英语写作教学方法推荐四篇 作文题目（精选20篇）

实际上，大作文的第一段是情景铺垫，建议考生在这一段要点明这篇文章要讨论/解决什么问题及问题的背景。作文的首段通常包含以下几个方面：

1)场景或背景信息，即题目中出现的phenomenon。

2)一些人的观点，这部分在改写文章首段时可要可不要，考生可按照自己的情况来安排。

3)个人观点，这一部分在有些文章的开首段中也可以不要。

大作文要求字数至少达到250字，在写作中考虑到字数的合理安排，第一段最好写3-5句话，大约40字左右，并且切忌在第一段就掏心掏肺把什么话都说完。因此专家总结出大作文开首方式通常有以下几种情况：

1)题目中包含了背景信息，有时也出现一些人的观点，并且题目中字数较多。这种情况下最保险的办法是将题目中的背景信息及一些人的观点重新表达，可以做：

●主动语态被动语态

●主谓宾主系表

●某些近义词互换

Example:

At present, it is hard for college students to find jobs. Many people claim that college teachers should give priority to practical courses like computer science and business over such traditional ones as history and geography. To what extent do you agree?

Saturday Nov. 15, 2003 Cloudy

My teacher gave me an assignment "experience life" last week. I had been thinking how to finish it because I had never done any thing by myself before.

Mother was out today. It was a good chance to complete the assignment. Seeing the barrel was empty, I decided to fetch water from the well.

I took the empty barrel and went towards the well outside the yard. It snowed yesterday, so the alley was very slippery. A layer of thickice was frozen on the platform of the well. I was frightened by the sight, but I gathered my courage to walk towards it.

The alley was so slippery that I walked with difficultly. Suddenly, I slipped and fell down, water in the barrel totally poured down on the ground. I stepped on the platform carefully. After standing steadily and squatting down slowly, I hooked the barrel at the end of the rope and put the rope down slowly. I made an effort to drag the barrel up after it was filled with water. I was very careful because it was easy to slip and fall. Then, I carried the barrel of water and returned to my house. My figners were frozen stiff. I realized my effort was in vain. I hated myself.

I failed to finish the assignment but I did experience life through a trifle which seemed easy but difficult to do well. Such was my first experience of life.

[以To Experience为题目的初三英语作文

教学论文：如何启发四年级小学生的写作乐趣

小学四年级，可以说是一个阶梯，是学生在接管小学教育一个承上启下的阶段。作文对四年级学生来讲，真正喜爱的不多，厌恨的倒不少。虽然学生不陌生，但是学生也不甚理解。若何有效地指导小学生写好作文，是一个令很多语文教师头疼的问题，也是一个遍及存在的难点，只要一提到作文，很多学生脸色就露出颇难看的样子，有的叫苦不迭，有的忐忑不安，有的直接想回避作文??因此，作为指导老师找准指导切入点是必然的。再说小学作文教学是小学语文教学的重要组成部分，也是小学生掌握知识的标志，但这又是小学语文教学的难点。在教学过程中，我们已发现不少学生害怕作文，一提起笔就抓耳挠腮，学生怕，老师也怕；学生怕写，老师怕教。那么如何改变学生苦不堪言的作文状况呢？本文提出了一些建议,我认为首先要激发学生的写作乐趣，这样学生写起作文来才会感到轻松。

1．和谐师生感情。在作文教学中，融洽的师生关系创设了一种民主和谐的学习氛围，学生在轻松愉快的环境中，学习的情绪也就随之高涨，对学习就会产生兴趣。师生关系融洽，学生就敢想、敢问、敢说。如在一次擦黑板之后，我走进学生中向学生“诉苦”：每天擦黑板时，粉笔灰飘得满地都是，掉在地上用扫把一扫就了事了，如果落进眼睛里可就受苦了。如果能有一种吸尘粉笔擦，那该多好啊！学生一听，也纷纷应和我。此时，我话锋一转：同学们，你们在生活中碰到了什么问题，想要些什么来帮你解决呢？教室里刹时热闹起来了。有同学说要一把“自动扫把”，可以自己按时扫地吸垃圾；有同学说要一支“警告笔”，发现写错字时马上发出警告提醒你……这时，我板书了作文题目“我想要……”，学生疑惑不解：“老师，今天的作文写这个？”我笑着点了点头。不一会儿就看见学生们面带笑容，欣喜地开始今天的习作。因此教师要营造一种良好的学习氛围，让学生感受课堂的广阔和丰富，让他们感到表达的乐趣，让他们感到表达是一种丰富的人生体验，使他们满怀信心地表达。

2．协调师生生活。叶圣陶先生说过：“生活如泉源，文章犹如溪流，泉源丰盈，溪流自然活泼地昼夜不息。”这告诉我们生活是作文之本。作文是生活的产物，生活是创作的源泉。教师要引导学生多留心周围的事物，培养学生仔细观察的好习惯。观察对作文而言是智慧能力的重要来源。平时，我就有意识地让学生看各种各样的事物。带领学生来到大自然中，指导他们留心观察周围的事物，引导他们将自己的所见所闻记录下来，如观察大自然的一草一木、日出日落、小河田野、蔬菜瓜果、高楼大厦、风云山川??并尽可能让学生去看一看、摸一摸、闻一闻(来自::四年级作文什么的启示)。如有一天遇到一场难逢的大雾，整个校园白茫茫的一片，十几米以外的东西全都看不清楚。我就领着学生利用各种感官去进行观察、体会。让学生先站在室内观察，然后走进雾中体会。上课了，同学们仍兴奋得手舞足蹈，滔滔不绝地发表演说，争先恐后地叙述他们所看到的、所感到的。这种无拘无束、有滋有味、头头是道的说话训练已在无形中达到了水到渠成的功效，然后我就让同学们把刚才所说的话整理一下写下来，结果一篇篇精彩的小作文诞生了。如果没有生活作基础，作文就是一堆文字符号，空洞、乏味，死水一潭，缺乏童趣，缺乏真情实感。教师要为学生的自主写作提供有利的条件和广阔的空间，减少对学生写作的束缚，鼓励自由表达和有创意地表达，鼓励学生说真话、实话、心里话，不说假话、空话、套话。

3．积累素材。素材是未经提炼加工的写作材料，是作文的物质基础，犹如木之本、水之源。俗话说：“巧妇难为无米之炊。”这就是说没有材料，即使是能工巧匠，也无法造出精美的器物。所以学生要想写好作文，必须要有雄厚的材料。所谓“雄厚”，就是广泛吸收积累之结果。?从现实生活中积累素材。生活是写作的源泉。那么，如何汇集生活中的写作源泉呢？首先要丰富学生的生活。生活越丰富，积累的素材就越多。心理学表明：儿童天性好玩、好动。教师应抓住这一心理特征，有计划、有目的地组织一些有益的课外活动，如春游活动、文体活动、读书活动、演讲活动、看电视、听广播等等，丰富学生的生活经验，积累写作素

材。?从书本中积累素材。书本中的材料也反映着生活实际，怎样积累书本的材料呢？古人说得好：“读书破万卷，下笔如有神。”“熟读唐诗三百首，不会作诗也会吟。”阅读是写作的基础，离开阅读，学生对事物的表达将是无序而枯燥的。如果没有大量的阅读，就没有丰富的语言积累，读和写将成为“无源之水，无本之木”。

4．加强训练。要提高小学生作文水平，还必须从训练学生作文能力上下功夫。小学生作文能力不仅限于表达能力和写作技巧上，还在于对语言、知识、思想、认识、情感和智力的综合运用，在于平时的材料积蓄能力、思维能力、认识能力和语言运用能力，要训练学生作文能力，就要对上述各项能力进行有序的训练，并遵循先易后难、先现象后本质的原则。例如要训练学生认识能力，第一步可训练他们怎样认识事件的开始、发展、结果的全过程，第二步再训练他们去认识事物的重点和细节；要训练学生的语言表达能力，则先练句，再练段、练篇，最后达到完整、规范、生动，做到有条不紊，逐步发展。

5．作文讲评。讲评是作文教学的重要环节，教师应当鼓励学生积极参与，而不能唱独角戏。教师可以充当作文讲评的组织者，把表演的舞台还给学生，师生共同参与，各抒己见。这样的讲评比教师一个人口沫横飞效果要好得多。以我最近的一次作文训练为例子。我让同学们写一篇《我眼中??》的半命题作文，我首先请同学们说说这篇作文要求我写生活中的什么，并讲讲自己认为写哪些地方较精彩。然后同学们针对此文，发表看法。有同学描写了助人为乐、大公无私、清洁工人、路上警察、最美教师、最美医生、最美司机。。。。。。同学们纷纷提出自己的看法，有从内容上分析的，有从语言上分析的，也有从谋篇布局上分析的，有的还针对文中涉及的“背叛”等字眼进行质疑。接下来，采用“毛遂自荐”法，朗读自己作文中的精彩开头（互批时找出的作文亮点），让同学们欣赏或评价。此时，我抛出存在的共性问题，一起讨论解决方法。课堂留10分钟的时间，师生共同总结“抒真情，写感受”，总结作文规律。作文讲评课大胆改革，让学生有充分的时间展示自我，发表观点，接受不同意见，既满足了成功的欲望，又培养了善纳忠言的品质，有助于形成健康的心理和健全的人格。总之，教无定法，贵在得法，只要我们勇于探索、勇于实践，最终会找到一条适合自己培养学生写作兴趣的路,只要我们因地制宜，不断丰富作文的教学形式，并且关注学生的个性差异，因材施教，积极引导学生做生活的有心人，鼓励他们在平时积累大量的写作素材，确实培养起他们自我评改的能力，那么在学生的眼里作文将不再是一道不可逾越的鸿沟，学生见了作文也才不会是“老鼠见了猫”似的，也才能真正把小学四年级作文教学搞得既有“趣”又有“味”。

尊敬的人力资源经理：

您好！

经过深思熟虑地思考，我决定辞去我目前在公司所担任的职位，我知道这对于您来说，是非常难以作决定的事情。

第二段：说明您自己考虑的辞职的时间（尽管您提出辞职经公司同意后，公司的人力资源部将按照固定的离职日程办理离职手续，但这样说并不是画蛇添足，大多数情况下，你都能够争取到提早离开的时间）。

例如：

我考虑在此辞呈递交之后的２?４周内离开公司，这样您将有时间去寻找适合人选，来填补因我离职而造成的空缺，同时我也能够协助您对新人进行入职培训，使他尽快熟悉工作。另外，如果您觉得我在某个时间段内离职比较适合，不妨给我个建议或尽早告知我。

第三段：说明您在这个公司里的经验积累，尽可能地去赞扬公司对您的栽培（不论您有多么大的委屈和气愤，都不应该在辞职信里表露）。

例如：我非常重视我在“……公司”内的这段经历，也很荣幸自己成为过“……公司”的一员，我确信我在“……公司”里的这段经历和经验，将为我今后的职业发展带来非常大的利益。

最后，请务必使用亲笔签名，而且签名要尽量刚劲，并写好日期。

议论文写作是几种常见文体中要求较高的一种。下面语文迷网整理了一些写作方法，希望对你有帮助。

一、议论文的文体特点和写作要求

英语议论文同中文议论文一样也是以议论的方式，通过摆事实、讲道理来阐述自己观点的一种文体。高中英语议论文是一种限制性的写作, 其论点、论据、论证都必须十分明确，学生必须结合题目要求来阐述相关观点。

议论文的结构可分为三个部分：1、引言段引出一个令人关注的问题或明白地亮出自己的观点，如提倡什么，支持什么，反对什么。 2、主体段对提出的问题进行分析、推论、并运用归纳法、演绎法和类比法等进行论证，取得以理服人的效果。3、结论段可以用两三句话来结束文章，同时要注意重申论点，与引言段呼应，但不能照搬原话。务必做到论点明确、要点齐全、论证严密、结构严谨、层次分明、首尾呼应。

二、议论文的写作方法与技巧

一)、审好题

人们常说：“磨刀不误砍柴功”。审题是写作的开始，是写好作文的前提条件，“好的开始是成功的一半”，议论文写作也不例外。只有明确题目要求，确立观点，确定论证方法及全文段落安排，才可能成功写出一篇好的议论文。如果写偏了题，再精心的构思、再好的语言表达也是枉然。审题主要包括六个方面：一是判断议论文所属类型。英语议论文根据命题特点，从形式上来看可分为如下类型: ①“一分为二”的观点。如：“轿车大量进入家庭后，对家庭、环境、经济可能产生的影响”。②“两者选一”的观点。如：“乘火车还是乘飞机”。③“我认为……”型，如：“你对课外阅读的看法”。④“怎样……(how to)”型，如：“怎样克服学习中碰到的困难”。⑤ 图表作文，通过阅读图表中的数字与项目得出一个结论或形成一种看法(杨家贵，2005)。二是确立该文的论点或作者须持的观点，以及支撑论点的道理和事实。三是确定全文所包括的要点。四是确定段落数及每段适用的连接词、过渡句，使文章连接紧凑、过渡自然、层次分明。五是选择全文主要时态及各段适用的其它时态。六是判断该文的格式，是书信还是短文。审题完毕，随即列出提纲。

二)、注重主题句的设置

主题句又叫中心句(topic sentence)，是段落的论点，限制段落中议论的范围，是整个段落的纲领。主题句必须要正确，要明确表明作者赞成什么，反对什么。主题句在一篇百来字的议论文中好比“画龙点睛”，帮助作者分层次阐述自己的观点，让读者快速了解作者的观点。

1、确定主题句的位置

英语议论文的主题句宜设在段首第一句，这是由以下两个因素决定的。1)、主题句出现的位置有三种情况：①在段首，以便读者浏览主题句就可掌握文章的概要，这个位置适用于写提供信息或解释观点的段落;②在段末;③段中(高长梅，2000)。2)、英语民族的思维特点是常采用路标式(直线式)篇章结构，即主题句在段首。

2、写出好的主题句

好的主题句具有以下特点：①有一定的概括性，普遍性而不是罗列具体事实。②句意明确而不是模糊不着边际。③让人有话可写而不是给出无可辩驳的事实。④不以问题的方式出现，也不要同时表达两个以上的观点。笔者要求学生写了以下的主题句：

1)Staying up late is bad for our health.

2)The more cars, the better?

3)There are two reasons why some people are fascinated by Super Girls and two reasons why some dislike them.

4)Beijing is famous for the Great Wall, the Summer Palace, the Imperial Palace and other places of interest.

5)a. Tom is a middle school student.

b. Tom is a hard-working middle school student.

6)Living in small cities is better than living in big cities.

然后让学生对照主题句的特点，他们一致认为1)、5)b、6)为好的主题句。在实践和对比中，学生学会了如何写好的主题句，并且运用到议论文写作中，收到较好效果，见以下实例(下段黑体部分是主题句)。

Everyone lives by selling something. For example, teachers live by selling knowledge, philosophers by selling wisdom and priests by selling spiritual comfort. Though it may be possible to measure the value of material goods in terms of money, it is extremely difficult to calculate the true value of services which people perform for us. The conditions of society are such that skills have to be paid for in the same way that goods are paid for at a shop. Everyone has something to sell.

由此可见，好的主题句能帮助作者阐明观点，起到提纲挈领的作用。作者围绕段落的中心论点，运用多种方法展开论证，达到以理服人的效果。

三)、用好连接词和过渡句

从行文需要出发选用恰当的连接词、过渡句可使整篇文章文句流畅，句意转换自然，同时使表达合乎逻辑，文章结构严谨。倘若一篇议论文的段落里不乏高级词汇和复杂语法结构，但缺少了连接词、过渡句的润色而不能从一个观点自然地过渡到另一个观点，或段落里的各论据(supporting sentence)连接松散，势必削弱论证的效果，就算不上一篇好的议论文。下面分别说明如何有效运用连接词与过渡句。

1、句与句的连接词

连接词通常由连词、副词、介词短语和插入语等充当。如何有效使用连接词，使句意连贯、紧凑，以体现文章良好的严密的论证逻辑?

2.段与段的过渡句

过渡句帮助作者展示文章的条理和层次。恰当运用过渡句能使表达锦上添花。当文章从一个层次转换到另一个层次，或由一段内容转入另一段内容时需要用过渡句。恰当有效的运用过渡句，效果明显(见下文，题目及要求略，黑体部分为过渡句)。

Wearing school uniform every day spreads an order over many schools. Is it good or bad for students? Different people, however, have different opinions on this matter.

Some people say that it has a bad effect on developing students’ personal character. According to them, students are tired of wearing the same clothes every day, which is hard to tell who’s who. Furthermore, the cost of the school uniform is not low as many people think. With the bad quality, it’s not well worth the money.

However, as a popular saying goes: “Every coin has two sides.” Others argue that it is good for students. In their opinion, wearing school uniform will prevent students from wasting so much money on clothes and the time on catching up with the fashion. In addition, it’s easy for the teachers to recognize the students. There is no doubt that wearing school uniform every day is good for students.

In short, I firmly support the view that we should wear school uniform.(康珍，2005)

上文黑体部分综合体现了恰当、有效运用连接词和过渡句的最佳效果。全文行文流畅、衔接自然、条理清楚，浑然不觉作者是在套用各种连接词和过渡句。因此，非常有必要熟记一些常用典型的议论文过渡句，使议论文结构严谨，论点清楚，行文流畅。

1)引言段的常用过渡句

Recently we had a heated discussion on…, Opinions are various among different people.

Different people have different opinions on the question of …

They differ greatly in their attitudes towards …

Different people hold different views/opinions on this matter.

Although most people think… I believe…

此类过渡句能迅速引起读者注意，自然而然地引出全文要讨论的话题，或者开门见山地阐明文章的论点。

2)主体段的常用过渡句

Some may hold the view that… because… But others have a negative attitude. From their point of view…

Some people think that… While others believe…

Some people are for the idea of… because… But some people are against the idea of… because …

本文所指议论文的主体段可以是一段也可以是两段。通过正确使用过渡句，文章思路清晰，结构清楚，显示作者严谨思维，增强表达效果。

3)结论段的常用过渡句

As far as I am concerned, I totally agree with the statement that…

Therefore, it’s easy to draw the conclusion that…

As a consequence/result, I firmly support the view that…

Taking all these factors into consideration, we may reach the conclusion that…

To sum up/in a word/in conclusion/in short/above all/in general/ generally speaking, I still hold the view that…

运用过渡句的提示作用进入结论段，作者或是重申论点，或是强调论点，以便加深读者对全文的了解和深刻认识。

英语议论文范文：

Should Examination Be Abolished (取消)?

The examination system has come to be the main theme (主题)of modern education. One should take an examination andsucceed in passing it before he could be admitted， promoted or graduated. As it plays so important a role in the realm of education (教育的领域) it is under much criticism (评论) as to its validity (有效性) . People who are in favour of it try to develop this system more; those who are against it believe that such a system should be abolished. Should examination be abolished? In my opinion it should be.

Many people think that an examination is the only means to test knowledge， but， in fact， that is not true. A few questions given in an examination could by no means cover the whole field of the subject. Thus those who are able to answer them may be the poorest of the students and yet happen to know just a few points about that subject.

Id like to say that， because of the existence of the examination system， students pay so much attention to gaining high marks， that they often forget the chief purpose of education. The so-called clever students devote (贡献) themselves to the study of textbooks only. They， of course， know nothing but the skeleton (梗概) of knowledge. The end and aim of education， however， is to enable students to learn how to live. To do this， students must get themselves to do all kinds of training， physicalas well as mental. The present examination system has discouraged students from making such an attempt.

Moreover， since the students try so hard to put their lessons into memory in as short a time as possible， psychologically (心理上来看)， they soon forget the whole subject as soon as the examination is over. Surely this is one of the greatest wastes ever made in the history of civilization.

Lastly， in order to get high marks， there is a great temptation (诱惑) for students to cheat (作弊) in an examination. Indeed， such a practice becomes the means to the end. They cheat their teachers， their parents and also themselves. Such a tendency would impair (损害) our moral standards (道德标准) .

Therefore， I am of the opinion， in conclusion， that the examination system should be abolished.

作文是语文教学的重点。然而，在语文教学中，对教师而言，最难教的是作文，对学生来讲，最难写的也是作文。小编收集了中考作文写作方法五点指导，欢迎阅读。

一、引导学生写日记入手，认真观察，积累丰富的写作素材。教师应鼓励学生全景式地体验生活，用自己的眼，以自己的心去理解、感受生活，挖掘生活中最熟悉的事例，写真人真事，抒真情实感。例如，写天气，可以四季变化，雪雨雷电，风霜雾露;写同学，可以写下课后的打打闹闹，写某次上课时的调皮捣乱，写做完作业后的无比轻松，写好朋友之间的窃窃私语，写某次课余时的恶作剧;也可以写日常饮食起居、邻里亲情、迎来送往、花鸟虫鱼等。长此以往，不但积累了许多写作素材，而且有效地提高了学生的写作水平。

二、以课文为依托，提倡模仿，培养学生良好的文风。模仿是人类学习，掌握技能的重要方法之一。模仿的特点在于针对性强，有法可循，它既能增加透明度，降低难度，操作性强，又能收到明显的效果。教师要让学生从简单仿句开始，从课内到课外，以骈句到诗句，并辅以中考的大量仿句欣赏阅读，然后讲解仿句的方法要领，再进行尝试模仿，反复训练、修改、提高，直至成功。通过仿句训练，能给学生一个成就感，能激发他们的写作兴趣。通过一段时间的简单仿句训练后，逐渐引到篇上的模仿。

三、以课外为突破口，积累语言，扩大学生的知识视野。杜甫说：“读书破万卷，下笔如有神。”书读得多，语言积累到一定程度，文章就会写得好。在平时的作文教学实践中，很多学生或没有材料可写，或表情达意不够流畅、准确、生动，归根到底是没有丰富的语言积累和语言经验。基于这些实际，教师应重视学生课外阅读，让学生通过大量阅读，开阔视野，丰富知识，增长智慧，从而提高写作能力。为了进一步提高学生课外阅读的效率，要求学生每人准备一个积累本，让学生摘录所阅读文章的好词、好句、好段，写读书笔记，或写阅读感受。通过训练，学生的词汇量增加了，写作素材丰富了，作文水平也普遍得以提高。

四、以作文批改为媒介，鼓励投稿，激发学生写作的热情。心理学研究表明：“赞赏一个人的杰作比赞赏一个人的本身更有效。”在批改学生作文时，教师应尽量肯定他们的优点，用委婉的话指出不足之处。通过教师热情真诚的赏识，使学生及时看到自己作文的成果，从而激励他们“更上一层楼”，不断提高作文能力。

五、以媒体为载体，搭建平台，激起学生展示文学才华的欲望。实践表明，要学好一种东西，兴趣是至关重要的。它是获得知识进行创造性创作的一种自觉动机，是鼓舞和推动学生创作的内在动力，也是提高写作水平的重要途径。因此，在作文教学中，教师要鼓励学生把自己的作品上传到自己已开通的博客上，让众多读者浏览、评价，体验写作的价值。此外，教师也可和学生一道创建班级周刊，让学生做主，编辑文章，设计版面，这样就会激励学生的写作热情，让他们进入一个积极的呈良性循环的写作状态。

总之，在作文教学的实践过程中，经过一段时间的精心训练，别致新颖、匠心独运的文章脱颖而出，作文教学也达到了预想的效果。

一、文章类

1、朱自清 背影：“我与父亲不相见已两余年了，我最不能忘记的是他的背影。”

2、茅盾 白杨礼赞：“白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。”

3、高尔基 海燕：“在苍茫的大海上，狂风卷集着云。在乌云和大海之间海燕像黑色的闪电，在高傲翔。”

4、学生习作 生活需要笑声：“‘笑一笑，十年少’，生活需要欢乐，生活需要笑声······”

二、诗歌类

1、关雎：“关关雎鸠，在河之洲，窈窕淑女，君子好逑。”

2、白居易 忆江南：“江南好，风景旧曾谙。”

3、杜甫 蜀相：“丞相祠堂何处寻，锦官城外柏森森。”

4、李白 行路难：“大道如青天，我独不得出。”

5、辛弃疾 丑奴儿书博山道中壁：“少年不知愁滋味,爱上层楼。”

6、戴望舒 雨巷：“撑着油纸伞，独自彷徨在悠长、悠长又寂寥的雨巷，我希望逢着一个丁香一样的、结着愁怨的姑娘。”

说明文用途很广，实用价值很大，写好说明文是很重要的，是现代化生活对每个人提出的要求。掌握说明文自身的规律，才能写好说明文。 下面介绍说明文的写作方法，欢迎阅读了解。

随着科学技术的高速发展，许多新产品也应运而生，相伴随的说明书也与日俱增，所以，好说明文已成为当前急需解决的课题。

任何事情都有其自身的规律，说明文的写作过程也是有规律可循的，因此，作为一个写说明文的作者，只有掌握这一规律，才能写好说明文。

1 明白说明文的六大要素

大家都知道，写记叙文，必须具备记叙文的六个要素，才能写成一篇记叙文，而且说明文和记叙文一样，也必须掌握说明文的要素才能写好，其要素归纳起来也不外乎如下六个方面：

（1）说明对象。

（2）被说明对象的特征。

（3）说明方式。

（4）说明顺序。

（5）说明方法。

（6）被说明对象的性质，性能功用，成因市里及内部关系等。

2 清楚写好一篇说明文需要具备的六个条件

这就是说，要想写好一篇说明文，至少得具备六个条件，那么又如何使用这六个条件呢？

第一，明确说明对象是什么？这要求你清楚地告诉读者，你要说明一个什么事物。

第二，被说明对象有何特征，什么是特征呢？所谓特征就是这一事物区别于其他事物的标志，因为，任何一个事物，都有其自身的特征，只有抓住它的特征，才能从本质上把说明的事物与其他事物区别开来，这样你才能把被说明的对象说清楚，从而达到说明的目的，例如，食物从何处来一文，作者就抓住被说明对象，食物来源的根本特征，植物靠自养，动物和大部分微生物靠益阳，极少部分的细菌靠化学能来合成，从而在本质上说明了食物来源这一深奥的事理。如果作者没有抓住这一特征，恐怕浪费了很多的笔墨也难以说清楚，因此要想写好一篇说明文，掌握被说明对象的特征是极其重要的，但是要准确的有条理地说明事物的特征，首先必须对事物有个清楚的认识，在生活中观察体验，参加实践，深入研究，坚持不懈地记取，是我们认识事物的根本途径，在这方面的例子是不乏其人的，伟大的物候学家，竺可桢，坚持不懈的观察记录，写出了大自然的诺言，周树人认真观察，写出了生动有趣的蜘蛛。因此，观察观察再观察，认识认识再认识，才能认清事物的特征。

第三，根据被说明事物的自身特征确定署名方式，既平实说明，生动说明两种方式，平实说明语言简练准确，通俗易懂，不带有描写的成分，例如，统筹方法，生动说明带有描写的成分，用词准确传神，把抽象的事物形象化，具体化，给人的感觉既生动活泼又形象，有趣味，例如，看云识天气，有时还可以把平实说明，和生动说明二者结合起来，这样会收到相得益彰的效果，例如，周建人写蜘蛛一文，在介绍蜘蛛吐丝的生理，机制时，运用了生物学上的术语，并作了科学的说明，这是平实说明。在介绍蜘蛛在网上，一幕幕紧张激烈捕捉蚊蝇的战斗场景时，作者运用了生动说明，这样语言准确，生动又形象，增强了文章的说明效果，使读者不仅有所知而且有所感，更觉有趣，总之，说明方式，根据说明对象的特征可灵活运用。

第四，确定说明顺序，因为说明对象不同，所以说明顺序也会相应的不同，可归纳为三大类，一是，按时间顺序写，包括程序说明，例如，从甲骨文到口袋图书馆。二是，按空间顺序写，空间顺序又分为从上到下，由内到外，从左到右或从右到左，从中间到两边，从前到后货，按从东西南北方位写。例如故宫博物院，人民大会堂。三是按逻辑顺序写，所谓逻辑顺序，就是按照事物的关系安排先后次序，例如海光。

总之，说明顺序只有安排合理，才能使文章条理分明，能给人一个说清楚完整的印象。

第五，恰当地运用说明方法，常用的说明方法有，下定义，分类别，举例子，作比较，打比喻列数字，配备图表等。至于用什么方法来说明事物，这是动笔之前必须考虑的。没有恰到好处的说明方法，也达不到说明的目的，究竟用哪种或哪几种说明方法？要由被说明对象的特征来决定，例如，食物从何处来一文，作者将生物获得食物的途径，作为分类的标准，分为自养和异养两大类，接着，又以获得食物的方法为标准来进一步，说明，自养型，认为靠光合作用的，和不靠光合作用的两类，易养型的分为不能加工改造植物的，动物和能加工改造的人类两类，这样层层分类说明不仅符合科学原理，而且条理分明，作者在分类说明的同时，行，文中还运用了打比喻，举例子下定义列数字的说明方法，这种恰当的综合运用，大大的增强了说明的效果，总而言之，说明方法，不能一概而论，而要根据被说明事物的特征，从实际的需要出发，去恰当地运用。

第六，根据说明的对象不同，可分为十五说明，事理说明，程序说明三大类，实物说明要根据说明的对象的特征，侧重说明事物的性质，类别，状态性能，功用、成因等。事理说明要说明有关事物的内部关系，程序说明要写清楚操作步骤的先后顺序。

3 合理安排命题和安排说明文的结构

命题方式，题目一般是直接揭示要说明的对象，这是说明文最常用的命题方法，例如，机器人，统筹方法等。有了题目，又具备了材料，还要有完整的结构形式。

说明文常用的结构形式有四种：

（1）并列式，各层次间的关系是平等并列的，例如，《南州6月荔枝丹》。

（2）递进式，后面的说明是在前边说明的基础上做进一步的说明，各层次之间的关系由浅入深，例如《向沙漠进军》，作者竺可桢先说明沙漠对人类的危害，接着说明人类征服沙漠的方法，最后指出在社会主义制度下，人类征服沙漠的美好前景。

（3）总分式，先总体来说，后面几层再分开说，或者前几层先分开说，然后再总起来说，例如，巍巍中山陵，作者对陵园建筑，按空间顺序，由总到分来说明。

（4）连贯式，各层次之间按照事物的发展过程或按因果条件等关系，安排层次，前后互相承接，例如，景泰蓝制作，当然这几种结构形式有时单独运用，有时综合运用，大城市之间按照一种结构形式安排每层，中小城市可采取另一种结构形式，总之要灵活运用，达到结构严谨完整的目的。

说明文用途十分广泛，对工业农业科技，商业和人们的日常生活都有很大的实用价值，人们利用他来为自己服务，指导着日常的工作学习和生活，因此，写好说明文是很重要的，是现代化生活对每个人提出的要求。

一、检讨书是指自己在学习或工作中出现了问题或过错，为了今后避免再出现此类事件的发生，要求自己以书面的形式，对出现的问题或过错作出的检讨。它一般包括出错问题、产生原因、改正措施或今后的打算。

二、检讨书的结构及写作方法

①标题。在头行正中写明“检讨书”字样即可;也有注明所犯错误范围或性质，如《关于违犯财经纪律的检讨书》。

②称谓。写明幢讨书呈报的组织、单位或个人。如“校党委”、“公司人事部”、“×书记”等。

③正文。正文由三部分组成：所犯错误事实;对所犯错误的认识;改正错误的决心与措施。

④落款。写上检讨人的姓名或单位名称，落上年月日。

三、如何写检讨书

从古到今，从小到大，没写过检讨的人估计不多吧?一个人犯了错误，如果主宰他命运的人说：“你给我写份检讨!”不管口气有多严厉，对犯错者来说，肯定会求之不得，甚至感激涕零，因为检讨往往意味着可以大事化小、小事化了。如果连检讨都不用写，那问题可就真的严重了。

我已经记不清自己写过多少份检讨了。圈阅我检讨的人包括：父母、老师、领导、女友、护林员……久而久之，我迷恋上了检讨。我领悟到，不犯错固然很好，犯错之后又被原谅，更赚。

当然，“更赚”的前提是检讨要写得好。一份好的检讨，应该由五个部分组成。

20xx年X月X日，我与同学发生了争执，事由起因是因为我与其xx吵架，到最后出手打人。 其实，不管我个人对他有多大意见或不满，我不能以这种极端的方式去解决这件事情，我在回家这几天白天黑夜里都在思考，我觉得自己的行为是幼稚并冲动的! 这几天我明白了，做人要有忍让度的道理，不管做什么事情都要忍!人的优雅关键在于控制自己的情绪，用嘴伤害人，是最愚蠢的一种行为。

其实也没什么好说的。在纸上，写是什么“保证按时上课，不旷课，不早退，”云云的话，估计你们看了也不会当真，毕竟你们都“干了十几年的学生工作”。早在我踏进校门,老师就已三申五令,一再强调,全校同学不得旷课。但是我还是多次无故旷课。关于旷课的事情，我觉得有必要说一说。事情的经过是这样的：我觉得洗洗手向老师请假是不充分的，而且如果多次向老师用这些方式请假也是不可能都同意的。所以，我选择了旷课这种行为。虽然我知道这种行为也是不对的，但是我还是做了，所以，我觉得有必要而且也是应该向老师做出这份书面检讨，让我自己深深的反省一下自己的错误。

例文

教师违规违纪检讨书范文(一)

尊敬的校领导：

在此非常感谢您能抽出宝贵的时间来看我的检讨，我作为一名小学教师，在后半学期我没有按照学校规定制度及教学进度计划写教案，没有让学生们按任务量写作业，未及时批改作业，作为一名教师这就是一种不负责任的行为，本人为自己这种不负责任的行为做出深刻的检讨。本次严重错误都是因为本人工作态度不端正导致的工作失误，我对错误的全面认识如下：

作为一名年轻的人民教师，我的思想觉悟上存在严重不足，我的工作作风懒散，不够严谨。像我这样的工作业务失误，在大多数情况下，都是因为自己对工作态度的不端正、不上进才犯下的。我这种对工作不重视、不专心，不严谨恰恰暴露出我懒散的工作作风。

而我在日常工作中又缺乏谨慎态度，没有以一个严谨、认真的态度面对自己的工作。我此等错误的发生，跟我在日常工作中存在懈怠、偷懒、怕吃苦等因素是分不开的。这表露出了我在工作作风上的严重问题，以及在工作上的不成熟和不严谨。

教师是一个神圣的职业，被誉为人类灵魂的工程师，辛勤的园丁，无私奉献的红烛;是连接知识与学生的桥梁;是知识的传授者。家长既然把孩子交给了我们，我们就有责任去教好学生。

我已经从这次教训中吸取了经验，今后必定会更加注意!

检讨人：

20xx年xx月xx日

教师违规违纪检讨书(二)

工作总结要求人们对以往做过的工作进行冷静的反思。通过反思，提高认识，获得经验，为进一步做好工作打下思想基础。

今天早上又给一位家长投诉了!原因是昨天下午时分观察到有个孩子的右眼角给硬物撞到了，很明显的出现了淤青。看到了孩子的这种情况，我和班上的黄老师马上叫了在医务室的医生来。由于是接近放学的时刻(大概是四点二十五分)，医生和心急如焚的我们都非常急切的想知道事情的来龙去脉，可孩子想了半天，只说了几个字：在桌上，在家，玩游戏。面对这样突然的情况，我们和医生都傻眼了：怎么办?根据孩子的说法，我们就很主观的想：是否孩子早上在家碰到，直到下午才出现淤青的情况呢?但是早上在接孩子时，观察了他的脸是没有任何异样的。于是自己也慌了神!询问了医生是否需要搽药，她说离眼睛太近了，不能搽。

就这样，一直到家长来接我才对爸爸讲了一下事情的经过;告诉家长：孩子说可能是在家里弄到的，需要注意一下。谁知到了晚上，孩子竟对家长说：是某老师教我这样说的。这就变成了是我在说谎了!到了今早孩子的爷爷就气不打一处来，质问我是如何教孩子说谎话的?如果我真的有这样做，那我就不是一名合格的教师，我早就该进监狱里反省一辈子了!

我是做错了，错在没有坚持自己的观点，明知道孩子早上是完好的回来，就要坚持问出孩子是在那里碰到的;要真实可信的告诉家长事情的经过，而不能任自己胡乱猜测。

我错了，错在自己的脑筋转不过弯来。遇到紧急事故，应该想到用鸡蛋敷，冰袋敷的撞伤，碰伤等急救方法。

我错了，错在没有在遇到意外事故时即使上报给院长。

我错了，错在带班时没能一眼观七，耳听六路;看见孩子做出危险行为时没能即使制止。

在写检讨书的时候认识到迟到旷课的危害性。不仅败坏学校的学风，影响学院纪律工作的开展。也影响任课老师的上课。同学之间本应该互相学习，互相促进，而我这种表现，给同学们带了一个坏头，不利于学校和院系的学风建设。同时，也对学校形象造成了一定损害，在同学中造成了旷课的不良风气。最重要的是放任自己错失一次学习的机会，影响个人综合水平的提高。一个人的成长和进步，不仅仅是学业上的提高，更重要的是思想、作风方面上的培养和锤炼。我忽视了这样一个重要的问题，为此而犯了旷课的错误。

请家长们原谅我，这是我的责任;与幼儿园无关。我园上到宋院长下至清洁阿姨都很认真负责，是我不好;请你们继续支持我园的各项活动与计划。我可以消失，但幼儿园绝对不可以没有生源!

检讨人：

20xx年xx月xx日

我们在写作文是，一般都能写的好，但想要拿高分就很难了，下面是小编整理的提高写作水平的方法，欢迎阅读。

一、细观察

细致观察是提高写作水平的金钥匙。文章是客观事物在作者头及中反映的产物，要反映客,不必须对客观事物作仔细的观察。只有仔细地观察，才能从生活现象的矿藏中发现碎金璞玉，于泥沙混杂中攫取闪光的宝物。不掌握，“观察”这把开门的金钥匙，作文的“铁门限”是决然跨不进去的。

二、多阅读

广泛阅读是提高作文水平的前提条件。要写出好文章，就必须多读书。“读书破万卷，下笔如有神。”“熟读唐诗三首，不会作诗会吟。”鲁迅先生也提倡多读书，“必须如蜜蜂一样，采过许多花，这才能酿出蜜来，倘叮在一处，所得就非常有限，枯燥了。”我们强调既要多读，又要选择地读，更要读进去，理解所读文章的结构技艺，语言特点，从中掌握作文定得深刻些，变化多一些。

三、巧选材

精心选择是提高作文水平的加速器。选材的要求是要新颖，所谓新颖，就是批要选择一般人没有接触过的，或熟视无睹崦实含表深刻意义的。一经作者笔之于书，就会发人深思令人感奋的材料。选材角度要小，要以小见大，写人人眼中有，人人笔下无的材料。为此，必须在头脑中把各种材料比较、分析、综合，进行去粗取精，改造加工，只有这样，才能使材料新颖。而这种积极思考、反复推敲的选析工夫，对提高作文水平很有帮助。

四、常练笔

经常练笔是提高作文水平的关键。要想入作文的大门，并求得不断进步，更重要的是多练。谚语说的好：“文章读十篇，不如写一篇。”这就道出了作文实践出真知的道理。我们学习了一篇文章之后，弄懂了文章的结构方法，弄清了文章的写作特色，就要学着运用这些知识与方法去实践，去练习，使之变成自身的作文能力。实际上，我们第学习一篇课文后都可以进行练笔。而片断练习是练笔的一种好方式，片断练习所花的时间不长，又达到了练笔的目的。写日记也是一种有效的练笔方式，天天坚持写日记，以后俄文就有了坚实的基础。

五、勤修改

反复修改是提高作文水平的催化剂。修改是作文必不可少的步骤，是提高作文质量的有效措施。前人说的好，“文章不厌百回改。”“文章是改出来的。”曹雪芹写《红楼梦》“披阅十载，增删五次，”托尔斯秦的《战争与和平》反复修改了七次;鲁迅先生主张“定完后至少看两遍，竭力将可有可无的字、句、段删去，毫不可惜。”可见，文章修改，一般是指从初稿写出来到最后定稿的加工过程。修时要做到五看：看用词是否通顺，看主题是否鲜明，看结构是否紧凑，看语言是否优美。总之，“文章是改出来的。”一般来说文章总是越改越好的，我们要在“修改”上下工夫。

各个段落相互照应，自然链接，即过渡与照应，这样才是一篇优秀的文章。下面是记叙文中过渡和照应的写作方法，欢迎阅读了解。

一、过渡

在文章中，过渡是文章段落之间的桥梁，前后相邻的两层意思之间，不仅要有内在的联系，而且在相连的地方要彼此衔接，语气贯通，让读者思路能够顺利地从前者过渡到后者，这样使文气连贯，布局缜密，转承自然，而不致发生间隙或阻隔。穿针引线，组织成篇，可以说是对过渡重要作用的恰当比喻。过渡常用承上启下的段，句子或关联词语。例如《从百草园到三味书屋》一文，在“百草园”和“三味书屋”两大部分之间，有一个承上启下的段落，就是以段过渡的一个范例。

记叙文的过渡，其过渡的情况和主要作用是：

①开头与正文间过渡。

在有些文章开头使用倒叙的方法，或由眼前的景物而引出与之相关事情的叙述，这时，为了使开头部分与正文衔接紧密，往往使用过渡。

例如：《繁星》一文首段描写“我”最爱看繁星，回忆了从前在家乡夜晚望星天的情景和感受。首句“我爱月夜，但我也爱星天”，表露了作者对大自然的热爱之情，也为第二句引出“我最爱看天上密密麻麻的繁星”做了铺垫。又如，《背影》一文，一开头就有这么一句“最难忘的是父亲的背影”，起到了总领全文，也为全文定下了感情基调。

②不同事件或场景间过渡。

一幅优美的画卷，画面要注意色彩明暗、浓淡的过渡，注意景物虚实、主次的过渡;文章当然也要重视上下文的衔接、转换。

宋代僧人志南有一首绝句，内容是：“古木阴中系短篷，杖藜扶我过桥东。沾衣欲湿杏花雨，吹面不寒杨柳风。”第一句写树阴下(“古木阴中”)，第三四句写“杏花雨”与“杨柳风”，诗人又是怎样过渡的呢?“杖藜”扶着诗人由“古木阴中”来到“桥东”，完成了地点的转换。“杖藜扶我过桥东”，是拟人化的写法，更是自然过渡的典范。

③叙述顺序转换间过渡。

有些文章在顺叙的过程中，往往需要插入一些与之有关的情节来补充，然后再回头叙述原来的事，这就需要使用过渡。如：

在《故乡》一文中，“我”在与母亲对话中插入了对闰土的回忆：“这时候，我的脑里忽然闪出一幅神异的图画来……现在我的母亲提起了他，我这儿时的记忆，忽而全部闪电似的苏生过来，似乎看到了我的美丽的故乡了。”这篇文章在顺叙的过程中，用“这时候，我的脑里忽然闪出一幅神异的图画来”过渡，插入对少年闰土的回忆。

④人物转换、表达方式改变用过渡。

在记叙的过程中，有时需要转换人称，或需要由一种表达方式转换为另一种表达方式，这也往往要使用过渡。

例如：在朝鲜的每一天，我都被一些东西感动着;我的思想感情的潮水，在放纵奔流着;我想把一切东西都告诉给我祖国的朋友们。但我最急于告诉你们的，是我思想感情的一段重要经历，这就是：我越来越深刻地感觉到谁是我们最可爱的人!

谁是我们最可爱的人呢?我们的战士，我感到他们是最可爱的人。(过渡，由我换为战士)

二、照应

照应是谋篇的重要手段，具体是指上下文之间的相互照顾和呼应，包括交代和照应两个方面。交代是对后面要表现的内容在前面适当地提示一下;照应是对前面提示的内容的回答。周密的照应，对贯通文脉、点化中心、渲染气氛能起一定作用，从而唤起读者阅读心理上的美感。冰心的《小桔灯》可以说是照应手法运用的典范。

阅读时，要瞻前顾后，理清思路，注意分析作者的照应技巧。

文章的照应，主要有以下四种：

①文题照应。

也有两种：一种是开头与题目照应，如《白杨礼赞》开头一段：“白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树!”这一段既是破题，又是统领全篇的关键段，全文就是紧紧围绕着这句话开展的。另一种是行文中与题目照应，如《往事依依》的首段扣题是为了引起下文，末段点题是为了深化主题。同时，在文章的第2至第5段每段都有相应的词语扣住“依依”。

②首尾照应。

《往事依依》一文第一段“但有几件事仍历历在目，至今记忆犹新”和第六段结尾的“往事依依，金色的回忆唤起我的青春激情，催我不断奋进”相互照应，这样使文章贯脉相通，结构完整，也更好地突出主题。

③前后照应。

也就是，上下文间的照应，有段、句和词语三种情况的照应形式。还是以《往事依依》为例，第三段说“书，给我以广阔的天地”，第五段进一步讲“读了许多有名的中外小说，开阔了眼界，使自己的心已与时代更加贴近了”，进一步强调了读好书能启迪心智、指点做人。再如，《济南的冬天》的第一段中三组对比中的第三组，是用热带的毒日、响晴的天气跟济南的温情作对比得出“济南真得算个宝地”的结论。在第三组对比之中，之所以要指出“在北中国的冬天”，是因为“北中国的冬天”隐含了“照例应该是北风呼啸、日光惨淡”的意思，这就跟上文的“奇迹”与下文的“宝地”相呼应。

④重叠照应。

我们在平时的阅读中，经常会发现同一或相近的词语、句子或段落在文章中一再出现，使其于反复中得到加强，这种照应我们可称之为重叠式照应。《背影》一文中 “背影”出现了四次。《白杨礼赞》一文中“不平凡”前后一共出现四次，相同的段落出现了两次。《十三岁的际遇》一文多次写到“我是‘不系之舟’”，其中都有深层的含意。这些重叠式照应对突出文章中心，标明文章线索都起到了重要作用。

导语：以下是一直六年级的语文作文的写作方法，希望对大家有帮助!

小学一年级作文：

一、写作目的：

1.对写话有兴趣;

2.能够把句子写完整、通顺。

二、写作内容：

1、通过看图、影视节目、观察周围事物等，写几句完整、通顺的话;

2、能运用生活中学过的词语造句，并根据表达的需要，学习正确使用“句号、问号、叹号”等符号。

三、写作形式：

观察写话;用词造句;仿句练习。

小学二年级作文：

一、写作目的：

1. 能乐于表达自己看到的、听到的、想到的事物;

2. 能写几句连贯、通顺的话;能写留言条、请假条;

3. 学写简单的日记。

二、写作内容：

1. 从能看图并展开想象、观察大自然和周围的事物，写几句连贯、通顺的话，逐步向连句成段过渡;

2. 能用几个词语写几句连贯、通顺的话;

3. 会写留言条、请假条。学写简单的日记。

三、写作形式：

看图写话;观察日记;用词造句;连句成段;结合阅读练习，仿写、续写。

小学三年级作文：

一、写作目的：

1.乐于用书面语言表达自己的见闻、感受和想象;

2.能写内容较具体的片段，修改明显错误的词句;

二、写作内容：

1.通过观察(抓住特点)写一段内容较具体的片段;

2.用一段连贯的话写下来，字数不少于300字;

3.能根据提供的词语展开想象，书写内容丰富的语段。

三、写作形式：

仿写练习; 连句成段;修改练习; 结合阅读仿写、扩写、续写练习。

小学四年级作文：

一、写作目的：

1.能用书面表达自己觉得新奇有趣、印象深刻、最受感动的内容;

2.愿意将自己的习作读给人听，与他人分享习作的快乐;

3.能用简单的书信、便条进行书面交际;能修改有明显错误的词句;

二、写作内容：

1.能围绕习作要求，自主收集习作素材;

2.能抓住特点观察自己周围的事物，并用几段连贯的话写下来;

3.学写书信、便条，掌握其格式;

4.能修改有明显错误的短文;

三、写作形式：

书信练习; 修改短文; 学习命题及自由作文; 结合阅读进行扩写、续写练习。

小学五年级作文：

一、写作目的：

1.懂得写作是为了自我表达和与他人交流;

2.学习写简单纪实作文和想象作文，内容具体，感情真实;

3.学写板报稿、建议书;

4.自拟题目，学习编写作文提纲;

5.能从内容、词句、标点等方面修改自己的习作;

二、写作内容：

1.能审清题意，围绕中心选材;

2.初步掌握纪实作文及想象作文的一般规律，养成勤于练笔的习惯;

3.培养先列提纲后作文的习惯;

4.学写板报、建议书，掌握其格式。

三、写作形式：

板报及建议书的练习;习作的互评互改; 命题或自由作文; 结合阅读进行扩写、续写练习。

小学六年级作文：

一、写作目的：

1.有自我表达和与人交流的欲望;

2.能写简单的纪实和想象作文，内容具体，感情真实，条理清楚;

3.学写会议记录和读书笔记;

4.能根据习作要求自主选材，编写作文提纲;

5.能独立修改自己的习作，并与人交流修改，做到语句通顺，行款正确，学写规范、整洁。

二、写作内容：

1.能围绕目标系统地搜集、整理材料。

2.能进行初步的记叙、议论、抒情的综合训练，为升入中学打好基础。

3.能写简单的会议记录和读书笔记，做到格式正确。

4.能熟练运用常用批改符号进行习作的互评互改。

三、写作形式：

综合练习;会议记录; 命题或自由作文; 文章修改。

作文基础知识

作文是字、词、句、段篇的综合训练，它体现出每位同学的认识水平和文字表达能力。那么，怎样才能写好作文呢?一般说来应做到：

一、思想健康，中心明确。

二、内容具体，条理清楚。

三、语句通顺，意思连贯。

四、详略得当，主次分明。

五、善于观察，想象丰富。

六、书写工整，格式正确。

一直以来，雅思写作考试的大作文主体段的拓展往往是很多考生在写作中突显的最为薄弱的一个环节，其中论证过程单薄、不充分、没有力量，导致论点站不住脚是主要的原因，从而使得整篇文章留下失败的一笔。议论文，说到底，最关键的一点就是让读者对你在文章中所体现的立场认同。要做到这一点，靠的就是论点和论证。论点要合理、明确，且不要重复，要有层次;论证要做到充分，要有强大的力量把论点支撑起来，让读者心服口服，认同你的想法。作为海外考试来说，考生要做的就是让考官明确地知道你的想法，并且认同你，最终让他给你一个合理且满意的写作分数。

如何成功地完成主体段落的拓展呢?要勾画出一个充实且具有说服力的论证过程，我们当然要使用到一些论证手段，结合这些论证方法的使用，协助我们较好地完成相对来说最困难的论证过程。

一、 举例论证法

要更为直观地反映问题，举例无疑是最好的选择，也是最具有说服力的。常见的引出实例的方式：如for example, for instance, as is reported, It is reported that…, 可作为插入语的结构使用在句中。实例也可以分为几种情况，如下：

1. 应用名人实例，这是大家都知道的事情，容易引起共鸣。如在教育类话题中有一个考点涉及到中学生要不要学历史，在论证古人的经验和智慧给我们很多借鉴意义时，就可以引用一些名人的例子。

Charles Darwin, for example, taught us that only the fittest can survive, which is more than ever true in today’s competitive society.

2. 应用某些调查研究结果，常结合具体数据，更能增强真实性说服力。社会类话题老人问题上，要求分析人口老龄化所带来的影响，其中谈到积极意义时，会提到老人对家庭及社会的贡献。我们可以在两个地方找到列数据的点，一是老人的年龄，二是在有意义的事情上所花的时间，可以得出论证过程如下：

As is reported, the average time that the retired within the age group above 65 spend on the family and the community is at its length of about 5 hours per day.

3. 应用生活中具有普遍性的现象或有代表性的亲身经历。在文化这类较为抽象的话题中，有典型地要求分析文化差异会带来的不同国家人之间的冲突，可以引用这样的现象：

A western woman travelling to the Middle East may find it annoying to have to wear headscarf during a journey.

要做到恰当合适地使用实例进行论证，要求考生在平时的准备过程中，就要着重对各大话题常见的考点进行典型实例的收集，最好是比较万能的一些例子，这样就能充分利用举例子的优势，在考试中赢得高分。

二、 解释说明(拓展影响)法

中心论点表达一般比较空泛、笼统，作为论证，首先就要对空泛的意思加以具体地解释，说明原因，解释过程，阐述影响，这是一种惯用的思维，这里打不开，后面说得再多也可能都是白搭。常结合定语从句，分词的语法应用。我们来看一个例子：

By travelling abroad, we have the opportunity to experience different customs, cultures and lifestyles, helping us better understand the whole world.

这个句子是对论点出国旅游有助于我们开拓眼界的论证，采取的就是解释的方式，目的就是协助论点表达得更透彻。

三、 因果推理法

这种方法是基于一个事实的陈述，推出它可能会产生的结果，然后一环扣着一环往下推，直至目标内容出现，也就是论点的内容呈现了。常结合因果关系的状语从句结构展开论证，要注意推理逻辑连接词的应用，如as, since, because, therefore, hence, thus, as a consequence, consequently, ……

论证高中生毕业后先去工作再上大学的这种作为会带来的不利影响之一——这种方式容易使高中生误入歧途，论证过程如下：Since high school students are mentally immature, they are less likely to resist the temptation in the real world. As a result, they are more prone to some social evils, such as theft, drug abuse, and so on. So, they may easily go astray and even commit crime.

四、 对照对比论证法

拿相同或相反的事物做比较，相同关系叫对照(comparison)，相反关系叫对比(contrast)。此类论证考生需要重点掌握一些对比对照关系的连词：in contrast, by contrast, on the contrary, while, whereas, likewise, similarly, by the same token。

先看个例子，如：论证广告给消费者提供及时信息，帮助他们做决定中论述到：By contrast, without advertising, a consumer is at the risk of purchasing a product that fails to meet all of his or her needs, because of lack of knowledge of better alternatives in the market.这就是从反面着手，阐述如果没有广告，消费者会受到的影响，用反方的劣势达到衬托正方优势的效果。若想使论点具有说服力，可以尝试寻找对应的参照物相比较，在所选参照物明显的不足面前，本来事物的优点会立刻容易被人信服。

再来分析下对照的例子：They cite that in the sports world, records are always created when a sportsman is facing tough competitions. They believe that, by the same token, in a classroom where clever minds meet, students can achieve their best due to peer pressure. 拿体育比赛中的情况作对照，突出分班教学的必要性。

五、 让步论证法

欲擒故纵的高超写法，对考生来说比较陌生，先退一步承认与自己观点相反的事实，再转折给出自己的观点，否定前者。让步这种方法的优点是能较为全面地看待一个问题，而且反驳更能有的放矢。比如举一个大家特别熟悉的例子，一个男生向女生表白时被拒绝，女生会很委婉地表示，先肯定男生有很多优点，但最终会表示自己并不喜欢他，他不是她喜欢的类型。这种方式一方面不会伤害到男孩的自尊，同时也鲜明地表达了自己的想法。在这种论证中，常见句型如下：although / though / in spite of the fact that…; as is granted / admittedly…; opponents would argue that…

用以下例子加以说明：

1. As is granted, saving money offers people a sense of security in case of emergency. However, people tend to believe that wise investment can get more profits.

2. Opponents would argue that some of the violence shown on TV is the true portrayal of what is happening around us and people have the right to know it. Although this is undoubtedly true, it also means that people who see them a lot may gradually develop a sense of insecurity and mistrust as they are forced to believe they are living in a dangerous world.

很明显，我们在写作的论证过程中，对以上五种方法可以灵活地加以结合使用，不断地积累相关实例，不断地练习这些思维，在论证中做到游刃有余，充分的论证无疑是考生的加分点。希望以上的方法能为各位考生提供一些帮助。

要写好一个人物，无外乎是写人物的语言、行动、外貌(肖像)、心理等等。下文是小编整理的人物写作技巧与方法，欢迎阅读参考!

人物描写，根据描写的对象，可以分为外貌描写(肖像、衣着、神态)、语言描写、动作描写、心理描写和细节描写。写人，可以直接写头发、画眼睛，使其栩栩如生，这叫直接描写;还可以通过间接的方法写人，如通过第三者的转述介绍某人，通过描写第三者来反衬某人，以写景状物来烘托某人等等。根据描写人物的详略，轻重、着墨的浓淡，我们还可以将人物描写归纳为白描、漫画式勾勒、浓墨重彩细描等等。

一、白描

文字简练单纯，不加渲染烘托。它没有浓烈色彩的描写，不借助比喻、比拟等修辞手法，也不用或少用形容词，依然描写出事物的形象。如：

“其时进来的是一个黑瘦的先生，八字须，戴着眼镜，挟着一叠大大小小的书。”(鲁迅《藤野先生》)

寥寥数语，就活化出一位生活俭朴、治学严谨的学者形象。

二、漫画式勾勒

即以夸张的手法、揶揄的口吻，将人物勾画成奇形怪状、荒诞陆离的形象，以表达嘲笑、憎恶、同情等思想感情。如：

“他倘若低头看，断然是看不到自己的脚尖的，中间隆起的那个部位，会把视线挡住。稀稀拉拉的花白头发，整齐地朝后梳拢着，蘸了水，没有一根错乱的。白皙皙的脸上，看不见一条皱纹，像刚出锅的馒头。由于胖，鼻子、眼睛就显得特别小;由于小，就显得格外精采有神。”(王润滋《卖蟹》)

通过描写，塑造出“过滤嘴”的形象：老而胖，整洁考究，富态优裕，高人一等。在描写中渗透着作者的嘲笑。

三、浓墨重彩细描

即以生动、形象、传神的语言，多方位、多层次、多角度，细致全面地去刻画人物形象。如：

“……坐在南首的是一个瘦瘦的，五十上下的中国人;穿一件牙黄的长衫，嘴里咬着一支烟嘴，跟着那火光的一亮一亮，腾起一阵一阵烟雾。”

“他的面孔黄里带白，瘦得叫人担心，好像大病新愈的人，但是精神很好，没有一点颓唐的样子，头发约莫一寸长，显然好久没剪了，却一根一根精神抖擞地直竖着。胡须很打眼，好像浓墨写的隶体‘一’字。”

“黄里带白的脸，瘦得让人担心，头上直竖着寸把长的头发;牙黄羽纱的长衫;隶体‘一’字似的胡须;左手里捏着的一支黄色烟嘴，安烟的一头已经熏黑了。”(阿累《一面》)

这三处，作者通过全面而细致的描写，刻画出处于艰苦条件下的鲁迅的精神面貌，一位“越老越顽强”的伟大战士的形象，即赫然屹立在我们的面前。

人物描写的方法是很多的，每种方法各有千秋，同学们可以根据写作的需要，灵活地加以运用。

[人物写作技巧与方法

随着2016年高考大幕的落下，高考语文的评卷工作也顺利的完成了。高考语文作文历年来都是备受关注的对象。特别是今年广东卷的作文以漫画的形式出现，大大超出了广大师生们的预判。题目一出，各类的看法层出不穷，甚至有的语文教师也认为这样的题目考察的层面太肤浅了，没有深度。然而事实上是今年的作文拿分数容易，但能够拿到高分是比较难的。那么今年的作文怎样写才能拿到比较高的分数呢，怎样写才能体现这个时代的高中生写作水平呢?这确实值得深思的问题。高考评卷场，华南师范大学文学院张玉金教授指出，能够诠释这道作文题目应以引申型议论文为佳。引申型议论文为何能比较完美的表达出这道题目的内在要求呢?我个人认为这主要是由其体式决定的。

首先我们重新回顾一下引申型议论文

一、引申型议论文的概念：

引申型议论文是指从一事物出发，抓住一点，生发开去，引出议论，得出结论的议论文。引申型议论文，也可称之为狭义的“读后感”。

二、引申型议论文的与评述型议论文的区别：

评述型议论文：重点是对特定事物的分析、评价，指明优劣得失，分析前因后果，总结经验教训，表明自已或支持，或反对，或赞美，或贬抑的态度。

引申型议论文：它主要不是对特定对象的分析、评价;而只是把材料作为一个引子，借题发挥，“引申”出来某种道理，某种规律，某种主张，再联系实际，展开论述。其重点在“联系实际”。它不是通过“评价”指导实践;而是通过“引申”启发读者。

三、如何写好引申型议论文?

写引申型议论文，关键是要处理好“引”与“申”的关系。具体来说有三点：

1.确立好所“引”材料在文中的地位。

所引材料，首先是“话题的引子”，它是引发出文章论点的依据;同时，它又是一个特殊的论据，它是用来证明论点的“首要”论据。因此，在文章中必须把所“引”材料交待清楚。但有的考生却不注意这一点：不交代或交代不清，使自已的论点失去了依托，同时失去了一个重要论据。

2.掌握“引”材料的技巧。

对题目中的材料不管详略，最好都不要“照抄”，而要根据自已论点的需要，选择、调整，使它和要阐释的中心论点(“申”)对口、衔接。“引”的材料得当，中心论点的表达与论述就能水到渠成。

3.要对所“引”材料进行照应。

材料既是“引子”，又是“特殊”论据，在整个论证过程中，要“时时”提到它，至少在结尾时要回应。如果把材料只作“引子”，到终篇不再提及，文章就没有整体之感。

除此之外，引申型议论文在论证上常使用类比论证，就是“据事类义”，以此证彼，通过打比方来证明论点的方法。

(1)类比法：一般通过讲故事、打比方、引用成语典故等，把属性相同的事物，进行比较，阐明问题，悟出其中的道理来证明论点的正确性。因此，运用类比论证，能把抽象的道理具体化、形象化，深入浅出地说明问题。

(2)运用类比论证时应注意什么?

①根据类比说理的的需要，选择那些最能揭示被说明的道理的类比事物。即用来进行类比说理的事物与被说明的道理之间有相通的东西(共同属性)，就是类比点。

为了具体而通俗的说明一个抽象的道理，在选择类比事例时应遵循以下三个原则：

第一，要选用读者熟悉的事物，来类比说明抽象的道理;

第二，用浅近的道理，来类比说明深奥的道理;

第三，选取具体的事物，来类比说明抽象的道理。

②紧扣类比点。

充分揭示类比事物和所要说明的道理之间的共同属性。

③在类比说理的基础上，还要加以引申和发挥。

这种引申和发挥，是深入说理的需要，是作者阐明写作意图的需要。这样就能使类比说理具有深刻性、现实性、逻辑性。

以下我们结合2016年的高考作文题目以及优秀例文来分析引申型议论文如何写。

阅读下面的漫画材料，根据要求写一篇不少于800字的文章(60分)

要求：结合材料的内容和寓意，选好角度，确定立意，明确文体，自拟标题;不要套作，不得抄袭。

首先是“引”材料。

今年的高考题目中需要所“引”的对象不是事，而是漫画，所以“引”材料之前，必须对漫画全面地解读与分析，才能为“引”做准备，这也是与以往的材料作文不同的地方。

分析如下：2016年的高考作文题是漫画作文题目。其中画了两个学生。即甲生和乙学生。第一次考试甲学生得了100分，受到家长的奖赏(从脸上的唇印推知)，甲学生很愉悦;乙学生得了55分，不及格，受到家长的长掴(从其脸上的掌印推知)，乙学生表情痛苦。第二次考试甲学生得了98分，受到家长的掌掴，表情痛苦，乙学生得了61分，刚刚及格，受到了家长奖赏，表情愉悦。这幅漫画包含有4个要素，即人物、分数、面上印记及表情。人物有4个，显性人物两个，即甲学生和乙学生;隐性人物有多个，主要隐性人物是甲学生的家长及教育者和乙学生的家长及教育者。分数有4个：100分、98分、55分、61分。孩子脸上印迹有两种，即唇印和掌印。唇印代表奖赏、肯定、表扬，掌印代表处罚、批评、准备。表情有两种，即愉悦表情、痛苦表情。这些要素之间是有联系的，家长及教育者认为考试分数理想，就奖赏，学生的表情就愉悦;家长认为考试分数不理想，就惩罚，学生的表情就痛苦。纵向来看，有三种变化，即学生分数的变化、脸上印迹的变化、表情的变化。

其次“申”。

“申”就是依托材料发表观点，阐释道理、规律。即对中心论点的阐释与论证。“申”由于考生的认知度不同，可深可浅。2016年高考作文题目要求“结合材料的内容和寓意”，“内容”是指漫画材料直接反映出来的表层意思，“寓意”是指由漫画抽象出来的较为深层的意思。“申”就可以依托其一来阐释、论证观点。

(一)材料的内容

1.学生考试的成绩理想，家长就奖赏

2.学生考试成绩不理想，家长就惩罚

3.学生起点不同家长的期望值不同

4.家长在学业成绩上追求完美

5.家长以肯定或否定的方式对待孩子发生变化的考试分数

6.家长对孩子的考试分数采取简单甚至粗暴的方式

7.家长对待孩子的方式反映了家长对孩子考试分数的态度

8.孩子因家长对待自己的方式而产生了不同的心理

9.其他

(二)材料的寓意

第一方面：漫画反映了社会上对于教育的一些片面的认知与做法---

1.片面追求分数、片面追求升学率

2.社会片面地追求分数，扭曲了教育的本质

3.片面的人才评价观

4.教育者只评价孩子的考试分数。却忽略了孩子的其他方面的素养

5.片面的人才观和人才成长途径

6.其他

第二方面：对漫画中的考生、分数、印迹均可做抽象、引申的理解。考生可以联想到某人类群体，分数可以理解为人的工作成绩乃至团体、社会或国家的进步退步，印迹可以视作一般意义的表扬与批评等。

1.对待进步和退步，我们应该采取理性的方式表达自己的情感、态度

2.起点不同，影响人们对进步、退步的预期

3.事物的起点不同，我们应理性地对待进步和退步

4.现实生活中对人、对事的“奖惩”

5.唯数字奖惩的社会症结

6.对当今社会进步与发展的应持理性态度

7.评价标准具有相对性

8.进步到一定高度，提升空间小;反之提升空间就大

9.是否进步的判断，不是与他人比较得来的，应是与自己比较出来的

10.其他

考生可以从漫画的内容选择角度，也可以从漫画的寓意选择角度，没有高下之分。考生可以谈家长对待孩子成绩的奖惩方式和态度，也可以谈社会对教育的认知和态度，也可以谈对于进步和退步的认知和态度等抽象问题，没有优劣之分。

最后，论证的过程我们结合高考优秀例文来分析

起伏的波浪才更具力量

这一则漫画是一组巧妙的、富有深意的对比。先拿满分后拿98分的孩子先后收获了香吻和一个耳光，而先拿55分后拿61分的孩子则先后得了一个耳光和一个香吻。从这两个孩子的境遇上，我们看到了许多人有意无意抱有的一种心态：追求卓越、积极进取，否认失误和退步，哪怕这个“失误”仅仅两分。(第一段简洁地引材料，明确了角度)

努力进步当然是一件好事。正如漫画中的第二个孩子，他从不及格到达到及格，是一个值得肯定的质变和成就。攀登虽艰辛，而山顶上“一览众山小”的壮阔是徘徊在山脚下的人无法享受的。然而，从100分到98分就是应当受到指责的堕落吗?并不是。98分依然是一个令人艳羡的好成绩，98分和100分同属于优秀水准。从100分到55分才是应当警醒的堕落。(从表层来分析材料，把材料作为论据进一步论述同时使用了类比论证)

依然优秀的第一个孩子被对待的态度落差如此之大，连我亦不禁感到委屈。在竞争日益激烈的大背景下，许多人奉行苛求完美的极端精英教育，向往着“高处不胜寒”。从“虎妈狼爸”，再到“提高一分，横扫千人”的高考标语，人人的神经成了一张绷紧的弓，生怕遭受横飞而来的一记耳光。

可是，有一句亘古朴实的真理是“人无完人，金无足赤。”我们心心念念“直挂云帆济沧海”，却忘了挫折与起伏才是人生的常态。“长江后浪推前浪”的力量，就在这起伏之间。宽大的大海永不会如一潭碧湖般文弱恬静，清浅的水面可以保持平稳，但也失去了承载大舟的能量。

是的，起伏的波浪才是更具力量。没有后退，没有低谷，就没有前进的动力和空间，也就没有厚积薄发的震撼。就像生活在南极冰海的企鹅，想要跃到岸上，并不是在水面上拼命挣扎，而是猛地扎进深水，凭着一股冲劲儿再跃出水面，华丽地落在岸上。第二个孩子就像这只企鹅，在不及格的深潜后获得腾跃的力量。

(由表及里更深层次地论证把成绩的起伏与人生的境遇采用多出类比论证)

而我们，当然应该给第一个孩子以鼓励和支持，不是必须得到满分才是优秀的孩子。他是潮起潮落的大海，是汹涌起伏能淹没一切的波浪。我也相信，他可以在这两分的差距中弥补自己的缺漏，下一次重得满分。

起伏的波浪更具力量，我相信在不完美中，才能更好地突破自己，在退步中，重获前行的勇气和动力。

(最后两段回扣材料，指出应该如何看待成绩，同时也进一步强调应该怎样面对人生，既扣了材料，也重申了主题)

名师点评：这是一篇优秀的考场作文。该生的“规定动作”做得十分到位：紧扣漫画的关键内容与寓意展开写作，符合题意;题好文一半，其所拟题目与其他考生相形，能给人眼前一亮的感觉，即题目有辨异性;起段三言两语，导入简洁，入题快;第二三段分别评述漫画中的分数及其产生此一现象的社会背景，如果说第二段是围绕“点”来展开，那么第三段就是围绕“面”来展开，第四段则是围绕“理”来展开，角度斑斓，内容充实，逻辑(台阶术)严密;第五六七段类比论证、比喻论证，形象生动，文势壮又能以理服人。该生的“自选动作”也同样做得十分到位。比如“立意高远”——作文以哲理立意，难度系数高，区分度自然也高;辩证思维亦颇具特色，论证扎实、理性、稳健;论述相当集中，从题目至结尾绝无蔓笔，析题切题扣题点题，一以贯之。特别值得一提的是，本文所用的“古人说”妥帖，所用的“波浪说”无可辩驳，所用的“企鹅说”新颖、生动、精当、有情趣。此外，该生的“情文并茂”能力、“孟辩素养”(孟子式的辩论素养)也值得点赞。(华南师范大学文学院副教授佘作章)

综上所述，今年高考漫画作文能拿到一定的分数是容易的，但想要拿到比较高的分数还是需要深思慎行的，引申型议论文是比较适合拿高分的一类文体。同时，引申型议论文也能更好地体现高中生的思辨能力，所以高中阶段的作文教学应予以重视。

1994.6

Directions:

For this part , you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: The Career I Pursue.

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

1994.1

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic We Need to Broaden Our Knowledge.

You should write no less than 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1. 科学技术是社会发展所不可缺少的

2. 社会科学和自然科学相互渗透

3. 现代大学生需要广博的知识

1993.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic My View On Opportunity. You must base your composition on the following instructions (give in Chinese):

有的人认为机会是极少的，另一些人则认为人人都会有某种机会。你的看法如何？

写出你的理由并且适当举例。在你的文章结尾处不要忘记写出你的结论。

Your composition should be no less than 120 words. Remember to write it neatly.

1993.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: Motorcycles And City Traffic. You should base your composition on the following outline (given in Chinese).

1.近年来中国城市的摩托车

2.摩托车的优点和缺点

3.你对我国城市中摩托车发展的前景的看法

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

1992.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic Looking Forward to the Twenty-First Century. Your composition should be based on your answer to the following question written in Chinese:

1.新世纪科技发展的前景如何？

2.新的科学技术会给社会带来什么好处？

3.新的科学技术会带来什么问题？

4.你怎样对待新世纪的挑战战？

Your composition should be no less 120 words.

1992.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the following graph which shows the change in the number of film - goers and TV - watchers in a certain city. The title of the composition is: Film Is Giving Way to TV. You should write no less than 120 words for your composition and it must include the following ideas (given in Chinese):

1.电影观众越来越少

2.电视观众越来越多，因为……

3.然而，还是有人喜欢看电影,因为…….

Quote as few figures as possible. Remember to write your composition in readable handwriting.

1991.6

Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the graph below.

The suggested Title is: Car Accidents Declining in Walton City. Remember that your composition

must be written according to the following outline:

1.Rise and fall of the rate of car accidents as indicated by the graph;

2.Possible reason(s) for the decline of car accidents in the city;

3.Your predictions of what will happen this year.

Your composition should be no less than 120 words and you should quote as few figures as

possible.

1991.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition about Man Is to Survive. You should base your composition on the following outline:

1.人类面临的问题（如能源，疾病，污染，人口等）

2.悲观的看法（如人类将无法生存）

3.人类的智慧出路

Your composition should be no less than 120 words. Be sure to write your composition in readable handwriting.

1990.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic: How to Solve the Housing Problem in Big Cities. Four suggested solutions to this problem are listed below. You are supposed to write in favour of one suggestion (ONE only) and against another (ONE only). You should give your reasons in both cases. You should write no less than 120 words. Remember to give a short introduction and a brief conclusion. Write your composition clearly.

四种可能解决住房问题的方案：

1.多造高层建筑

2.向地下发展

3.建造卫星城市

4.疏散城市人口

1990.1

Directions: For this part you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic How to Solve the Problem of Heavy Traffic according to the following OUTLINE. Your composition should be no less than 120 words. Remember that the contents of the OUTLINE should ALL be included in your composition. But you are not supposed to translate the OUTLINE word for word.

OUTLINE

问题：城市交通拥挤

解决方案（solution）

1.建造(lay down)更多道路

优点：(1) 降低街道拥挤程度

(2) 加速车流（flow of traffic）

缺点：占地过多

2.开辟（open up）更多公共汽车线路

优点：减少自行车与小汽车

缺点：对部分人可能造成不方便

结论：两者结合

2016六级写作突破笔记(七)

题型分类 (Classification of every essay):

一、第一种题型（对比观点选择题；Essay I）:

(一)题型特点：

1、 大多为三点提纲，提纲模式一般为：有一些人……；还有人……；我的看法或观点；

2、少数时候也会出现两点提纲的情况，此时可以补充成三点提纲来写作。

(二) 历年真题：

2000.6； 1999.6； 1998.6； 1997.6； 1996.1；1995.6；1993.6； 1993.1

二、 第二种题型（社会热点话题；Essay II）:

(一)题型特点：

1、 应该为三点提纲，但是通常以两点提纲出现的题目居多，所涉及主题为当时社会热点；

2、如果是两点提纲，则补充成三点提纲写作。

3、通常模式为：现象概述--细节（原因、危害、方式等）--自我评论

(二)历年真题：

2002.12； 2000.12； 2000.1； 1999.1； 1997.12； 1995.1；

三、第三种题型（图标题；Report; Essay III）:

（一）题型特点：

1、 以图表作为信息来源的写作模式

2、通常模式为：描述图表--解释原因--自我评论

（二）历年真题：

2003.6; 2000.6； 1996.6； 1992.1； 1991.6

四、第四种题型（书信题； Essay IV）:

(一) 题型特点：

1、写书信

（二）历年真题：

2001.6； 2002.1；

五、第五种题型（谚语格言题； Essay V）:

(一) 题型特点：

1、文章题目为一句格言或谚语

2、通常模式为：解释谚语--举例论证--画龙点睛

(二) 历年真题：

1997.1；

1999.1

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic. Dont Hesitate to Say "No"

You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1.别人请求帮助时，在什么情况下我们说"不"。

2.为什么有些人在该说"不"的时候不说"不"。

3.该说"不"时不说"不"的坏处。

1998.6

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic Do "Lucky Numbers" Really Bring Good Luck?

You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1. 有些人认为某些数字会带来好运。

2. 我认为数字和运气无关，……

1998.1

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic My View on Fake Commodities.

You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given on Chinese) below:

1. 假冒伪劣商品的危害。

2. 怎样杜绝假冒伪劣商品。

1997.6

Directions: For this part you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic My View on Job-Hopping

You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1. 有些人喜欢始终从事一种工作，因为…

2. 有些人喜欢经常更换工作，因为…

3. 我的看法。

1997.1

Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic Haste Makes Waste. You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:

1. 为什么说"欲速则不达"。

2. 试举例说明。

1996.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the grouphs below.

Heaalth Gains in Developing Countries

Life Expectancy Infant Mortality

1996.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: Why I Take the College English Test Band 6, You should base your composition on the following outline (given in Chinese).

1.有人认为没有必要参加大学英语六级考试

2.我参加CET－6考试的理由

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

1995.6

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: Should Firecrackers Be Banned? You should base your composition on the following outline (given in Chinese).

1.有人认为放鞭炮是好事，为什么？

2.有人认为放鞭炮是坏事，为什么？

3.我的看法

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

1995.1

Directions:

For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the title: My View on the Negative Effects of Some Advertisements. You should base your composition on the following outline (given in Chinese).

1.现在有些不良的商业广告

2.这些广告的副作用和危害性

3.我对这些广告的态度

You must write your composition in no less than 120 words on the Composition Sheet and remember to write in readable handwriting.

2016六级写作突破笔记(三)

典型的对比观点选择题的文章逻辑结构：四段比较好

（启）Paragraph I：（1）引出将要评论的事物或者是观点；可以用问句开头How should people ……

（2）简明扼要的提出人们在这个问题上的两种不同看法。

（承）Paragraph II：（1）提出一种观点或优点；

（2）本段的支持性分论点；

（3）本段总结（可以省略）。

（转）Paragraph III：（1）承上启下的过渡句；

（2）提出另一种观点或缺点；

（3）本段的支持性分论点

（4）本段总（可以省略）。

（合）Paragraph IV：（1）平衡两种看法；

（2）给出自己的观点。

④14分

How should we read? Should we read selectively or extensively? Everyone has his own view.（启）

注：1.第一句提出问题，第二句提出两种见解

Some people think we should read selectively. They argue that with the development of modern science and technology, more and more books are published. It is impossible for us to read all the books. Whats more, there are many bad books that are poisonous to our mind, and we shouldnt read them. Since we cant read all the books and we shouldnt read bad books, we must read selectively.（承）

注：1.本段总分总结构

2.they argue that = they think that

3.with the development of...

4.whats more 递进关系，moreover

But others may not agree, they emphasize that todays society is not what it was. If one man has many kinds of knowledge, he will have more chances to succeed. If a man knows much in one field but knows nothing in other fields, he may be useless. Since we must have many kinds of knowledge, we must read extensively.（转）

注：1.But 转折词

2.they emphasize that = they think that

3.todays society is not what it was 现代社会今昔非比

4.许多知识 a wide range of/a large scope of/much；获取知识 acquire/get knowledge

5.knows nothing→little；he may be useless→he may not be of great use to the society 后者比前者更委婉

Whos right? I think both of them have something right. But I think we should read extensively first. We should read books in many fields, and read selectively in one field.（合）

There is a lot to be said for both sides on the argument. But I hold the opinion that……

①11分

When it comes to reading, some people think that reading selectively is a good way, but some other people do not agree with them, they think that reading extensively is better.

Those people, who think that reading selectively is better, believe that good books are as many as bad books. Those good books can give us pleasure and knowledge, while those bad books can only lead us to the wrong way. So, they suggest that we should only choose the good books to read and never touch the bad books.

注：1."people, who"应去掉逗号，改为非限制定语从句。

2.they suggest that = they think that

3.touch 碰，闪光点词汇，如教材P7：shoulder the responsibility of doing sth. 肩负起责任

But, the other people, who hold that reading extensively is better, think that one kind of books can only give us one aspect of knowledge. Even the best book only contains one field of information. So, they can easily come to the conclusion that "to know more, to read more". So they believe that reading extensively is better.

To my point, we should choose good books to read and read good books as many as possible. By this way, we can increase the quality and quantity of reading.

实例二 99年6月真题

Reading Selectively Or Extensively?

Outline: 1.有人认为读书要有选择

2.有人认为应当博览群书

3.我的想法

①11分

When it comes to reading, some people think that reading selectively is a good way, but some other people do not agree with them, they think that reading extensively is better.

Those people, who think that reading selectively is better, believe that good books are as many as bad books. Those good books can give us pleasure and knowledge, while those bad books can only lead us to the wrong way. So, they suggest that we should only choose the good books to read and never touch the bad books.

But, the other people, who hold that reading extensively is better, think that one kind of books can only give us one aspect of knowledge. Even the best book only contains one field of information. So, they can easily come to the conclusion that "to know more, to read more". So they believe that reading extensively is better.

To my point, we should choose good books to read and read good books as many as possible. By this way, we can increase the quality and quantity of reading.

②5分

I think reading not only selectively but also extensively. Because the two sides are not contradict. Our time is limited. So we can not read every book in the world. However, we will not be interested in every book. We should read those books may be useful to ours, read those books which we like. But those books which we choose must be extensively so it can give ours all kinds of knowledge, news and so on, it also make ours become a wise man. On the one hand reading selectively let ours not waste our time which it is limited. Moreover it can emphasis among all books that we can read. On the other hand reading extensively can deal with all kinds of need in our life. They are all useful to ours.

失分原因：分段太少，语法错误太多

③2分

Most people thought that read books should have been selective. But others believed reading extensively was correction.

Selective books or reading extensively?

Sure, you can choice one from previous ideas,

on one hand, There are too book to read for us. We should choose those which we interested, and it would be helpful for us.

On another hand. Someones interesting was wide. Each book could bring you specific contain we couldnt reading at only one level.

I confirmed all of these ideas were good but werent wise.

As a reader, the main task is to discover more and more books the second task is to held some which wonderful and helpful for us. Dont treat these books with reckless abandon.

The best technology of reading is connect.

失分原因：分段太多，语法错误太多

④14分

How should we read? Should we read selectively or extensively? Everyone has his own view.

Some people think we should read selectively. They argue that with the development of modern science and technology, more and more books are published. It is impossible for us to read all the books. Whats more, there are many bad books that are poisonous to our mind, and we shouldnt read them. Since we cant read all the books and we shouldnt read bad books, we must read selectively.

But others may not agree, they emphasize that todays society is not what it was. If one man has many kinds of knowledge, he will have more chances to succeed. If a man knows much in one field but knows nothing in other fields, he may be useless. Since we must have many kinds of knowledge, we must read extensively.

Whos right? I think both of them have something right. But I think we should read extensively first. We should read books in many fields, and read selectively in one field.

⑤8分

Some people think reading shall be chosen. Because some books are good to human beings and some books are harmful to people.

Some people think that men should read books widely. Because wide reading can help man get much knowledge. And man can use it to change the world.

It is my point that reading must be selectively. Because reading is important to man. Some books can help man but some books can lead some people to crime. It can be seen in the newspapers and watched on TV. We can make full use of some good books and gain more useful knowledge. It can make our life more beautiful. We must give up those unhelpful books. They are not good to us. Reading them is wasting time and money. So reading selectively is an important part in reading.

失分原因：结构失调，表述方式单一

写作原则

内容简单化

结构模式化（主题句-分论点-总结）

语言要包装

错误要回避

万能理由 (Omnipotence)：

1、方便：convenient/convenience

2、效率：efficient/efficiently/efficiency

3、节省和浪费：save time/money/space; economical, thrift

waste time/money/space; costly, lavish

4：人的心理健康：independent, cooperative, competitive,

considerate, confident, creative, sociable,

perseverance; selfish, isolated, conservative

5、人的身体健康：health, disease, strong, strength, energetic

6、娱乐：colorful, pleasure, joy, recreation, entertainment, relax

tired, boring, lonely

7、环境：environment, pollute, poisonous, dirty

8、安全和危险：safe, danger, risk

9、经验：experience, social experience, enter the society

10、人际：humane, fair, unfair, help, assist, freedom, freely

基本表达(Basic Elements of English Writing)：

越来越：be increasingly + adj., be on the rise, the growing number of

人们认为：it is generally/widely believed/held/agreed that

许多问题：a host of/a number of problems

引起人们注意：claim call/attract general/public/world attention to sth.

意识到：there is a growing awareness/realization of/that, awaken sb. to the fact/danger

适应新的形势/变化：adapt/adjust/accommodate oneself to new environment/change

接触各种思想/经历：be exposed to new ideas/experiences/problems

接触社会：come into frequent/close contact with the world/society

获得成功：achieve/accomplish success

提出观点/建议：advance / put forward / come up with the arguments/ideas/suggestions

作出努力：make tremendous/persistent/sustained effort to do sth., take great pains to do(with work/study)

影响学习/工作：interfere with studies/work

产生影响：have/exert a profound influence on life/personality, have a dramatic/undesirable effect on

较好地驾驭生活：be a better pilot of ones life

剥夺机会/权力：deprive oneself of the chance/right/opportunity

取代就的方式：substitute for/take the place of the old way

采取措施：take effective steps/measures to

控制我们的环境：take/gain increasing control over our own environment

躲避危险/挑战：shy/run away from the dangers/challenge

满足要求：meet/satisfy/accommodate the demand of

补偿损失：compensate for/make up for the loss/damage

解释某现象：account for/explain the phenomenon

对……很好的了解：have a better understanding/appreciation of, have a new perspective on. provide/gain an insight into

把某因素考虑进去：take sth. Into account(consideration), give much thought to

品位人生/自由/青春：savor the life/freedom/youth

培养对……的信心：develop/foster ones interest/confidence in

经历变化/困难/艰险：undergo/experience great changes/hardships/experience

表现出自信心等：project ones confidence/feeling/image

生活充满不公正的地方：life is full of minor irritation/injustice

追求学习/职业：pursue ones academic interest/professional career

学习知识/技术：pursue/acquire knowledge/technology/skill

被看作学习的……榜样：be held up as a good example

交流经验/知识：share experience/ideas/problems/knowledge

发挥/起到重要作用：play an (important/active/great) role/part

逃学/缺课：skip school/a class/a meeting/a lecture

知识/经验丰富：rich in knowledge/experience

确立/追求目标：set/pursue a goal/higher standard

到达目标：achieve/accomplish/stain the goal/aim/objective

克服困难：overcome obstacles/difficulty

面临危险/困难：be confronted/faced with/in the face of danger/difficulty

阻碍了成功：stand in the way of success, be an obstacle/barrier to success/growth

阻碍了发展：hamper/impede/stunt the development of

持传统的看法：hold conventional wisdom

发表看法：voice/express ones opinion

持相反/合理的观点：take the opposite/fresh view

揭穿某种一贯的说法：shatter the myth of

求得帮助：enlist ones support/help

缩小差别：bridge/narrow/fill the gap/gulf (between city and country)

把成功/错误归咎于：attribute/own the success/failure to

对……重要：be indispensable/important/vital to

施加压力：put/exert a academic pressure on

重视：assign/attach much importance/significance to

强调：place/put much emphasis/stress/value on

把注意力集中在：focus/concentrate ones attention/efforts/thoughts upon

提供机会/信息：provide/offer/furnish an opportunity/information for sb.

抓住机会：grab/seize/take the opportunity

得到机会：enjoy/gain access to a opportunity/information

有可能：there is (little/much) possibility/likelihood that, chances/the odds are that

展开竞争：compete against/with sb. for the prize/position/control/the mastery of

开展运动：conduct(carryon/undertake/initiate/launch/wage) a (vigorous/nation-wide/publicity/advertising) campaign (for/against)

对我很有/没有什么意义：make much/little sense to me

带来无穷的幸福/满足：be a source of happiness satisfaction/contentment/pride/complaint

献身于：devote/dedicate/commit oneself to a cause/career

大不（没什么）两样：make much(little/no) difference

真正重要的是：what really matters/accounts is …

改变生活旅程：change/alter the course of life

建立在大量的学习/实践上：built on tremendous amount of study/practice

进行调查/执行任务：conduct/carry out an study/task/experiment

辞去工作/学习：leave/quit ones job/work/school

参加考试/竞赛等：enter (for) the examination/contest, race

参加活动/讨论：take part/participate/be engaged in sports/activities/discussion

影响思想/态度/事件的形成：shape ones thinking/attitude

进入大学/社会/家庭/劳力市场/职业：enter a school/college/society/the work force/professionals

实现自己的理想/愿望：realize/fulfill/achieve ones dream(hops/wish/desire)

减轻压力/紧张：reduce/alleviate/relieve the stress/pressure/tension

提高社会地位：enhance/improve/upgrade social status/position/standing rise to the position of leadership

提高技术/能力：sharpen (increase/improve/enhance/boost) ones skill/ability

加快/促进发展：accelerate/facilitate/advance/enhance/boost the development of

随着生活节奏的加快：with the quickening pace/rhythm/tempo of modern life/society

开阔眼界/兴趣：broaden ones interest/outlook, expand(broaden/enlarge) ones mental horizons

有助于了解/发展/宣传/解决：contribute much/little/greatly/to a better understanding of/the popularity of/the growth of/the solution of

有助于解决问题：go a long way to(towards) solving the problem

迷恋名利/分数：be obsessed/preoccupied with grades/fame/fortune

把时间花/浪费在：spend/waste time doing sth., put in hours doing sth.

利用机会/技术：make (full/better) use of/take advantage of opportunity/time, tap/harness technology potential/skills/talent

把知识/经验运用到…：apply/put the theory/knowledge/experience… to practice/daily life/good use

取得进步：make much progress/strides/gains in

充分发挥潜力/能力：develop ones ability/potential to the full, give full play to ones ability

充满激情/渴望：have a burning desire/a great passion for

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

记事作文以叙事为主，表现发生在活动场地、竞赛等事情的某种意义，反映作者对这些事情的态度和看法。

写谁(作文对象)：发生在活动场地、竞赛等事情。

写什么(作文目的)：反映作者对这些事情的态度和看法。

怎样写：通过一件事或几件事说明作文的目的。

写法：叙述事件，还可以在事件中进行有效的肖像、语言、心理、动作、细节描写。

注意事项：作文过程中，必须坚持始终要与所写这些事情的态度和看法相联系。

一、交代清楚事件发生的时间、地点、人物、起因、经过和结果，即六要素。一件事总离不开这六要素，把这方面写清楚了，才能使读者了解事件的来龙去脉。

二、要围绕作文的中心选择事件，要选择最能表现作文中心思想的事件做为材料，生活中有不少新鲜有趣和激动人心的事。因此，我们平日要多观察，多想生活中遇到的事。选材要新颖，在别人的作文中常出现的事要少写或不写，这样写出来的作文才有吸引力，有新鲜感。

三、事件的主要部分要写具体。每件事都有起因、经过和结果这样一个过程，只有把这个过程写清楚，给读者的印象才能完整而深刻。在事件中要进行有效的肖像、语言、心理、动作、细节描写，这一点很重要，这样写出来的作文才生动。要突出中心，详略得当，与主题无关的事不写。

环保是一个热点话题，下面语文迷网整理提供了关于环保的英语写作素材，希望对你有帮助。

环保的英语名言

1、 Dont litter the floor.不随地扔垃圾。

2、 Governments of many countries have established laws to protect the air, forests and sea resources and to stop environmental pollution.许多国家制定了法律来保护大气、森林和海洋资源，制止环境污染。

3、 Please keep off the grass.不要践踏草坪。

4、 It’s our duty to save water节约水是我们每个人的责任。

5、 Safety First.安全第一。

6、 Earth is our home, you rely on green.地球是我家，绿化靠大家。

7、 Environmental problems directly affect the quality of peoples lives.环境问题直接影响人们的生活质量。

8、 Lets do our best to make it more beautiful.让我们尽力让它更美丽。

9、 If we dont save water, the last drop of water will be a tear-drop of us.如果我们不节约水，那么最后一滴水也许会是我们人类的眼泪。

10、 Handle with Care.小心轻放。

11、 No climbing.禁止攀爬。

12、 Save the earth, Our Only Home.保护地球，我们唯一的家。

13、 As we know , water is very important to man.我们知道，水对人类来说是非常的重要。

14、 Most environmental litigation involves disputes with governmental agencies.许多环保诉讼都涉及与政府机构的争端。

15、 Do not throw rubbish onto the ground. Do not waste water. Use both sides of paper when you write. Stop using plastic bags for shopping. Make classrooms less noisy.不要在地上扔垃圾。不要浪费水。当你写字时要在纸的两面都要写。停止使用塑料袋去购物。减少教室里德吵闹声。

16、 The most important question in the world today is pollution.当今世界最重要的话题就是污染问题。

17、 No one can live without water or air.没有人能离开水和空气生存。

18、 We should stop factories from producing harmful gases.我们应该阻止工厂生产有害气体。

19、 Many rivers and lakes are seriously polluted.很多河流湖泊已经受到严重污染。

20、 Without the shade from trees, Earth would get too hot to live on.没有了树荫，地球将会变得太热而不能生存。

21、 We need to protect Earth because it is our home.我们需要保护地球因为它是我们的家。

22、 Discharge pipes directly take pollutants away from the plant into the river.排泄管道直接将污染物从工厂排入河流。

23、 Please shut the door after you.出入请关门。

24、 We should plant more and more trees in order to live better and more healthy in the future为了将来我们的生活过得更好、更加健康我们应该种更多的树。

环保的词汇

21世纪议程：Agenda 21世界环境日(6月5日)：World Environment Day (June 5th each year)

世界环境日主题：World Environment Day Themes冰川消融，后果堪忧!(2007年)Melting Ice–a Hot Topic!

莫使旱地变荒漠!(2006年)Deserts and Desertification–Dont Desert Drylands!

营造绿色城市，呵护地球家园!(2005年)Green Cities – Plan for the Planet!

海洋存亡，匹夫有责!(2004年)Wanted! Seas and Oceans – Dead or Alive!

水——二十亿人生命之所系!(2003年)Water - Two Billion People are Dying for It!

让地球充满生机!(2002年)Give Earth a Chance!

世间万物，生命之网!(2001年)Connect with the World Wide Web of life!

环境千年-行动起来吧!(2000年)The Environment Millennium - Time to Act!

拯救地球就是拯救未来!(1999年)Our Earth - Our Future - Just Save It!

为了地球上的生命-拯救我们的海洋!(1998年) For Life on Earth - Save Our Seas!

为了地球上的生命!(1997)For Life on Earth我们的地球、居住地、家园：(1996)Our Earth， Our Habitat， Our Home国际生物多样性日(12月29日)：International Biodiversity Day (29 December)

世界水日(3月22日)：World Water Day (22 March)

世界气象日(3月23日)：World Meteorological Day (23 March)

世界海洋日(6月8日)：World Oceans Day (8 June)

植树节(3月12日)：Arbor Day (12 March)

如何提高信息的产出率、命中率，这是每位组工干部所关注的。现结合自身工作实践与学习体会，就如何写好组工信息，与大家共同进行探讨和交流。不当之处，敬请各位批评指正。

一、信息的概念、特点和作用

信息就是反映工作的文稿，是有价值的、客观情况的反映。层次高的信息是对原始信息的归纳、综合，是各级领导科学决策的重要依据。

信息的特点，主要表现在三个方面。一是具有宏观性。信息主要是为领导决策提供服务的，它所产生的效应直接或间接体现在决策方面。要求撰写信息人员围绕工作主题、单位工作中心工作抓大问题，抓有碍全局的实际问题，抓政策性问题，抓重要的监管动态以及重大的社情民意，而不是摄取小镜头，捕捉小花絮。二是具有真实性。与新闻报道不同，新闻报道要注重政治影响，而信息则要求实事求是。不管是喜是忧，都必须如实报告。一就是一，二就是二，决不允许在数字上来大概加估计。三是具有权威性。信息必须经过本级领导审查后方可报出，应该是具有严肃性的官方消息，决不是不加约束混淆视听的小道消息。

信息具有四个方面的作用，简单讲就是，宣传、协调、交流和引导。

二、信息的采编技巧

(一)要学会取材。有的同志反映，身边眼前都是平平常常的业务工作，哪有那么多具有价值的信息呢？信息从哪里来呢？通过积累和实践摸索，有14条采集信息的途径可以利用，用言简意赅的98个字加以概括，那就是：文件堆里挖；翻阅材料筛；讲话稿中捡；领导口中理；联系上下摸；会议之中捕；参与活动追；重大事件抢；深入基层拾；关注新闻抓；掌握规律掏；情况反馈传；跟踪问效知；利用网络选。信息就在我们的实际工作中，只要我们勤奋加刻苦，敏锐而深入，还会拓展出更多的渠道来，也一定会发现信息取之不尽，用之不竭。

(二)要注重时效。信息就像山里的药材，适时是宝，过时是草。要勤写快报，准确性中求快，新中求活，实中求深，是提高信息产出率的高招实招。同样一件事，你抢先一步，可能被录用，如果滞缓半拍，很可能被打入冷宫。

（三）要体现特色。条条块块承担的职能不同，信息的产生势必各有侧重。只有注重挖掘工作中的亮点，聚焦工作中的难点，采集领导关注的热点，信息工作才能源头活水滚滚来。

（四）要实事求是。编撰信息必须树立实事求是的文风，不做假大空的文章。不乱提诸如战略、战役、战术、方略等过高的口号。语言要求准确、朴实、精练、明快、提神，避免客套话和空话。

（五）要对号入座。要根据信息层次不同，需求不同，量体裁衣，看菜吃饭，适合于哪一级信息刊物用的就报给哪一级，内外有别。各有侧重，不搞一刀切，一锅煮。

三、信息的写法

(一)细琢鲜明标题。标题是信息内容的统帅、纲领。题常意要新，意常题要新，这是对标题较高的要求。如何写好标题：是题文一致。标题必须与内容一致，不能用一些不适当的副词、形容词，以免华而不实、故弄玄虚。同时，标题的观点在信息中要有充分的依据，语言精准，让人想看下去。内容准确，少不了时间，地点、人物、事件、效果等。

二是选择句式的艺术。陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句是汉语的四种基本句式。陈述句是将所要叙述的事情直接陈列表述出来。信息标题大量使用的是陈述句，并且多用主谓型结构。

在我们当前的小学英语教学中，教师往往只组织大量的听、说、读的活动，而忽视对写的有效训练;就是在训练“写”，也只是写写单词、写写句型和课文，并没有深入到培养学生“写”的综合技能。部分教师甚至还存在着一些错误的认识，认为写作教学和训练过于费时，影响教学进度;写作作业难批改;写作教学枯燥，易降低课堂的活力;英文写作对小学生而言太难了等等。但是，儿童语言能力的发展是综合的，听、说、读、写各项能力之间互相制约，互相促进，任何一项能力的滞后都会影响到其他能力的发展。我们应该更新教学观念，设计一些符合学生认知规律、实效性较高的写作活动，促进学生英语技能的全面发展。下面是我对小学英语写作教学一些浅显的看法。

一、 由易到难，培养学生的写作兴趣

对于小学生来说创造性地运用语言确实有一定的难度，所以在写作教学中，教师应针对儿童的年龄特点和语言水平，设计难易适中且充满童趣的写作任务。俗话说得好，兴趣是最好的老师。要培养学生对英语写作的兴趣，首先就要有对英语学习的兴趣。而且要将低、中年级学生的直接兴趣慢慢培养成高年级学生的间接兴趣。尤其是对于低年级的学生词汇量有限，教师更要根据教材的主题或语言内容设计学生易完成的写作任务。如对于中年级的学生，教师可能将阅读材料中的一些关键词或词组挖空，让学生联系上下文猜词填空。如通过填词练习让学生描述动物：

My pet

I have a _______. It is _______ and ________. It has got _____. It has got _______ and ________. It can ________. It can _______, too. It eats _______. My parents like _______ very much. We are ______ friends.

这种填词的练习，既能训练学生的阅读能力，又能培养学生初步的语篇意识，并为高年级的写作打下了基础。循序渐进的学习，既能让学生体验成功，也能让学生建立写作的信心和兴趣。

二、抓好课本教学，夯实英语基础

要想写好一遍好的英语作文，离不开单词的积累。单词是一篇作文最基础的部分，过分强调它是不妥，但却也不能忽略。强大的单词积累是写好一篇作文的后盾。所以，不管在课堂上，还是在课后，都要强调学生掌握好单词的拼写和单词的运用，夯实英语写作的基础。

在小学，学生的主要学习时间是课堂学习时间。学生的主要知识来源于课本，课本是学生学习的根本。课本给学生提供基本的句型,语法知识，词汇等。所以，对于课本中的内容，可适当要求学生背诵，小学生善于模仿，通过背诵课文，一些句子就会在学生心中生根发芽，学生就会有意无意地模仿这样的句子进行写作。课文中的句子一般来说是很规范的，学生的写作也会较规范。记忆中的课文也是学生写作时句子处理的依据。凭语感和课文结构，利用个人的智慧和对作文题目及要求的理解，学生会写出语法正确，句意通顺，结构严谨规范的作文。

三、 广泛阅读，拓展知识面

古人云“读书破万卷，下笔如有神” ， 阅读是写作的基础，大量的、广泛的阅读，才能加强学生理解和吸收书面信息的能力，有助于巩固和扩大学生词汇量，增强语感，丰富学生的语言知识，了解英语国家的文化背景。实践证明，学生平时课外阅读面越宽，语言实践量越大，运用英语表达自己的能力就越强。通过日积月累的积累，学生在自然的习得中学得大量了的英语单词、句子，形成较好的语感。为学生更好地写作打下了坚实的基础。但在选择课外阅读材料时，还要注意：文章太易，不利于知识的提高，文章太难会挫伤学生阅读英语的积极性。这就需要教师做好充分的阅读准备，选择好难易适中的文章

广泛的英语阅读还可以让学生尽可能地了解英汉差异。许多学生写英文短文，都习惯用汉语去思考。写出来的句子，读起来很拗口，句意生硬，令人费解。甚至有的学生将汉语句子逐一对照译成英语单词，拼凑成句子。如：上个星期天，我爸爸坐船去了上海。译文成了：Last Sunday ,I father sit ship go to Shanghai. 令人啼笑皆非。究其原因是学生不明白英汉两种语言表达上的差异。如，汉语中没有时态和语态的复杂变化，只借助于助词“着，了，过”。而英语则有复杂的时态和语态变化以及动词短语，介词短语等一些固定搭配，动词与其主语的一致，称谓的一致等等。让学生进行广泛的英语阅读可以降低这样尴尬的机率，在不断的阅读中拓展知识面。这样才能在实际运用中应用地恰到好处，英语写作才能更规范，更标准，更符合英美人的表达习惯。

四、培养学生的写作热情

众所周知，写作和口语都是语言输出的重要方面。写作是人们学习、运用英语的综合技能的表现，教授学生英语写作能够检验和巩固学生综合的语言知识，在写作过程中，学生有一定的时间去思考、组织、修改、判断，有利于培养和提高学生的语言综合能力;能让学生去辨别口语语体和书面语体的异同，尤其是不同的句型、表达方式和选词造句;能增强学生的自信心，哪怕正确地写出一句、两句话或一小段，一旦受到鼓励，学生都会欣喜若狂，学习英语的兴趣会更加强烈;有利于培养学生直接用英语思维的习惯，尤其是限时写作，学生必须在规定的时间内完成规定的内容，他们就不可能先用母语思考，再译成英语，而是直接用英语来思考;写作可给予学生发挥自己的想象力和创造力，作为老师应仔细观察并珍惜学生的每一次创举，并能及时地对该同学给予肯定和高度赞扬，鼓励他大胆地、尽情地去想象，那么学习英语就没那么枯燥了，写作的热情也会日渐高涨了。

积极带领学生参加教育在线，让他们把自己的作品放在网络上，一方面向别人学习的同时也可以感受到众人欣赏自己作品的那种欣喜;选择优秀的学生作品进行投稿，如《双语阅读》和《小学生英语报》等这些学生常见的刊物，对作品发表的同学进行奖励，这样更能够激发他们的写作欲望。

五、由浅入深，开展扎实的写作训练

写作和任何形式的知识一样都是可以通过训练加以提高的。基础知识和能力并重，听、说、读和写并举。在平时的教学中可应充分利用一切可以利用的机会启发、引导学生提高自己的写作水平。如遇到优秀的句、段或篇提示学生注意欣赏作者的表达法，把它们作为范例，在自己写作中加以模仿和运用。又如遇到英汉表达方法不同之处，提示学生注意英语的正确表达法，切忌出现汉语式的英语。要帮助学生养成正确运用标点符号的好习惯，切忌一点到底的错误方法。

1、坚持循序渐进的训练原则。

用学过的词、短语或句式，模仿课文中的表达法造句。换课文中的人物、时态、语态或体裁等改写课文。将打乱顺序的句子按事件发展的时间顺序或逻辑关系等整理成一篇完整的短文。总而言之，写作要先易后难，先短后长，先写好正确的句子逐步过渡到围绕一个人、一件事、一个观点去写有中心的文章，由不限定时间到限定时间，由限定字数少到多，由一句话日记到一段话日记，由看图作文到命题作文，经过日记，看图写作的训练，学生在写作能力上有了一定的提高，英语表达能力也有很大的进步。这时，可根据学生的教材，就每个单元不同的学习内容提供一个命题作文给学生练笔。这些题目紧扣他们学习的内容，书本上的内容给他们写作提供了模仿的对象，而且跟他们的生活也息息相关。

2、分层要求，注意讲评，鼓励优秀，耐心帮助差生。

对学生的要求不能一刀切，对学习好的要求要高，对学习差的要求要适当低一些。充分利用板报、专栏进行优秀作文展览，经常帮助差生树立信心，掌握写作方法和技巧。英语作文讲评过程中要经常指出优点，以利模仿，指出缺点，警示避免。在训练写作时，要少给学生完整的范文。因为如果经常给学生范文，很容易让学生产生依赖性，不愿意自己动手去写。而是等着老师念范文，自己去背。长此以往学生肯定会背烦的，背烦了就更不愿去写了。会造成一个恶性循环。不利于提高学生的写作水平，更不用说培养语言能力了。

3、小组合作，共同提高

对于一些难度较大、范围较广的写作内容，可以通过开展合作写作来完成。在合作写作的过程中，他们有机会互相交流，集思广益，取人之长，补已之短;他们可能学习写作，指导写作，分享作品。例如：在六年级教学My favourite festivals 这一主题时，让学生以小组形式搜集各节日的有关资料，然后集体讨论，一人执笔写作，最后交流。在合作中写作，既给学生留有独立思考的空间，又可促进他们互相帮助与学习。

4、适当指导

学生动笔写作前，教师要给予必要的指导，不是给个题目或者一幅图，就要求学生动笔写。为了使他们少犯错误。教师还要经常性地列举错误的表达法，提醒学生注意避免。在批阅作文时教师要随时标出学生错误之处，并要随时记录学生所犯错误，把学生的错误加以归类总结，把普遍性的错误提出来，让学生集体改错，使他们的语言表达尽可能的正确规范。

六、鼓励学生资源共享，共同进步

在平时的教学中，我鼓励学生大胆地阅读课外英语资料，鼓励学生搜索网上的英语资料，学生的作品通过不同的方式与读者交流，读者包括教师、同学和家长。让学生各自交流作品的方式有朗诵、出墙报、制作英语小卡片，制作手抄报，写好读书笔记等，将全班学生的手抄报装订成册，搜集全班学生的各种作品，本班学生的作品互相交流，同年级不同班的学生作品也互相交流阅读，集中群体的智慧，内容丰富多彩，五花八门，既适合他们的年龄特征又能供学生课余阅读，拓展视野，达到交流学习的目的，我还设想将学生的电子手抄报发送到我校校园网，以供更多的学生欣赏。除此之外，在评价学生的写作作品时，做到有的放矢，灵活有序，实施本人评价、小组评价，家长评价和老师评价，对学生的进步及时充分的肯定。

总之，英语写作需要平时一点一滴的积累，每一步都不能少，持之以恒的训练。作为英语教师，需要不断的探索和总结。