关于英语说明文的写作方法(合集20篇)

在日常生活中我们通常会用口头或者电话方式邀请别人做客，但是如果遇到比较正式的场合，例如商业聚会、正式晚餐或婚礼等场合，就需要我们发送正式的书面邀请函了。

无论您要举行什么样的正式聚会，在书写邀请函时应注意包含以下几点：

names of party hosts or sponsoring organization. 聚会主人或主办单位

type of event (birthday party, business networking meeting, etc.). 聚会活动

place. 地点

date. 日期

time. 时间

rsvp date and phone number. 回复日期及联系电话

any special dress requirements from black-tie to bathing suits. 聚会着装要求

邀请函样本

尊敬的_______先生(女士)

我公司主要生产____ ____ ____等产品,现特邀请您到我公司生产车间及总部参观洽谈业务,望您在百忙之中抽空给予指导,我公司全体员工竭诚欢迎您的到来!

此致

敬礼!

_______公司 呈上

邀请函范文

同学聚会邀请函范文：

亲爱的老同学:

你们好!

光阴荏苒,岁月如梭，转眼间，我们从xx中学认识已是二十三年。

二十三年后的今天，我们已不再是豆蔻年华，不再青春年少。二十三年的梦里醒来，才惊觉：最难以忘怀和割舍不掉的依旧是那份同学情，这份情谊如同一坛老酒，越久就越香越浓，悠远而回味无穷;社中三年发生的故事，沉淀二十来年，依然让人感动，需要我们用一生去回忆、去收藏。

亲爱的同学们，来吧!让我们暂时抛开一切，远离尘世的喧嚣，相聚我们可爱的家乡——xx，共饮这坛收藏了二十年的美酒，忘却忧虑让心栖息;来吧!让我们一起重温青春的梦想，回归天真烂漫的赤子之心，找回我们渐行渐远的青春!相聚二十年，我们共期盼!记住，开心不是唯一的主题，同学情深，千万别忘了。

我们想：这样难得的欢聚，会因你的缺席而黯然失色，更令我们黯然神伤。盼望您早作安排，如期赴约。并请尽快给予回复。

祝您及全家身体健康，万事如意!并祝同学聚会圆满成功!

导语：环境描写包括社会环境的描写和自然环境的描写。下面我们来说说怎么通过展现环境去烘托人物。

社会环境即指人物活动、事件发生发展的社会背景，时代特征，社会风貌等，一 人都生活在一定范围内，身边的亊身边的人、特定的环境、特定的背贵，会对人造成不 同的影响。在刻_人物时，如采把这些社会环境交代清楚，就能够展示出人物生活的特定 社会背景，揭示出人物活动的特定历史背景。

自然环境是人物活动的时间、地点、时令气候、地理风貌等。自然环境描写是$章的 有机组成部分。在写人的作文中，自然环境的描写是作为人物活动的背贵存在的，它可以 制造气氛，衬托人物的悄趣、心境，表现人物的心理活动，从而更好地突出主题思想。好 的自然环境的描写往往离情于最，情诰交融，随人写景，为人取设，人、贺融为一体，为 塑造人物形象、刻_人物性格更好地服务。

人教版九年级语文上册《孤独之旅》中就有大量的环境描写，而且逛出色的环境描写， 它为人物成长提供了一个广阔的背景：芦荡如绿色的浪潮直涌到天边，无边无际，给人以 极大的心理压力，让杜小康宵怕、胆怯。当杜小康习惯了孤独的生活，洱面对这浩浩荡满 的芦苇吋，就不再恐慌了。

在写人的文章中，运用晋物描写的目的是为更好地塑造人物，表现主题。丨对此’写作时要根据内容的猫要，有选择地进行环境描写。不能见到什么写什么，觅不能脱离中心大 段大段地写景。这种漫无目的的盲目写景，不会使文京增加文采，反而会界巧成拙，成为累赘，破坏了文竞的连贯性。除了明确目的外，在写贵时还应该注意一些问题：首先要选 择好观察的角度。角度就是指观察者站在一个固定的位置上朝一定方向观望，看到的设物 就是自己应该描写的部分，观察角度一定要选好，由此决定描写贵物的正面还是侧面，全 景还是部分景。其次还要注意描写的顺序。或者按照设物本身的空间顺序，从上而下，从 下而上;或者按照观察者的移动顺序，移步换景;或者按照景物本身的变化进行描写。这 样文章层次分明，脉络淸晰、最后注意，平时应善于观察，观察不同季节、不同地点、不 同时间的景物，抓住其特征。在此骓础上，写出来的贵物才会逼真、感人。

1、记“成功”之举

将教学过程中达到预先设计的目的、引起教学共振效应的做法；课堂教学中临时应变得当的措施；层次清楚、条理分明的板书；某些教学思想方法的渗透与应用的过程；教育学、心理学中一些基本原理使用的感触；教学方法上的改革与创新等等，详细得当地记录下来，供以后教学时参考使用，并可在此基础上不断地改进、完善、推陈出新。

2、记“败笔”之处

即使是成功的课堂教学也难免有疏漏失误之处，对它们进行回顾、梳理，并对其作深刻的反思、探究和剖析，使之成为以后再教时应吸取的教训。

3、记教学机智

课堂教学中，随着教学内容的展开，师生的思维发展及情感交流的融洽，往往会因为一些偶发事件而产生瞬间灵感，这些“智慧的火花”常常是不由自主、突然而至，若不及时利用课后反思去捕捉，便会因时过境迁而烟消云散，令人遗憾不已。

4、记学生见解

在课堂教学过程中，学生是学习的主体，他们总会有“创新的火花”在闪烁，教师应当充分肯定学生在课堂上提出的一些独到的见解，这样不仅使学生的好方法、好思路得以推广，而且对他们也是一种赞赏和激励。同时，这些难能可贵的见解也是对课堂教学的补充与完善，可拓宽教师的教学思路，提高教学水平。因此，将其记录下来，可以作为以后丰富教学的材料养分。

5、记再教设计

一节课下来，静心沉思，摸索出了哪些教学规律；教法上有哪些创新；知识点上有什么发现；组织教学方面有何新招；解题的诸多误区有无突破；启迪是否得当；训练是否到位等等。及时记下这些得失，并进行必要的归类与取舍，考虑一下再教这部分内容时应该如何做，写出“再教设计”，这样可以做到扬长避短、精益求精，把自己的教学水平提高到一个新的境界和高度。总之，写课后反思，贵在及时，贵在坚持，贵在执着地追求。一有所得，及时记下，有话则长，无话则短，以记促思，以思促教，长期积累，必有“集腋成裘、聚沙成塔”的收获。

一、给学生创造发表园地，激发学生习作兴趣

在教学中，我们采用了发表法，即让学生的习作在课堂或墙报上得以“发表”，并经常组织学生参加各类作文竞赛，对于学生的优秀习作推荐给报刊发表。每次习作之后，我们都朗读优秀习作和片断，让学生产生一定的成功感，以激发学生写作文的兴趣，让每个学生都能积极主动地练笔，变“要我写”为“我要写”。

二、加强语言训练，让学生自己感受并积累美的语言

学生并不是有了一定的习作欲望就能把文章写好，而实际情况往往是这样：学生胸中有话，胸中有情，却不能用恰当的语言准确表达出来，词是句子的组成单位，句意表达是否正确生动、恰如其分，依赖于词语是否准确。因此，在语文课教学中，我们进行了切实到位的词语训练，使词语的色彩、形象、分寸感一同沉淀于学生脑海中，形成对该词语的强烈感受，这样，当遇到这种情况时，相应的词语便会在脑中凸现，准确表达的词语就会脱口而出。同时，我们还引导学生有感情地朗读课文，进行语感训练。最大限度地发挥其主观能动性，逐步积累语言，提高习作水平。

三、引导学生观察、联想，积累习作素材

学生有了强烈的作文欲望，并有了一定的语言基础，还要适时引导学生积累习作素材。

习作的素材来源于生活，要引导学生细致观察生活的点点滴滴，习作时才有话可说，并且要善于联想：即从眼前看到的事物、出现的景象，想象到曾经见到的、听到的、感受到的另一个事物，取其彼此相似点或相同点，由此及彼，生发开去，进行想象思维的培养。比如，看到园丁在修枝剪叶，就联想到教师的教书育人;由蜜蜂采蜜联想到农民的辛勤劳动……细心观察，善于联想，就会有取之不尽的习作素材。

四、引导学生正确选材

在习作教学中，我们采取步步引导、层层深入的方法，不仅提高了学生的习作水平，而且培养了学生良好的学习习惯和思维品质。

在多年的雅思教学中，我发现学生在实际考试中面临着不同的写作障碍，影响了考试成绩。归纳起来大致有以下几个方面:

一、真情流露，无从下笔；

有的考生在考试时见到作文题，顿感思路塞车，好像有许多话要说，但又不知究竟应从那里写起。明智的做法是“投其所好、尽情发挥。”考生不妨把作文的要求量化到每一个段落，一篇250词左右的作文一般不会超过15句话，把这15句话根据题目要求分配到各段中去，每一段大概只说那么几句话，事实上往往是说得越多错误越多。因此，每句话紧扣提纲，见好就收,这才是最稳妥的对策。

二、心里明白，难以表达；

在考场上有的考生题目看得懂，提纲也明白，就是不知道该说什么，头脑里一片空白。这是在雅思写作考试中的一种常见的现象，针对这一现象，最有效的办法就是要善于联想到一些具体的事实，具体的例证和具体的现象。事实上，雅思的作文题目一定是一个具有社会普遍型话题，其目的是让不同教育背景的考生都有话可说。因此，考生一定能就题目联想起具体细小的事情再形成观点。把看得见摸得着的事物带来的思考变成作文里的实质内容，这不失为一种很好的策略。

因此，当头脑出现空白时，应该由具体细小的、琐碎的、微不足道的事物所引发的思考形成观点，再进行论述。这种定式思维的形成需要多下功夫多练习。

三、一味追求标新立异，导致无从下笔；

考试时通常发现有的考生聚精会神的坐在那里冥思苦想，非要想出一个与众不同的观点。陷入这种境地的考生，显然犯了一个根本性的错误，参考时间为40分钟的作文，一般应在35分钟之内完成,再用几分钟的时间检查语言错误。可有的考生十几分钟一句话都写不了，就是因为他太进入角色了，这是考试中一个很大的误区。

考作文的目的纯粹是通过这一命题形式，考查考生的英语水平如何。命题人关注的是书面表达能力，而不是看一个人有没有内容，思想有没有深度，所以“一味追求标新立异”是没有必要的。

四、构思、写作不统一，落实有困难；

实事求是的讲，要求考生完全运用英语思维来写作文是不现实的。很多考生在实际写作过程中，脑子里想的是中文句子，然后再把中文句子译成英文。因此采用“得其意，忘其形”的方法，忘掉中文的语法结构，句法形式则可能要整个地打乱.，“钻进去，跳出来”。所谓“钻进去”就是要看意思是否到位了，“跳出来”就是要忘记中文的语言形式。实际上把英文译成中文，关键是要在转换中把意思表达出来。

针对构思、写作不统一，落实有困难情况。必须摒弃翻译中追求一一对应的关系，并机械地把中文译成英文的方法，应该把中文句子结构彻底地忘记，然后用比较简单的“万能”英语表达。平时不妨做一做这样的练习，通过阅读不认识词条的英文注解，然后试着把单词译成中文词，再去对照英汉词典的汉语释义，慢慢地就会开始领会用英语表达的门道了。

五、被动心态压抑新构思。

尽管雅思考试作文为规定式命题，但考生仍可积极主动地发挥。其主动性在于采取回避的策略，表达上采取迂回的方式，即运用不很复杂的语言。内容的取舍上避重就轻地写比较易于表达的内容。很多人在写作过程中从头至尾都处于被动状态，当有内容想要表达清楚的时候，却又发现种种途径都不可能表达好，只好硬着头皮把自己意识到没把握的东西勉强写上去。连自己都意识到可能是错误的东西，只会产生于己不利的负面影响。所以，当有的内容感觉一点找不着，英语实在表达不清楚的时候，就应该彻底地放弃。单词拼写错误也是雅思考试作文写作的一大问题。常用单词是不能拼错的，有的单词平时会拼写，考试时突然没把握了，不妨换一下或许还能想起另外一个难度大一点、拼写有把握的来代替。应该回避明确知道自己不会拼写的词。如果没法换一个词，将句子改换一种说法亦未尝不可。有的考生在考卷上没把握的地方标上问号，或者把两种可能都写上，让判卷老师选择，这个方法是不可取的。

总之，不能让自己陷人被动，想说什么，用什么方式说。说多少，说到什么程度。一切都应由考生主动把握，这样才会减少心理上的压力，更好地发挥出自己应有的写作水平。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

要想写好中考作文，在我看来，无非有以下几点：

1.严谨的布局：

正所谓万事开头难，不过只要开了个好头，这篇作文就会很好写了。

凤头：是文章的首段，是阅卷老师首先入眼的地方，一定要做好整篇文章的中心把握，要做到下文与首段上下连贯，紧密结合，要通过开头使下文有可写之处，开头要达到让阅卷老师耳目一新的效果。例如，巧用排比，比喻，拟人等修辞手法，并且通过这些修辞手法，而统领全文主旨。

猪肚：在一篇上好的文章中，分段都会恰到好处，而当文章中只有一大段或两三段时，这篇文章即使文采再出众，也不会有太高的分数，因为阅卷老师在中考判卷时，每三分钟就要判出一份作文，工作量相当大，如果不善于分段，阅卷老师可能失去耐心，从而看不完，就会草草的给出分数。所以，在我看来，一篇文章至少要分6-8个段，但不是一行或几行一段，而是要看起来像豆腐块，一块块整齐的排列在一起，使文章紧中有松，松弛有度。要看上去整篇文章是一个整体，而不是零散的。

豹尾：在文章的最后处，应当让主题更突出鲜明，升华主题思想，使豹尾抽起来！或让人感到峰回路转，柳暗花明或更进一步的特殊效果。在文章末尾，应当再次点题，紧扣中心思想，让贯穿始终的中心思想继续延伸，引人深思。特别是要在结尾处，与开头形成呼应，对比，递进等等，来引发阅读老师的共鸣！

2.细腻的文笔：不管是记叙，议论还是散文；不管是写人写事还是写景。都要用细腻的文笔呈现出来，使文章中点更突出，让阅卷老师在看试卷的过程中，有深思，放慢阅读速度和重复阅读的情况出现，让阅卷老师身临其境，从而使文章更具灵性。

3.贯穿始终的思想感情：在一篇布局格式上很得当，错落有致的文章上，还必须要有一条贯穿始终的思想路线，这条线就像鱼的脊椎一样重要，这条线一定要清晰，明确，千万不可含混不清。

把握好这几点，一篇好的中考作文已经大致成型，不过要想在中考中脱颖而出，这仅仅是开始。

Actions speak louder than words.

事实胜於雄辩。

Adversity leads to prosperity.

逆境迎向昌盛。

A fall into the pit, a gain in your wit.

吃一堑，长一智。

A friend in need is a friend indeed.

患难朋友才是真朋友。

A friend is a second self.

朋友是另一个我。

A friend is best found in adversity.

患难见真友。

All time is no time when it is past.

光阴一去不复返。

All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy; all play and no work makes Jack a mere boy.

只工作，不玩耍，聪明孩子要变傻；尽玩耍，不学习，聪明孩子没出息。

A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman.

远亲不如近邻。

An idle youth, a needy age.

少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲。

Business before pleasure.

事业在先，享乐在後。

Diligence is near success.

勤奋近乎成功。

Diligence is the mother of good luck.

刻苦是成功之母。

Diligence is the mother of success.

勤奋是成功之母。

Education has for its object the formation of character.

教育的目的在於培养品德。

Every brave man is a man of his word.

勇敢的人都是信守诺言的人。

Every man is the architect of his own fortune.

每个人都是他自己命运的建诛师。

Every man is the master of his own fortune.

每个人都是他自己的命运的主宰。

Failure is the mother of success.

失败是成功之母。

Faith will move mountains.

精诚所至，金石为开。

Friendship ---- one soul in two bodies.

友谊是两人一条心。

Grasp all, lose all.

贪多必失。

He alone is poor who does not possess knowledge.

没有知识，才是贫穷。

Health is above wealth.

健康胜於财富。

Health is better than wealth.

健康胜於财富。

He who does not advance falls backward.

不进则退。

Honesty is the best policy.

诚实是上策。

Hope is life and life is hope.

希望才有人生，人生要有希望。

Idle young, needy old.

少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲。

If you dont aim high you will never hit high.

不立大志，难攀高峰。

I might say that success is won by three things: first, effort; second, more effort; third, still more effort.

成功之道唯三点∶努力、努力、再努力。

Improve your time and your time will improve you.

珍惜时间，时间才会珍惜你。

In doing we learn.

行而知。

Industry if fortunes right hand, and frugality her left.

勤勉是幸福的右手，节俭是幸福的左手。

In lifes earnest battle they only prevail, who daily march onward and never say fail.

在人生的搏斗中，只有日日前进不甘失败的人，才能获胜。

It is dogged (that) does it.

天下无难事，只怕有心人。

Judge not according to the appearance.

不要以貌取人。

Labour is often the father of pleasure.

勤劳常为快乐之源。

Learning without thought is labour lost; thought without learning is perilous.

学而不思则罔，思而不学则殆。

Like tree, like fruit.

有其因必有其果。

Manners make the man.

礼貌造就人。

Never neglect an opportunity for improvement.

抓住大好时机，切莫等闲错过。

Never too old (or late) to learn.

学到老，学不了。

No great loss without some small gain.

塞翁失马，安知非福。

No one can call back yesterday.

往日不复返。

No sooner said than done.

言而必行。

No sweet without some sweat.

不劳则无获。

Nothing is difficult to a man who wills.

世上无难事，只怕有心人。

Nothing is impossible to willing mind (or heart).

有志者事竟成。

Nothing is impossible (or difficult) to the man who will try.

天下无难事，只怕不努力。

Nothing is really beautiful but truth.

只有真理才是真美。

No time like the present.

只争朝夕。

One cannot put back the clock.

光阴一去不复返。

Overdone is worse than undone.

过犹不及。

Paddle your own canoe.

自立更生，自食其力。

Perseverance is vital to success.

不屈不挠是成功之本。

Second thoughts are best.

三思而行，再思可也。

Selt-trust is the essence of heroism.

自信是英雄的本色。

Self-trust is the first secret of success.

自信是成功的首要秘诀。

Success belongs to the persevering.

坚持到底必获胜利。坚持就是胜利。

Success grows out of struggles to overcome difficulties.

成功来自於克服困难的斗争。

The first element of success is the determination to succeed.

成功的首要因素是要有成功的决心。

The more a man knows, the less he knows he knows.

懂得越多，就越知道自己懂得不多。

Union is strength.

团结就是力量。

Virtue is a jewel of great price.

美德是无价之宝。

Waste of time is the most extravagant and costly of all expenses.

浪费时间是一切花费中最奢侈豪华的费用。

When there is no hope there can be no endeavour.

没有希望就不会努力。

Without a friend the world is a wilderness.

没有朋友，世界就等於一片荒野。

You cannot judge a tree by its bark.

人不可貌相。

说明文是一种以说明为主要表达方式的文章体裁。小编与读者分享它的答题方法，欢迎大家参考借鉴。

一、说明文基本知识

1、概念：说明文是以“说明”为主要表达方式，用来介绍或解释事物的状态、性质、构造、功用、制作方法、发展过程以及内在事理的一种实用文体。

2、与其它文体的区别：议论文以理服人，哲理性是它的主要特点；记叙文以情感人，形象性是它的主要特点；说明文以知授人，知识性是它的主要特点。

3、说明文的分类

事物说明文：如《苏州园林》，说明“务必使游览者无论站在哪个点上，眼前总是一幅完美的图画”的特征。

事理说明文：如《死海不死》，科学的说明了死海不死的原因在于“海水的咸度很高”。

二.阅读技巧

(一)阅读说明文要注意从以下几个方面入手：

第一招：善于找准说明对象。

第二招：善于概括说明对象的特点。

第三招：善于分析说明顺序。

第四招：善于分析说明方法及其作用。弄清楚了说明方法的特点，分析它们在文章中的具体作用。

第五招：善于分析说明文的语言。

第六招：善于分析引用古籍或名言的目的。先要理解所引古籍或名言的含义，现联系说明的内容，看看这两者间有何内在联系，就能领悟其引用的目的了。在说明的开头文段或中间叙述有关的故事，究竟起何作用：在文章开头叙述故事，其目的往往是为了引起读者阅读的兴趣，或者是为了引出说明对象。在文章或段落中间叙述故事，往往是为了增强说明文的可读性，同时也为了说明事物的来源或作用。

第七招：善于完成开放性问题。中考说明文阅读，根据“新课标”中要求“注意领会作品中所体现的科学精神和科学思想方法”的要求，说明文阅读考查的题目势必要引导学生关注人类、关注自然、关注生态环境、关注科技进程、关注未来发展，有利于培养学生的科学态度、科学思想、科学品质、科学精神和科学方法。

（二）说明文阅读一般涉及11种题型：

1、考查说明对象：

答题技法：其一，要看懂题目，不少说明文题目本身就表示说明对象，如《中国石拱桥》、《苏州园林》等。其二，抓住首括句和中心句。说明文往往需要运用首括句和中心句来提示说明重点，包括说明事物的特征。反之，如果需要为说明文的语段加一个标题，也可以用说明对象作为标题。

回答时形成一个短语：本文介绍了……的……(对象加特征)。

例：《看云识天气》介绍云和天气的关系及怎样看云识天气。

2、被说明事物的特征：

答题技法：尽量从原文中找原词原句，若没有，则注意段意、中心句。

例：《中国石拱桥》三大特点：历史悠久、形式优美、结构坚固。

3、说明方法：1、常见的说明方法有：举例子、分类别、下定义、摹状貌、作诠释、打比方、列数字、列图表、引用说明。

2、常见说明方法的作用：

①、举例子：通过举具体的实例对事物的特征/事理加以说明，从而使说明更具体，更有说服力。

②、分类别：对事物的特征/事理分门别类加以说明，使说明更有条理性。

③、作比较：把__________和__________加以比较，突出强调了事物的特征/事理。

④、作诠释：对事物的特征/事理加以具体的解释说明，使说明更通俗易懂。

⑤、打比方：将__________比作__________，从而形象生动地说明了事物的特征/事理。

⑥、摹状貌：对事物的特征/事理加以形象化的描摹，使说明更具体形象。

⑦、下定义：用简明科学的语言对说明的对象/科学事理加以揭示，从而更科学、更本质、更概括地揭示事物的特征/事理。

⑧、列数字：用具体的数据对事物的特征/事理加以说明，使说明更准确更有说服力。

⑨、列图表：用列图表的方式对事物的特征/事理加以说明，使说明更简明更直观。

⑩、引用说明：引用说明有以下几种形式——

A、引用具体的事例；（作用同举例子）

B、引用具体的数据；（作用同列数字）

C、引用名言、格言、谚语；作用是使说明更有说服力。

D、引用神话传说、新闻报道、谜语、轶事趣闻等。作用是增强说明的趣味性。

（引用说明在文章开头，还起到引出说明对象的作用。）

4、说明顺序：有条有理地把事物的特征或事理介绍清楚。

时间顺序：即以事物发生、发展的时间先后来安排说明顺序，从而写出事物的发展变化情况。这种顺序一般用于人物的生平介绍、科学观察记录，说明事物或事理发生、发展或制作过程一类的说明文。

空间顺序：即按照事物的空间存在形式，或从外到内，或从上到下，或从前到后，或由远及近依次进行说明。这种说明顺序，一般用于说明事物的形状、构造特征。

逻辑顺序；即按照事物或事理的内部联系成人们认识事物的过程来安排说明顺序。由总到分（或由分而总）、由主而次、由现象到本质、由原因到结果、由个别到一般（或由一般到个别）、由抽象到具体、由整体到局部（或由局部到具体）等。

说明建筑物、景点等通常按照空间顺序说明。介绍事物各阶段的特点或制作过程时，往往采用时间顺序。介绍抽象事理时，则往往需要采用逻辑顺序。

近几年说明文选段多为科技类说明文，此类说明文一般是事理说明文居多，故多用逻辑顺序。

5、段意概括：

句式：说明了……介绍了……

方法：找中心句；结合本段说明特征概括，摘要联合，结合标点，尤其注意分号，认真提炼。

6、“这样”的指代义：指代上文距其最近的一句或几句内容。

7、段落语句顺序：

为什么不能调换段落顺序？

不能调换：原文采用由……到……的顺序介绍事物，调换后不合逻辑。

《向沙漠进军》5、6段照应上文游击战、阵地战顺序。

总分关系中分说部分与前文总说部分顺序相照应。《看云识天气》

8、语言准确性：类型1、加点字词有何作用？抓住说明文语文准确这一特点答题。

对策：答：准确/生动形象/地说明了事物“……”的特征/事理。      类型2、能否替换为另一个词语？并说明理由。

对策：答：（1）不可以。（2）原词的意思或内容。（3）所换词语的意思或内容。（4）换了后意思有何改变，与不符合实际。

类型3、限制性词语能否删去？

对策：答：（1）表态（删还是不删）。  （2）定性。如：“比较”“几乎”“相当”等词表程度修辞；“大约”“可能”“左 右”    等表估计，“多”“有余”等表数量。（3）若删去，原来什么样的意思就变成了什么样的意思了，不符合实际，太绝对了。（4）xx词体现了语言的准确 性、周密性、科学性。

类型4、从文章中找出一个能体现说明文语言“准确”特点的词句，并体会。

类型5：指代——“这些条件”、“这种现象”“同样道理”等在文中具体指代什么。对策：一般指的就是代词前面的那句话，找最近的一句话。有时要注意可能不是整句话，而是其中的一部分。

9、说明文的结构。

说明文的结构常见的形式有：“总——分”式、“总——分——总”式、“分——总”式、并列式、递进式等。

10、考查能否从阅读材料中捕捉重要信息，对段落的内容进行归纳；对全文要点进行概括。

技法：认真仔细阅读原文，一般都能从原文中找到答案。

（例：“死海之变”中“死海已发生了哪些巨大的地质变化？

答：（1）海水水体的分层结构消失（2）海水中的硫化氢消失（3）盐的沉积增多。

11、发散创新：近几年，开放性试题以它答案的多元性和不唯一性成为培养学生创新精神和实践能力的一种重要形式，在考试中所占的比例也越来越大。综合各地开放型试题我们可以看出。这类试题大概从以下方面考查：

（1）对说明内容进行创新性的表述。

（2）对某种现象发表自己独特的看法和见解。

（3）结合实际对某个问题谈自己的认识。

（4）根据文章内容进行合理性的推断和大胆想象。

（5）由文章内容延伸到现实生活，对现实生活中相关现象进行解释。

（6）对人类关注的环境问题等提出解决的方法，拟写警示性标语、建议、广告等。这种题考查的是学生的综合能力。考查的是学生对生活的关注情况。做好这类题首先要让学生对所给材料有准确地把握，然后充分调动已有的知识和经验。再迁移到文段中来。开放性试题，虽然没有规定唯一的答案，可以各抒己见。但在答题时要从三个角度作答：

（1）是就材料回答问题。不一定按标准答案作答，意思答对就给满分；

（2）是阅读材料后受到的启示、感想。这样的答案也是具有个性化的；

（3）是从材料出发，或提出自己不同的看法。或扩散联想到其它方面。

总之。这类试题在训练理解能力的同时。训练表达能力，对答案的表述不能只靠一个符号或一个词语来完成，要写成一句或一段完整的话。在答题的同时有助于增加学生主体参与意识，扩大学生独立发表见解的余地，鼓励学生的创新意识和探究精神。

（三）对说明对象的把握。

看题目、首括句、尾结句或提问式语句。如果是事物说明文，被说明的事物既是说明对象。如果是事理说明文，说明对象则是对象加特征，答案形成一个短语：介绍了……的……。如：《看云识天气》，介绍了云和天气的关系及怎样看云识天气。

考察对说明事物特征的把握。

答题技巧：尽量从原文中找原句作答，若没有，则注意段意、中心句。如《中国石拱桥》中关于它的三大特点：历史悠久、形式优美、结构坚固。

（四）说明文写法分析

1、结合说明方法谈

规范性的答题模式如下：

这篇文章主要运用了……的说明方法，说明了……（内容：事物特征或事理），使说明……（作用：参考前面说明方法，明确其作用）

2、结合修辞手法谈

规范性的答题模式如下：

这是一篇生动地说明文，大量地使用了各种修辞手法，说明了……（内容），使文章的说明形象生动。

3、结合表达方式谈

记叙、描写使说明更具体形象；抒情、议论使说明更有感情。那么，从这个角度分析说明文的写法，答题的规范性格式如下：

这篇文章综合运用多种表达方式，除了说明外，还有……（从“记叙、描写、说明、议论”根据内容选择），如……（具体举例），就是……（表达方式）的运用，使说明更具体形象/充满感情。

（五）说明语段的作用

（1）、结构、内容作用：引出下文、承上启下、总结全文/前文。

有时在文章在开头，还起着引出说明对象/说明事理的作用。

（2）、结合说明方法谈。

通过……的说明方法，说明了……（事物特征或事理），使说明……（作用）。

作文在语文考试中占据着大部分的分数，写好作文是语文考试的关键，以下是小编整理的提高写作能力的方法，欢迎参考阅读!

阅读优秀的作品

这是显而易见的，但立竿见影的方法。如果你不读更多的好作品，你就不知道如何写出更好的作品。优秀的作家都是从阅读别人的佳作开始，接着开始模仿，最后超越他们，形成自己的风格。尽可能的多读名著，在看内容的时候，更要留意文章的问题和写作的技巧。

尽可能多的写

每天都写，如果可能话，每天写几次。你写得多了，也就写得好了。学习如何写作和其他的学问道理是一样的，熟能生巧。写写你自己，写写博客，向出版社投稿。只是写，全情投入的写，练得越多，你的写作水平就提升得越快。

随时随地记下你的灵感：随身带一本小笔记本（纳博科夫身上装满了小卡片），当你对你构思的小说，文章，或是小说里的人物有什么灵感的时候，马上记下来。当你听别人谈话时的只言片语而所有顿悟时，或看到一段散文诗或是一句歌词让你很感动时，都可以马上当他们记下来。灵感总是转瞬即逝，你及时的记录下来，便可以成为你写作的素材。我的习惯是，为我的博客要写的文章列一个清单，不断的补充它。

专门的写作时间

每天找一个没有任何打扰的时间段作为专门的写作时间，让这成为习惯。对我而言，清晨的时间是最佳的，午饭，傍晚，或者深夜的那段时间也可以。无论你是做什么工作的，把写作当作每天必须完成的任务去做。每天至少写半个小时，当然有一个小时更好。若你同我一样，是一个全职的作家，那么你需要写更多的小时，请你不要担心，这只会让你写得更好。

随便涂鸦

面对整张的白纸，整版的白屏，无从开始，肯定恐怖。你会想：我还是看看邮件或是小憩一会了吧！先生，千万别这样。马上开始写，马上打字，你写什么没有关系，只是让我听到你敲键盘的声音吧。只要你开始写了，什么都好办了。像我的话，我喜欢先敲上我的名字和文章的标题，这应该不难吧，然后再慢慢的展开情节，全身心地融入进去…关键是：开始可以随便写写，随便涂鸦，但是尽快开始写正文。

集中精神

写作是一件一心一意的事情，在嘈杂的环境或是同时干着别的事情，是不可能写好的。写作需要一个安静的环境，需要一点点柔和的背景音乐。即使是最低要求，你也需要在全屏（没有其他软件得干扰）的条件下，使用WriteRoom， DarkRoom，Writer这些写作软件，不受打扰的写作。关掉邮箱，关点MSN和Gtalk，关掉电话和手机，关掉电视，清理掉书桌上无用的东西。清除与写作无关的一切杂念，现在就是写作的时间，好像把自己放进一个盒子里，在没有任何打扰下进入写作状态。

先计划，再写：

这好像和“随便涂鸦”有些矛盾，实际上不是这样。在坐下来正式写之前，先做个计划或是脑子里先预演一下，这是非常管用的办法。每天跑步的时候想想要写的东西，或是散步的时间来个头脑风暴；然后把想到的记下来，做一个扼要的提纲；等真正准备好开始写了，可以很快的展开，因为思路和想法都有了。这里，有一个构思小说的三部曲，可以参考这个：Snowflake Method.

创新

你需要模仿名家，这并不意味你要跟他们写得一模一样。你可以试试新的写法，从这里学一点，从那里学一点。渐渐地，你就会有了自己的风格，自己的文体，自己的思路。试试一些不一样的表达，或创造一些与众不同的表达方式，每一方法你都可以尝试，看看它到底怎么样，不好就不用呗。

修改

你开始构思你的文字，然后试着写，让故事情节展开，最后你需要回过头再看看你都写了什么。这点很重要，很多写手一旦写好就不想修改，已经费时费力地写好了，还要再花时间修改，实在是一件吃力不讨好的活。但如果你想写得更好，你就要学会如何修改。好的作品是经过反复的推敲和修改而成的，这会让你的作品从平庸中脱颖而出。看看你写的东东，不仅仅是那些拼写和语法错误，还有那些无意义的词，混乱的结构，和让人搞不懂的句子。修改的目标是：更清晰，更直接，更鲜活。

简明扼要

这是你在修改的过程中，最重要的一件事情。一句句，一段段的修改，把无关主题的统统都删掉。一个短句比一段冗长的废话更具说服力，大白话比晦涩的专业术语更受欢迎。记得：简单就是力量。

富于感染力的句子

在短句中使用富有感染力的动词，当然，并没有要求每一句都是这样，你需要变化。但是，多试试能够吸引人的句子。而且，你没有必要等到你要修改的时候再用，你刚开始写的时候就要考虑这个问题。

获取别人的反馈

闭门造车不会有任何进步，让别人读读你的文章给你回馈，最好有经验的作家和编辑。他们见多识广，会给你很中肯和有见地的建议。认真的听，即使是一些批评，也接受它，忠言逆耳，这样只会让你写得更好。

是骡子还是马，拉出来溜溜

就你而言，你需要让别人读到你的作品。你的作品不是你想谁看谁就看的，让所有的人都读到你的文章。你就要出版自己的书，发表自己的短篇小说和诗歌，给出版社供稿。如果你已经开始写博客了，恭喜你，这是一个好的开始。若现在还没有人浏览过，你就需要把它放到流量更大的博客服务网站上去，让读者给你留言，给你提出建议。所有的人都会看你写东西，也许刚开始时会是件伤脑筋的事情，但这是每一位作家成长的必由之路，马上发表你的文字吧。

采用对话式的文体

很多人的写作都很正式，但是我发现像我们说话一样写作会使文章更流畅（没有叹生词）。这样一来，读者看起来会更舒服。刚开始这么写并不容易，你需要坚持这么做。也许，会带来另一个问题，为了读起来更口语化，你需要打破一些语法规则（就像我的前一句那样）。因为如果生搬硬套语法，会让你的文章看起来很不自然。若没有其他原因，就不要破坏语法规则。你需要知道你在做什么和为什么这样做。

好开头和结尾

开头和结尾是文章的重点。特别是开头。如果你不能在故事的开始就吸引读者，那他们就很难有耐心把整篇文章读完。所以投入更多的时间去考虑怎么写好开头，读者一旦对你开头感兴趣，他们会想知道得更多...写好开头后，再弄一个精彩的结尾，这会让读者更加期待你的下一篇佳作。

在写求职简历的时候，最让大家头痛的就是自我评价这部分了。有些人这部分不敢填写，怕写不好反而弄巧成拙。其实，自我评价如果简洁得当，也是很能够帮助自己从众多简历中胜出的。

简历书写的"自我评价"部分遵循以下3条原则：

实事求是简历的真实性是人事经理一致的要求。在求职者书写"自我评价"时，千万不要有虚假成分，例如夸大自己的能力，优点或工作经验等。经验丰富的HR很容易通过求职者的措辞判断求职者是否中肯而踏实。一旦语句让人感觉到浮夸，HR往往会不露声色地把求职者的简历淘汰出局。

找到真正的闪光点很多人的自我评价中没有重点，或者过于大众化，难以让自己出挑。人事经理往往希望看到你是否有闪光之处，并且这些闪光之处到底和这份工作有无联系。因此，建议在写自我描述之前，仔细罗列自己的工作经历，回忆自己在以前的工作中到底积累了什么样的优势，挑选出自己与其他人的不同之处，以突出自我的优势。

以此次刊登的简历为例，该求职者应聘公关关系的职位，从人事经理的角度来看，他希望看到你是否有极强的沟通能力，项目协调能力，以及是否有创意等。但是，这位应聘者只侧重于一个方面，这就比较可惜。

同时，如果求职者积累了一定的行业资源，也可以在自我评价中提到这一点，起到画龙点睛的作用。

在自我评价中语言需要简练职业自我描述的语言风格也是一个值得求职者考虑的问题。"

有些人喜欢用极感性的话来吸引人事经理的注意，这种做法很可能出奇制胜，但多数情况下是一种冒险。

通常来说，语言尽量不要过于口语化，在评价自己的学习能力，团队合作精神等方面用语应严谨，平实，让人事经理在阅读简历时候能够充分感觉你对这份工作的诚恳态度。

现在的社会需要越来越多的广告策划书了。广告策划书的好坏直接关系到一个企业投资的成败，这是很重要的。

但是如何才能写好一份广告策划书呢，这是困扰所有公司文员和秘书的难题。写对了也就好了，对公司的发展有重要的帮助，也能够到领导的夸奖和提拔；可是一旦定位错误，将公司的投资搞坏，那就万劫不复了，那离下岗走人就不远了。

其实写好广告策划书并不是很难：

广告策划在对其运作过程的每一部分作出分析和评估，并制定出相应的实施计划后，最后要形成一个纲领式的总结文件，我们通常称为广告策划书。广告策划书是根据广告策划结果而写的，是提供给广告主加以审核，认可的广告运动的策略性指导文件。

广告策划书有两种形式，一种是表格式的。这种形式的广告策划书上列有广告主现在的销售量或者销售金额、广告目标、广告诉求重点、广告时限、广告诉求对象、广告地区、广告内容、广告表现战略、广告媒体战略、其他促销策略等栏目。其中广告目标一栏又分为知名度、理解度、喜爱度、购买愿意度等小栏目。一般不把具体销售量或销售额作为广告目标。因为销售量或销售额只是广告结果测定的一个参考数值，它们还会受商品（劳务）的包装、价格、质量、服务等因素的影响。这种广告策划书比较简单，使用的面不是很广。另一种是以书面语言叙述的广告策划书，运用广泛。这种把广告策划意见撰写成书面形式的广告计划，因此又称广告计划书。人们通常所说的广告计划书和广告策划书实际是一回事，没有什么大的差别。

一份完整的广告策划书至少应包括如下内容：1、前言；2、市场分析；3、广告战略或广告重点；4、广告对象或广告诉求；5、广告地区或诉求地区；6、广告策略；7、广告预算及分配；8、广告效果预测。

以下做简要分析：

1、前言部分，应简明概要地说明广告活动的时限、任务和目标，必要时还应说明广告主的营销战略。这是全部计划的搞要，它的目的是把广告计划的要点提出来，让企业最高层次的决策者或执行人员快速阅读和了解，使最高层次的决策者或执行人员对策划的某一部分有疑问时，能通过翻阅该部分迅速了解细节，这部分内容不宜太长，以数百字为佳，所以有的广告策划书称这部分为执行摘要。

2、市场分析部分，一般包括四方面的内容：

（1）企业经营情况分析；

（2）产品分析；

（3）市场分析；

（4）消费者研究；

撰写时应根据产品分析的结果，说明广告产品自身所具备的特点和优点。再根据市场分析的情况，把广告产品与市场中各种同类商品进行比较，并指出消费者的爱好和偏向。如果有可能，也可提出广告产品的改进或开发建议。有的广告策划书称这部分为情况分析，简短地叙述广告主及广告产品的历史，对产品、消费者和竞争者进行评估。

3、广告战略或广告重点部分，一般应根据产品定位和市场研究结果，阐明广告策略的重点，说明用什么方法使广告产品在消费者心目中建立深刻的印象 。用什么方法刺激消费者产生购买兴趣，用什么方法改变消费者的使用习惯，使消费者选购和使用广告产品。用什么方法扩大广告产品的销售对象范围 。用什么方法使消费者形成新的购买习惯。有的广告策划书在这部分内容中增设促销活动计划，写明促销活动的目的、策略和设想。也有把促销活动计划作为单独文件分别处理的。

4、广告对象或广告诉求部分，主要根据产品定位和市场研究来测算出广告对象有多少人、多少户。根据人口研究结果，列出有关人口的分析数据，概述潜在消费者的需求特征和心理特征、生活方式和消费方式等。

5、广告地区或诉求地区部分，应确定目标市场，并说明选择此特定分布地区的理由。

6、广告策略部分，要详细说明广告实施的具体细节。撰文者应把所涉及的媒体计划清晰、完整而又简短地设计出来，详细程度可根据媒体计划的复杂性而定。也可另行制定媒体策划书。一般至少应清楚地叙述所使用的媒体、使用该媒体的目的、媒体策略、媒体计划。如果选用多种媒体，则需对各类媒体的刊播及如何交叉配合加以说明。

7、广告预算及分配部分，要根据广告策略的内容，详细列出媒体选用情况及所需费用、每次刊播的价格，最好能制成表格，列出调研、设计、制作等费用。也有人将这部分内容列入广告预算书中专门介绍。

8、广告效果预测部分，主要说明经广告主认可，按照广告计划实施广告活动预计可达到的目标。这一目标应该和前言部分规定的目标任务相呼应。

在实际撰写广告策划书时，上述八个部分可有增减或合并分列。如可增加公关计划、广告建议等部分，也可将最后部分改为结束语或结论，根据具体情况而定。

写广告策划书一般要求简短。避免冗长。要简要、概述、分类，删除一切多余的文字，尽量避免再三再四地重复相同概念，力求简练、易读、易懂。撰写广告计划时，不要使用许多代名词。广告策划的决策者和执行者不在意是谁的观念、谁的建议，他们需要的是事实。广告策划书在每一部分的开始最好有一个简短的摘要。在每一部分中要说明所使用资料的来源，使计划书增加可信度。一般说来，广告策划书不要超过二万字。如果篇幅过长，可将图表及有关说明材料用附录的办法解决。

作文，是语文综合水平的体现。但是，对于好多同学来说，总觉得作文很深奥，不好写。其实不然，我觉得，要写好作文，只要注意下面这几点，并持之以恒，经常练习写作，写出一手好作文也是不难的。

第一，就是词语积累。作文，要有佳词妙句才有文采，才能吸引人。一篇文章，假如没有佳词妙句，无论这件事情多么精彩，你写出来的文章也是平淡无味，怎么能够吸引人，让人去欣赏呢？你写的这篇文章也就等于白写。在平时的学习中，我们班的黎老师就很注重在这方面对我们的教育和引导。我在看文章、阅读时也很注意这点。

第二，就是注意留心观察。写作文，不是在屋子里憋出来的，而是要到实际生活中去观察、去体验。因为，生活是写作的源泉嘛！有些人，他是出去“观察”了，可是他只是走马观花，忽略了细节。所以写出来的作文只是条条纲纲，根本没有要点、细节。所以，在观察时要留心，要仔细，才能写出与众不同的好作文。记得外出时，爸爸经常会指这指那，问这问那，以引起我的注意与思考。

第三，就是多看课外书。这是积累词语的重要渠道，也是写作文的关键所在。包括家里订阅的书籍和书店的各种图书。只要有空，我就会到书店看看各种各样的课外书。当然，不是只看就能写出完美无缺的作文的，关键还要注意积累、牢记和运用。才能实现“人为我用”，这样在写作文时，才能做到随心所欲、挥笔自如。

一、作文要学会积累

“读书破万卷，下笔如有神”，“巧妇难为无米之炊”古人这些总结，从正反两方面说明了“积累”在写作中的重要性。“平时靠积累，考场凭发挥”，这是考场学子的共同体会。

（一）语言方面要建立“语汇库”。语汇是文章的细胞。广义的语汇，不仅指词、短语的总汇，还包括句子、句群。建立“语汇库”途径有二：第一是阅读。平时要广泛阅读书籍、报刊，并做好读书笔记，把一些优美的词语、句子、语段摘录在特定的本子上，也可以制作读书卡片上。第二是生活。平时要捕捉大众口语中鲜活的语言，并把这些语言记在随身带的小本子或卡片上，这样日积月累、集腋成裘，说话就能出口成章，作文就会妙笔生花。

（二）要加强材料方面的积累。材料是文章的血肉。许多学生由于平时不注意积累素材，每到作文时就去搜肠挂肚，或者胡编或者抄袭。解决这一问题的方法是积累素材。平时有条件的可带着摄像机、录音机、深入观察生活、积极参与生活，并与写生、、写日记、写观察笔记等形式，及时记录家庭生活、校园生活、社会生活中的见闻。记录时要抓住细节，把握人、事、物、景的特征。这样，写出的文章就有血有肉。

（三）要加强思想方面的积累。观点是文章的灵魂。文章中心不明确，或立意不深刻，往往说明作者思想肤浅。因此，有必要建立“思想库”。方法有二：第一要善思。“多一份思考，多一份收获。”平时要深入思考，遇事多问问“为什么”、“是什么”、“怎么样”。这样就能透过现象看本质。还要随时把思维的“火花”、思索的结论记录下来。第二要辑录，也就是要摘录名人名言，格言警句等。

总之，作文要加强积累，建立好“语汇库”、“素材库”、“思想库”这三大写作仓库，并要定期盘点、整理、分门别类，且要不断充实、扩容。

二、写好作文先学会观察

鲁迅先生在回答文学青年“如何才能写出好文章”的问题时强调了两点：一是多看，二是多练。这里的“多看”即指多观察。这就说明：要写好文章，要掌握娴熟的文章写作手法，就要多观察，学会观察，观察是写作的必要前提和基础。

俄国小说家契诃夫就这样谆谆告诫初学者：“作家务必要把自己锻炼成一个目光敏锐永不罢休的观察家！——要把自己锻炼到观察简直成习惯，仿佛变成第二个天性。”把观察锻炼成习惯，锻炼成第二天性，这是一种很需要时间去磨练的功夫，是很有作用，很了不起的功夫。

要留心观察身边的人、事、景、物，从中猎取你作文时所需要的材料：你要对一些看似不大实则很有意义的事情产生兴趣，注意观察起因、过程和结果；你要留意校园花坛里的植物一年四季如何变化它的颜色，学会刨根问底，弄清这些变化的来龙去脉；你要走向社会，同更多的人接触，观察他们的一言一行，要思索一些东西，随时将它们汇入自己思想的长河。这就是观察的过程，观察过程中要注意以下几点：

（一）观察决不要仅仅局限于“用眼看”。广义的更有实际意义的观察是指要将人的五官全部调动起来：用耳朵去聆听，用身体去感受，更重要的是要用心、用脑去思索，这样的观察才会更加细腻、深刻。

（二）观察过程中要注意运用好“烂笔头”。俗语说得好：好记性不如烂笔头。好多同学每天看到的挺多，思索的也挺多，但是不善于随时记下来，这样就会使观察到的材料付之东去，许多有价值的东西也会白白浪费掉。

（三）观察尤其要注意持之以恒。别犯“脑热病”，三分钟的热度对与写好作文是没有益处的，你要将观察生活、思索生活贯穿于你生活的每一天，这样你才会写出妙文佳作来。

学会观察对于写好作文有着巨大的奠基和推动作用，离开了观察，你往往会感到难以下笔。愿你学会观察，不断培养，提高赞成的观察能力，在写作实践中取得得大的进步。

三、意高则文胜

立意，就是确立文章的中心和意图。那么文章在立意时要注意哪些问题呢？

（一）立意要正确

正确是文章立意的第一要义，所谓正确就是要保证文章的感情和思想观点正确，符合客观事物的本质和规律，符合我国基本政治原则，符合人的基本道德要求，能给人以积极的启发。

（二）立意要专一

“作文之事，贵于专一，专则生巧，散乃人愚。”无论多么复杂的事情，主旨不能分散。一篇文章如果既想说明这个问题，又想阐述那个观点，东拉西扯，必然立意不明确。其实，想面面俱到肯定会面面不到位，况且一篇文章只能有一个中心，与其“贪多嚼不烂”，不如集中笔墨表现一个中心，即使是通过数件事来表现中心，也要做到紧帖中心行文，目标始终如一，着墨于材料与中心的结合点，使材料蕴涵的力量全部直指中心。

（三）立意要新颖

文章最忌随人后，人云亦云，新颖的角度是作文创新的核心。立意新颖要求跳出陈旧的框框、不按顺向思维、习惯思维或原有的心理定式进行立意构思，而是以独到的视角去审视题目中所蕴涵的另类内容，避开他人所常写，写别人所未写。即使同一写作对象，总是可以从许多角度切入，只要我们打破思维的定式，站在时代的高度，避“俗”求“异”，多角度、多侧面思考，或联想、或扩展、或类比、或逆向，发人之所未发，就能在五颜六色的天空里构筑属于你的最美的彩虹。

（四）立意要深刻。

立意的深刻是指确立的主题不是人所共知的肤浅的道理，而要透过现象看本质，挖掘出更深层的意蕴。

（五）立意要巧妙

在习作有限的文字内，要表现较为深刻的思想，就只能一粒沙里看世界，从生活中的一斑一点、一枝一叶去再现生活的全貌，从一个点、一个片段、一个瞬间、一个现象入手，对社会、对人生进行描述和深思，即立意要大处着眼，小处落笔，角度虽小，却能小中见大，平中见奇。

一、分类

1、从说明对象的角度：事物性说明文、事理性说明文。

2、从说明文语言特征：平实的说明文、生动的说明文。

二、说明的顺序

时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序

逻辑顺序的具体分类：主——次、原因——结果、现象——本质、特征——用途、一般——个别、概括——具体、整体——局部。

典型考题：本文使用了什么说明顺序？有何作用？

标准化答题格式：本文使用了__________的说明顺序对__________加以说明，使说明更有条理性。

三、说明的方法

1、常见的说明方法有：举例子、分类别、下定义、摹状貌、作诠释、打比方、列数字、列图表、引用说明。

2、常见说明方法的作用：

①、举例子：通过举具体的实例对事物的特征/事理加以说明，从而使说明更具体，更有说服力。

②、分类别：对事物的特征/事理分门别类加以说明，使说明更有条理性。

③、作比较：把甲事物和乙事物加以比较，突出强调了事物的特征/事理。

④、作诠释：对事物的特征/事理加以具体的解释说明，使说明更通俗易懂。

⑤、打比方：将甲事物比作乙事物，从而形象生动地说明了事物的特征/事理。

⑥、摹状貌：对事物的特征/事理加以形象化的描摹，使说明更具体形象。

⑦、下定义：用简明科学的语言对说明的对象/科学事理加以揭示，从而更科学、更本质、更概括地揭示事物的特征/事理。

⑧、列数字：用具体的数据对事物的特征/事理加以说明，使说明更准确更有说服力。

⑨、列图表：用列图表的方式对事物的特征/事理加以说明，使说明更简明更直观。

⑩、引用说明：包括直接引用和间接引用。引用说明有以下几种形式——

A、引用具体的事例；（作用同举例子）

B、引用具体的数据；（作用同列数字）

C、引用名言、格言、谚语；作用是使说明更有说服力。

D、引用神话传说、新闻报道、谜语、轶事趣闻等。作用是增强说明的趣味性。

（引用说明在文章开头，还起到引出说明对象的作用。）

四、说明文的语言品析

1、对整篇文章语文的品析，一般从二个角度谈：

A、准确；B、形象生动或简明平实。

A是一般说明文的共同特点。B是针对不同语文风格的角度谈。做这种评析整篇文章语言特点的题目，一定要结合文章具体内容谈，比如可以选择一句话为例子。

2、对具体篇/句/词的评析

篇/句的作用基本同上。

字词作用有以下考查形式：

A、加点字词有何作用？

B、能否替换为另一个词语？

C、加点词语能否删去？

五、说明文写法分析

1、结合说明方法谈

规范性的答题模式如下：

这篇文章主要运用了……的说明方法，说明了……（内容：事物特征或事理），使说明……（作用：参考前面说明方法，明确其作用）

2、结合修辞手法谈

规范性的答题模式如下：

这是一篇生动地说明文，大量地使用了各种修辞手法，说明了……（内容），使文章的说明形象生动。

3、结合表达方式谈

记叙、描写使说明更具体形象；抒情、议论使说明更有感情。那么，从这个角度分析说明文的写法，答题的规范性格式如下：

这篇文章综合运用多种表达方式，除了说明外，还有……（从“记叙、描写、说明、议论”根据内容选择），如……（具体举例），就是……（表达方式）的运用，使说明更具体形象/充满感情。

六、说明语段的作用

这种题目答题的角度有三：

（1）、结构、内容作用：引出下文、承上启下、总结全文/前文。

有时在文章开头，还起着引出说明对象/说明事理的作用。

（2）、结合说明方法谈。

通过……的说明方法，说明了……（事物特征或事理），使说明……（作用）。

“好的开头便是成功的一半。”写作亦然。一篇优秀的作文，除了要在立意、构思、语言上吸引读者、感染读者、打动读者外，也不可小觑开头艺术。小编在这里给同学们整理出五条思路，供同学们作文时参考。

一、开门见山，直入主题。

即在文章的第一段开篇点题，或点明题目，或点及中心，使文章不拖泥带水，不转弯抹角，而是简洁明快、单刀直入。如朱自清的记实散文《背影》是这样开头的： “我与父亲不相见已二年余了，我最不能忘记的是他的背影。”便是开门见山：“我”思念父亲，最难忘怀他的背影，它凝聚着父子间深厚、真挚的爱。有一种浓厚的感情气氛笼罩着全文。又如朱德的《回忆我的母亲》，鲁迅的《从百草园到三味书屋》，魏巍的《我的老师》等。

二、巧设悬念，欲擒故纵。

也就是我们通常所说的卖关子。“欲说还休”，巧妙地埋下伏笔，设下悬念，能吸引读者迫不及待地要往下揭开谜底，一睹为快，故能引人入胜。如习作《“常胜将军”生死传》一文开头如下：“这常胜将军是何许人也?别忙，你且听我慢慢道来……”这一开头很新颖有味，颇能吊人胃口，然后再自然引出下文“常胜将军”生的威风，死的悲壮，并悟出一个道理“凡事都要慎重，来不得半点浮躁。”很值得借鉴。又如课文《枣核》开头的“再三托付”、“蹊跷”使人觉得如此牵挂一枣核简直不可思议，非要刨根就底，看它个水落石出不可。

三、巧引诗句，活泼流畅。

一些文质兼美的或蕴含哲理的诗句、名言、谚语等如果引得恰到好处，能为文章增色不少，使人眼前一亮、精神一振。语言亮丽优美的诗句能使文章充满诗情画意。如习作《春天如诗》开头顺手拈来一句“轻轻的我走了，正如我轻轻的来。”这是引用徐志摩的《再别康桥》中的名句，自然在引出如诗般的春天迈着轻盈的步子走来。蕴含哲理的名言名句则能使文章显得厚重、有高度。如习作《青春畅想》开头“有位哲人说过：世上有一种东西，当你拥有它的时候，可能无视它的存在，而一旦失去，才会发现它的价值。”接着便自然阐述到“青春”的话题，抒发了珍惜青春，让青春闪光的不凡的思想感情，颇能引起读者的共鸣。

四、铺陈景物，渲染气氛。

景由心造，“一切景语皆情语”。精当的景物描写能烘托人物思想感情，衬托人物性格特征，推动情节发展，使文章景中显情，情因景设，情景交融而浑然一体，便能深深打动读者的心。如课文《七根火柴》开头描写暴风雨后的草地阴沉、荒凉、寂静，展示出红军长征的艰辛，表现红军战士的坚强意志与毅力，为无名战士的英雄气概营造了悲壮气氛。又如习作《美，向我起来》记叙的是一位受伤的小女孩由悲哀、暴躁走向坚强的故事。文章这样开头：“秋深了，梧桐的叶子飘然而落，凄凉地在空中打着旋儿。天空是灰色的，空气冷冷的。偶尔飞过一只麻雀，传来的也是无奈的叫声……”极力渲染了一种伤感，映衬出下文中的主人公遭遇不幸后的落寞、悲凉。

五、娓娓道出，顺理成章。

以一种平稳的语调讲故事般地和盘托出，不显得故弄玄虚，不突兀离奇，能使读者感受到亲切、宁静。这种手法常用于记叙故事情节明显的文章中，如小小说、寓言、童话等，显得落落大方。读者便自然沿着作者的思路去感受、去思考。如莫泊桑的《我的叔叔于勒》开头道德交代故事发生的地点、菲利普一家家庭背景，娓娓叙写他们的拮据的家境，初步揭出他们爱幕虚荣的性格特征，如此，后文盼于勒──赞于勒──遇于勒──躲于勒的故事情节顺理成章，耐人寻味。又如课文《最后一课》、《皇帝的新装》、《盘古开天辟地》等。

看完一本书或一篇文章，你的感受可能很多。以下是小编给大家整理的读后感的写作方法的内容，欢迎大家查看。

一、 认识读后感

读完一篇文章或看完一部电视剧以后，全篇文章或其中的一部分内容给你留下深刻的印象，让你感动，而且也让你想到很多很多自己听到的、看到的、经历过的事情。

二、怎样选书目

选择你感兴趣的书籍，尤其是选能从中明白一个道理或学到文中人物的精神的文章。(选写人、写事的文章最好)

三、通常写法：

(1) 引用法：引用歌谣、名言。

(2) 举例子的方法： 可举古代事例、近现代事例，可举身边听说过的、自己经历的事情，只要事例所表达的中心与文章的中心一致即可。

可举正例和反例，正例的作用是让中心更明确，证明这个道理是正确的，这种品质是值得学习的。

四、结构安排：

第一段：写清读书的时间、书名和总的感受。(我受益匪浅。 给我留下深刻的印象……)

第二段：用三五句话概括中心思想。(先写主要内容再写讲明的道理或人物的品质)

第三段：举由这一道理或品质想到的正面事例(古代、现代、身边的事例自己的事例)

第四段：举由这一道理或品质想到的反面事例(古代、现代、身边、自己的事例)。

第五段：发出号召、倡议。

正反事例，不要同是古代或同是现代的，最好有层次感，比如举雷锋的为人民服务，再举自己的自私。

读后感的格式与写法

一、 格式和写法

读后感通常有三种写法：一种是缩写内容提纲，一种是写阅读后的体会感想，一种是摘录好的句子和段落。题目可以用《×××读后感》，也可以用《读×××有感》。

二、要选择自己感受最深的东西去写，这是写好读后感的关键。

看完一本书或一篇文章，你的感受可能很多，如果面面俱到像开杂货铺一样，把自己所有的感受都一股脑地写上去，什么都有一点，什么也不深不透，重点部分也像蜻蜓点水一样一擦而过，必然使文章平淡，不深刻。所以写感受前要认真思考、分析，对自己的感想加以提炼，选择自己感受最深的去写。你可以抓住原作的中心思想写，也可以抓住文中自己感受最深的一个情节、一个人物、一句闪光的语言来写，最好是突出一点，深入挖掘，写出自己的真情实感，总之，感受越深，表达才能越真切，文章才能越感人。

三、要密切联系实际，这是读后感的重要内容。

写读后感的重点应是联系实际发表感想。我们所说的联系实际范围很广泛，可以联系个人实际，也可以联系社会实际，可以是历史教训，也可以是当前形势，可以是童年生活，也可以是班级或家庭状况，但最主要的是无论怎样联系都要突出时代精神，要有较强的时代感。

四、要处理好“读”与“感”的关系，做到议论，叙述，抒情三结合。

读后感是议论性较强的读书笔记，要用切身体会，实践经验和生动的事例来阐明从“读”中悟出的道理。因此，读后感中既要写“读”，又要写“感”，既要叙述，又必须说理。叙述是议论的基础，议论又是叙述的深化，二者必须结合。

读后感以“感”为主。要适当地引用原文，当然引用不能太多，应以自己的语言为主。在表现方法上，可用夹叙夹议的写法，议论时应重于分析说理，事例不宜多，引用原文要简洁。在结构上，一般在开头概括式提示“读”，从中引出“感”，在着重抒写感受后，结尾又回扣“读”。

1、 自我介绍和你是如何得知该职位的招聘信息的。

在个人自我介绍部分，可以用一句话简单介绍一下你自己。只要把最重要、也是与未来雇主最有关的信息写清楚就可以了。

例如：“我是**大学大四的学生，五月毕业，专业是**。”

在信息来源部分，说明你对公司有兴趣并想担任他们空缺的职位。可以通过暗示你与公司雇员的亲属关系来表达你对公司的兴趣。如果你由一位朋友或着同事介绍给公司，就在信中提起他们；因为招聘经理会感到有责任回复你的信。

例如：很高兴地得知贵公司目前在招聘**。一个贵公司的资深客户推荐我应聘此职位。

2、 自我推荐

简短地叙述自己的才能，特别是这些才能将满足公司的需要。不要在信中表示你会因聘用而收益多少，面对桌上一大堆履历表和许多空缺职位，招聘经理关心的不会是你的个人的成就。 陈述你所特有的将据之以为公司作出贡献的教育、技能和个性特征。提供内附资料的证人但不要写详情"请参阅简历"的字样.该求职信应促使他们想进一步阅读你的简历。

例如：我在*公司任*职的*个月期间，曾几次因工作中的主动性与创造性而受到嘉奖。

3、 致谢及进一步行动的要求

结尾部分不仅仅只是对你的雇主花时间读你的信表示感谢，信的结尾要表明你的下一步计划。不要让招聘者来决定，要自己采取行动。告诉招聘者怎样才能与你联络，打电话或者发email，但不要坐等电话。要表明如果几天内等不到他们的电话，你会自己打电话确认招聘者已收到履历表和自荐信并安排面试。语气肯定但要礼貌。

例如：我将在*周内与贵办公处联系，以便安排时间与贵方讨论我的资历及贵公司的要求。

语言和内容是评判一篇英语论文质量高低的重要依据;但是,写作格式规范与否亦是一个不可忽略的衡量标准。小编收集了英语论文的格式与写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、英语论文的标题

一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:Dr./Prof.C.Prager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English 734或British Novel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需double space,即隔行打印,行距约为0.6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。

就学生而言,如果英语论文篇幅较短,亦可不做标题页(及提纲页),而将标题页的内容打在正文第一页的左上方。第一行为作者姓名,与打印纸顶端距离约为2.5cm,以下各行依次为教师学衔和姓、课程编号(或名称)及日期;各行左边上下对齐,并留出2.5cm左右的页边空白(下同)。接下来便是论文标题及正文(日期与标题之间及标题与正文第一行之间只需隔行打印,不必留出更多空白)。

二、英语论文提纲

英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为2.5cm左右)的始端打上 Thesis 一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母;处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。

三、英语论文正文

有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约1.5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码;阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。

四、英语论文的文中引述

正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节;既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式 (即英语论文参考文献)的规范性。引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。目前美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。现针对文中引述的不同情况,将部分规范格式分述如下。

1.若引文不足三行,则可将引文有机地融合在论文中。如:

The divorce of Arnolds personal desire from his inheritance results in “the familiar picture of Victorian man alone in an alien universe”(Roper9).

这里,圆括弧中的Roper为引文作者的姓(不必注出全名);阿拉伯数字为引文出处的页码(不要写成p.9);作者姓与页码之间需空一格,但不需任何标点符号;句号应置于第二个圆括弧后。

2.被引述的文字如果超过三行,则应将引文与论文文字分开,如下例所示:

Whitman has proved himself an eminent democratic representative and precursor, and his “Democratic Vistas”

is an admirable and characteristic

diatribe. And if one is sorry that in it

Whitman is unable to conceive the

extreme crises of society, one is certain

that no society would be tolerable whoses

citizens could not find refreshment in its

buoyant democratic idealism.(Chase 165)

这里的格式有两点要加以注意。一是引文各行距英语论文的左边第一个字母十个空格,即应从第十一格打起;二是引文不需加引号,末尾的句号应标在最后一个词后。

3.如需在引文中插注,对某些词语加以解释,则要使用方括号(不可用圆括弧)。如:

Dr.Beaman points out that“he [Charles Darw in] has been an important factor in the debate between evolutionary theory and biblical creationism”(9).

值得注意的是,本例中引文作者的姓已出现在引导句中,故圆括弧中只需注明引文出处的页码即可。

4.如果拟引用的文字中有与论文无关的词语需要删除,则需用省略号。如果省略号出现在引文中则用三个点,如出现在引文末,则用四个点,最后一点表示句号,置于第二个圆括弧后(一般说来,应避免在引文开头使用省略号);点与字母之间,或点与点之间都需空一格。如:

Mary Shelley hated tyranny and“looked upon the poor as pathetic victims of the social system and upon the rich and highborn...with undisguised scorn and contempt...(Nitchie 43).

5.若引文出自一部多卷书,除注明作者姓和页码外,还需注明卷号。如:

Professor Chen Jias A History of English Literature aimed to give Chinese readers“a historical survey of English literature from its earliest beginnings down to the 20thcentury”(Chen,1:i).

圆括弧里的1为卷号,小写罗马数字i为页码,说明引文出自第1卷序言(引言、序言、导言等多使用小写的罗马数字标明页码)。此外,书名 A History of English Literature 下划了线;规范的格式是:书名,包括以成书形式出版的作品名(如《失乐园》)均需划线,或用斜体字;其他作品,如诗歌、散文、短篇小说等的标题则以双引号标出,如“To Autumn”及前面出现的“Democratic Vistas”等。

6.如果英语论文中引用了同一作者的两篇或两篇以上的作品,除注明引文作者及页码外,还要注明作品名。如:

Bacon condemned Platoas“an obstacle to science”(Farrington, Philosophy 35).

Farrington points out that Aristotles father Nicomachus, a physician, probably trained his son in medicine(Aristotle 15).

这两个例子分别引用了Farrington的两部著作,故在各自的圆括弧中分别注出所引用的书名,以免混淆。两部作品名均为缩写形式(如书名太长,在圆括弧中加以注明时均需使用缩写形式),其全名分别为 Founder of Scientific Philosophy 及 The Philosophy of Francis Baconand Aristotle。

7.评析诗歌常需引用原诗句,其引用格式如下例所示。

When Beowulf dives upwards through the water and reaches the surface,“The surging waves, great tracts of water, / were all cleansed...”(1.1620-21).

这里,被引用的诗句以斜线号隔开,斜线号与前后字母及标点符号间均需空一格;圆括弧中小写的1是line的缩写;21不必写成1621。如果引用的诗句超过三行,仍需将引用的诗句与论文文字分开(参见第四项第2点内容)。

五、英语论文的文献目录

论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为 Works Cited, 其格式须注意下列几点:

1.目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。

2.目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码;如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码(但必须计算页数),其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。标题Works Cited与打印纸顶端的距离约为2.5cm,与第一条目中第一行的距离仍为0.6cm;各条目之间及各行之间的距离亦为0.6cm,不必留出更多空白。

3.各条目内容顺序分别为作者姓、名、作品名、出版社名称、出版地、出版年份及起止页码等;各条目应严格按各作者姓的首字母顺序排列,但不要给各条目编码,也不必将书条与杂志、期刊等条目分列。

4.各条目第一行需顶格打印,回行时均需缩进五格,以将该条目与其他条目区分开来。

现将部分较为特殊的条目分列如下,并略加说明,供读者参考。

Two or More Books by the Same Author

Brooks, Cleanth. Fundamentals of Good Writing: A

Handbook of Modern Rhetoric. NewYork: Harcourt, 1950.

---The Hidden God: Studies in Hemingway, Faulkner, Yeats,

Eliot, and Warren. New Haven: Yale UP,1963.

引用同一作者的多部著作,只需在第一条目中注明该作者姓名,余下各条目则以三条连字符及一句点代替该作者姓名;各条目须按书名的第一个词(冠词除外)的字母顺序排列。

An Author with an Editor

Shake speare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. Ed. Louis B.

Wright. New York: Washington Square, 1959.

本条目将作者 Shakespeare 的姓名排在前面,而将编者姓名(不颠倒)放在后面,表明引文出自 The Tragedy of Macbeth;如果引文出自编者写的序言、导言等,则需将编者姓名置前,如:

Blackmur, Richard P.Introduction. The Art of the Novel:

Critical Prefaces. By Henry James. New York: Scribners,

1962.vii-xxxix.

如果引言与著作为同一人所写,则其格式如下例所示(By后只需注明作者姓即可):

Emery, Donald. Preface. English Fundamentals. By Emery.

London: Macmillan, 1972.v-vi.

A Multivolume Work

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. 4 vols. London: Faber, 1928.

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. Vol.2. London: Faber, 1928. 4 vols.

第一条目表明该著作共4卷,而论文作者使用了各卷内容;第二条目则表明论文作者只使用了第2卷中的内容。

A Selection from an Anthology

Abram, M. H.“English Romanticism: The Spirit of the Age.”

Romanticism Reconsidered. Ed. Northrop Frye. New

York: Columbia UP,1963.63-88.

被引用的英语论文名须用引号标出,并注意将英语论文名后的句点置于引号内。条目末尾必须注明该文在选集中的起止页码。

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers

Otto, Mary L.“Child Abuse: Group Treatment for Parents.”

Personnel and Guidance Journal 62(1984): 336-48.

报刊杂志名需划线,但其后不需任何标点符号。62为卷号或期号,如既有卷号,又有期号,则要将二者以句号分开。如:(3.3);1984为出版年份,应置于圆括弧中。

Arnold, Marilgn.“Willa Cathers Nostalgia: A Study in

Ambivalance.”Research Studies Mar.1981:23-24,28.

月刊或双月刊须同时注明出版年月;23-24,28表示该文的前一部分刊于第23和24两页,后一部分则转至第28页。

Gorney, Cynthia.“When the Gorilla Speaks.”Washington Post

31 July,1985:B1.

引用日报上的英语论文必须同时注明报纸出版的年、月、日。B1为该文在报纸中的版面及页码。参考文献(略)

小学语文作文写作方法

例二：如果以《爸爸是个体育迷》为题，有下列写作材料，在符合题意的材料后面打“√”。

1、爸爸经常因工作而忘记吃饭。（）

2、爸爸节省烟钱买球票。（）

3、爸爸每天都要看当天的新闻联播。（）

4、爸爸为灾区捐款。（）

5、爸爸为了看好世界杯足球赛，答应妈妈的要求，承担了全部的家务。（）

[分析]这首题目主要是考查我们围绕中心选材的能力。在这里应该用“比较法”来解决问题，结合着文题的要求，很显然“体育迷”是中心要突出的内容。通过以上五个材料的比较，找出正确的答案，实际上就是在进行扣题选材。解决类似选材的问题，要努力遵循着“想——比——定”的方法。

[解]2、5

例三、阅读短文，完成练习。

（）

黑龙江省齐齐哈尔市东路小学四年一班于闯

我们的学校四季景色都有很诱人，下面由我带大家去看看吧！

春天，小树发芽了，小草也偷偷地钻了出来，太阳笑的格外灿烂。我抬头仰望，碧空如洗，蓝得使人心醉，春天给大地带来了生机和活力。

夏天，高大的杨树在我们的校园起的作用可大啦！他并没白吸必春雨姐姐的礼物，给我们全校同学遮阳光。

秋天，这个季节农民伯伯应该是满心欢喜的。因为，熟透的果实在向他们招手。那么我也懂得了一个道理，有辛勤的汗水，就会有丰收的喜悦。

冬天，大地披上白袍。雪，冰清玉洁，清爽感觉浮现在我的眼前，银铃般的笑声在耳边回荡。

啊！校园四季的景色多么美。

1、给拟个恰当的题目，填写在上面的括号内。

2、通过阅读，你认为在组织材料上有什么特点？

[分析]练习分为两个题目。第1题是对于学生审题能力的一种变相考查，文题往往是中心的凝聚，所以完成这个题目要按逆推的方法，结合着全文的阅读进行概括。第2题是考查我们组织材料，布局谋篇的能力。课标中提出要“从读学写”，通过阅读我们不难发现。的材料是按照一年四季的时间顺序安排的，全文各段间采用了总分总的结构，重点突出，层次清楚，首尾两段实现了前后照应。完成此类题目要从认真阅读入手，弄清题目的要求，结合自己掌握的写作常识，进行深入地理解分析。

[解]1、校园的四季2、按时间顺序安排材料，全文采用总分总的结构，首尾呼应，重点突出，结构清晰。

专题测试：

1、想一想，下面关于“题眼”的确定是否正确，把全正确的选出来。

A、母爱慈母严师

B、一件高兴的事这件事真有趣这件事让我后悔

C、快乐的假日特殊的喜讯我的第一个老师

D、我的书包公园里的雪松春景

《粉笔》

2、判断。（正确的打“√”，错误的打“╳”）

（1）《难忘的樱桃》既可以写人，也可以写事。（）

（2）《我的妈妈》和《我爱妈妈》两个题目的要求相同，都是写妈妈。（）

（3）《我爱的星期日》要求把一家人在星期日里印象最深的一件事或两件事写出来就可以，不用这一天发生的每件事都写。（）

（4）《我的小花猫》与《我和小花猫》两个题目的要求是不一样的。（）

3、分析下面的文题，你明白了什么？

《一张照片》

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

《夏天的晚上》

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

《记关心我的一个人》

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

《——给我带来了乐趣》

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

《未来世界中的——》

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

《想起这件事，我就——》

作文，是小学语文教学的一个极其重要的内容。《九年义务教育全日制小学语文教学大纲》中明确规定了小学作文教学应达到的目标，那就是：作文要有具体内容，有真情实感，有中心，注意选词用语等等。可见，提高小学作文水平，使之作文真实、具体、生动，是实现大纲要求的必要前提。

然而，情况未可乐观。由于小学生认识、经历的相对狭窄，部分学生对作文无兴趣，写出的文章内容空洞，词汇枯燥，叙述不具体，更有甚者，文章大段抄写，雷同文多。这种状况显然不符合大纲要求，更不利于作文能力的培养。

为什么会出现上述情况?我认为，除了学生综合能力的欠缺之外，学生们缺乏对事物细致的观察能力，对作文兴趣不浓，不能不说是作文能力不高的一个重要原因。

在现实生活中有许多美好的新事物、新人物、新景象，为孩子们在写作上提供了无比丰富的素材。那么如何培养学生将丰富多彩的生活内容展现于笔端，使其写出的东西富于韵味、具体、生动、充满活力?我认为应从培养学生作文兴趣、开展适时活动、锻炼思考想象力等方面着手。

1.兴趣培养

少年儿童对周围世界充满好奇，许多爱好就是在他们的生活中逐渐培养并得以发展的，作文兴趣的培养也是一样。我在每次上作文课开始，先给学生们讲一个有关作文知识的趣味小故事。一次上单幅图看图作文课上，我先讲《转“笔”成趣》的小故事，讲的是：清朝文学家纪昀在给朋友的母亲祝寿时，即兴说了一首诗。第一句是“这个婆娘不是人”，话刚落，所有祝寿人都目瞪口呆，认为纪昀“疯”了。可纪昀转口说出第二句：“天上王母下凡尘”，大家一听，笑了起来。可纪昀紧接着说：“儿孙个个都是贼”，大家又惊讶不已。纪昀则不紧不慢地说出最后一句：“偷得蟠桃寿母亲”，所有人都点头佩服纪昀。听了这个故事，使学生明白了作文不能平铺直叙，要有起有伏，要吸引读者。

另外多引导学生开展些生动有趣的活动，根据学生的爱好组织活动，以此激发学生的作文兴趣。诸如举办“故事会”“观察日记展览会”“新闻发布会”“三分钟演讲”“一分钟名言荟萃比赛”以及各种形式的手抄报等。还可以将班级或年级或学校的优秀文章集中起来，让学生阅读评论自己身边的佳作，均能激发学生兴趣，增加相互竞争的劲头。“你办报的内容好，文字工整，明天我办的更丰富多彩。”无形中你追我赶，主动收集整理素材，为写作积累了丰富的素材，以此对提高学生写作水平肯定有益。

组织学生爱好的活动是增强兴趣，培养观察能力的有效方法。有一篇习作“春天来了”便是有针对性地通过上述活动来安排的。作文前，举行一次“春色词语集锦会”，让学生搜集有关描写春天的词语。会上同学们争先恐后说出100多个有关描写春天的词语。然后，我带大家去春游，让同学们仔细观察，随时等待提问，诸如春天大地该怎样描述;春天的风怎样形容;描写春天的溪水应该用哪些词语;春天的树有哪些变化，用什么词语表达才能恰如其分;春天南来的鸟儿是什么心情……均能启发学生思维兴趣，有了浓厚的兴趣，便为写作提供了良好的前提。

2.观察和分析周围事物

《大纲》指出：“教师要引导学生接触自然，接触社会，指导学生用心观察和分析周围的事物，养成观察和思考的习惯。”有了观察和思考的习惯，作文就有了素材，写出的文章内容就充实。所以教师要善于引导学生观察分析事物，进而增强观察的焦点，写出有深度、内容丰富、生动的佳作。例如：让学生以《可爱的沈阳》为题来作文，很多学生不知如何下笔。教师要求学生仔细观察，找到体现沈阳独特风光的景物。在学生观察取景的过程中，指导学生观察的顺序，如何从远及近、从上到下、由表及里去描写，再启发学生开拓思路，抓住结构特点、抓住时间前后的变化。并提醒学生观察要“钻”进去，不能走马观花。要善于发现事物的特性及其表象，通过各种角度的细致观察，抓住细小特点，回头再行笔写作时，笔下的内容自然生动、充实，与原来大不一样。《美好的南运河》《登电视塔观夜》《可爱的秋锦园》等一些反映沈阳风光的作文产生了。这举一例，《可爱的秋锦园》的片断：“只见这里绿草如茵，像有一层翠绿色的地毯覆盖着地面，各种色彩斑斓的花遍布园内，前面的运河像一条长龙卧伏在那……清清的河水缓缓而流，它不像大海那样汹涌可怕，不像小溪那样活泼可爱，相比之下，它显得格外温文尔雅……偶尔几只小鸟儿在河上忽高忽低地飞着，有时还用翅膀或尾翼轻轻点一下水面，骤然间平静的水面出现一道连一道的涟漪，好看极了。”如此细致入微的描写，读来使人如临其境、如闻其声、如见其景，给人以美的享受。若没有仔细观察的功夫，恐怕难有这种上乘之作。该文被收编到《小学生优秀作文选》中。

3.思考与联想

敏锐的观察力，是兴趣培养的有效手段。然而仅仅停留在观察的水平上，写出的东西未必生动。要使文章充满活力，还要求学生在观察的基础上认真思考，展开丰富的联想。这样才使文章充满生机。联想是灵感的翅膀，丰富的联想，促使灵感得以升华。培养学生辐射性的联想，必然会使学生的灵感得以多方位的启发，从而达到升华提高的目的。作文教学实践中，教师在组织学生观察景物的同时，有意识地启发学生认真思考，展开丰富的联想，并联系课本中的名言佳句去理解，诸如四季的变化，人物动静态表情，动植物的体态形状，风、雪、云、雨的起降过程，及其变化，便能使学生在观察中能抓住事物的关键，掌握要点，并由此及彼，写出富有新意的生动的文章来。一般说来，丰富的联想来源于认真的思考，思考得深且远，联想便越丰富。学生对事物、对生活的观察往往很零星、很表象化。要使他们全面深刻地认识事物、理解生活，写出生动、深刻的文章，就要引导培养学生多思考、多联想。事实上，善于思考和联想，写出的文章与没有经过思考和联想写出的东西相比.味道自是不同a此处仅举两例：一个学生写《雪》一文中描写道：“我很喜欢下雪，是因为有两个重要原因。第一，因为冬天一下雪就可以打雪仗、堆雪人。那快乐的歌声可以把树上的雪震落下来，真有趣!另一个原因是我妈妈有灰尘过敏的哮喘症病，一犯病很痛苦，冬天下雪就把灰尘压住了，妈妈犯病的痛苦便减少了……”文中既写了下雪快乐的一面，又写出减少妈妈痛苦的一面。表现了女儿盼望母亲健康的孝心。联想得贴切，写出的文章便亲切生动多了。

又如，同是写《小金桔》一文，经过联想便引以写出金桔的两方面：一则金桔清香酸甜，一则却也有不足——核多。正反两面的联想，辩证地写出了客观事物的两方面：好与坏。

由此可见，培养学生的思考、联想的习惯是作文训练中必经之环节。

总而言之，提高学生写作能力的方法很多通过兴趣的培养，观察力的提高，辅以思考联想的训练-虽不能说是唯一途径，但可以视为行之有效的一种途径。只要持之以恒，严格训练，就会提高小学生的写作水平。

1、读优秀作家的作品

这是显而易见的，但却是立竿见影的方法。如果你不读更多的好作品，你就不知道如何写出更好的作品。优秀的作家都是从阅读别人的佳作开始，接着开始模仿，最后超越他们，形成自己的风格。尽可能的多读著作吧，在看内容的时候，更要留意文章的问题和写作的技巧。

2、尽可能多地写

每天都写，如果可能的话，每天写几次。你写得多了，也就写得好了。学如何写作和其他的学问道理是一样的，熟能生巧。写写你自己，写写博客，向出版社投稿。只是写，全情投入地写，练得越多，你的写作水平就提升得越快。

3、随时随地记下你的灵感

随身带一本小笔记本，当你对你构思的小说，文章，或是小说里的人物有灵感的时候，马上记下来。当你听到别人谈话的只言片语有所顿悟时，看到一段散文诗或是一句歌词让你很感动时，也可以马上把他们记下来。灵感总是转瞬即逝的，你及时记录下来，可以成为你写作的素材。我的习惯是，为我要写的文章列一个清单，不断地补充它。

4、专门的写作时间

每天找一段没有任何打扰的时间作为专门的写作时间，让这成为习惯。对我而言，清晨的时间是最佳的，午饭，傍晚，或者深夜的那段时间也可以。把写作当作每天必须完成的任务去做，每天至少写半个小时，当然有一个小时更好。请不要担心，这只会让你写得更好。

5、随便涂鸦

面对整张的白纸，整版的白屏，无从开始，肯定恐怖。你会想：我还是看看邮件或是小憩一会了吧！千万别这样。马上开始写，马上打字，你写什么没有关系，只是让我听到你敲键盘的声音吧。但只要你开始写了，什么都好办了。像我的话，我喜欢先敲上我的名字和文章的标题，这应该不难吧，然后再慢慢的展开情节，全身心地融入进去……关键是：只是随便写写，随便涂鸦，但要马上开始写。

6、集中精神

写作是一件一心一意的事情，在嘈杂的环境中或是同时干别的事情，是不可能写好的。写作需要一个安静的环境，需要一点点柔和的背景音乐。哪怕是最低要求，你需要在没有其他干扰的条件下写作，清理掉书桌上无用的东西。清除与写作无关的一切杂念，现在就是写作的时间，好像把自己放进一个盒子一样，没有任何打扰地进入写作状态。

7、先计划，再写

这好像和“随便涂鸦”有些矛盾，实际上不是这样。在坐下来正式写之前，先做个计划或是脑子里先预演一下情节，这是非常管用的办法。

每天跑步的时候想想要写的东西，或是散步的时间来个头脑风暴；然后把想到的记下来，做一个简明扼要的提纲；等真正准备好开始写了，可以很快地展开，因为思路和想法都有了。

8、创新

你需要模仿名家，并不意味你要跟他们写得一模一样，你可以试试新的写法，从这里学一点，从那里学一点，渐渐地，你就会有了自己的风格，自己的文体，自己的思路。试试一些不一样的表达，创造一些与众不同的表达方式，每一种方法你都可以尝试尝试，看它到底怎么样，不好就不用。

9、修改

你开始构思你的文字，然后试着写，把故事情节展开，最后你需要回过头再看看你都写了什么。这点很重要，很多写手一旦写好就不想修改，已经费时费力地写好了，还要再花时间修改，实在是一件吃力不讨好的活。但如果你想写得更好，你就要学会如何修改。

好的作品是经过反复的推敲和修改而成的，这会让你的作品从平庸中脱颖而出。看看你写的东东，不仅仅是那些拼写和语法错误，还有那些无意义的词，混乱的结构，和让人搞不懂的句子。修改的目标是：更清晰，更直接，更鲜活。

10、简明扼要

这是你在修改的过程中，最重要的一件事情。一句句，一段段的修改，把无关主题的统统都删掉。一个短句比一段冗长的废话更具说服力，大白话比晦涩的专业术语更受欢迎。记得：简单就是力量。

11、富于感染力的句子

在短句中使用富有感染力的动词，当然，并没有要求每一句都是这样，你需要变化。但是，多试试能够吸引人的句子。而且，你没有必要等到你要修改的时候再用，你刚开始写的时候就要考虑这个问题。

12、获取别人的反馈

闭门造车不会有任何进步，让别人读读你的文章给你回馈，他们会给你很中肯和有见地的建议。认真听，即使是一些批评，接受它，忠言逆耳，这样让你写得更好。

13、是骡子是马拉出来溜溜

就你而言，你需要让别人读到你的作品。你的作品不是你想让谁看谁就看的，所有的人都读你的文章。你要发表你的短篇小说和诗歌，给出版社供稿。如果你已经开始写博客了，恭喜你，这是一个好的开始。

14、采用对话式的文体

很多人写得很正式，但是我发现最好是写得像我们说话一样会更流畅，更通俗。这样一来，读者看起来会更舒服。刚开始这么写并不容易，你需要坚持这么做。也许，会带来另一个问题，为了读起来更口语化，你需要打破一些语法规则。如果生搬硬套语法，会让你的文章看起来很不自然。但是如果没有其他原因，不要破坏语法规则。你需要知道你在做什么，为什么这样做。

15、好开头和结尾

开头和结尾是文章的重点，特别是开头。如果你不能在故事的开始吸引读者，他们很难有耐心把整篇文章读完。所以投入更多的时间考虑怎么写好开头，读者一旦对你开头感兴趣，他们会想知道得更多...写好开头后，再有一个精彩的结尾，这会让读者更加期待你的下一篇佳作。