一，要围绕一个中心写。因为是片断，内容要集中，不能漫无边际地写。

第二，要真实。必须写自己的亲身经历或写自己的观察所得，不能脱离生活，编造离奇的故事。

第三，要具体。写出自己所看到的或听到的情景，不能空洞无物。

第四，要写出自己的点滴感受。也就是要赋予片断一定的思想意义。

初一学生年龄小，能力有限，面对纷繁的大千世界，往往不知从何下笔。我就出一些题目，如《街头见闻》、《早晨》、《招待客人》等。有时，我规定出写作范围，如场面描写、心理描写等，让学生自拟题目。但无论命题，还是自拟题，都必须按照我提的四点要求去写。

经过反复的训练，取得了可喜的成绩。例如李峥同学写的《街头见闻》，全文是这样的：

下午，在放学回家的路上，我看到了一个可爱的小女孩。她看上去只有六、七岁，红润的脸庞上，有一双明亮的小圆眼睛，翘着小鼻子，穿着一件花毛衣。她手里拿着一封信，蹦蹦跳跳地跑到邮筒前，信上的字迹歪歪扭扭。她踮着脚尖，刚要投入，忽地又把手缩了回来，用小手轻轻地抚摸着信封。而后，她又踮起脚，当她再一次投放的时候，她又犹豫了。接着，她又把信很快地抽了回来，在信封上面轻轻地吻了一下，才投进信筒。之后，才蹦蹦跳跳地跑远了，一个小花点消失在我的视野里。

我猜测着，她的信是寄给谁的呢？但我深信，无论是寄给她远在外地的父母，寄给抚养她长大的奶奶，还是寄给她的伙伴，她的真挚的感情，都会使那个人感动的。她不是把我这个与她素不相识的姐姐都给感动了吗？

这篇片断把小女孩投信时，那欲投又舍不得投的矛盾心理，描绘得惟妙惟肖；小女孩纯真的感情，着实令人感动。这个小片断虽不足四百字，却像一幅画面，展现在读者面前，颇有感染力。这是作者细心观察、用心体会生活，并按老师要求认真写作的结果。

像这样真实具体、清新简洁的片断还很多。如梁丽华同学的《等》、王雪莉同学的《钥匙终于找到了》，都通过多侧面的描写，层层深入地写出了自己的急切心情。郑铁同学的《送别》，描述了爸爸在南昌火车站送他和妈妈回北京时，一家人难舍难分的场面，都很真切感人。

写小片断的效果如何呢？对此，我曾做过调查。大多数学生认为，写小片断自己确定中心，自己选材、费时不多，自由灵活，能提高观察能力，有话可说，又为写大作文积累了材料，对提高写作水平很有帮助。

四、教学生自批作文

修改文章是写作的重要环节。鲁迅先生说：“写完后至少看两遍，竭力将可有可无的字、句、段删去，毫不可惜。”他在《我怎样写起小说来》这篇文章里又说：“我做完之后，总要看两遍，自己觉得拗口的，就增删几个字，一定要它读得顺口。”这是鲁迅先生修改文章的经验之谈。然而，学生写完作文，往往一遍也不检查，一字也不修改，就匆匆交给老师。这样马马虎虎，主要是写作态度不端正。但是，学生不会修改文章，也是个实际问题。

就修改文章而言，并没有什么固定的方法。初一学生写作能力很有限，让他们自己修改文章，就更加困难了。所以，必须教给他们一些方法。

第一，是朗读。让学生明白只有读，才能发现错别字和不合语法的病句。语感是最好的“老师”。所以，学生写作文后，我让他们放声读两遍。有时，还让他们录音，然后放录音，听听是否有词句的错误。听到有问题的地方，用笔划出来。这种方法简单、易做，学生乐于接受。

第二，介绍词句修改的具体方法。

1、删。删去多余的字、词、句，使语言简洁明快。如：“我从没到过世界公园，这一次还是头一次到世界公园。”头一次到世界公园，当然以前没到过。因此，“从没到过世界公园，这一次”，都应该删掉。

2、增。增加一两个或几个字，使语句明确、生动、流畅。如：“他拉开门，拿出一听可乐。”拉开什么门呢？不明确。“门”前面应该增加“冰箱”两个字。再如：“老师生气了，看着我。”在“看着我”前应加上“瞪着眼”三个字，就能生动地表现出“老师生气”的样子。

3、调。调整语序，使表达合乎逻辑。如：“我生日那天，姑姑送给我很漂亮的一件毛衣”。”“很漂亮”这个短语，是修饰毛衣的，而不是修饰“一件”的，应调到“毛衣”的前面，才合情理。

4、换。换个词或句子，使表达更严密。如：“对如何减轻学生课业负担的问题，我们争吵得很激烈。”对严肃问题发表看法，用“争吵”来表达是不妥当的，应换成“争论”或“争辩”。

5、改。作文中的错别字和标点符号的错误，应认真对待，予以改正。

以上是给学生所讲的五种修改方法，所举例句，都是学生自己用我讲的方法修改的。在修改中，我要求学生运用教材中介绍的修改符号，予以改正。在学生自改的基础上，再让学生互改。两人或几人一组，相互评论，取长补短，共同提高。

至于对作文的选材、立意、结构等进行修改，由于初一学生水平的限制，暂没有提出更高的要求。我只要求学生写作之前，列出提纲，确定好中心，选好材料，安排好结构，然后按提纲作文。

题目审好后，第二步就是确定选材的问题，也就是写什么的问题，即文章的内容。材料选得好，文章就成功了一半，怎样才能选好材呢？请记住选材的口诀：

选材熟悉最重要，材料真实才可靠；典型事例有意义，新颖有趣为最好；围绕题旨选材料，感情真挚得分高；考场作文时间紧，选材原则要记牢。

老师在阅卷时，对学生的习作常常会有似曾相识燕归来的感觉。材料平淡，材料老套，没有新意。比如：《成功》——终于获奖了。《快乐》——获奖了，考好了，非常快乐。《苦恼》——成绩不好，真苦恼。《苦难后的芬芳》——成绩变好了，上次没考好，这次考好了。《难忘的一件事》——获奖的一次经历。许多考生，选材没有新意，就一个材料换汤不换药。

有的考生，背优秀习作，写起作文来，脑子里就搜索范文，张冠李戴套上去，让阅卷老师一瞧就知道不是真实的，作文没有真情实感，自然不能得高分。

同学们写不出真实熟悉的东西，关键是肚子里没货，平时不注意积累，不注重观察生活，其实生活是丰富多彩的，只要你做生活的有的人，留意生活，在生活中你一定会发现许多值得写的东西，积累起来，就是写作的材料。罗丹：生活中去少的不是美，而是发现。对于我们来说，生活是万花筒，是百科全书。生活中的许多闪光点，都具有典型性，都是典型的事例。生活有三大块组成家庭生活、学校生活、社会生活。这三方面的生活都为我们提供了取之不尽的写作源泉。然而作文不是材料的堆积，因此我们要注意材料的取舍和选择。

选用材料的标准：

一．材料要以真实为基础，写自己熟悉的东西。作文写的感情真挚动人，材料就要感人。作文的材料真实不是指材料的原始再现，而是指经过提炼，比现实生活更加鲜明，更加强烈，更加集中。比如事情的完整性、材料的理想性人物典型性等方面，要适当的进行加工。我们可将几个人的事情加在一个人身上，几个人的品质加在一个人身上，来深化人物和主题。

二．选材要典型有意义。指的是所选的材料是有代表性的，有意义的。因为有代表性的材料能以一当十、以个别反映一般，从而深刻而全面的反映事物本质。比如有位考生写《这事发生在我班》，选取了班上有个叫李玲的同学为灾区捐献300元。一人就捐出了占全班三分之二多，可谓突出、意义重大的事例。当然还可写平时吝啬的人捐出很多钱，这也是典型。学习上，平时不吭一声的人，突然在这堂课上发言了这也是典型

三．选材要新颖而生动做到：人无我有，人有我新，人新我奇。有的时间，换个角度想问题，可以老材料出新意。比如：让座是老掉了牙的材料，有一考生把让座写成谢座，使材料新颖了。有一位中学生让座给一位带小孩的妇女，这位妇女教小孩谢谢大哥哥，借孩子之口表达感激之情，到站了，这位妇女让孩子再次说谢谢大哥哥，大哥哥再见，再一次借孩子之口表示谢意。作者从中感悟，做了一点好事，得到的回报是一谢再谢。

四。在选材时，我们要首选打动自己的材料，如果所选材料一提起来自己就很感动，亏他想得出来的事件，是写出来一定能打动人，只有先打动自己，然后才能打动他人，这样的材料行之以文，感情真挚，得分一定会高。凡是考场上的满分作文，首先得力于选材的成功。所以说，选好了材料，文章就成功了一半。

【选材导练】

文题一：以良师为题，写一篇不少于600字的文章，体裁不限。

[点拨]

虽是全命题作文，但既无提示，又无其他限制，只要所写突出良师即可。这道题开放度很大，为学生提供了展现个性的广阔空间。要在选材上闪出创新的亮色，应把握以下几点。

1、多考生写教学上认真生活上关心的良师这类第一构思，选择医治心灵创伤等内容为题材，在读者面前凸现一个良医式的良师形象。

2、跳出一篇写一人的常规思维，从印象深刻的众多良师形象中选出若干最具美丽的场面，构成良师群体，从不同角度表现主题。

3、打破以人为师的框框，选取生活中通过暗示间接地教育你的事物为叙写对象，展现这些不开口的良师的内蕴美。你可以写黑板——心甘情愿地把自己漆成一身黑色，为的是能清楚地衬托出粉笔字的白；你可以写扫帚——同污秽赃物势不两立，必欲扫除之而后快，而当人们在赞美优美清洁的环境时，在议论该给谁一个荣誉称号时，它却躲到了不为人注意的墙角；你可以写橡皮——宁可天天承受磨砺身躯的痛苦，但决不放过白纸上一丝一毫的错误；当然你还可以写坚忍不拔的小草，写任劳任怨的老牛，写团结互助的大雁等等，应该注意的是，无论写何物为良师，你都要揭示你对它独特的感悟，亮出有个性的视角。

4、你如果对良师的判断标准有切身的体会，如果你对校内外良师的个案材料比较熟悉，那么你不应该随写记叙文之大流，写一篇观点和材料都较有个性的议论文，说说你对何为良师的独特见解。

文题二：《还我课外天地》

现有三则材料可供选用——

①学生课业负担过重，不能顾及课外天地。

②学校、家长卡得紧，不敢顾及课外天地。

你不妨想一想，①②两则选用者肯定很多，③则会少一些，你便可淘汰①②而取③。

文题三：以心中的美丽为话题

[点拨]：可选文学作品中的人物美、历史中的情感美等等。有，二泉映月的凄美，高山流水的情美，霸王别姬的壮美；有，长江黄河的奔腾咆哮之美，林间夜月的幽静雅致之美；有，歌坛上一展歌喉的婉转动人之美，舞台上千姿百态之美，赛场上叱咤风云之美，等等。

文题四：以感受青春为话题

[点拨]

本题就可以在体育界、歌坛上、商海里、战场上等等地方各选一位年轻有为的人物，写出他们青春的亮丽与风采。

文题五：以美在夏季为话题

[点拨]

本题可选不同人物眼里的夏季之美，如简真的《夏之绝句》、李清照的《如梦令》、辛弃疾的《西江月》、还有一首流行歌曲《盛夏的果实》、峻青的《海滨仲夏夜》等。

一、执行总结

是商业计划的一到两页的概括。包括：

1、本商业（business）的简单描述（亦即“电梯间陈词”）

2、机会概述

3、目标市场的描述和预测

4、竞争优势

5、经济状况和盈利能力预测

6、团队概述

7、提供的利益

二、产业背景和公司概述

1、详细的市场描述，主要的竞争对手，市场驱动力

2、公司概述应包括详细的产品/服务描述以及它如何满足一个关键的顾客需求。

3、一定要描述你的进入策略和市场开发策略

三、市场调查和分析

这是表明你对市场了解程度的窗口。一定要阐释以下问题：

1、顾客

2、市场容量和趋势

3、竞争和各自的竞争优势

4、估计的市场份额和销售额

5、市场发展的走势（对于新市场而言，这一点相当困难，但一定要力争贴近真实）

四、公司战略

阐释公司如何进行竞争，它包括三个问题

1、营销计划 （定价和分销；广告和提升）

2、规划和开发计划（开发状态和目标；困难和风险）

3、制造和操作计划 （操作周期；设备和改进）

五、总体进度安排

公司的进度安排，包括以下领域的重要事件

1、收入

2、收支平衡点和正现金流

3、市场份额

4、产品开发介绍

5、主要合作伙伴

6、融资

六、关键的风险、问题和假定

1、创业者常常对于公司的假定和将面临的风险不够现实

2、说明你将如何应付风险和问题（紧急计划）

3、在眼光的务实性和对公司的潜力的乐观之间达成仔细的平衡

七、管理团队

1、介绍公司的管理团队。一定要介绍各成员与管理公司有关的教育和工作背景

2、注意管理分工和互补

3、最后，要介绍领导层成员，商业顾问以及主要的投资人和持股情况

八、企业经济状况

介绍公司的财务计划，讨论关键的财务表现驱动因素。一定要讨论如下几个杠杆：

1、毛利和净利

2、盈利能力和持久性

3、固定的、可变的和半可变的成本

4、达到收支平衡所需的月数

5、达到正现金流所需的月数

九、财务预测

1、包括收入报告，平衡报表，前两年为季度报表，前五年为年度报表

2、同一时期的估价现金流分析

3、突出成本控制系统

十、假定公司能够提供的利益

这是你的“卖点”，包括

1、总体的资金需求

2、在这一轮融资中你需要的是哪一级

3、你如何使用这些资金

4、投资人可以得到的回报

5、你还可以讨论可能的投资人退出策略

商业计划书应该注意的几点

当你在写商业计划的时候，应该达到下列目标：

1、力求表述清楚简洁。

2、关注市场，用事实说话，因此需展示市场调查和市场容量。

3、解释潜在顾客为什么会掏钱买你的产品或服务。

4、站在顾客的角度考虑问题，提出引导他们进入你的销售体系的策略。

5、在头脑中要形成一个相对比较成熟的投资退出策略。

6、充分说明为什么你和你的团队最合适作这件事。

7、请你的读者做出反馈。

当你做商业计划并向投资者提交时，必须避免下列问题：

1、对产品/服务的前景过分乐观，令人产生不信任感。

2、数据没有说服力，比如拿出一些与产业标准相去甚远的数据。

3、导向是产品或服务，而不是市场。

4、对竞争没有清醒的认识，忽视竞争威胁。

5、选择进入的是一个拥塞的市场，企图后来居上。

6、商业计划显得非常不专业，比如缺乏应有的数据、过分简单或冗长。

7、不是仔细寻求最有可能的投资者，而是滥发材料。

导语：小编给大家介绍一种写作方法，叫特叙记述法，下面小编跟大家细说，附带优秀例文给大家参考~欢迎阅读~

特叙记述法，是指把观察点集中于一个场面，在这个场面中又把镜头集中于一个主要人物或景物上，着力加以叙述或描写的一种写作方法。采用特叙记述法，能突出人或事的特征部分或重点部分，以更有力地表现内容。

如王愿坚的《七根火柴》，以红军长征过草地为背景，截取一个虽然微小却非常感人的场面来进行特叙记述以表现红军战士的崇高品质。特别是那个无名战士，向战友交出自己保存的七根火柴，然后，手指进军的远方，向人世告别了的特殊情景，使无名战士的形象就像一座屹立在茫茫草原上的雕像。这突出地表现了一种崇高的革命信念和光辉的革命品格。

运用特叙记述法应根据文章内容的轻重、材料的主次而定，运用得当，可使文章主题突出，笔力集中，或交代，或渲染，收到引人注目的艺术效果。

优秀例文

泰山黎明

风，凉嗖嗖的;天，黑沉沉的。山风送来了细雨一般的浓密、清凉、甘甜、朗润的晨雾。不一会儿，头发上、眉毛上就结了一层晶莹的露珠，连披在身上的棉大衣都潮湿了，这就是泰山极顶上的黎明。为了去看日出，我起得很早，在这黎明前的黑暗中，心急情迫，随着黑糊糊的人影，向日观峰走去。

当我提心吊胆地走过那山坡和陡崖间夹着的羊肠小道，来到日观峰时，这里已经来了许多人。天渐渐地发亮了，但四周仍是灰蒙蒙的。翻卷的云雾铺天盖地而来，吞没了整个山头。朦胧中，观日台像一只巨大的、伏卧的青蛙，从山崖边探身云间。

山势很陡，雾大找不到路，我们穿着笨重的大衣，攀着草柯，如牛负重，步履艰难。山愈高，风愈大。风卷晨雾，钻进人的袖口里，脖领里，使人浑身直打颤。

忽然，天空骤然豁亮，强劲的山风撕开了漫天云雾，白茫茫的云海展现在眼前。接着，东方泛起一抹胭脂红的云霞，山头上的人们顿时欢呼雀跃，欣喜若狂，但云霞转瞬即逝。

我懊丧地合上照相机，看看表再过五分钟就该日出了，我焦急地等待着。

“日出啦!”人们不约而同地翘首眺望东方，一轮红日自苍苍莽莽的万顷云海，以磅礴之势喷薄而出。光芒四射，朝霞万道，映得岭岭嫣红娇媚。

山头上烟消云散，视野辽阔，周围的景象清晰可辨。远远近近，层峦叠嶂，青山直插云霄。太阳升高了，云蒸霞蔚，气象万千。啊!这是怎样的“造化钟神秀”啊!快摄下吧，摄下这泰山极顶的胜景，摄下这祖国山河的妖娆。此时此际，我才悟出这唐人诗的妙处：“会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。”

此刻，我仿佛站在一艘巨大的船上，而那凸出的观日台就像高高的舰首;又犹如驰骋在云波翻滚的海洋。我陶醉了，我向着太阳欢笑!向着祖国的壮丽河山欢笑!

电子手表同机械手表相比较，既方便又经济，作为一种新型的计时工具，已越来越 多地进入到人们的生活中。

最初的电子手表主要是由晶体管和钮扣电池组成的。由于结构简单，功能也不完善，一般只 可显示简单的时间(精确度为一秒)，外型也较笨重、粗陋。现在较简单的电子手表内部结构 已有了变化，加入了二极管、简单的电子计算机记忆程序等，精确度提高到01秒。另外还 可整点报时、放音乐、指示星期几、夜间亮灯照明等，对方便人们的生活起了不少作用。

随着科学技术的不断发展，电子手表也在不断进步。除了以上所谈到的较普通的功能外，近 年来又出现了许多使用高科技成果的新产品。如1982年日本制的第一只电视手表。它由一个 带日历的电子手表和一个12英寸的黑白液晶显像屏组成。外型精巧，体积为487×398 ×9毫米３，重约50克，兼带耳机及调谐装置，既可作为手表显示时、分、秒、日历等， 又可作为电视，收听伴音、短波，还可通过调谐器选择频道，调节音量及调节画面光亮度。 还有一种电子脉搏表，重量不到30克，是由一个小型秒表连接一架微型计算机构成。把它戴 在手腕上，就可精确地测出每分钟脉搏次数，并用数字显示出来。

这种表可以很好地协助运 动员参加体育训练。另外有一种会说话的电子表，没有指针及数字，表盘上只显示一个机器 人的脸。那么它是如何向人们报告时间的呢?原来在它的内部装有一个报时的机械装置，只 要按动表上的按钮，就会有一个摹拟的女声报时。这种表对于盲人和视力差的人来说是一种 极好的计时工具。另一种电子手表能对聋哑人进行帮助，在这种手表上装有一个微型话筒， 用来接收3米内发出的声音，将声音输入表内的微型计算机，经过分析，声音信号便可传递 给手表附件中一个发光二极管，使其产生视觉信号。聋哑人根据看到的不同符号，就可以判 断出对方讲话的内容。

除此之外，各种新型的电子手表还可以测量体温、通讯联络及用作精密的野外观测等。我们 相信，在科技飞跃发展的明天，电子手表将发挥巨大的潜力，更好地为人类服务。

在这篇文章中，作者通过将电子手表与机械手表的造型、工艺、使用方法作比较，准 确地说明电子表越来越多地走入人们的生活中的原因。

总之，说明的方法很多，还可以列出许多种，如数字法、图表法、拟人法、顺序法等，不再 一一列举。但不管是哪种方法都要注意到科学性、准确性，为说明、阐释事物服务。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

书信是人们交流思想感情、互通信息的一种应用文体，一般书信的写法。它通过邮寄或传送等方式递送到对方 手中。尽管当今电讯越来越发展，但书信仍然是人们日常生活、工作中不可缺少的交际工具 。下面是小编为你带来的书信的写作方法：如何表达真情实感，希望对你有帮助。

书信，是工作、生活中最常见、常用的一种应用文。是个人与个人、个人与家庭、个人与社会(某单位)之间交流、沟通的交际工具，也是相互联系的一种方法和手段。尽管现在科学技术不断发展、不断现代法，已经用电话、移动电话、计算机网上交流等快捷的方式替代了写信，但作小学生还是应该掌握写信的一些方法和技巧。应为只有会写信，才能学会在纸上、在计算机上、在电话里发表自己的看法，表达自己的意愿。写信，就是学会表达，学会写文章。

信的形式以记叙文为主。表达的特点可以是一个中心内容，也可以是几个主题。想要向对方讲几件事都可以，它是一种最自由，嘴便于表达思想、抒发情感的方式。写信要把握四个大方面。第一，学会写信封;第二，掌握写信的格式和方法;第三，向对方说清楚自己要表达的意思;第四，根据与收信人的关系，语言要运用得体。

小学生必须学会写信，这样可以给今后的学习、生活、工作带来很多方便和益处。

英文日记和汉语日记一样，是用来记叙一天中所发生的有意义的事情或对将来的打算等。以下是小编整理的英语日记写作的格式，欢迎阅读！

日记可分为记事、议论、描写及抒情等。记事型是用英语记述当天自己生活学习中发生的事情。议论型是对生活中的某一事情或情况现象谈自己的看法，发表议论。描写型或抒情型，则是对某人物事物的特征做细致的描述，或针对某事物抒发自己的感情。

1、格式：

一般是在左上角记上当天日期，星期，时间的排列法与书信一致，星期写在日期之后；右上角写上当天的天气情况，表示天气情况的词一般是形容词，如：fine（晴朗的），cold（寒冷的），snowy（下雪），sunny（阳光充足的），rainy（下雨的），cloudy（阴天的）等。日记的小标题写在下一行，也可省略不写。

2、时态：

写日记的时间一般是在下午、晚上，有时也可以在第二天补写，因此，日记中所记述的事情通常发生在过去，常用一般过去时；但当记述天气、描写景色或展望未来时，可以用一般现在时或一般将来时。

写法大致和写汉语日记相同，都是在正文之前有日期、星期几及当天的天气情况。注意内容表达要清楚连贯、准确。

扩展阅读：

日期格式用月日年（美式）或日月年（英式）都可以

1. 年、月、日都写时，通常以月、日、年为顺序，月份可以缩写，日和年用逗号隔开，例如：december 18, xx或者dec. 18, xx。

2. 如果要写星期，星期要紧挨日期，它既可以放在日期前面，也可以放在日期后面，星期也可以省略不写。星期和日期之间不用标点，但要空一格，星期也可缩写，例如：thursday dec. 18, xx或dec.18，xx thursday

3. 天气情况必不可少，天气一般用一个形容词如:sunny, fine, rainy, snowy等表示。天气通常位于日记的右上角。

近年来中考作文大多为话题作文。相对命题作文和半命题作文而言，话题作文首先要求学生围绕话题拟一个恰当的题目。但常常见到话题作文的考卷上，或因粗心不写题目；或因懒于思考直接用原话题；或缺乏创新，拟定的题目千篇一律，毫无新意。这样，都会不同程度地对整篇文章产生不良影响。要知道，一个巧妙的题目不仅能调动阅读老师的阅读兴趣，而且能让阅卷老师很快捕捉到文章所要表达的中心，为进一步理解全文奠定基础。

当然，拟题是需要技巧的，或以题揭示中心，或以题引人深思。或借用修辞，或巧用诗句，或展开联想，例如，以“梦”、“梦想”为话题，下面这些题目都令人耳目一新。《想做英雄》《我生活在梦想的盒子里》(以题揭示中心)，《现实和梦想有多远》(以题引人深思)，《梦如潮水》《给心灵插上翅膀》(借用修辞)，《手可摘星辰》《梦想与人生齐飞》(巧用诗句)，《种子的梦想》《化作轻风》(展开联想)。

求真求深立新意。考场作文在立意上主要存在三个方面的问题：一是立意不真或空喊高调，矫揉造作；或编造悲剧，博得同情；二是立意不深。叙述生活，却不能深层次地挖掘生活中潜隐的哲理；三是立意不新。不能多角度审视生活，品味生活，尤其是不能写出自己对生活独特的心灵体验。如果同学们在考场上注意以上三点，就能在作文立意上独显风格。下面这篇习作之所以能得到认可，就是因为在立意上求真，写出了自己真实的生活，独特的心里感受，同时也挖掘出了生活背后令人深思的哲理。

“……面对这一切(指学业上所遇到的艰难痛苦)，我想逃避，但看到父母眼中闪烁着期待的目光，我又不忍心这样做。无意间，看到李敖说的一句话：?不怕苦，苦半辈子；怕苦，苦一辈子，?仅仅十三个字，就彻彻底底地征服了我，让我心中树起一座标牌，上面清晰地刻着?苦?字，然后是一个前进的标志。其实，真正地习惯了苦的生活，反而变得充实起来。一天忙碌之后，感觉如同沐浴后那样舒坦、惬意。”

下面是语文迷网为大家整理的一些英语写作常用的句子，希望对你有帮助。

1、Time flies.

时光易逝。

2、Time is money.

一寸光阴一寸金。

3、Time and tide wait for no man.

岁月无情;岁月易逝;岁月不待人。

4、Time tries all.

时间检验一切。

5、Time tries truth.

时间检验真理。

6、Time past cannot be called back again.

光阴一去不复返。

7、All time is no time when it is past.

光阴一去不复返。

8、No one can call back yesterday;Yesterday will not be called again.

昨日不复来。

9、Tomorrow comes never.

切莫依赖明天。

10、One today is worth two tomorrows.

一个今天胜似两个明天。

11、The morning sun never lasts a day.

好景不常;朝阳不能光照全日。

12、Christmas comes but once a year.

圣诞一年只一度。

13、Pleasant hours fly past.

快乐时光去如飞。

14、Happiness takes no account of time.

欢娱不惜时光逝。

15、Time tames the strongest grief.

时间能缓和极度的悲痛。

16、The day is short but the work is much.

工作多，光阴迫。

17、Never deter till tomorrow that which you can do today.

今日事须今日毕，切勿拖延到明天。

18、Have you somewhat to do tomorrow,do it today.

明天如有事，今天就去做。

19、To him that does everything in its proper time,one day is worth three.

事事及时做，一日胜三日。

20、To save time is to lengthen life.

节省时间就是延长生命。

21、Everything has its time and that time must be watched.

万物皆有时，时来不可失。

22、Take time when time cometh,lest time steal away.

时来必须要趁时，不然时去无声息。

23、When an opportunity is neglected,it never comes back to you.

机不可失，时不再来;机会一过，永不再来。

24、Make hay while the sun shines.

晒草要趁太阳好。

25、according to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.依照最近的一项调查，每年有4 000 000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

26、although this view is wildly held, this is little evidence that education can be obtained at any age and at any place.尽管这一观点被广泛接受，很少有证据表明教育能够在任何地点、任何年龄进行。

27、an increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。

28、in fact, we have to admit the fact that the quality of life is as important as life itself.事实上，我们必须承认生命的质量和生命本身一样重要。

28、in the last decades, advances in medical technology have made it possible for people to live longer than in the past.在过去的几十年，先进的医疗技术已经使得人们比过去活得时间更长成为可能。

30、in view of the seriousness of this problem, effective measures should be taken before things get worse.考虑到问题的严重性，在事态进一步恶化之前，必须采取有效的措施。

31、it is indisputable that there are millions of people who still have a miserable life and have to face the dangers of starvation and exposure.无可争辩，现在有成千上万的人仍过着挨饿受冻的痛苦生活。

32、many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a person’s physical fitness.许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康

33、many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a person’s physical fitness.许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

34、no invention has received more praise and abuse than internet.没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评

35、no one can deny the fact that a person’s education is the most important aspect of his life.没有人能否认：教育是人生最重要的一方面。

36、people equate success in life with the ability of operating computer.人们把会使用计算机与人生成功相提并论。

37、people seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。

38、proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful effects of international tourism.应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量，努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。

39、the latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感

40、the majority of students believe that part-time job will provide them with more opportunities to develop their interpersonal skills, which may put them in a favorable position in the future job markets.大部分学生相信业余工作会使他们有更多机会发展人际交往能力，而这对他们未来找工作是非常有好处的。

作文是写人记事的，或多或少都要写到人。下面是小编分享的描写人物作文的写作方法，欢迎大家阅读！

首先，要写好人物作文，就要写自己熟悉的人。只有自己熟悉的人，才能感受得最真切最鲜活，对他（她）的一言一行，一颦一笑，才能有最直接的、深刻的印象。如下面例文《我是你爹》（见后文），写的是作者非常熟悉的人，所以全文写来既栩栩如生，又给人非常亲切的感觉。如果你写一个陌生的人，虽然也能够写，但写出来的就可能毫无特色，会是千千万万个中的一个，这样写来不要说感动别人，有时就连自己都觉得别扭、生造。

其次，要凸显人物与众不同的个性。共性的东西人人都有，写得再多作用也是不大的。只有有特色的、独具个性魅力的东西，才能给人以冲击，才能给人留下深刻的印象，才能让人拍案称奇。

第三，不要什么都写，更不要事无巨细地写，要择其一二浓彩重墨地写。这当然是要根据主题需要去择取了，决不能无的放矢。如《我是你爹》中，“爹”的话语很少，前后加起来总共才三四句而已，可一个独特的“爹”的形象却跃然纸上了。

第四，要让人物的言行、心理、个性特征等符合人物的年龄、经历、身份、文化教养等特点。不要让一个两三岁的孩子说六十岁人的话，也不要让一个无文化的老太太专说些理论大话等，否则就是无视人物的年龄、经历、身份、文化教养等特点而乱写人物，是不能写好人物的，更谈不上写出个性特点了。

第五，写人物离不开写事、写细节。要仔细地观察人物的日常行为，挖掘他们的典型事例，而且事例要新颖，因为人物的性格和品质，是通过具体的事例表现出来的。比如我们要写一个热心肠的人，就要写他怎样帮助周围的人，或哪里有困难他就在哪里出现等事例。写事的时候，我们完全可以从细节方面入手。细节描写包括对人物的动作、语言、神态和心理活动以及特定的环境等的描写。描写一个人的时候，我们要把这个人的每一个能体现人物特点的动作都描写清楚、具体、详细。

我们来看这一段话：“回到教室，大家全都涌到郭枫面前，问：”坏小子，你捐一毛钱怎么能代表我们呢？‘郭枫眨了眨眼，骄傲地说：“其实我捐了100元！说捐一毛钱，那是逗你们玩的！’听了郭枫的话，同学们哭笑不得……”这一段话把细节描写得很好，“眨了眨眼”“骄傲地说”“哭笑不得”等词语把“郭枫”可气又可笑的性格描写得淋漓尽致。

自媒体时代，人人都有一片自己的文字江湖。但其实对于大多数业余作者来讲，写作毕竟是一门技术，如果你没有很好的天赋，又想迅速写成一手好文章，那几乎是不可能的。不过，天下无难事，只怕有心人。写作并不是作家的专利，只要你肯用心努力的学习，并勤于练习写作，假以时日，也能写出一手漂亮的好文章。这是小编准备的写作入门的5个方法，快来看看吧。

对于新手和业余写作者而言，现在市面上关于写作技巧和写作方法的书籍如汗牛充栋，不胜枚举，令人眼花缭乱，不知从何读起。许多人也听过一些写作课，但都是当时兴奋过后啥都忘记了。

其实，真正的能让你提高写作水平的方法，一定是最简单、最普通，但却又最有效的。正所谓，大道至简。以我多年的写作经验来看，想提高写作水平并不难，只需先掌握以下5个入门的方法，这样你的写作之路就会越走越宽了。

一、想再多也没用，每天都要写

写作，写作，归根结底在于一个“写”字。想要提高写作水平，没有太多的窍门，首要一个就是“写”字。著名作家叶兆言说过一句很牛逼的话：“才华不重要，重要的是能不能熬到一百万字”。由此可见，写作水平的提高不在乎你是否有才华，而在于你是否坚持每天都写，你写得多了，真要能写到100万字，你的文字功底自然就提高了。写作和其他的学问的道理是一样的，用一个成语表达叫做：熟能生巧。

关于这一点，我再次强调，特别是初学者，要想快速提高自己的写作能力，勤于练笔是唯一的途径。比如说，每天坚持写500字（不论题材，不论类型，哪怕是日记也行），只要你能坚持一个月，你就会发现，至少你觉得写作不是那么痛苦的事情了，再坚持几个月，你会发现，写起文章来越来越顺了，再坚持几个月，你会发现，可以写的东西越来越多了……不信，你试试？只要是写，全情投入的写，写得越多，你的写作水平就提升得越快。

二、随便写，从“微写作”开始

有些人可能会说：我知道要写，可我不知道写什么呀？好了，当你面对整张的白纸、整版的白屏，无从下手的时候，肯定会各种各样的思绪袭来。你会想：我还是看看微信吧？我还是上上QQ吧，我还是去读一会书吧，或者我还是小睡一会吧……记住，千万别这样！马上开始写，马上打字，你写什么没有关系，只是让我听到你敲键盘的声音吧。只要你开始写了，什么都好办了。比如说，你可以先敲上文章的标题和自己的名字，这应该不难吧？然后再慢慢的展开情节，全身心地融入进去……

其实呢，写作跟画画是有些相似的地方，很多画家一开始也是在一张白纸上随便涂鸦，就像小时候读过的课本说的那样，达芬奇是从画鸡蛋开始的。如果你每天苦于不知道写什么的情况，就从最简单的“微写作”开始。

什么是“微写作”？大家都发过微信或者微博吧？一篇短微博的字数限制是140字以内，相信这么少的字数，是人都会写了。微写作就是基于微博或微信的基础，鼓励大家随意地写作，想写什么就写什么，这些断章片句，不需要什么主题、立意和构思，完全就是任意地发挥。但往往，你就这样写着写着的时候，灵感就会慢慢地涌现出来的。比如，我的微信和QQ说说，现在都经常会发一条叫《流光碎语》的信息，目前已经坚持写了130条，这就是我的“微写作”，用来练笔时写的，而且因为里面经常会迸出一些“金句”，所以读者点赞和转发的次数不少。所以，这个即解决了有些人没时间的问题，又解决有些人不知道写什么的问题，是非常好的提高写作水平的方法。

三、随时随地记录下灵感

传统的写作，老师都会教你们随身带一本小笔记本（或者身上装一些小卡片），不过那都OUT了，现在最方便的工具就是手机。手机里面都有记事本，或者你可以下载一些专业的工具，如印象笔记。当你对你构思的文章有什么灵感的时候，马上记下来；当你听别人谈话时的只言片语而所有顿悟时，马上记下来；当你看到一段散文或是一句歌词让你很感动时，马上记下来……灵感总是转瞬即逝，你及时的记录下来，便可以成为你写作的素材。

关于这一点，我曾写过一篇专门的文章《写作的锦囊》。这篇文章大致的意思是，古往今来，许多大诗人大作家都有这种随时随地记笔记、搜集素材的习惯，这种习惯的养成，对写作大有禆益。正所谓“巧妇难为无米之炊”，有了这些“百宝囊”，你还愁没有素材可以写吗？我从中学起就有这样的习惯，现在记录素材的笔记本也有十几本了，这些都为我日后的写作提供了非常大的支持。

四、设置专门的写作时间

写作要想高效产出，每天必须找一个特定的时间段作为专门的写作时间，并让这成为习惯。很多人都是业余写作，除去工作8小时之外，还是有很多时间可以自由支配的，比如说清晨的时间、午休的时间、傍晚回到家后，或者深夜的那段时间也可以。无论你是做什么工作的，把写作当作每天必须完成的任务去做。每天至少写1个小时，当然有2个小时更好。只要你能坚持下去，日积月累的话，这种力量是相当惊人的。

当然了，关于写作时间呢，每个人的习惯不一样。我以前锻炼记忆力的时候，是喜欢早睡早起的，但是对于写作，我目前还是习惯晚上11点之后，夜深人静的时候，写得比较多。早上的时间呢，拿来看新闻、搜集素材等事情。当然，很多前辈的经验是说早晨的时间最佳，起床后就开始写，连洗脸刷牙都不用。比如说，我就听到群里有同学坚持每天早上4点半起床，4点半到6点半这两个小时的时间拿来写作。因为这两个小时四周非常的安静，没有任何的打扰，也不用照顾上有老下有小之类，全心属于自己的时间。起如果能坚持下去，我认为这也是非常值得鼓励的。为什么是4点半呢？建议你有空看看《哈佛凌晨四点半》这本书，就会豁然开朗了。

五、专心致志、切断所有干扰源

写作是一件一心一意的事情，在嘈杂的环境或是同时干着别的事情，是不可能写好的。写作需要一个安静的环境，需要一点点柔和的背景音乐。关掉邮箱，关点微信和QQ，关掉电话和手机，关掉电视，清理掉书桌上无用的东西。清除与写作无关的一切杂念，切断所有的干扰源，现在就是写作的时间，好像把自己放进一个盒子里，在没有任何打扰下进入写作状态。

写作说到底是一项脑力劳动。因此，对于集中力和注意力的要求较高，只有“心无旁骛、专心致志”地进行创作，才有可能写出满意的作品来。这里前面也讲过，当今时代最大的干扰一个是手机，一个是网络，所以，当你用电脑在写作的时候，最好关闭手机，拔掉网线。写作，一定需要安静、心静，这样才能逼着自己去写东西，这样才能发挥出最佳的写作状态来。

[写作入门的5个方法