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英语毕业论文的写作基础经典20篇

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英语写作常用句子100条

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英语写作中有不少短语和表达大家会经常用到,下面我们就总结了100条常用的短语和表达句子,希望能给大家一些参考。

1. 经济的快速发展 the rapiddevelopment of economy

2.人民生活水平的显著提高/稳步增长theremarkableimprovement/ steady growth ofpeople’s livingstandard

3.先进的科学技术advanced science and technology

4.面临新的机遇和挑战 be faced with new opportunities and challenges

5.人们普遍认为 It is commonly believed/ recognized that…

6.社会发展的必然结果 the inevitable result of social development

7.引起了广泛的公众关注 arouse wide public concern/ draw publicattention

8.不可否认 Itis undeniable that…/ There is no denying that…

9.热烈的讨论/争论 a heated discussion/ debate

10.有争议性的问题 a controversialissue

11.完全不同的观点 a totally different argument

12.一些人 …而另外一些人 … Some people… while others…

13. 就我而言/ 就个人而言 As far as I am concerned, / Personally,

14.就…达到绝对的一致 reach an absolute consensus on…

15.有充分的理由支持 be supported by sound reasons

16.双方的论点 argument on both sides

17.发挥着日益重要的作用 play an increasingly important role in…

18.对…必不可少 be indispensableto …

19.正如谚语所说 As the proverb goes:

20.…也不例外 …be no exception

21.对…产生有利/不利的影响 exert positive/ negative effects on…

22.利远远大于弊 the advantages far outweigh the disadvantages。

23.导致,引起 lead to/ give rise to/ contribute to/ result in

24.复杂的社会现象 a complicated social phenomenon

25.责任感 / 成就感 sense of responsibility/ sense of achievement

26. 竞争与合作精神 sense of competition and cooperation

27. 开阔眼界 widen one’s horizon/ broaden one’s vision

28.学习知识和技能 acquire knowledge and skills

29.经济/心理负担 financial burden / psychologicalburden

30.考虑到诸多因素 take many factors into account/ consideration

31. 从另一个角度 from another perspective

32.做出共同努力 make joint efforts

33. 对…有益 be beneficial / conducive to…

34.为社会做贡献 make contributions to the society

35.打下坚实的基础 lay a solid foundation for…

36.综合素质 comprehensivequality

37.无可非议 blameless / beyond reproach

38.加大了…的可能性 increase the chances of

39.致力于/ 投身于 be committed / devoted to…

40. 应当承认 Admittedly

41.不可推卸的义务 unshakable duty

42. 满足需求 satisfy/ meet the needs of…

43.可靠的信息源 a reliablesource of information

44.宝贵的自然资源 valuable natural resources

45.因特网 the Internet (一定要由冠词,字母I

46.方便快捷 convenient andefficient

47.在人类生活的方方面面 in all aspects of human life

48.环保(的) environmental protection /environmentallyfriendly

49.社会进步的体现 a symbol of society progress

50.科技的飞速更新 the ever-accelerated updating of scienceandtechnology

51.对这一问题持有不同态度 hold different attitudes towards this issue

52.支持前/后种观点的人 people / those in favor of theformer/latteropinion

53.有/ 提供如下理由/ 证据 have/ provide the followingreasons/evidence

54.在一定程度上 to some extent/ degree / in some way

55. 理论和实践相结合 integratetheory with practice

56. …必然趋势 an irresistible trend of…

57.日益激烈的社会竞争 the increasingly fierce social competition

58.眼前利益 immediate interest/ short-term interest

59.长远利益. interest in the long run

60.…有其自身的优缺点 … has its merits and demerits/ advantagesanddisadvantages

61.扬长避短 Exploit to the full one’s favorableconditions andavoidunfavorable ones

62.取其精髓,去其糟粕 Take the essence and discard the dregs。

63.对…有害 do harm to / be harmful to/ be detrimental to

64.交流思想/ 情感/ 信息 exchange ideas/ emotions/ information

65.跟上…的最新发展 keep pace with / catch up with/ keep abreastwiththe latest development of …

66.采取有效措施来… take effective measures to do sth。

67.…的健康发展 the healthy development of …

68.有利有弊 Every coin has its two sides。(不推荐用。。。) No gardenwithout weeds。

69.对…观点因人而异 Views on …vary from person to person。

70.重视 attach great importance to…

71.社会地位 social status

72.把时间和精力放在…上 focus time and energy on…

73.扩大知识面 expand one’s scopeof knowledge

74.身心两方面 both physically and mentally

75.有直接/间接关系 be directly / indirectly related to…

76. 提出折中提议 set forth a compromise proposal

77. 可以取代 “think”的词 believe, claim, hold the opinion/beliefthat

78.缓解压力/ 减轻负担 relievestress/ burden

79.优先考虑/发展… give (top) priority to sth。

80.与…比较 compared with…/ in comparison with

81. 相反 in contrast / on the contrary。

82.代替 replace/ substitute / take the place of 大写)

83.经不起推敲 cannot bear closer analysis / cannot hold water

84.提供就业机会 offer job opportunities

85. 社会进步的反映 mirror of social progress

86.毫无疑问 Undoubtedly, / There is no doubt that…

87.增进相互了解 enhance/ promote mutualunderstanding

88.充分利用 make full use of / take advantage of

89.承受更大的工作压力 suffer from heavier work pressure

90.保障社会的稳定和繁荣 guarantee the stability and prosperity ofoursociety

91.更多地强调 put more emphasis on…

92.适应社会发展 adapt oneself to the development of society

93.实现梦想 realize one’s dream/ make one’s dream come true

94. 主要理由列举如下 The main reasons are listed as follows:

95. 首先 First, Firstly, In the first place, To begin with

96.其次 Second, Secondly, In the second place

97. 再次 Besides,In addition, Additionally,Moreover,Furthermore

98. 最后 Finally, Last but not the least, Above all, Lastly,

99. 总而言之 All in all, To sum up, In summary, In a word,

100.我们还有很长的路要走 We still have a long way to go

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篇1:英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

全文共 45713 字

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下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言,考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章,然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分,特别建议你熟读,背诵,因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白,表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累,潜移默化。从某种意义上说,提高英语写作能力无捷径可走,你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关,没有任何人能代替你过。

因此,建议你下点苦功夫,把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况,并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心:你可以这个星期背,下个星期忘。这没有关系,相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后,你会惊讶的发现:I can think in English now!

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

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篇2:大学英语四级写作冲刺的方法

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一、四级作文概述

四级作文是提纲作文,一般按提纲写出相应段落即可。在文章内容上无需追求高深新颖,切题合理便可落笔;在思路逻辑上则要求句意通顺,文字流畅;在文字表现上要求无语法错误,个别小错可忽略(如动介搭配,单词拼写等不涉及语法类小错)。另外,值得一提的是,在篇章结构上建议写三段,所以即便题目只给出两个提纲,最好在完成两个提纲后,再多补充一段,所补内容不限,但须跟话题相关。

二、四级作文例题分析

(1) The Shortage of Fresh Water

1. 目前淡水资源非常紧缺

2. 为什么会出现这种情况

3. 该如何解决

96年6月份曾考过此题,今天来看,似乎更有现实意义。这是一道负面社会现象题,那么挖掘其背后根源,并找出解决方案,就成为探讨的主要方面,而提纲也正是如此。三个提纲各属其类,界限清晰,直接按提纲写三段即可。段1为提出现象,确立研究对象。提纲1翻译后仅一句话,作为一段话则显内容单薄,字数匮乏,所以需进一步发挥。不妨从例证角度扩充,举例时即可基于国内现状,也可纵观全球,显然前者更易行。可从我国西南地区的生活缺水,水价上升,以及河流干涸等细节方面铺陈。段2是原因分析,建议分析主观原因和客观原因两方面。所谓主观原因即是基于人的思想意念,心理意识,行为动机以及行为举措,比如人们节约意识的淡漠或者人们误认为淡水取之不尽等不当想法。而客观原因则是从非人角度出发,如社会发展,人口激增,甚至污染的加剧等方面出发,这些因素均使得淡水消耗的增加。当然,考场上由于时间紧迫,无法细想,可能会写出的两个全是主观类或客观类的原因,其实也无妨,只要二者不同即可,谨防虽言明两原因,但实则彼此混淆,出现逻辑不清的窘况。段3是措施分析,措施可从官方措施和民众措施两方面写起,也可加入作为现代年轻人,我该如何约束自己,从生活中小事做起节约水资源等内容。总之,在内容上考生尽可发挥想象力,纵马驰骋,原则依旧:切题者皆可。

(2)Part-time Jobs for College Students

1.目前大学校园里很多学生业余时间做兼职

2.对于大学生是否该做兼职工作,人们看法不一

3.我的看法

这是一道校园话题,在内容上即涉及现象,又涉及观点,能很好地考察到学生的综合分析能力。提纲1依旧是现象提出,看到提纲1,大家脑海里会浮现很多熟悉的场景,如校园布告栏里张贴着的兼职广告,校园论坛上也经常发布的一些兼职信息等等,这些都可反映在段1中。所以当我们第一眼看到话题或提纲时,脑海中常常会浮现出相关场景,把这些画面定格,进行详细描绘即可,即自然又切题。当然,段1也可从学生的兼职渠道以及兼职类型等方面加以发挥。总之,提纲是总领,而符合总领的任何附属内容都可写。段2是人们对此学生兼职的不同看法,一正一反。切记在表达上述两类观点时,提出其相关论据。段3是提出作者本人看法。本人看法既可选择上述任一方(只要不极端),也可提出与上述均异的第三类观点,对于极度偏激的正反方观点则需做一番调和与勾兑(这个一般很少见)。需要提醒的是,继提出己方观点后,还应补充其他内容,如论据;也可写我的下一步做法,甚至可写我所认为的大家对此问题所应采取的对策云云。

(3)Private Cars of Today

1.目前私家车越来多了

2.私家车为人们带来的益处和问题

这道题只有两个提纲,所以建议在完成提纲要求内容之后再补充一段相关内容,可以在提纲2之后续补段3(如举措类:如何合理地限制私家车的出行以减少废气排放等等),也可在1,2之间插入一段(如原因分析,即为何私家车越来越多)。先来看提纲1,依然是事实陈述,看到提纲1,会很容易联想到马路上川流不息的过往车辆,以及高峰期令人沮丧的堵车,那么即可将这些内容付诸笔端。再看提纲2,是私家车给人们生活带来的影响,该事实是一中性事实,则需辩证地分析其影响的两面性,一方面它带来好处,如让人们的出行变得更自由更方便,另一方面它带来坏处,如排放废气,污染环境,或造成交通堵塞等等。

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篇3:读后感必备的写作基础

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读后感就是把自己的一些见解通过文章的形式描述出来,小编收集了读后感必备写作基础,欢迎阅读。

一、要选择自己感受最深的东西去写,这是写好读后感的关键。

看完一本书或一篇文章,你的感受可能很多,如果面面俱到像开杂货铺一样,把自己所有的感受都一股脑地写上去,什么都有一点,什么也不深不透,重点部分也像蜻蜓点水一样一擦而过,必然使文章平淡,不深刻。所以写感受前要认真思考、分析,对自己的感想加以提炼,选择自己感受最深的去写。你可以抓住原作的中心思想写,也可以抓住文中自己感受最深的一个情节、一个人物、一句闪光的语言来写,最好是突出一点,深入挖掘,写出自己的真情实感,总之,感受越深,表达才能越真切,文章才能越感人。

二、要密切联系实际,这是读后感的重要内容。

写读后感的重点应是联系实际发表感想。我们所说的联系实际范围很广泛,可以联系个人实际,也可以联系社会实际,可以是历史教训,也可以是当前形势,可以是童年生活,也可以是班级或家庭状况,但最主要的是无论怎样联系都要突出时代精神,要有较强的时代感。

三、要处理好“读”与“感”的关系,做到议论,叙述,抒情三结合。

读后感是议论性较强的读书笔记,要用切身体会,实践经验和生动的事例来阐明从“读”中悟出的道理。因此,读后感中既要写“读”,又要写“感”,既要叙述,又必须说理。叙述是议论的基础,议论又是叙述的深化,二者必须结合。

读后感以“感”为主。要适当地引用原文,当然引用不能太多,应以自己的语言为主。在表现方法上,可用夹叙夹议的写法,议论时应重于分析说理,事例不宜多,引用原文要简洁。在结构上,一般在开头概括式提示“读”,从中引出“感”,在着重抒写感受后,结尾又回扣“读”。

叙原文不要过多,要体现出一个‘‘简’’字

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篇4:高中生话题作文的写作基础

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小编导语:如何写好高中作文,对于学生作文的写作基础也要好好的训练,话题作文的基本要求:话题作文还是要审题,所写内容必须在话题范围之内。“立意自定”,关键要读懂话题关键词的意旨,若给出导语提示,还应划出导语中包含归结的关键语词。一般初学者,首先要注意让这些关键词贯穿在自己作文的始终,统帅自己的文意。如何写好高中作文,对于学生作文的写作基础也要好好的训练,实际效果又发现学生完全没有一般思想认识的基础,真正可见现在所谓合格教育的成效,和高中教学要求的“架空作业”。下面小编就来说说话题作文的写作基础。

一、文章形式的革命——夹叙夹议

尽快脱离初中只重记叙,笼统归结的写法。高中的作文记叙只向最高水平开一条缝,你得复杂记叙,融情思与哲理于一炉,有最动人的细节和最精美的表达,巧妙蕴含深刻的思辨和无穷的回味,这不是一般人能做到的,更不是学不会议论抒情的同学的避难所。所以,比自己多练议论,远比固守初中记叙的窠臼要有前途。高中的记叙必须简约,只提炼能说明自己观点的内核,而尽量舍弃叙述的完整过程与细节。叙,惜墨如金;而起始学写议,应力求具体多点分析阐述。

二、文章立意的升华——深入浅出

叙完笼统归结是初中模式作文的又一通病,常常文章的结尾具有宽泛的普适性,而缺乏对文章应有之义作具体针对性的挖掘阐发,常常文章的“穿鞋戴帽”大到可以套在无数篇文章上,却没什么真正的思考。高中作文倘使还用夹叙夹议,也要对叙的材料反复推敲,找出几例可以统一在一个观点里的材料,就材料的不同侧面来评析议论,最后上升归结出恰当切题、言之有物的中心。

三、文章表达的提高——点睛生花

好的文笔追求更高效率、更多意蕴。描述中就渗透情思与评析,这是较高水平的表达。一般的叙议分段,也应注意所叙材料紧贴自己的议论,议论应采取逐层推进,前后分界,避免相互缠绕。但又必须前后连贯,形成一个整体。在文章中一定写好精心组织的关键议论,努力使文章多处呈现运用一定修辞的文采。

话题作文训练举例

话题作文的基本要求:话题作文还是要审题,所写内容必须在话题范围之内。“立意自定”,关键要读懂话题关键词的意旨,若给出导语提示,还应划出导语中包含归结的关键语词。一般初学者,首先要注意让这些关键词贯穿在自己作文的始终,统帅自己的文意。

规定“题目自拟”,一定不要用话题作标题。1、标题范围尽量要小,不要太大太泛;要合理出新,不落俗套。2、标题不能过长,可以采用副标题的方式对主标题加以限制。3、标题要含蓄,把思维蕴涵于形象的标题之中。

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篇5:把叙述与描写结合的写作基础

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在写记叙文时,如果要使文字内容更具体,不空泛,一定要把叙述描写结合起来。那么如何才能结合好呢?我们首先需要了解一下这两者的基本概念和作用。

叙述和描写。是作文中两种不同的表现方式。我们这里说的叙述是指把人的经历行为或事件的发生、发展变化表述出来的一种表达方式,它常常把分散的场景,片断的故事和人物的身世,地位,经历,事迹等贯穿起来。它要求做到头绪清楚,脉络分明,有条有理,重点突出。

在记事、写人、状物的文章中,叙述是不可少的,尤其是在介绍人或事物变化为主的文章中叙述的作用更大,甚至有的文章专以叙述为长。我们本讲选的优秀作文《男班长,女班长》就是一个很好的例子。文章中描写部分很少,介绍事件发展过程的叙述占了很大的篇幅,如开头对男女班长来自何方的介绍,女班长对男班长的观察,正副班长必须合作的现实,以及同学们的揶揄,思想的顾虑,同学开玩笑不断,“收到副班长纸条”,到结尾“男女班长仍然合作着处理班里的事务”。这篇文章用很短的篇幅,以叙述为主,把一波三折的事件按发展轨迹清晰有序地介绍出来。对发展过程虽是梗概地介绍,但文章的思想内涵却非常丰富,也可以说在写法上是比较巧妙的。

叙述在按事件发生发展、人物经历的时间来划分,可以有顺叙,倒叙、插叙、补叙等方式,我们在写文章时,可以根据表达的需要去选择叙述的方式。

描写是对人物,事物和环境所作的具体的描绘和摹写,描写是再现描写对象状态的一种表达方式。描写需要采用绘声绘色的办法,把事物的状貌、神采和动态,具体地、真切地饱含情意地勾画出来。写人要使其声可闻,其容可睹;写物要使之可见,可闻,可触,可感;写景要意境鲜明,使读者产生仿佛置身其间的幻觉。

在我们学过的课文中,传神的描写是很多的。如《天山景物记》中对天山深处的描写,“山色逐渐变得柔嫩,山形也变得柔和,很有一伸手就可以触摸到凝脂似的感觉。这里溪流缓慢,萦绕着每一个山脚,在轻轻荡漾着的溪流的两岸,满是高过马头的野花,红、黄、蓝、白、紫,五彩缤纷,像绵延的织锦那么华丽,象天边的彩霞那么耀眼,像高空的长虹那么绚烂。”这段描写抓住山色、溪流、野花这三种最能表现天山特点的事物,重彩浓墨,绘声绘色地把天山美景表现出来。既能使读者如身临其境,也增添了作品的文采。我们在作文时,如果能恰当地运用描写来表现形象,借以表达某种强烈的思想感情。文章的感染力就一定能有所增强。

叙述和描写在记叙性的文字中都是不可缺少的表现方式。叙述着重于一般情况过程的交待,描写则着重形象的描摹和刻画;如果说叙述是纵的绵延,那么描写便是横的扩展。一篇文字若无叙述,就会显得杂乱无章;没有描写,则会干瘪枯燥,毫无生气可言。

实际上,成功的作品中,常常是叙述与描写交错在一起的。我们所选优秀作文,《奶奶与花》就是叙述与描写交融在一起的,近似于一线串珠式的一篇记叙文。

文中以时间为序,先从小时候家门前有一个很大的“花园”叙述开始,然后再描写人物行为语言、花的形态、气味。从而表现我“深深地爱上花”的过程。接着叙述自己病中见到花的情景,描写花的形态,写出自己感受到“花能给人一种强盛的生命力”。接着是叙述“随着年龄的增长,这种认识愈来愈深”又通过对“死不了”“仙人球”的描写,感悟出“花,让我感到一种无尽的生命力,一种明亮的期望”。第五自然段叙述自己养花的过程。这里又运用描写的方式,描绘出花园的美丽,各种花的特点,表现出花可以陶冶情操的作用。这段描写是比较突出的,描写了花的各种色彩,各种形态,用排比、比喻的手法绘色绘形,有丰富的想象力。为了把文章写得曲折有致,第七段、第八段叙述搬进高层楼房前、后我与奶奶对花的珍爱,对小花园的怀念,这里又有对人物的心理、动作的描写,为“小花园”遭到破坏,我和奶奶沉痛心情做了铺垫。

这篇文章用叙述的方式。介绍了事件发展曲折过程,使文章头绪清楚,脉络分明,重点环节突出。这是文章的一条线。在每个重要环节上,作者都生动形象地描绘了人物的行为、场景、物态,内容丰满。叙述和描写有机地结合在一起,深刻地表达了文章的主题思想,增强文章的感染力。

在作文时,恰当地运用叙述与描写,做到有机结合,要注意以下几点。

一、要熟练掌握叙述与描写的功能,注意二者之间互相依存、互相交通的关系。根据作文内容和思想表达的需要,交错运用。

二、在描写范围比较大、内容比较丰富的地域景物或事物状貌时,(例如《天山景物记》等一些游记式的文章)需要有一条贯穿始终的线索,有一个逐步转移、推进的过程,那么这个线索或过程就要依靠叙述来表现。如我们常讲的“移步换景”的写法,其中对“移步”的交代,往往需要叙述。用时间推移来描写事物或人物的发展变化时,对每个阶段的交代,一般也是要运用叙述来完成的。在这种情况下描写的条理性要依靠叙述来体现。

三、在写故事情节比较强文章时,人物的语言,行动往往是构成情节的重要因素、情节又要依靠叙述来展开,这就需要描写人物语言行动与铺叙故事情节同时进行,也就是说要把叙述故事融化在描写中,或把描写融化在叙述情节中。我们仔细玩味一下作文《奶奶与花》,其中有些地方就是把描写与叙述这样融合在一起的。

我们就应当多选读一些优秀作文或名家的文章,刻意体味一下的相依关系,学习二者的结合形式。使自己的作文能更加条理清晰,情节曲折跌宕,内容丰富有致,更具有感染力。

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篇6:高中生英语写作基础

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一、优化词汇输入教学,丰富词汇知识积累

词汇是一篇文章最基本的组 成要素。头脑中如果没有一定数量的、且处于鲜活状态的词汇,就无法写出好文章。要写出好的文章,就必须善于从众多的词语中选择和运用最恰当的词语。因此, 加强词汇教学、扩大和丰富学生的词汇量是提高学生写作能力的基础工作。克拉申的“语言输入假说模式”认为:正确和恰当的语言输入将会使语言学习的效果更 佳。

最佳语言输入的两个必要条件:

1)密切相关的

2)大量的。因此,将密切相关的常用词汇、习惯搭配适当集中教学,反复归纳、不断循环和强化是较好的词 汇输入方法,同时也保证了常用词汇在头脑中的鲜活状态,为写作输出提供可靠保障。

二、加强基础写作训练,活化基础知识积累

在学生写作过程中,我们 常常会发现许多学生的词汇量与运用能力不成正比的现象,写作中经常出现词汇贫乏和用词不当等问题。这种问题的出现实际上是学生获得的知识没有有效的活化。 配合词汇和句型教学,教师可以经常以所教学词汇为关键词拟定一些与时事或生活相关的话题,让学生用词、句做翻译练习,一段时间(4-5天)之后,再让学生 用这些词、句进行写作,多写多练以达到活化知识的目的。

三、广泛阅读,拓展知识积累

“熟读唐诗三百首,不会作 诗也会吟”。在大量的阅读过程中,可使学生开拓视野,拓展知识,增加语感,为写作提供必要的语言材料。写作和阅读是互相促进、相辅相成的。有些词汇和句 型,学生只是似曾相识,通过广泛的阅读能促使学生把这些东西运用得更熟练,表达得更准确。反过来,这也会有效地提高学生的阅读理解能力。

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篇7:英语写作指导之如何提高英语写作能力?

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英语写作是语言综合运用能力的具体体现,也是很多高中学生学习中的弱项。如何提高自己的英语写作能力呢?

一、提高英语写作能力的原则

(一)渐进性原则。要坚持“句—段—篇”的训练程序,由易到难,循序渐进。在英语写作的初始阶段,要始终注意培养学生良好的写作习惯,狠抓基本功训练。在学生掌握了基本句型并能写出简单句子后,再要求学生根据一些体例写出小段的文章。在段落写作中要引导学生分析段落的结构、段落的中心句、句与句之间的逻辑关系、写作手法等,这样有利于下一步一篇文章的写作。在文章写作中要教会学生如何构思文章、如何运用正确的写作技巧等。

(二)多样性原则。要坚持训练形式的多样化及写作文体的多样性。从形式上而言,可以用回答提问的口头作文,也可以用续写故事;可以改写课文,也可以仿写课文;可以写提纲训练谋篇布局,也可以写拓展段训练发散思维……。从文体上而言,可以写说明文、议论文、记叙文,也可以写书信、便条、通知等实用文体。

(三)结合性原则。要坚持听说读训练和写训练相结合。根据语言习得理论,学习者在学习时常先通过听和读吸取语言知识,从而了解别人的思想,再通过说和写来表达自己的思想,让别人了解自己。大量的听说训练能促进读写能力的提高。因此,写与听说读紧密结合,进行多元化的能力训练,可使学生的各项能力互相影响、互相渗透、互相促进。

(四)控制性原则。要坚持写作前的指导,控制学生的汉语语言思维,发展英语语言思维。语言学习在很大程度上主要是模仿,而非随心所欲地自由表达。教师要加强写作前的指导,可给出范文让学生模仿,以熟悉其语篇结构。同时要控制其汉语语言思维,尽可能让学生习惯英语语言思维,以便于学生学习和掌握地道、正确的英语。

(五)持久性原则。要坚持长期、正确的写作训练。英语写作能力的提高并非一朝一夕之事,而是一个长期的、艰巨的、渐进的过程。这就要求教师、学生都要有充分的思想准备,要有坚韧不拔的意志和必胜的信心。

二、提高英语写作能力的方法。

(一)通过积累词汇量,提高英语写作能力。犹如土木砖石是建筑的材料一样,词汇是说话写作的必需材料,也是制约写作能力提高的瓶颈。可以想象,如果要写一个句子,10个单词有8个单词拼写错误或拼写不出,有2 个单词用法不当,又怎么能清楚地表达自己的思想呢?因此,在平时的教学中要强调学生记忆单词,记住单词的拼读、用法、意思等。记忆单词的方法有很多,各人有各人的记忆方法和习惯,可因人而异。教师可通过要求学生朗读单词、听写单词、默写单词、遣词造句、词汇竞赛等多种方法促进学生记单词。记忆单词是一个长期的反复的过程,要长期地坚持下去,才能不断积累大量的词汇,为英语写作打下坚实的基础。

(二)通过扩大阅读量,提高英语写作能力。古人云“熟读唐诗三百首,不会作诗也会吟”,这是汉语的一种学习方法,同样可借鉴于英语写作。多阅读是学生增加接触英语语言材料、接受信息、活跃思维、增长智力的一种途径,同时也是培养学生英语思维能力、提高理解力、增强语感、巩固和扩大词汇量的一种好方法,有利于促进英语写作能力的提高。在阅读训练中,教师要注意以下问题:一是指导阅读方法,分析文章结构、中心思想、段落中心句、写作方法等,帮助学生掌握各类文章的结构及写作方法。二要精读与泛读相结合,通过推敲优秀的文章来学会写作方法和选词用词;通过大量的泛读来吸取信息量,扩大词汇量。三要扩大阅读量。提供阅读的材料涉及面要广,才能不断扩大学生的知识面,使学生适应各种题材的写作。

(三)通过提高听说能力,提高英语写作能力。英语听说读写四种能力是相互影响、相互促进的,提高听说能力必定会促进写作能力的提高。要提高听说能力关键在于创设一个良好的英语环境。教师要尽可能地用英语授课,多开展专门的听说训练,同时开展丰富多彩的课外英语活动,让学生沉浸在英语海洋中去领略、去体会、去使用英语,久而久之,学生自然能使用正确的、地道的英语进行交谈与写作。

(四)通过重视写作过程,提高英语写作能力。长期以来,英语写作成果教学法(THE PRODUCT APPROACH)在我国居于主导地位,教师根据写作的终成品来判断写作的成败,重视写作的技术性细节(如格式、拼写、语法等),忽视写作过程的指导。

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篇8:2024年考研英语写作句式指导

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一、注意段首句式的变化

图画作文的段首句往往是"如图所示"或"从图画中可以看出"之类,下面为经常采用的一些句型:

As is shown in the picture, 和As can be seen from the picture,是经常能看到的首句话,但是模板迹象过于明显,所以应该稍加升级,比如添加一些结构和修饰语:

It is of considerable interest to see in the bizarre picture that…

当然还可以添加一些引出话题的句子:

No one can skip the issue of…(图画表现出来的意图)。Just as what is illustrated in the above drawing,…

二、适当用被动替换主动,这样能更客观地反映事实。

句子开头不要总是用we / I (比如写结尾时不用we should pay attention to而用Attent

ion should be paid to. ) 举个经典结尾的例子:It is, therefore, high time that some applicable approaches were implemented by the service industry like that. By doing so,its competitive edge will be sharpened effectively。

三、一句话用不同的句式来表达

为了加强同学们对语法知识在写作中的灵活应用,下面给出一句话的14种句式及语言

调整的效果,内容上没有太大差异,但是请同学们仔细辨别每句话所侧重的句式:

1.使用表语从句

The picture shows two people reading the announcement on a billboard, and being shocked at the message. The reason is that the billboard is advertising a "sale of the dead bodies"。

2.使用介词短语

In the picture, two people are reading the announcement and they are being shocked at the message of "a sale of dead bodies" on a billboard。

3.使用疑问句

The picture shows two people reading the announcement on a billboard. Why are they so shocked? The reason is that the billboard is advertising a "sale of the dead bodies"。

4.使用原因状语从句

The picture shows two people reading the announcement on a billboard. As the billboard is advertising a "sale of the dead bodies", they are shocked at the message。

5.使用结果状语从句

The picture shows two people reading the announcement on a billboard. The billboard is advertising a "sale of the dead bodies" so that they are shocked at the message。

6.使用时间状语从句

In the picture, while the two people are reading the announcement on the billboard about "a sale of the dead bodies", they are being deeply shocked。

7.使用分词短语

In the picture, reading the message of a ‘sale of the dead bodies" advertised on the billboard, the two people are deeply shocked。

8.使用主动语态

In the picture, the announcement on a billboard advertising a "sale of the dead bodies" shocks the two people reading it。

9.使用There be 结构

In the picture, there is an announcement on a billboard advertising a "sale of the dead bodies" and shocking the two people reading it。

10.使用倒装句

On a billboard is an announcement advertising a "sale of the dead bodies". The two people reading it are being shocked。

11.使用定语从句

In the picture, the announcement on a billboard which advertises a "sale of the dead bodies" shocks the two people reading it。

12.强调句

In the picture, it is the announcement on a billboard advertising a "sale of the dead bodies" that shocks the two people reading it。

13.虚拟语气

In the picture, were it not for the announcement on the billboard advertising a "sale of the dead bodies", the two people would not be so shocked。

14. 尽量复杂作文中的句式

It is of considerable interest to observe in this bizarre caricature that a couple of citizens, reading an announcement issued on the billboard, are taken aback as a result of the astounding message which informs people of a "sale of dead bodies"。

句中使用的词组包括:be of considerable interest, a couple of, taken aback, as a result of, inform sb. of

长句采用的特殊语法包括:宾语从句+分词结构做插入语+分词作后置定语(issued)+被动语态+原因短语+定语从句。

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篇9:高中英语写作高级句型汇总

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1) 主语+ cannot emphasize the importance of … too much.(再怎么强调……的重要性也不为过。)例如:We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

2)There is no need for sb to do sth. for sth.(某人没有必要做……),例如:There is no need for you to bring more food. 不需你拿来更多的食物了。

3)By +doing…,主语can …. (借着……,……能够……),例如:By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy. 借着做运动,我们能够始终保持健康。

4) … enable + sb.+ to + do…. (……使……能够……),例如:Listening to music enables us to feel relaxed. 听音乐使我们能够感觉轻松。

5) On no account can we + do…. (我们绝对不能……),例如:On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge.我们绝对不能忽略知识的价值。

6) What will happen to sb.? (某人将会怎样?), 例如:What will happen to the orphan? 那个孤儿将会怎样?

7)For the past + 时间,主语 + 现在完成式…. (过去……年来,……一直……)例如:For the past two years,I have been busy preparing for the examination. 过去两年来,我一直忙着准备考试。

8)It pays to + do….(……是值得的。)例如:It pays to help others. 帮助别人是值得的。

9)主语+ be based on….(以……为基础),例如:The progress of thee society is based on harmony.社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。

10)主语 + do one’s best to do….(尽全力去……),例如:We should do our best to achieve our goal in life.我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标

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篇10:2024年高级会计论文写作方法

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一、搜集、整理资料

一般来说,主题确立之后,就会自然地进入考察或搜集、整理资料的阶段。也可以说,这是论文写作的“初级阶段”。这个阶段的工作成效如何,直接影响论文的质量。有一位经济学诺贝尔奖金获得者说过这样一句话:“作为一位演化的学科,经济学的进展方式是:考察资料、形成假说、检验假说、就经济运行情况取得有时是勉强一致的意见。”这句话同样适用于会计论文的撰写程序。由此可见,在论文写作的过程中,考察或搜集资料的重要性。

有了资料,论文才可“言之有物”。其实,大家平时就要注意搜集、积累和占有材料:凡是你觉得特有利用价值的,就应反它搜集起来;积累材料要下大力气,花苦功夫,日积月累;占有材料应务求其多,力求其详。当我们选定一个题目后,再进行目的性、针对性更明确的搜集,紧紧围绕着自己选定的主攻任务,时时联系自己所研究的问题,去搜集那些有典型意义的与自己确定的中心论点关系最密切的材料。资料搜集与整理的主要工作是:

1.要围绕自己的论题,到各种会计期刊、经济期刊、相关论文集、会计报表、会计年鉴、政府文件以及其他文献资料中搜集资料,并结合自己的论文进行必要的调查研究。在这一过程中,要坚持“要全方位”的原则,即考察资料时,不仅要考察国外资料而且要考察国内资料;不仅要考察当代资料而且要考察历史资料;不仅要考察外国学者的有关资料,而且应该和必须同时考察中国学者写的有关资料。也就是说,必须围绕着论文主题要尽可能的考察和搜集相关的资料。

同时,尽量“要上机”即搜集资料时动用现代计算机设备来处理信息,如通过互联网寻找所需资料并下载。目的是最大可能地节省时间,节约成本。

2.对搜集到的材料认真加以鉴别,区别出直伪、主次、轻重,表面和实质,典型和一般,本义和旁义等,真正做到理解材料和吃透材料,以便有重点、有计划、有目的地加以利用。经过筛选,有的资料可用于总论点,有的用于分论点;有的用于叙述,有的用于论证;有的加以详细阐述,有的用于旁证补充,以使论文充实丰满。

3.消化搜集来的材料,即做到认真刻苦研究,实现由此及彼、由表及里、去伪存真、去粗取精。特别是对于他人的研究成果和见解,要采取严肃科学态度,合理借鉴或以此为起点开展新的研究。通过这一过程就可以对掌握的材料进行取舍,取舍的标准是能否为中心论点服务。

4.数据处理。数据是会计论文写作的重要资料,对数据的处理主要包括:详细列出有关数据;对某些数据根据需要进行整理和运算;保留科学的有代表性的数据;运用图表显示变化的规律和在不同变化条件下的数据状态;对数据进行必要的分析,得出正确的结论。

二、提炼观点、精心撰写

(一)提炼观点或中心议题

论文观点或中心议题就是作者在文章中立起的“靶子”,是文章论述的对象,是文章的中心。中心确立起来后,作者是就应围绕中心展开论述,并由中心近一定的逻辑向外扩散思路,最终又要向中心聚集并总结出中心思想。文章的论说阐述不可脱离中心。

一般来说,在论文中提出观点或议题,不管采取什么样的形式:是直截了当,或是间接揭示;是反问,还是设问;是引证,还是归纳事实,这部分内容在文章中基本上一个相对独立的部分。

(二)精心撰写、独运匠心

在把握素材后,就应探索形式,选准论文的表现角度。通常有几种不同的表现角度可选择:(1)领悟精神、深刻剖析。即对一论题作前后左右的“面面观”,多方位地而又深入论证。如建筑施工企业流动资金紧张原因探析之类论题就可以采用这种形式。(2)抓住一点,重点阐发。即抓住某一薄弱环节,着重讨论,阐述己见,如论会计交接工作的不规范性问题、政府委派会计制不可取之类论题,可选择这种。(3)针对论争,解疑诘辩。选择有争论的论题,比较各种不同论点的优劣,树立自己的观点,如不要反会计职能无限扩大之类。(4)选准“靶子”,批驳陈说。即将某文或某书中的错误论点作为“对立面”,指出其不足之处,在批驳中表明自己的观点,如写“与谈税务筹划——与某某同志商榷”之类。

1.拟定提纲

论文的表现角度选准之后,就要拟定提纲。提纲是论文的骨架,它起着疏通思路、安排材料、形成材料的作用。提纲有详略之分。我们一般要求尽量撰写详细的提纲,目的是:其一,通过拟定详细提纲,可以把自己的所思所想展现出来,同时也检验了所掌握材料是否充分;其二,通过详尽的大纲,指导教师更容易指导;其三,详尽的大纲通过后,成文就相对容易,只需反大纲在内容上按照一定逻辑结构添加内容就可以了。

拟提纲一般应先粗后细,先大后小,由略到详。即先把大的部分定下来,确定大段标题,再斟酌、明确每个大部分的小层次(即小标题),再依次深入,经过周密思考,反复修改完成,论文的提纲拟就以后,就应以纲统目,以说理为主,必须有虚有实,把抽象的道理与具体的形象的比喻以及典型事例有机地结合起来,即结合实际实例去作有步骤的层层逼近的科学论证。同时,大纲一定要实现:(1)明确论文的具体部局,要以总论点、分论点搭起框架结构,否则论文可能会显得三乱。(2)内容的表现上,要选择如并列式结构、递进式结构、分总(总分)式结构、综合式结构、散论式结构等。

2.精心撰写

提纲编写就绪后,文章的撰写就进入了写作阶段、即对研究成果进行具体描述阶段。会计论文的定作应达到如下要求:

(1)容易理解。会计论文是表明作才观点的,要想把论文所包含的信息无障碍地传递出去,必须做到观点明确,结构得当,叙述准确。对于中心论点,是文章要刻意用力的地方、给出结论的地方,一定要讲得很详细,要讲透。转述的、人所共知的地方可简明扼要地讲。论文质量高低取决于作者对所论述的问题有无真知灼见、有无新意,道理是否说得中肯深透,而不在地篇幅的长短,在基本达到对论文的字数要求的情况下,以行文简洁为标准。

(2)引用要得当,注释要清楚。为此,要讲究引用与注释的方法。引文与注释可以在页尾注明,也可以在文尾注明,并且尽量提供大的信息量,以便读者查找与核对。

(3)表与图的运用。由于表与图具有较强的直观性,借助它们常常可以使语言文字很难表达清楚的多种子要素间的定量或定性关系一目了然,而且可避免文章表述呆板,因此,要合理采用。

三、改稿与成文

高质量的会计论文是改出来的。当初稿写成后,往往有一种如释重负的感觉,这时如果时间允许,可以采用一种效果比较好的方法修改文章:冷处理。先把初稿搁一搁,待脑子冷下来后,再去修改。

(一)改稿的基本内容与要求

1.中心观点论证的是否充分

看论文所采用的例证材料是否充足,是否都能用来为论文的中心论点服务,不充足的要进一步充实,是观点问题还是所选材料问题,是否达到论文字数的要求,对于高中心论点较远的内容应该删去。

2.论文结构和段落是否有利于中心观点充分表述

检查论述的先后顺序是否得当,是否便于推理;各大段下的小段落是否需要小标题,有的是否应归属其他大段等。通过调整,使之合理、严密。

3.句子和标题是否符合语法要求

要字句斟酌,捡查用诩是否准确恰当,是否合乎语言习惯;句子与句子之间的联系是否协调,合乎逻辑;语言要鲜明生动。

改稿的基本要求是:一要确切;题文一致,标题和内容吻合;二要简洁:概括得当,简练明快;三要生动:新鲜活泼,引入注目;四要适度:明确的科学态度。

(二)加工成文

按照规定要求加工成文。可以是手写,有条件的可以打印。成文稿子一般要包括封面、正文、其他说明等内容。标准就是:格式正确、标点符号规范。

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篇11:科技论文写作技巧

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科技论文在情报学中又称为原始论文或一次文献,下面是小编为大家整理的科技论文写作技巧,希望能帮到您!

1、什么叫科技论文,基本特征是什么

科技论文是在科学研究、科学实验的基础上,对自然科学和专业技术领域里的某些现象或问题进行专题研究,运用概念、判断、推理、证明或反驳等逻辑思维手段,分析和阐述,揭示出这些现象和问题的本质及其规律性而撰写成的论文。科技论文区别于其他文体的特点,在于创新性科学技术研究工作成果的科学论述,是某些理论性、实验性或观测性新知识的科学记录、是某些已知原理应用于实际中取得新进展、新成果的科学总结。因此,完备的科技论文应该具有科学性、首创性、逻辑性和有效性,这也就构成了科技论文的基本特征。

科学性——这是科技论文在方法论上的特征,它不仅仅描述的是涉及科学和技术领域的命题,而且更重要的是论述的内容具有科学可信性,是可以复现的成熟理论、技巧或物件,或者是经过多次使用已成熟能够推广应用的技术。

首创性——这是科技论文的灵魂,是有别于其他文献的特征所在。它要求文章所揭示的事物现象、属性、特点及事物运动时所遵循的规律,或者这些规律的运用必须是前所未见的、首创的或部分首创的,必须有所发现,有所发明,有所创造,有所前进,而不是对前人工作的复述、模仿或解释。

逻辑性——这是文章的结构特点。它要求科技论文脉络清晰、结构严谨、前提完备、演算正确、符号规范,文字通顺、图表精制、推断合理、前呼后应、自成系统。

有效性——指文章的发表方式。当今只有经过相关专业的同行专家的审阅,并在一定规格的学术评议会上答辩通过、存档归案;或在正式的科技刊物上发表的科技论文才被承认为是完备和有效的。这时,不管科技论文采用何种文字发表,它表明科技论文所揭示的事实及其真谛已能方便地为他人所应用,成为人类知识宝库中的一个组成部分。

2、科技论文的分类

从不同的角度对科技论文进行分类会有不同的结果。从目前期刊所刊登的科技论文来看主要涉及以下5类:

第一类是论证型——对基础性科学命题的论述与证明,或对提出的新的设想原理、模型、材料、工艺等进行理论分析,使其完善、补充或修正。如维持河流健康生命具体指标的确定,流域初始水权的分配等都属于这一类型。从事专题研究的人员写这方面的科技论文多些。

第二类是科技报告型——科技报告是描述一项科学技术研究的结果或进展,或一项技术研究试验和评价的结果,或论述某项科学技术问题的现状和发展的文件。记述型文章是它的一种特例。专业技术、工程方案和研究计划的可行性论证文章,科技报告型论文占现代科技文献的多数。从事工程设计、规划的人员写这方面的科技论文多些。

第三类是发现、发明型——记述被发现事物或事件的背景、现象、本质、特性及其运动变化规律和人类使用这种发现前景的文章。阐述被发明的装备、系统、工具、材料、工艺、配方形式或方法的功效、性能、特点、原理及使用条件等的文章。从事工程施工方面的人员写这方面的稿件多些。

第四类是设计、计算型——为解决某些工程问题、技术问题和管理问题而进行的计算机程序设计,某些系统、工程方案、产品的计算机辅助设计和优化设计以及某些过程的计算机模拟,某些产品或材料的设计或调制和配制等。从事计算机等软件开发的人员写这方面的科技论文多些。

第五类是综述型——这是一种比较特殊的科技论文(如文献综述),与一般科技论文的主要区别在于它不要求在研究内容上具有首创性,尽管一篇好的综述文章也常常包括某些先前未曾发表过的新资料和新思想,但是它要求撰稿人在综合分析和评价已有资料基础上,提出在特定时期内有关专业课题的发展演变规律和趋势。它的写法通常有两类:一类以汇集文献资料为主,辅以注释,客观而少评述。另一类则着重评述。通过回顾、观察和展望,提出合乎逻辑的、具有启迪性的看法和建议。从事管理工作的人员写这方面的科技论文较多。

3、科技论文的格式

一篇完整的科技论文应包括标题、摘要、关键词、论文的内容、参考文献。

3.1 题目

题目是科技论文的必要组成部分。它要求用简洁、恰当的词组反映文章的特定内容,论文的主题明白无误地告诉读者,并且使之具有画龙点睛,启迪读者兴趣的功能。一般情况下,题目中应包括文章的主要关键词。题名像一条标签,切忌用较长的主、谓、宾语结构的完整语句逐点描述论文的内容,以保证达到“简洁”的要求;而“恰当”的要求应反映在用词的中肯、醒目、好读好记上。当然,也要避免过分笼统或哗众取宠的所谓简洁,缺乏可检索性,以至于名实不符或无法反映出每篇文章应有的特色。题名应简短,不应很长,一般不宜超过20个汉字。

3.2 署名

著者署名是科技论文的必要组成部分。著者系指在论文主题内容的构思、具体研究工作的执行及撰稿执笔等方面的全部或局部上作出的主要贡献的人员,能够对论文的主要内容负责答辩的人员,是论文的法定权人和责任者。署名人数不该太多,对论文涉及的部分内容作过咨询、给过某种帮助或参与常规劳务的人员不宜按著者身份署名,但可以注明他们曾参与了哪一部分具体工作,或通过文末致谢的方式对他们的贡献和劳动表示谢意。合写 论文的著者应按论文工作贡献的多少顺序排列。著者的姓名应给全名,一般用真实姓名。同时还应给出著者完成研究工作的单位或著者所在的工作单位或通信地址。

3.3 文摘

文摘是现代科技论文的必要附加部分,只有极短的文章才能省略。文摘是以提供文献内容梗概为目的,不加评论和补充解释,简明确切地记述文献重要内容的短文,应包括目的、方法、结果、结论。文摘有两种写法:报道性文摘—指明一次文献的主题范围及内容梗概的简明文摘也称简介;指示性文摘—指示一次文献的陈述主题及取得的成果性质和水平的简明文摘。介乎其间的是报道、指示性文摘—以报道性文摘形式表述一次文献中信息价值较高的部分,而以指示性文摘形式表述其余部分的文摘。一般的科技论文都应尽量写成报道性文摘,而对综述性、资料性或评论性的文章可写成指示性或报道、指示性文摘。文摘可作者自己写,也可由编者写。编写时要客观、如实地反映一次文献;要着重反映文稿中的新观点;不要重复本学科领域已成常识的内容;不要简单地重复题名中已有的信息;书写要合乎语法,尽量同文稿的文体保持一致;结构要严谨,表达要简明,语义要确切;要用第三人称的写法。摘要字数一般在300字左右。

3.4 关键词

为了便于读者从浩如烟海的书刊中寻找文献,特别是适应计算机自动检索的需要,应在文摘后给出3-8个关键词。选能反映文献特征内容,通用性比较强的关键词。首先要选列人似语主题词一劫的规范性词。

3.5 引言

引言(前言、序言、概述)经常作为科技论文的开端,主要回答“为什么”(Why)这个问题。它简明介绍科技论文的背景、相关领域的前人研究历史与现状(有时亦称这部分为文献综述),以及著者的意图与分析依据,包括科技论文的追求目标、研究范围和理论、技术方案的选取等。引言应言简意赅,不要等同于文摘,或成为文摘的注释。

3.6 正文

正文是科技论文的核心组成部分,主要回答“怎么研究”(how)这个问题。正文应充分阐明科技论文的观点、原理、方法及具体达到预期目标的整个过程,并且突出一个“新”字,以反映 科技论文具有的首创性。根据需要,论文可以分层深人,逐层剖析,按层设分层标题。科技论文写作不要求文字华丽,但要求思路清晰,合乎逻辑,用语简洁准确、明快流畅;内容务求客观、科学、完备,要尽量让事实和数据说话;凡用简要的文字能够说清楚的,应用文字陈述,用文字不容易说明白或说起来比较繁琐的,应由表或图来陈述。物理量和单位应采用法定计量单位。

3.7 结论

结论是整篇文章的最后总结。结论不是科技论文的必要组成部分。主要是回答“研究出什么”(What)。它应该以正文中的试验或考察中得到的现象、数据和阐述分析作为依据,由此完整、准确、简洁地指出:一是由研究对象进行考察或实验得到的结果所揭示的原理及其普遍性;二是研究中有无发现例外或本论文尚难以解释和解决的问题;三是与先前已经发表过的(包括他人或著者自己)研究工作的异同;四是本论文在理论上与实用上的意义与价值;五是对进一步深人研究本课题的建议。

3.8 参考文献

它是反映文稿的科学依据和著者尊重他人研究成果而向读者提供文中引用有关资料的出处,或为了节约篇幅和叙述方便,提供在论文中提及而没有展开的有关内容的详尽文本。被列入的论文参考文献应该只限于那些著者亲自阅读过和论文中引用过,而且正式发表的出版物,或其他有关档案资料,包括专利等文献。

4、如何写科技论文

4.1 科技论文的选题

科技论文的选题一方面要选择本学科觅待解决的课题,另一方面要选择本学科处于前沿位置的课题。在2006年召开的水利部科学技术委员会全体会议上,汪恕诚部长针对今后的水利科研工作,强调要重视研究十大问题:一是河流健康标准;二是大坝与生态;三是河道演变的人工干预;四是河流生态的修复与建设;五是河流水量分配导则,即初始水权的分配;六是节水型社会的体制建设;七是跨流域调水的生态影响;八是生态调度问题;九是灾害保险与社会管理;十是水库征地移民。这些都是作论文很好的选题。围绕构建和谐社会、水资源的可持续利用、饮水安全、粮食安全等都有许多很好的选题。

选题确定后,就要定题目了。题目有大有小,有难有易。太大了,由于学力不足,无法深人,很容易写成蜻蜓点水,浮光掠影,面面俱到,一个问题也没有论述深透,也没有能够解决,论文还是没有分量,华而不实,难于完成;太小了轻而易举。写作时要确定一个角度,把题目缩小。因此确定 科技论文的具体题目和论证角度,应该量力而行,实事求是,不要好高鹜远,贪大贪深,勉强去做一个自己无力胜任的题,自己毫无基础和准备的题。题目的大小,当然也不是绝对的。大题可以小作,小题可以大作。关键还在于如何确定具体的角度,如抓住一个重要的小题,学科中的关键问题,能够深人其本质,抓住要害,从各个方面把它说深说透,有独到的新见解,把这个问题的难点和症结找准了,科学地给予解决了,那 论文就很有分量。因此要从实际出发,量力而行。确定主题和论证的角度,除了量力而行外,还应注意要从自己有基础、了解的事情着手。

比如,编辑部收到过这样一些来稿,有的基层作者写的题目很大,如我国的水资源管理、南水北调工程的设想等,这类稿件题目很大也很泛,从他们所掌握的资料,很难做那么大的课题研究,写的论文很空,东抄西拼,缺少自己独到的见解,有些见解缺少理论的依据,因此这类稿件很难被采用。还有一些行业外人士写黄河的裁弯取直,所写的稿件缺乏对水利知识的了解,研究的不是他们所熟悉的东西,缺乏理论基础,这样的稿件也很难被采用。

4.2 科技论文的准备

确定科技论文的题目和论证角度后,就要做搜集材料的工作,尽可能了解前人对于这个问题已经发表过的意见,他们已经取得的成果,正确的可以汲取和继承,走过的弯路,犯过的错误,可以避免和防止。应该汲取前人已有的经验,去解决前人没有解决的新问题。在博览广搜有关材料的过程中,应该时刻以自己论题为中心去思考这些材料,区别其正确、错误,找出其论证不足与需要增补、发挥之处,在此过程中逐渐形成自己论文的观点。搜集材料的过程,就是调查研究、思考钻研、形成论点的过程。在材料的搜集、研究过程完成时,论文提纲也就自然而然地完成了。

制定提纲可以帮助我们树立全局观念,从整体出发,去检验每一个部分所占的地位,所起的作用,相互间是否有逻辑联系,每部分所占的篇幅与其在全局中的地位和作用是否相称,各个部分之间的比例是否恰当和谐,每一个字、每一句、每一段、每一部分是否都为全局所需要,是否丝丝 入扣,相互配合,都能为主题服务。因此写提纲的好处是帮助自己从全局着眼,树立全篇论文的基本骨架,明确层次和重点,简明具体,一目了然。

对搜集的材料,要进行分析、提炼,保留那些能说明论点的例证材料。小道理要服从大道理,局部要服从整体。单从某一局部看,有些论点和例子可能是精彩的,但从全局确定的基本发展线中看,它插不进去,用不上,只能割爱。

科技论文应有说服力,为了有说服力,就必须有虚有实,有论点有例证,理论和实际相结合,论证过程有严密的逻辑性,并且论文要有层次。

4.3 科技论文的撰写

科技论文提纲确定了,就要撰写初稿。原则上要简明扼要,指出问题,说明问题,分析问题。提纲只是预拟一个轮廓,不可能对每一细部都考虑周密完善。在写作时,顺着写作思路而作,对于论点、例证和论证步骤等等细部,很可能发现原来提纲中某些设想计划是不恰当的,就应该加以修改和调整;临时发现某些论点、例证和论证理由不确切,还应该重新查书、思考、斟酌和推敲,给予增补,使之完善。当然,文气的通畅,文字的华美,还是必要的。该用排比、重复强调等修辞手法,以突出重点、倾注感情的地方,需要妙笔生花、使读者产生特殊感应的地方,还是不能吝惜笔墨。总之,该长则长,该短则短,量体裁衣,从内容出发,为内容服务,句无虚发,字无浪费,这是基本原则。

初稿写成以后,应再三修改,审查是否符合要求。事实上,人的认识不是一次完成的,很难一次就达到完善恰当的程度。仔细检查,反复修改,总会发现还有不恰当、不完善之处,大至问题是否提得鲜明中肯,论点和事例有无说服力,结构层次是否严谨,小至文字的修饰加工,有无废话,语言是否准确、鲜明、生动,等等,总会发现尚需修改之处,发现很多在提纲中看不出的毛病,原先估计不到的问题。写成初稿后反复审查和修改,是十分必要的。

“持之有故,言之成理”是科技论文的起码要求。持之有故即事实的根据;言之成理是条理清楚,观点明确。真理的标准在于实践,仅仅“持之有故,言之成理”还不一定正确,必须能够经受实践的检验,即付诸实践,取得预期的效果,简略地说,可以说是“行之有成”,即成功的实践效果。

一篇好的科技论文不光主题突出,论点鲜明,还应结构严谨,层次分明。要安排好结构,一般应遵循以下5个原则:

一是围绕主题,选择有代表性的典型材料,根据需要,加以适当安排,使主题思想得到鲜明突出的表现。

二是疏通思路,正确反映客观事物的规律,就是说,必须反映客观事物的实际情况,内部联系,符合人们的认识规律。

三是结构要完整而统一,符合客观事物的实际情况;客观事物的发展必然经过开始、中间、结尾3个阶段,同样每篇文章也必然经过3个阶段。

四是要层次分明,有条不紊。文章结构中最重要的是层次。层次就是文章中材料的次序。写文章时把所选材料分成若干部分,按照主题思想的需要,适当安排,分出轻重缓急,依次表达,前后连贯,充分而鲜明地把主题思想表达出来。

五是要适合文章体裁。体裁不同,结构也不会完全相同。各种文体都有自己的结构特点。一般说来论说文是以事物的内部逻辑关系来安排结构层次,因此论说文以说理论证为主,同记叙文以“事”为主不同。

5、科技论文写作应注意的问题

对于初写科技论文的人来说,论文题目不宜太大,篇幅不宜太长,涉及问题的面不宜过宽,论述的问题也不求过深。应尽可能在前人已有知识的基础上提出一点新的看法。

在第二步时,论文的题目可大一点、深一点。论文题目可以是着重谈某一点,如某个重要问题的某一个重要侧面或某一当前疑难的焦点,解决了这一点,有推动全局的重要意义。

在第三步时,对某专业的基本问题和重要疑难问题有独到的见解,对这个专业的学术水平的提高有推动作用。

第四步时,对某一学科有关的领域有深邃广博的知识,并能运用这些知识对某学科提供创造性见解,对此学科的发展有重要的推动作用,或对此学科水平的提高有重要的突破。

注意不必要去追求写全面论述性的大问题,所写的主题,可以很小,却又是重要的。其实选题很多,选自己熟悉和所从事的工作,并对今后工作有益的选题,既能总结工作的得失又能促进工作。

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篇12:论文写作——材料、观点和文字

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材料是写好论文的基础,观点是论文的灵魂,文字是论文的外在表现。材料和观点是论文的内容,文字是论文的形式。形式是表现内容的,内容要通过形式来表现。三者的完美结合是内容和形式的统一。

材料来源于实验。设计的好坏直接影响材料获得的效率与质量。整篇论文是由若干工作单元组成的,每一工作单元又是由每次实验材料积累起来的。因此要善待每天的实验。每天工作时都要考虑到这一数据在将来论文中的可能位置,对每一张影像记录都要认真收集保存。材料要真实可靠,数据要充足。有了异常,要及时分析处理,要保证所得结果可信,排除假象。一篇论文总要有新现象、新处理、新效果、新观点。

观点应明确,客观辩证。不要、也不能回避不同观点。从论文定题到结论,处处有观点,所以观点是论文的灵魂,是贯穿始终的。讨论观点时不要强词夺理,不要自圆其说,力戒片面性、主观性、随意性。要和国内外文献上的观点相比较,也要和自己实验室过去的观点相比较。在比较中分析异同,提高认识。也不要怕观点错误,不要怕改正错误。要百家争鸣,通过争鸣,认识真理。

论文的文字要自然流畅,“言而无文,行之不远”。但也不要华丽雕琢,目的是“文以载道”。论文叙述要合乎逻辑,层次分明,朴素真实,分寸恰当。

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篇13:2024年医学论文格式及写作方法

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医学论文写作是一项严肃、意义重大的工作、是交流经验,传播科技成果,不断提高临床诊治和科研水平的重要组成部分。只有不断的总结,才能在总结的基础上不断的进步。因此,必须以科学的态度实事求是的去写,即不能夸大,也不能缩小,有一说一,有二说二,密切注意医学论文的科学性、实用性、先进性及可读性。不同的工作性质写出来的医学论文不尽相同,个性是主要的,但也不能没有共性,不是无章可循。但应尽可能避免写作时的千篇一律,千人一面。特别是医学论文的表达方式应该更科学一些,论文的布局和段落应分明,层次应清晰,推理应符合逻辑,条理性要强。下面就本人在编辑工作中的一些体会,重点谈谈医学论文写作的方法

一、医学论文题目的选择

1.1医学论文的命题

医学论文题目应是文章内容的集中概括。作者写论文,一是传播科技经验,二是为晋升需要,因此,论文好坏与标题有很大关系。由于论文题目首先映入读(编)者的眼帘,读(编)者浏览文章,多先看题目,然后才决是是否阅读(取舍)全文。所以,要求命题既能概括全文内容,又能引人注目,便于记忆和引用,做到恰当、确切、简短、鲜明,起到一种画龙点睛的作用,以引起读(编)者的注意与兴趣。

我国《科学技术报告、学位论文、学术论文以及其它类似文件编写格式》提出:“题名应力求简短,一般不宜超过30个字。”应以20个字左右为宜,越简短(确切)越好。美国新英格兰医学杂志在稿约中规定“文题必要时给目录写一个限在75个字母空间之内的短题。”文题应与文章内容相符,一忌泛,二忌繁,同时还应具备可检索性、专指性、信息性,必要时可加副题,要给人一种“非看一下不可”的魅力。

一般先定题目再写论文,但亦可先写论文再定题,也可将要写的内容列出提纲,根据提纲再定标题,文题贵新,切忌老生常谈。别人用过的题目不要再用。从来稿情况看,多为回顾性与前瞻性两大类。回顾性的稿件容易走进前人形成的模式,格局大体相同,多半是多少病例的临床分析,经过几次试验、观察结论与前一致,这样说明的问题很有限。如果能在回顾中找出经验教训;阐明需要注意的间题;论证你的某个新观点;或修正前人的某种错误,这样文章就有了新意,在设备、文献、实验条件较好的情况下,可以写综述、讲座、学术论文、病案讨论之类;条件差的单位或初学写稿者,结合不同的具体情况,可先从写临床报道、误诊教训、技术改进、心得体会等入手。尽量结合自己熟悉的内容,日常从事的工作。否则难免在症状、体征的描述上无中心、不准确、矛盾大、漏洞多,而且不了解进展,不熟悉近况,甚至只是道听途说,这样就很难成功。总之,题目是论文最重要的内容,以最恰当、最鲜明的词语组合,好的命题可以使读(编)者看过题目后,能够得知论文中的梗概和主要特点,能够吸引读(编)者使之产生阅理全文的兴趣,反复引用,经久不忘。

1.2医学论文的署名

医学论文署名要用真名(学术论文)而不用笔名,并写明工作单位和邮政编码,以便联系和供读者咨询。本刊编排顺序为工作单位、邮政编码,而后是作者。集体创作应在文末署上执笔人或整理者的姓名,以明责任,便于查考。

署名不可过多,应本着实事求是的原则,必须参加全部或部分主要工作,或参加本文章撰写,对文章内容负责并能进行答辨的人。署名次序应按贡献大小依次排列,起主要作用的人列在前面。根据目前各省晋升掌握的情况看,署名太多也无意义,一般3-5人即可。指导者、协作者或列在姓名中,或在文末致谢中写出。不要出现一篇短文或临床报道出现十余作者的情况。

署名本身是一件很严肃的、科学性很强的事,但由于近年来社会上一些不正之风也同样冲击着科学技术界,作者的署名也无例外的出现了一些问题:①署名过多;②署名过乱;③带名;④挂名。论文第一作者必须对全文负责,不能无原则的乱署名,尤其不能将与本文章无关的人员署上。决不能以署名做为替人晋升创造条件的手段。

1.3医学论文摘要与关键词

摘要是正文的高度浓缩,是医学论文内容不加注释的评论和简短陈述。便于读(编)者了解全文的要点,便于做文摘和检索。因此,摘要应力求简明扼要,字数一般为200字左右,如是特殊情况字数可以略多。摘要可以独立使用,不过简亦不过繁,不要一般的套套空活,但也不要照搬图表、公式,不可用非沿用编写符号。有的期刊要求列出关键词,即选出3-5个代表论文主要内容的单词或术语,另起一行列于摘要后。医学论文关键词的选用应尽可能的用《医学主题词表》中的术语。讲座、综述、病案讨论、误诊教训、临床报道可以不使用。

1.4医学论文的正文

医学论文由前言(引言)、临床资料(资料与方法)、结果、讨论等组成。各部分应妥善安排,即明确分工,避免重复,又互相配合,防止遗漏。正文内的小标题层次分配国内各刊使用不一,本刊要求为1,1.1、1.1.1、(1)、①,可以跳档使用。本刊正文亦主要分为前言、临床资料(资料与方法)、结果、讨论等四个层次,也即为四个段式的格式。相当一部分医学论文都有参考文献,其附在全文结束后,顺序应以右上角码的形式标注在文内相印处(即引用文献处)。

二、医学论文的内容要求

医学论文写作多是有感而发,多是自己亲身经历的熟悉工作。怎样写医学论文呢?基本要求应是客观地、真实地反映事物的本质,反映事物内部的规律性。要完成这样一项工作,就必须以严肃的态度、科学的方法、严谨的学风去认真对待。医学论文虽然都源于临床,但决不是临床工作的平铺直叙,应是从中取其精华,内容必须有材料、有概念、有判断、有观点,合乎逻辑,顺理成章,且材料确实(经得起考证)、概念明确、判断恰当,观点正确,不含水分。即应具有实用性、科学性、先进性(独创性)、可读性等内容。

2:1实用性

科学发展迅速,知识不断更新。临床医学文要做到为医学科学的发展积累资料,又要指导临床实践,就得密切注视信息,才能使医学论文兼具实用性和先进性。医学是一门应用科学,除了少量纯理论研究,绝大多数医学论文应结合临床、预防的实际,也即是对临床工作有无实际的指导作用,实际指导作用越好,实用性越强,价值越大。前人多次观察、论证的数据可直接引用,但要结合自己的观察,从中找出变化的规律,从而在疾病和预防、治疗、转归上起到实际的指导作用。既可普及,又利于提高,既看得懂,又用得上,既有社会效益,又有推广价值。

2.2科学性、真实性

从医学论文的命题起就一定要符合科学性的原则。取材可靠、客观真实,有计划、有设计、有对照,并通过计算,对象选择、分组处理,评定应是双盲、随机、客观。这样的结果有说服力,科学性强。

科学本身不能想当然,也不能凭主观愿望,更不能臆想或编造。因此,从选题、设计、观察研究到结论,每一步都要有严肃的态度、严格的要求和严密的方法。选题要有足够的科学依据,设计要有充分的可靠性、可比性和必要的随机性,观察研究要真实、准确和全面,强调推理的逻辑性和结论的严谨性。结果应忠于事实和原始资料,讨论的内容不夸张、不失实。即数据准确、引文准确、用词准确,内容观点正确无误。避免概念不清、论据不足、自相矛盾、层次不合理、观点不明确。不任意取舍,不摒弃偶然现象。

2.3新颖性、先进性(也称创新性)

科学的生命在于创新,没有创造就没有发展,一篇医学论文要有新意,有新内容、新观点、新方法、新经验等等。这样对别人(阅读者)才会有所启发,有所收获。所以要求论著的学术内容有别于过去已发表过的文献,应有所独创、有所发现或发明。例如在基础研究方面,选题新、方法先进,有新发现,新观点;在临床研究方面,病例更多,观察更深,诊断治疗方法有创新,效果更好,提出新见解等等。这样的论著才有刊出的价值。许多文稿投寄期刊后未被来纳,主要就因为它们只是重复了过去的文献或教科书的内容,缺乏新意或创见。

创,多指前人没做过或没发表过的,即“有所发现,有所发明,有所创造,有所前进”。凡达到国际水平、国内首创,即符合创造性。新,指非公知公用,非模仿抄袭。如果是模仿和重复已有的,要仿中有创,推陈出新,即从新的角度阐明新的问题(如老药新用、古方今用)。有水平的医学论文必须是先进的经验或有新的见解。这样的论文投寄后被采用的机会就大的多。

2.4可读性

言不在多,而在于精。文字表达准确、简练、通顺,论点鲜明、论据充足、逻辑性强、术语规范、格式合适、结论可靠切题,并有一定的生动性,使读(编)者以最少的精力,获得最多的收获,且爱不释手。切不可因某种原因,文稿仓促求成,内容不多,于是表格加图,再加文字叙述,反复叠罗汉,使之看而生厌,投寄期刊后多被退稿,于人无益,于己无用,无功而返,造成无谓的劳动。

三、医学论文的格式构成

3.1引言(前言)

是医学论文开篇的一段短文,主要介绍本文的背景、理论依据、论文的范围目的与工作的收获、结果、意义等。可根据论文的需要或长或短。要求言简意赅,点明主题。如“我院内科1992年2月至1995年10月应用盐酸纳络酮治疗镇静催眠药急性中毒48例,与同期未用纳络酮治疗的42例对照比较,疗效满意,报告如下。”不可言过其实,尤其是诸如国内外罕见,未见报道,无先例,属最新水平之类,必须有充分证据,否则一般不用。

3.2临床资料(资料与方法)

是论著的主要内容,包括实验对象、器具、采用什么方法、多少病例(男多少、女多少)、如何分组、诊断手断、依据、治疗方法(用药)、疗效标准、观察及随访时间等等。应说明资料来源的时限、年龄、性别、职业的可比性。在此需要特别提醒注意的是说明疗效或某种方法时需设对照组,条件同等、随机分组、用药或检测采用双盲法对照。共同的是使读者具体了解该研究的具体内容,一方面便于理解和评价,另方面便于验证和仿行。任何科学成果,必须能够在方法同样条件下重复出同样结果,方能得到公认。因此,描述材料和方法以使读者能进行重复为度,过分简略固然不行,过分详尽也无必要。

资料中如数字较多可用统计图表表示。统计表应有表题和序号(一个表不用序号,列为附表)。统计表应按统计学原则制作,表格两端开口,不用纵线,只用一条纵线说明主语与谓语,表格左上角不用斜线。表格内避免繁杂,更不能与正文重复。

3.3结果

医学论文的中心部分。即实验研究、临床研究、分析观察、调查的各种资料和数据,进行分析、归纳,经必要的统计学处理后所得的结果。这是决定论著质量是否严谨,数据是否准确可靠,要求高度真实和准确,实事求是的撰写。失败就是失败,成功就是成功,不要人为地夸大成功率,且要消灭统计方面的误差。

3.4讨论

即将所得结论或研究结果,从理论上进一步认真分析。科学的推论和评价,证实所得结果的可靠性,阐明具有科学性、先进性的论据,从而取得大家的公认。通常讨论的问题有:阐述该文研究的原理与机制;说明该文材料与方法的特点及其得失;分析该文结果与他人的异同及优缺点;根据该文结果提出新假设、新观点;对各种不同学术观点进行比较和评价;提出今后探索的方向等等。当然,一篇文章通常只讨论其中的某些方面,不可能面面俱到。重要的是,讨论必须紧紧扣住该文的研究结果,突出自己的新发现与新认识。有的医学论文讨论部分只是重复过去的文献,甚至抄袭某些专著和教科书的内容,这就失去了讨论的意义。

讨论的深浅、正确与否,很大程度上取决于掌握文献的多少和分析能力。因此,必须了解本专业的近况及动向,才能比较客观的得出正确的结论。

3.5医学论文的参考文献

只限于自己阅读过并引用的文献(必须是公开发行的刊物),按文内引用顺序排列写在文后,文内按1.2.3……顺序在引用处标出右上角码,如在右上角标注[1]或[1-3]或[1,4]最好是着重引用近年的(3-5年)期刊文献。医学论文参考文献的书写格式多采用温哥华式。

刊物:作者(两位作者可一并列上,中间加逗号;三位作者或以上,可只写第一作者,后加逗号及等),文题列于作者后(有的刊物略去文题),然后顺序列出刊物名称、年份、卷(期):起迄页。

例杨亚辉.国内外胸心血管外科进展临床医学1995;15(6):36

杨亚辉,等.国内外胸心血管外科进展临床医学1995;15(6):36一38

书籍:依次顺序为作者,书名,版次,出版地:出版社,年份:起页~迄页

例张学礼主编,怎样撰写医学论文第一版,北京:中国医药科技出版社,1990:82-90

外文资料西文只用姓,不用全称,其它顺序同期刊。

参考文献不宜过多,论著8条、综述20条以内为宜。引用的文献必须具有价值,引用的论点必须准确无误。取其精华,引用部分要恰到好处,宁少勿滥。

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篇14:论文写作方法有哪些

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所谓磨刀不误砍柴工。要撰写好一篇学术论文,必须要掌握好撰写学术论文的方法。本人从事研究二十余年,从事学术刊物的主编已有近十年的经历。从事学术研究使我有专业的眼光来看待学术问题,而作为主编则使我有机会抛弃学术研究的浮躁而冷静地从刊物的角度来思考学术创新的可能性。因而,我可以有机会把两种不同的眼光和视角交织在一起来谈谈如何撰写好一篇学术论文的问题。

一、选题

选题是否成功是研究成功的前提。有一种说法,哲学社会科学不像自然科学,没有成功与不成功之说,只要愿意去做,最后必然成功。此话谬矣。没有好的选题,即便是洋洋洒洒数万言乃至数十万、数百万言,结果都是无用的废话。这就不能视为成功的研究。成功的研究一定是建立在成功的选题之上的。那么,什么是成功的选题呢?简而言之就是选题要有问题意识。

问题意识是是什么呢?

一是指研究的目标取向。成功的选题应该是揭示研究的目标取向,也就是要使研究达到什么样的目标。研究的目标取向所反映的是研究是否有价值,是否值得研究。因此,从选题来看就可以知道该问题研究的状况和可能发展的趋势。如果选题没有揭示研究的目标取向,而只是陈述了一个事实,那么就意味着该研究不值得研究,或者说前人已经做了比较详尽的研究,在目前的状况下已经没有深入的可能了。这种选题就不应该去选。

二是指研究的具体范围。成功的选题应该是范围具体,不是大而全的。也就是选题不能过大,过大的选题会使研究无法深入下去,只是如蜻蜓点水。另一方面是题目太小,研究就会过于沉迷于琐碎的细节,从而使研究失去了价值和品位。特别是有的细节并不具有代表性,也不能真正反映事物发展的趋势,但由于研究者的视野太小,没法从细节中发现事物发展的基本规律。特别是做历史史料研究的往往都有这样的毛病。

三是要对一个学术问题产生质疑,或者说要有争鸣性。学术研究是无止境的,真理更是无止境的。很多学术观点在当时是对的,或者说是真理,但时间和条件都变化了,因而其真理性也会发生变化。因此,选题一定要敢于质疑,但质疑必须要有理有据,而不是随便怀疑。在有理有据的基础上的怀疑,这样的选题一定是有价值的。

总之,选题是很讲究技巧的。选题实际上是积累后的第一次思想井喷,没有积累就无法进行选题。好的选题可以使研究事半功倍,好的选题是论文成功的前提。在选题之后,还有一个重要的问题就是题目的表达,即怎样把这个内容表达出来。

这里也有几个讲究:

一是题目不宜太长,太长表明作者缺乏概括能力和抽象能力,题目要求精炼、简洁,要力求达到多一个字太长、少一个字太短的水平。

二是核心概念不宜多,最多两个,最好一个。这就必须贯彻“计划生育”政策。核心概念超过两个,论文到底研究什么就非常难把握了,而且概念太多通篇很可能就是在解释概念,实质性的内容就被冲淡了。

三是表达要精准,题目如果引起歧义,或者模糊不清,那么论文在写作是很可能出现跑题现象。

二、文献梳理和文献的使用

文献是写好论文的材料,也是研究的基础。它反映的是研究者的专业基础和专业能力。没有文献,就相当于造房子没有砖块一样;同时,没有文献也像在空中造房子一样没有基础。文献是学术传承和学术伦理的载体。尊重文献就是尊重前人的研究,尊重文献,也体现了学术发展的脉络。因此,文献在撰写论文中至关重要。在撰写论文之前,一是要对文献进行必要的梳理,二是要善于使用文献。

(一)关于文献梳理

1、梳理文献的目的是什么?

选题的问题意识来源于对文献的阅读和分析,问题意识不是凭空产生的,二是基于既有的研究而发现问题。梳理文献的目的在于:

其一,梳理所选问题的历史发展脉络。任何问题都有一个发展脉络,不了解学术发展的脉络就不能对学术问题进行深入研究。也就是说,这个问题是从哪里来的,然而才能预判这个问题的未来发展方向可能是什么。不仅要梳理这一问题国内研究是的现状,而且还有梳理国际学术界对这一问题的研究现状,从而全面把握这一问题研究的基本状况。如果打开电脑就直奔主题,对某一具体问题洋洋洒洒地写下去,也不去查阅相关文献,结果可能是低水平重复的东西。这样的论文时没有任何价值的,即便发出来,也仅仅是作为工作量或评职称的成果而已,并不代表它对学术有什么贡献。在学术论文中,开头就直奔主题的论文,一般都不是好的论文。人贵在直,文贵在曲。论文的贵也在曲。而这种曲是通过对前人既有研究的追述和分析表现出来的。

其二,梳理文献是充分肯定前人所做的学术贡献。任何人的研究都是在前人的研究基础上进行新的探索。这就是牛顿所说的,站在巨人的肩膀上。在研究中,这个巨人不是具体的一个人,而是所有对该学术问题作出了贡献的前人。学术的传承就是要尊重历史,不尊重前人的学术贡献,就难以开拓新的研究领域,也难以对学术研究进行深入研究。不尊重历史,我们同样会陷入盲目自大的学风,以为别人都没有达到自己的水平,从而最终也会陷入重复别人已经说过的故事,浪费学术资源。

其三,梳理文献最根本的目的是发现前人研究中的问题,从而为自己的研究找到突破口。学术问题大多不是一代学人就能解决的,一代学人只能解决那一代学人的认知水平之下所能解决的问题,但即便如此,也存在着研究的疏忽和漏洞,也会因主观能力的不足而存在着研究的缺陷。因此,后辈学人就是要反复不断地阅读、比较和分析前人的既有研究成果,从中发现研究中存在的问题和漏洞。这样,自己的选题就有可能或者延续前人的研究使之深化,或者发现前人研究的漏洞和不足以进行弥补,或者在原有的问题领域发现新的研究处女地。这才真正体现了所做选题的研究价值。

2、如何梳理文献?

不少作者喜欢在引言中一口气把所有相关的文献都罗列出来,认为这就叫文献梳理。但是,把所有相关文献罗列出来肯定会占据了论文的篇幅,会导致宣兵夺主的论文结构。文献罗列太多,正文就要腾出篇幅来,结果正文想写下去但发现篇幅越拉越长而不敢深入下去了。这种文献梳理方法是最不可取的。正确的文献梳理方法是:

其一,选择有代表性的文献,即在权威刊物上发表的论文和权威论著,这些论文论著代表了学术发展的基本状况。不能把那些不入流的刊物上的文章都罗列出来。

其二,选择有代表性的作者的论文,也就是权威学者,或者是活跃在学术界的作者的论文、论著。这些论文论著同样也代表了学术发展的基本态势。

其三,选择研究的视角来梳理文献。也会是结合你要研究的视角特别是具体的问题来梳理文献,这样范围就大大缩小,也有利于作者把握文献。

其四,不一定千篇一律地要在引言中进行文献梳理,引言可以对问题的来龙去脉进行适当阐述,在正文撰写的过程中,可以对具体的观点进行文献追述。这种方法要求作者对学术史特别是前人的学术观点十分清楚,对论文的写作已经有娴熟的技术。这就不是一般的新手能够把握的了。

(二)如何使用文献?

在文献的使用上,相当多的作者以为文章有注就是使用了文献。但是,论文究竟使用了什么文献?还有就是所用文献是否与所引用观点具有一致性。在使用文献上有以下几种错误倾向:

1、为文献而文献,也即是在文献上凑数。用一大堆文献来吓唬读者,显示作者是看阅读了大量文献的,但仔细看后,会发现文献与论文的观点关联度不高。实际上就是假文献。一般的审读者可能不会认真看文献,但作为编者,特别是主编第一眼就是要把我好文献关,决不能让作者在文献上鱼目混珠。

2、文献与所引用的观点属于张冠李戴,引用的观点本来是张三的,但作者因有惰性不愿意去查对,只是在二手文献中看到了李四用了该观点,于是就以为这个观点就是李四的。这种情况非常严重。

3、绝大多数是自引文献,完全回避其他学者的研究。这种情形体现作者的是自傲,以为这个问题没有人超过自己,因此不愿意引用他人的观点。甚至为了突出自己,把自己在非常不起眼的刊物、报纸上发表的小文章都自引出来。这种情形表明作者有沽名钓誉之心。

因此,使用文献是不能有任何投机取巧的方法上的,必须老老实实。使用文献体现了一个学者治学是否严谨,研究是否下功夫。因此,使用文献时:

1、切忌文献堆砌,使用文献的价值在于体现论文的研究深度和严谨性,而不是通过堆砌文献了炫耀自己的专业知识多么广博。如果是这样,结果可能是适得其反。

2、切勿张冠李戴,一定要去查找文献的源头,如果是经典著作的文献,就更加需要去阅读和查对。比方说,马克思、恩格斯的著作是合在一起的,但有的作者没有去读他们的著作,而是从别人的引用中直接就引过来。同时由于没有弄清楚究竟是马克思的观点还是恩格斯的观点,可能会弄错了。这样就成为学术笑话了。切记要查阅文献,不可“人云亦云”。尤其是外国文献有的作者不愿意阅读,而别人引用之后,自己在没有阅读的情形下而引用了,甚至还想用外文形式来冒充。这在学术界是有公案的。张冠李戴还有一种情形就是引用观点时是一个学者,但注释文献时却是另一名学者。这表明,作者根本没有读过背阴观点的学者,而是从注释文献归属作者的论文中看到了这句话,同时又不愿意花时间去查对,所以也是一种张冠李戴的情形。

3、切勿用网络文献、报纸文献。学术的浮躁与否,学术的严谨与否,从文献的使用上一看就清清楚楚。如果通篇文章的文献都是网络文献或者是报纸文献,这样的论文无论如何都是不深入的。有的作者会说,网络文献、报纸文献表明论文时最新的观点。但是,网络文献和报纸文献并非是学术观点,也并非是经过严格论争的学术观点。或者说,这样的观点没有学术底蕴。因而,这些文献不能支撑一篇学术论文。当然,网络文献、报纸文献是否就不能用了呢?那也未必。有的数据必须通过网络来发布,如一些统计机构的统计数据,调查数据等都是从网络上发布的。简而言之,权威机构的网站、权威学术机构的学术网站、国际知名的研究机构网站等,这些网络文献完全可以用。

4、切勿想当然地使用文献,包括弄错出版时间、引用内容错误、页码错误、作者和译者错误等。这些会导致论文出现严重的硬伤。

三、论证的逻辑

研究是一个论证的过程,论证是一个严密的逻辑思维过程。这个过程应该是然而,当前众多的论文缺乏这种思维,大多数用发散性思维来写论文的,因而论文就缺乏深度。论争的逻辑体现在一下几个方面:

1、层次感,而不是平面感

好的论证逻辑一定是立体的、有层次感的,而不是平面性。世界是平的,这只是一种臆想,论文的论证逻辑是立体感的,这是一个刚性的现实要求,而不是臆想。好的论证逻辑就像博洋葱,一层一层拨到中心,最后才知道洋葱中心究竟是什么。而平面性的论证逻辑缺乏新奇感,就像摊大饼,一开始就知道大饼中是什么内容了,所以这样的论证不会给人遐想,也不会带来新奇。好的论文,同样要给读者带来出人意料的结果。

2、缜密性,而不是一盘散沙

论证真缜密性体现的是作者的思维能力,也体现作者对专业知识掌握的程度。专业基础扎实的,其逻辑思维能力肯定要强。相反,没有扎实的专业根基,那么其论证肯定是碎片化的。因为,他掌握的专业知识本身就是碎片化的。碎片化的专业知识,只能导致碎片化的论证逻辑。有不少学者,虽然在学术界也有一定的知名度了,但专业基础并不扎实,所以在撰写论文时,基本上就是用1、2、3、4……进行罗列,而缺乏缜密的逻辑推理和逻辑证明。这种状况可能还不是几个人,而是一代人的问题。因为,中国又一代学人是在文革中成长起来的,读书不多,且能有经过专业的训练,缺乏专业素养,但通过自己的努力也的确跻身于知名学者之列,但这种缺陷他本人根本就没有办法弥补。所以,这一代人基本上是在碎片化的知识结构中提出一些碎片化的观点,而不可能成为治学严谨、有深厚学术底蕴的学者、思想者。

3、科学性,而不是宣传性

学术研究无疑是一个求真的过程,这一过程需要通过大量的事实或史料经过逻辑论证之后才能得出结论。正是这样,学术才具有真理性和科学性。然而,当今的学术研究越来越缺乏这样的精神,做历史研究的不愿泡图书馆、档案馆,做现实研究的不愿做田野调查,用的是二手材料和二手数据,并且先预设一个价值立场,用这些材料和数据来证明这个预设的立场或观点。殊不知,同样的材料和数据可以证实完全相反的两种观点。这样,学术研究因没有按照学术规范而导致学术失去了科学性和真理性。反过来,预设一个观点,可以毫不费力地找到相应的材料和数据来证明这个观点,这同样也会导致难以找到学术的真理。这两种情况都会造成对学术的伤害,即任何人都可以从事学术研究,学术也就从根本上丧失了其尊严,也无所谓学术权威可言。正确的方法是在阅读了大量文献之后而形成新的观点,然后再回到材料通过更多的材料来证明你的观点的科学性。

预设观点然后来找材料这是宣传的基本方法。当前学术的科学性越来越被宣传性所取代,原因在于:一是当今行政干预学术的现象非常严重,学术质量(评奖)、学术水平(各种学术称号)、学术考核等都是行政领导来评价的,在这种情况下,甚至行政级别与学术水平成正比。在行政干预之下,学术就越来越多地为行政服务,从而使学术成为政治的附属品,为政治宣传服务。二是一些学者为了尽快地提升自己的行政级别而不断做政治宣传的“学问”,学理性的研究被束之高阁,应景性的宣传文章则一挥而就,但往往是正确的空话、无用的废话。三是宣传性的“研究”比真正意义的学术研究容易出成果,而且也轻松。看积分报纸,浏览几个主流网站的文章,就马上形成了自己的一篇文章。而且,只要政治正确,这类文章不愁没有地方发表。学术界的浮躁也就可想而知。

4、学理性,而不是口语化

学术论文肯定是学术性很强的,它必须要超越日常生活的口语化表达。口语强调是能让读者听得懂,所以具有随意性。而学术论文并不是要大众听得懂,而是要有专业背景的人才能听得懂。如果都能听得懂,那就不是学术论文了,那就是日常的讲话了。有一种观点在嘲笑,学者的论文时在自娱自乐,别人都看不懂,这种论文对社会根本就没有用。我觉得这种观点实在是肤浅可笑。学术论文都听得懂、看得懂,那就不叫专业学术论文了,学术论文肯定只有专业人士才能看得懂;而且学术论文传承的不是一般的文化,而是一个民族的核心文化,这种文化是民族发展最大的精神动力和智力支持。它的影响是战略性的,而不是当前的普罗大众能不能看得懂和听得明。当然,学术的思想肯定要进行大众传播,这时候就需要用通俗的口语化方式来跟大众交流。

5、严谨性,而不是随意性

学术研究是一个求真的过程,因而需要研究者必须在论文写作中要有严谨的态度。当前学术的浮躁特别是科研管理部门要求快出成果,从而助长了学术上的各种不端行为。例如,一是随意使用数据。学术论文在使用数据时一定要是权威性的数据,也就是权威机构发布的数据。然而,由于当前数据发布的机构比较多,一些作者在选取数据时太随意,不去研究一下机构本身的权威性,结果所用的数据被学界所质疑。有的甚至因找不到数据的来源而随意改动数据,导致数据时去了真实性。包括所用材料和文献也是一样,近年来,外国著作引进翻译太多,翻译也太随意,甚至译著中曲解了原著的意思的都有,但作者在使用这些翻译著作时没有认真挑选,手中有什么就是用什么,结果把错误的文献内容引入自己的论文中,导致论文出现一些硬伤。此外,研究的严谨性还可以从使用文献中体现出来。有的丛书文献出版时间是不一样的,而引者可能会想当然地就整套丛书都是同一出版时间,这也是论文的严重硬伤。如《邓小平文选》(1-3卷)其出版的时间是不一样的。关于调查的可靠性在于,调查的手段是否可行,抽样的方法,以及统计的方法等。

6、围绕核心问题展开论证,而不是学术散文天马行空

学术论文肯定有一个核心观点,因而在论证过程中就必须是围绕这个核心观点展开,所有的材料的目标都是指向这个核心观点的,而不是从核心观点延伸出去。一旦延伸出去就有可能偏离主题。然而,现在不少作者完全是为了凑字数,为了这个目的,论文的关键词非常多,几乎是每一小节讲述一个关键词,整篇论文很有可能是一个拼盘,而不是在一个关键词或者一个核心观点统领之下的论文。结果,篇幅很长,但不知所云,完全是如脱缰的野马,怎么也拉不回来。这样的文章之可以说是学术散文,而不是学术论文。

四、论文的修改与查证

文章不厌百回改。这是研究的一种态度。如今大多数人不愿意修改,也不愿意查证文献和材料。这显然缺乏对学术研究的认真和严谨性。

作者自己修改文章的要求:

其一、对文章的总体结构在进行斟酌。主要是看是否在结构上存在着不合理的现象,如虎头蛇尾;或者是结构上的不相称性(把没有直接关系的两个问题放在一起来讨论)。

其二,对文章的逻辑进行梳理,看是否存在逻辑上的不连贯性。

其三,对文句进行斟酌,看表达是否存在问题

其四,对文献进行查证,是否存在着文献的错误

其五,对数据进行核对,看是否存在数据的错误

其六,对注释进行核对,看是否存在差错

如何对待编辑部的修改意见

其一,在正常情况下,编辑部提修改意见就意味着此文有可能经过修改后达到发表的水平。而没有任何新意的情形下和没有人脉的情况下,编辑部不会对没有任何新意的文章提修改意见。

其二,编辑部看问题一般视野要宽一些,看问题的视角要大一些,提出修改意见,作者尽可能满足编辑部的要求

其三,如果编辑部的修改意见确实不妥,作者可以回信阐述自己的观点,编辑部认为说的有道理的话,一般也会尊重作者。

其四,不要以为编辑部可以刁难,多次的来往只能回使论文跟家完善,而不是在修改多次后否定作者的文章。即便有的修改时多余的,编辑部也会反复推敲的。

五、论文的结尾

论文的结尾既是整篇论文的点睛之处,也是揭示学术在未来研究的发展趋势。因而,结尾一定要有气势,气势磅礴的结尾,往往能够凸显论文的整体品质。从当前的学术论文来看,结尾主要有以下几种问题:

其一,论文根本就没有结尾,当论证完毕后,论文就嘎然而止。这是典型的虎头蛇尾。

其二,没有对前面的研究进行总结,而是离开前面的研究谈体会,因而没有体现结束语的作用。

其三,对前面的研究泛泛而谈,没有集中到观点上来,从而显得太平淡。

其四,太简单,有结尾与没有结尾没有什么区别,这样的结尾就没有意义。

那么,什么样的结尾才是好的结尾呢?我认为至少要体现一下几个方面:

一是要能够从宏观上对论文进行观点性的总结。前面主要是论证,证实或者证伪,但尚未突出自己的观点,所以必须要有一个结尾来提炼作者的观点,使读者更清楚作者的观点。

二是要有大气磅礴之势,有行云流水之气。前面的论证是一个小心求证的过程,不能展示作者的文笔,但在结尾部分,可以放开手脚,解放思想;可以充分展示作者的文采来归纳和抽象论文的要义。

三是结尾除了归纳观点外,也可以对该问题研究的发展趋势进行科学的预测,以及对该问题的进一步思考。

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篇15:2024高考英语写作素材精选:冬至习俗

全文共 1325 字

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Winter solstice is the earliest Chinese festival, call it yesterday, as early as the han dynasty had formed when we are familiar with todays twenty-four solar terms. Twenty-four solar terms, every 15 days for a throttle, a throttle is divided into three. As the winter solstice is divided into "hou earthworms knot; 2 hou elk horn, three HouShuiQuan move." Are the ancients from traditional agricultural production routine. Fade as the farming civilization, modern agriculture is affected by season is not very big, such as the vegetables all the year round in the greenhouses, traditional throttle effect on guidance and restriction of agricultural farming is also a little bit fade.

People now pay more attention to the throttle keeping in good health, in winter it was the season of supplements. After spring, summer, autumn three season, the body organs need to enter a state of rest during the winter, physical consumption in winter supplements in the past. Left the teacher said, so also have "winter signings, dozen tiger next year" the proverb.

冬至是中国最早的节日,称之为冬节,早在汉代时候已经形成了我们今天熟悉的二十四节气。二十四节气,每十五天为一个节气,一个节气分为三候。如冬至分为“一候蚯蚓结;二候麋角解,三候水泉动。”都是以古人从传统农业生产生活规律中总结出来的。随着农耕文明逐渐消退,现代农业受季节的影响不是很大,比如大棚里的菜一年四季都可以吃到,传统节气对农业种田的辅导和制约作用也在一点点消退。

现在的人们更多关注的是节气养生,冬季也是进补的季节。经历春夏秋三季后,身体各个器官在冬季需要进入休息的状态,过去身体上的消耗在冬天进补。左老师说,因此也有“冬季进补,来年打虎”的俗语。

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篇16:关于论文写作基础知识

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选题是论文写作基础,是确定自己研究的课题将要解决什么问题的基础,小编收集了关于论文写作基础知识,欢迎阅读。

一、选题 1、选题的意义——选题是论文写作的基础,是确定自己研究的课题将要解决什么问题的基础,需要明确研究目标和研究范围。选题确定的早,就等于早给自己明确研究的任务和方向赢得了研究时间。 2、选题的原则 (1)适宜性原则——选题要根据的主观条件,选择自己专业范围内的、难易适中、大小适宜的课题。 (2)创新性原则——选题应判断课题是否具有学术价值,是否是本学科研究领域的“前沿课题”,是否填补了本学科或研究领域的一项空白。 (3)价值性原则——是指选题是否有学术价值、科学价值。 (4)把握性原则——选题应该建立在自己最擅长的学科上,这样对所需要研究的问题才会有更深刻的认识。如果脱离所学专业,对自己研究的论题没有把握,就不能充分发挥自己的才能写好论文。 3、选题的途径 (1)自主选题——通过自己的努力,发现有价值的课题,或根据自己的需要选择研究课题。 (2)借鉴选题——即被动选题,就是借鉴外界因素获得适合自己的选题。 4、选题的方法 选题的方法多种多样,因人而异,因专业方向而已,很难概括,但常用的有以下四种: (1)综合寻找法——就是对自己所占有的材料广泛阅读,对已有课题进行综合选择,寻找出有研究价值的一种方法。 (2)主观设定法——就是先有主观设定,然后沿着一定的方向,查阅文献资料,并进行必要的调查验证,证明自己的选题价值。

2 (3)借鉴深入法——广泛地研究、分析各种成功的课题,对他人已经研究的有关论题进行反复咀嚼,看看还有哪些问题值得继续深入研究,从而确立研究课题的一种方法。 (4)实践总结法——从自己的实践中发现有研究价值的论题,把自己掌握的理论知识应用在解决现实问题的研究中。 二、资料的搜集与梳理 1、搜集资料的意义——选题一旦确定下来,很重要的一个工作就是搜集和积累资料。它们是写好论文的基础。有人初步统计过,一个研究者在科研项目中的时间分配是:搜集材料时间占50.9%,思考计划占30%,撰写论文只占19.1%。因为资料是创造的源泉,是形成论文观点和表达主题的基础。撰写论文需要摆事实、讲道理,事实即材料。 2、搜集资料的方法 (1)确定方向——确定好搜集的方向,才不会将自己置身于资料的“汪洋大海”里,以至于淹没在一大堆与论题无关的资料中。 (2)文献检索——是指从储放文献资料的库房里找出自己所需要的文献资料的操作过程和方法。 3、资料的梳理 (1)阅读资料 (2)分类组合 (3)选择资料 三、撰写提纲 1、撰写提纲的意义 (1)明晰构思 (2)贯通文脉 2、提纲的基本内容 (1)标题(题目) (2)中心论点 (3)分论点 (4)层次段落与所用的资料

33、提纲的常见形式 (1)简略提纲 (2)详细提纲 四、论文的写作 1、写作格式 (1)标题 (2)署名 (3)摘要——摘要是对论文研究方法和研究成果的客观表述,是论文的缩影,文字要简练、明确、不加注释,不做评论,一般在300字左右。摘要既要写得短而精,又能包含与论文等量的主要信息。 (4)关键词——是从论文中选出来的,最能体现文章内容特征、意义和价值的单词或术语。一般是3——6个。写在“摘要”之下,词与词之间用分号隔开。 (5)主题部分 A、引言 B、正文 C、结论 D、致谢 E、参考文献 a[序号]→作者.→资料名称[资料类型] →出版社,出版时间. b参考文献类型及其标识 专著[M] 论文集[C] 报纸文章[N] 期刊文章[J] 学位论文[D] 报告[R] 标准[S] 专利[P] 其它标注法

4 期刊:著者.题名[J] .刊名,出版年,卷号(期号):起止页码 著作:著者. 书名[M].版次(初版不写).译者(指译著,所有译者全列).出版地:出版者,出版年.起止页码. 报纸:著者.题名[N].报纸名,年月日(版次) 论文集:著者.题名[A].见(英文用In):编者姓名.论文集名 F、注释 直接应用——使用双引号,上标参考文献序号和页码。例如“„”[1] (P23)或“„” [2](P15-20) 间接引用——不使用双引号,但要上标文献序号和页码。例如„[1](P86)或„[3](P45-48

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篇17:小学英语字母和写作的学习方法

全文共 2142 字

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英语字母教学作为英语学习的基础,是小学英语教学中重要一环,这一阶段的教学,教师应给予足够的重视,通过各种教学组织形式使这一阶段的学习得以很好的落实。学好26个字母对以后单词的学习起着至关重要的作用。因此,在学习字母阶段,我们要利用一切可利用的资源,创设情境,让学生和字母交朋友、做游戏。

一、字母读音教学

1. 注重示范发音的正确性

字母发音直接影响着学生单词的发音,而且学生错误的发音一旦形成就很难再纠正。因此教师在教学字母之前一定要多听录音,纠正好自己的发音。在课堂教学中教师要让学生听磁带跟读,观察他们的口形,并鼓励模仿得好的学生示范领读,帮助其他同学纠正发音。

2. 把握学生的发音难点

受各地方方言的影响,学生对字母的发音往往会出错。比如:南方人容易把A读成/e/。因此,教师要把握好学生方言发音难点,预先采取各种教学方法防止错误发音的出现。

3. 强化个别字母教学

尽管许多学生对字母有了一定程度的掌握,但大多数学生都没有进行过系统的字母学习,中间难免存在着许多似是而非的现象。例如学生对GgJj两个字母的读音容易混淆,对Uu和Ii这两个字母的发音不到位。教师在教学中应针对这种情况加强这几个字母的训练。

4. 注重读音归类教学

把字母按读音进行分类是字母读音教学的一个重要任务,也是学生觉得有一定难度的一项内容。为了使学生能更好得掌握,教师可采用分家游戏的方法,按家族将26个字母进行分类记忆。首先将字母划分为七个家族,再对号入座,最终编成一首音素家族chant 帮助学生记忆:

A、H、J、K 是A 家族,A,A是族长。

E的家族有八位,BCDE,GPTV,E,E是族长。

/e/ 的家族没有族长,它的成员有七位,FLMN,SX 和Z。

U 的家族有三位,UQW,U,U是族长。

I 的家族有两位,IY,I,I是族长。(手势指着自己)

R 和O单独住,它们自己是族长。

5. 注重语音暗线的铺垫

在三年级下册学生用书中,字母读音和字母例词的安排是一条语音暗线,教师教学时要努力让学生掌握字母的正确读音,并初步感知字母在例词中的读音,为以后学习语音奠定基础。比如讲到字母Ee时,例词是egg,elepghant,教师可突出字母E的发音。英语有48个国际音标,如果学生能在学习 26个字母的同时掌握与此相关的26个音素,将会为以后的语音学习打好基础。

二、字母书写教学

字母的书写过程要一步步进行:先观察性状,再观察笔顺、占格情况,然后书空,使用活动手册进行描红,最后达到仿写。

1. 字母认读的教学

字母的书写首先要求学生能正确区分一些形近的字母。有些字母可以通过猜谜的方法让学生记住它们的形状特点。例如:弯弯的月牙(C)、一条小蛇 (S)、三叉路口(T)、1加3(B)、一座宝塔(A)、胜利的象征(V)、大号鱼钩(J)、一张弓(D)、一扇小门(n)、一棵小苗(r)、一把椅子 (h)。这些谜语既能让学生记住字母的形,又能激发学生的学习兴趣。同时,还可以让学生自编谜语学习字母,充分发挥学生的想象能力。另外,还可以将字母的一部份遮住,让学生根据漏出来部分来猜字母。

2. 字母书写的教学

字母的书写是小学生的一个薄弱环节。小学的英语书写一定要求学生做到严格遵照书写规范,教师绝对不能马虎。因为英语字母有印刷体和书写体之分,所以容易使学生在书写时发生混淆,教师在教学时应多在这方面进行强调。

(1)笔顺教学

教师要充分利用多媒体设施让学生仔细观察字母的笔画和笔顺。正确的笔顺在活动手册的描红练习中有正确的示范。但有时学生会受到汉语拼音笔顺的影响,错误书写字母,因此教师要对容易出错的笔顺进行比较细致的指导。如i和j都是后加点,t先写钩,H先两竖等。建议教师不妨采用汉语拼音的教法,使用一些形象的比喻,帮助学生理解记忆书写规则,防止笔画出错。比如:H是一双筷子拴根线,j是海豹顶皮球,i是小海狮头上顶个球,t是伞把带开关等。

(2)格式教学

字母的占格同样是字母书写教学中的一个教学难点,尤其是当字母的大小写混在一起的时候,学生很容易混淆。这样,教师要先清楚示范,提醒学生注意并总结字母占格的规律。同时,教师还可以借助儿歌帮助学生掌握字母的占格规律。如:英语书写,四线三格,大写字母一二格,上不顶线是原则;小写字母认准格,上面有 ‘辫’一二格,下面有‘尾’二三格,无‘辫’无‘尾’中间格;i,t中上一格半。在学生掌握了字母的占格规律后,还要通过活动手册上的描红来加强练习。这里要注意的是,到一定阶段的时候,教师要让学生能在没有四线格的一条线上,甚至是没有任何线的白纸上也能正确地表示出字母的书写格式。

三、操练

字母操练我们还可以采用游戏的形式。

1. What’s missing?游戏

学了几个字母以后,把字母卡片放在一起让学生认读,然后抽去其中的一张,让学生寻找:What’s missing?此时,学生注意力高度集中,急于表现自己,识记的效果就会很好。

2. 左邻右舍游戏

学生准备好已经学过的字母卡片,教师出示一个字母,让学生找出它的左邻右舍,请找到的几个学生快速把字母拿到讲台上站在相应的位置上,其余的学生一起认读这几个字母。

3. Make letters游戏

让学生用肢体动作表示不同的字母,或让学生用火柴棒拼出不同字母的形状。

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篇18:略谈提高英语写作能力的方法

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书面表达是英语写作的重要组成部分,有不少学生觉得用英语写作很难,不知从何练起。笔者教学实践发现,首先要具备扎实的基础知识,抓住课本教学来培养学生的写作能力,立足教材,由易到难,由浅入深,采取多种形式来加强书面表达训练,这样英语写作水平才能得到提高

一是通过词汇教学训练写作能力。要写好文章不是一朝一夕就能达到的,必须从最基础的词汇入手。教学中,教师要注意加强词汇方面的训练,力求给学生交代清楚每一个词语的具体用法。对一些重点的、核心的词汇讲清,讲透每个词语的单独用法和搭配用法。为了更有效地与课本结合起来,每学完一个单元,根据本单元的单词、短语造句,举一反三,帮助学生扩大词汇量,使学生词不离句,强化写作训练。

二是通过一句多译练习训练写作能力。就七年级学生而言,他们虽然接触英语学习时间不长,但教师还是要注重引导学生多做一些一句多译练习,这样有助于启发学生的写作思路。考试时选择自己有把握的句子灵活地表达同一内容,减少失误,提高得分率。通过做汉译英练习,暴露出学生受母语影响的问题,对这些问题我及时进行讲评和纠正。这样,有利于培养和规范学生的英语表达能力。

三是结合课文进行各种体裁的写作训练。目前,信息来源的渠道多种多样,学生课文中有记叙、日记、通知、便条、书信、广告和说明等多种体裁,文中还有大量的插图,教师可利用图片让学生进行看图写作。要学好英语写作就必须从课文练起,从一些常见的文体练起,由短到长,由浅入深,循序渐进地进行。

四是通过背诵训练写作。培养学生的英语写作能力,以课文为中心训练写作能力非常重要,因为课文中的句子就是规范的英语范文。因此,每学完一篇课文或对话,教师就要要求学生背诵,然后默写。这样使学生把词语放在句型、段落、篇章中去理解、记忆和体味,以至于能够仿写、改写。

五是通过仿写和改写训练写作能力。仿写也是提高英语写作能力行之有效的方法,模仿写作中,格式、构思、表达方式等方面都可模仿。但要提醒学生注意灵活变通,语句要通顺,符合英语表达习惯。仿写前要从时态,句型,内容选材等方面对学生加以辅导,指导学生怎样模仿,特别提醒学生注意时态。

另外,改写也是一种很好的方法,改写就是对文章材料的文体、式样、句式等进行改编的一种训练方式。无论是改人称、改时态,还是改对话材料为叙述文字,这都有助于学生复习巩固所学知识,又能培养学生所学知识的迁移运用能力,还能起到提高学生的写作能力。

总之,要提高学生的英语写作能力,就要培养学生养成良好的学习习惯。即:重视词、短语、造句,优秀的对话和课文要背诵,多做翻译练习,练习改写和仿写,结合课文进行各种体裁的写作训练。只有坚持不懈,持之以恒,才能写出准确、地道、规范的英语文章。

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篇19:小升初英语写作注意事项:最易忽视的写作细节

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一、构思、准备不充分,匆忙下笔

任何一篇作文出题都是有它独特的道理的,所以提前审题和构思就显得必不可少了。很多孩子目前存在一个情况,想到哪写到哪,有记流水帐的习惯;这也造成了作文杂乱无章,毫无条理,同时容易出现写错单词和用错句型的情况。

针对这种情况可以从以下几个方面予以解决:

1、认真审题,审题的重点放在写作体裁、格式、字数方面,确保第一遍审题就能保证得到基本分。

2、确定文体和时态,因为不同的文体要求的写作格式也是不同的。

3、列提纲,打草稿,然后修改。这样可以保证错误降低至最少或者没有错误,同时也能保持卷面整洁。

二、中心重点不突出,切题不准确

英语写作不是语文散文(形散神不散),写英语作文,尤其是在中考大压力下短时内写出高分作文一定要注意这一点。造成这种情况的主要原因是动笔前并没有认真审题和思考,对出题者希望得到的预期尚未揣摩透彻,这也就造成了一些同学虽然语言功底非常不错,但是最终的结果还是没有拿到一个自己预期的心理分数,最大的问题就出在切题不准确或者不够突出中心上了。

三、忽视文化差异

我们要时刻牢记一点,中英文表达方式有很大的差异,所以体现在作文表达上也常常会出现生硬的中国式作文表达,降低了我们的作文质量。所以注重中英语言差异,并努力找到两者之间的表达方式上的共通点,并且有意识的运用就能避免类似的问题。

四、忽视细节,无谓失分

很多孩子在写作文时常常感觉"下笔如有神",但最终结果出来后大惑不解。这方面的问题主要体现在忽视标点、书写、段落安排、大小写的问题,所以只要更加注重细节,这些无谓失分就可以解决。

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篇20:2024英语写作指导:英语作文万能开头

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下面是由语文迷网整理的三类英语作文开头句型,希望对你有帮助。

一、常规开头句型

1.As far as …is concerned 就……而言

2.It goes without saying that… 不言而喻,…

3.It can be said with certainty that… 可以肯定地说……

4.As the proverb says, 正如谚语所说的,

5.It has to be noticed that… 它必须注意到,…

6.Its generally recognized that… 它普遍认为…

7.Its likely that … 这可能是因为…

8.Its hardly that… 这是很难的……

9.Its hardly too much to say that… 它几乎没有太多的说…

10.What calls for special attention is that…需要特别注意的是

11.Theres no denying the fact that…毫无疑问,无可否认

12.Nothing is more important than the fact that… 没有什么比这更重要的是…

13.whats far more important is that… 更重要的是…

二、四级引出开头

1:It is well-known to us that……(我们都知道……)==As far as my knowledge is concerned, …( 就我所知…)

2:Recently the problem of…… has been brought into focus. ==Nowadays there is a growing concern over ……(最近……问题引起了关注)

3:Nowadays(overpopulation)has become a problem we have to face.(现今,人口过剩已成为我们不得不面对的问题)

4:Internet has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life. It has brought a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.(互联网已在我们的生活扮演着越来越重要的角色,它给我们带来了许多好处但也产生了一些严重的问题)

5:With the rapid development of science and technology,more and more people believe that……(随着科技的迅速发展,越来越多的人认为……)

6:It is a common belief that……==It is commonly believed that……(人们一般认为……)

7:A lot of people seem to think that……(很多人似乎认为……)

8:It is universally acknowledged that + 句子(全世界都知道...)

三、高考英语引出开头

Recently, the problem of … has aroused peoples concern. 最近,……问题已引起人们的关注.

The Internet has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life. It has brought a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.

互联网已在我们的生活中扮演着越来越重要的角色.它给我们带来了许多好处,但也产生了一些严重的问题.

Nowadays, (overpopulation) has become a problem we have to face.

如今,(人口过剩)已成为我们不得不面对的问题了.

It is commonly believed that … / It is a common belief that … 人们一般认为……

Many people insist that … 很多人坚持认为……

With the development of science and technology, more and more people believe that…

随着科技的发展,越来越多的人认为……

A lot of people seem to think that … 很多人似乎认为……

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