关于英语说明文的写作方法(精品20篇)

导语：在会写记叙文之前我们首先要学会怎么去记叙好一件简单的事情，下面我们来看看叙事文的写作方法。

一、要交代清楚事情发生的地点、时间;要把事情的经过、因果写明白。

一件事，总离不开时间、地点、人物、事件、原因、结果等六个方面的内容，因此，只有把这些方面写清楚了，才能使别人明白你写了一件什么事。

然而，交代这六个方面内容不应该呆板，要根据文章的需要灵活掌握。时间、地点也并不是非要直接点明不可的，有时候可以通过描述自然景物的特征及其变化，将它们间接表示出来。

如“鸡喔喔叫了起来”，就是指天将亮了;“西边的太阳就要落山了”，指的是傍晚，等等。

二、要把事情经过写具体，并做到重点突出。

在记叙文六个方面的内容中，起因、经过和结果，是构成事情最主要的环节。为了把事情写得清楚、明白，在记叙中一定要写好事情的起因、经过和结果，特别要把事情的经过写具体，给人留下完整而深刻的印象。

三、记叙的条理要清晰。一件事都有发生、发展和结果的过程，按照事情发展的顺序记叙，文章的条理就会清楚明白。

确定记叙的顺序以后，还要安排好段落层次。适当地分段，可以使文章眉目清楚。要做到记叙的条理分明，必须在动笔之前，仔细地想一想，文章应该先写什么，再写什么，然后写什么，把记叙的轮廓整理出来。

在写记叙文的时候，我们要有条理性，先要想好先写什么，后写什么，安排好记叙的顺序，不然就会头绪杂乱，条理不清。那么我们要怎么写才能让文章条理清楚呢

一、运用顺叙。

顺叙，是按照事物发生、发展的先后次序进行叙述。这样写，可以将事物的发展过程，有头有尾地叙述出来，来龙去脉，十分清楚。运用顺叙写成的文章，它的层次、段落和事物发生、发展的过程是基本一致的。

顺叙有以时间为顺序的，有以事物发展规律为顺序的，也有以空间变换为顺序的。在叙事性的文章中，大多是以时间为顺序和以事物发展规律为顺序的。

按时间顺序进行叙述时，必须严格地安排好顺序，写清楚叙述的时间。现实生活中任何事情都不会突然发生，它总有一个发生、发展的过程。因此，作者常常要根据事情发生、发展、高潮、结局这一事情发展的规律来进行叙述，文章的层次也是清楚、明了的。

当然，有的文章事情比较简单，因而不一定非要写出事情过程的四个层次(发生、发展、高潮、结局)。

二、运用倒叙。

倒叙，就是把事件的结局或某个最突出的片断提在前面叙述，然后再从事件的开头进行叙述。

需要指出的是，运用倒叙的写法，必须注意交代清楚倒叙的起讫点，顺叙和倒叙的转换处要有明显的界限、必要的文字过渡。这些地方处理不好，会使文章脉络不清，头绪不明，影响内容的表达。

三、运用插叙。

插叙是指在叙述中心事件的过程中，由于某种需要暂时中断叙述的线索而插入的关于另一件事情的叙述。

需要指出的是，在运用插叙时不能打乱原来的叙述线索，要注意与上下文的衔接。这样，文章的结构不仅富有变化，而且叙述事情的条理非常清楚。

想要写好一篇英语作文有哪些方法步骤呢?下面来看看语文迷网为大家带来的写作指导吧。

(一)仔细审题，确定要点。在开始写作这前一定要认真阅读题目中的所有信息(中文提示、图示、注意事项等)把需要表达的全部信息要点列成提纲，列要点时，如果提示是图表，要认真审图，从图中找出要表达的信息要点，如事件发生的背景，人物的衣着、表情、动作、位置、年龄、外貌、图中的英汉文字等，如果有参考词汇，一定要用上。

(二)根据要点，先词组句。近年来高考书面表达的要求不断提高，高分文章要有较多的词汇，较高级的词汇用法。比如表达丰富可以用rich,但如果你用abundant这个词就属于较高级的词汇。再比如“他强调小心驾驶的重要”这个句子 He emphasized the importance of careful driving.其中“强调”这个词如果你用 attach much importance to 效果更佳。

(三)确定时态及人称，内容连贯，结构紧凑。高考书面表达评分标准明确规定，如人称错误要扣分，不同的文体一般都有基本时态。日记通常记叙发生过的事情，多用一般过去时。议论文多用一般现在时，通知等文体通常用一般将来时。每个句子写好之后，句与句之间要选择恰当的连接词。比如：(1)表示承接、递进用语，besides(并且)、whats more(并且)，moreover(而且)，firstly,secondly,finally(最后)，from now on (从此)，afterwards I after that(后来)，to make things worse/ whats worse(使事情更为糟糕的是)，the worst thing of all(最糟糕的是)。(2)表示转折关系用语。but bowever,otherwise,though,despite,in spite of...(尽管)on the other hand(另一方面)，as(尽管)，all the same(尽管如此)。(3)表示因果关系用语。because/because of......for(因为)，owing to (由于)，thanks to (由于)，due to (由于)，so that (结果)。(4)归纳总结用语。to summarize(总而言之)，in short/in a word(简而言之)，on the whole(从总体看)，generally speaking(一般说来)，in my view(我的观点)，in conclusion(总之)。

(四)句式丰富，避免单词。英语书面表达评分标准第五档(21-25分)要求，“应使用较复杂结构，这要求学生不仅会运用基本句型，也要有意识地使用复杂句型，这是文章的亮点。如何使用复杂结构，我认为适当运用非谓语结构(分词短语、动名词或不定式短语)适当运用各种从句(定语从句、名词性从句、状语从句)是有效什么途径。比如：when he arrived in Beijing,he gave me an e-mail.(时间状语从句。一般)→On arriving in Beijing,he gave me an e-mail.Having arrived in Beijing.he gave me an e-mail.(使用了动名词，分别作状语。高级) Hardly had he arrived in Beijing when he gave me an e-mail.(改变时态，句子结构。高级)I wont believe what he says.(一般)→No matter what he says,I wont believe.(让步状从句，高级)。

(五)认真答写，卷面整洁。高考书面表达评分标准中对书写有较高要求。尤其今年英语作文要进行网上阅卷，如果书写较差，会影响到扫描质量，因此，考生在答卷时，一定要认真、清楚规范地书写，以保卷面整洁。

教案(Teaching Plan)是教师施教的课时计划或方案,是帮助教师有效地进行素质教育教学的依据.教案可以帮助教师有计划、有步骤地进行素质教育教学,充分利用课堂教学时间,高质量地完成教学任务.教案写得如何将直接影响教学效果的好坏.因此,在日常教学中,广大教师都非常注重写教案.那么写教案时应写什么呢?

一、写课题(Topic)和课型(Lesson Type)

课题相当于文章的标题,讲课时要首先告诉学生,并写在黑板上.因此要写得准确.课型是指该节课的讲授类型.初中英语的主要课型有:新授课(New lesson)、巩固课(Reinforcement Lesson)、复习课(Revision Lesson)、语音课(Phonetic Lesson)、听力课(Listening Lesson)、听说课(Aural-Oral Lesson)、阅读课(Reading Lesson)、语法课(Grammar Lesson)等.不同的课型应用不同的授课方式或方法,只有确定了课型,才能选择有效的素质教育教学方法.

二、写素质教育教学目标(Teaching Objective)

素质教育教学目标是教案的核心内容,是教师施教的准绳.教学目标要符合大纲对教材的要求.由于教学目标要在课堂上展示给学生,让学生明确,所以写素质教育目标时,要力求简明扼要,浅显易懂,便于操作和检测,一般3~4个目标为宜.

三、写素质教育教学的重点(Main Points)、难点(Difficult Points)和关键点(Key Points) 素质教育重点是课堂教学的主要任务;教学难点是师生顺利完成教学任务的障碍;素质教学关键是攻克教学难点的突破口.在教案中写清一节课的教学重点、难点和关键点,能提醒教师在讲课时注意突出重点、突破难点、抓住关键.

四、写教具(Teaching Tools)

课堂上需要什么教具要写清楚,如录音机、教材录音带、教学挂图、卡片、实物(或模型)、小黑板、刻印好的练习题、彩色粉笔、幻灯片等.

五、写素质教育教学过程(Teaching Procedure)

素质教育教学过程是教案的主要部分.写教学过程主要写以下几方面的内容:

1. 写教学环节.教学环节即教学任务是什么要写清楚,做到心中有数.目前有些教师采用"三阶段六环节"教学模式,即:准备阶段(自由交流、复习检查)、讲练阶段(导入课程、分层操练)和发展阶段(巩固发展、布置作业).

2. 写知识点和所用时间.写好知识点,教师使用教案时能一目了然,有的放矢.写好所用时间,能使教师从容掌握教学速度,合理安排每个教学环节所需的时间,充分利用课堂时间.

3. 写教师活动.不仅要写教师"教什么",还要写出教师"怎样教",即写清楚教师要教的内容,写出讲授这些内容的方法.写出课堂用语和各环节的过渡语.课堂用语要求简练、口语化,用学生已经学过的熟悉的、听得懂的英语来解释或表达新的教学内容.各环节之间的过渡语要自然流畅.写出使用教具的时机和方法,写板书内容等.

4. 写学生活动.写出学生学习的内容和学习方法,特别是怎样学应写清楚.不能简单地把学生活动写成听、读、思考、操练、做题等.

六、写课堂训练题(Exercises)

备课时精心设计的有针对性的随堂练习题和达标题要写在教案中.写清出示这些题的办法,如用小黑板、看刻印材料或学生已有材料等.写出这些题的答案和解题方法.

七、写课堂小结(Summing-up on Teaching)

课堂小结是教师帮助学生回顾和总结本节课的学习内容的重要环节.小结的方式和方法要在教案中写清楚,不论是教师引导学生总结,还是由教师归纳总结,都要注意把本节课的内容纳入知识系统之中,使学生在整体上把握知识.

八、写板书设计(Blackboard Designs)

板书是有声有色的教学语言,它具有直观性、形象性和启发性.因此,教师在课堂上要有计划

地使用黑板,板书什么内容、写在什么位置、用什么颜色的粉笔等要在备课时设计好,并写在教案中.避免课堂上东写一个句子、西写一个短语、一会儿写、一会儿擦、一会儿擦了又写的板书混乱现象.好的板书能使讲课的内容系统化、结构化,有利于学生复习本节课的知识. 写教案时要考虑的问题

1、如何开始备课

在教师着手备课之前，必须吃透课程标准（大纲）及教材，在此基础上，考虑学生的认知规律和实际的语言能力，以确定课题和教学目的，明确教学目标。从教学目标出发，确定重点和难点，考虑用哪些教学法来组织课堂。然后精心挑选、设计练习，确定要做、改、删、增的练习，列授课计划提纲，再逐步仔细预测各种教学技巧和教学手段的应用，特别是涉及可能修改计划、增删内容的教学步骤。

2. 思考几个问题

（1）教学技巧上，是否有足够的变化可以使课堂教学生动有趣？成功的外语课上总有不同的活动，使学生思维活跃，情绪高涨。

（2）不同教学技巧的应用和教学的组织有没有得到有序的、合乎逻辑的安排？理想化的课堂教学须朝着教学目标由易及难、循序渐进。建立在新知识之上的教学活动必须精心安排。

（3）整堂课的节奏设计得好吗？节奏的含义，可以有以下三个方面：第一，活动不能太短，也不能太长。如果课堂活动多而短，那么学生刚刚找到某活动的“感觉”，又得“跳到”下一个活动去了。这样不好。第二，教师应考虑如何把各种教学技巧、教学手段和教学组织形式揉合在一起。例如，一堂课上连续搞全班俩俩全班小组俩俩全班……的活动，每个活动五分钟，那么，这些活动是难以发挥其应有作用的。第三，控制好节奏也有利于各个教学活动之间的衔接。例如：

（4）整节课的时间有没有安排好？这是备课最难控制的因素之一。新教师往往容易提早授完所备内容，而后又易矫枉过正，不能完成课时计划。这里有两点值得提醒。预先准备一些“备用”的复习活动。如果提早授完已准备的内容，则进行复习巩固练习。

3. 学生的个体差异

随着教学过程的重心由教师向学生转变，学生的主体作用日益突出。课堂教学必须充分考虑学生的个体差异。我们主张，备课一般应以中等程度的学生为准，但也应适当照顾两头的学生。可以考虑以下五个方面：（1）教学内容适当包含一些较难或较易的项目，（2）针对不同水平的学生问不同难度的问题，（3）设计的教学活动尽可能让全体同学都参与。

4. 学生谈话与教师谈话

备课时要充分考虑教师与学生的谈话时间。一般的英语课上，总是教师说得多， 学生说得少。要注意让学生有较多的机会进行交际。

一、 教学内容及分析

1、内容：说明方法及作用

2、分析：说明文的知识是中考必考的内容，说明方法及作用也是中考中常考的考点。在原有学习的基础上，有针对性地复习说明方法，能使学生答题时思路清晰，有依据。重点是会正确判断说明方法，并能结合实例说出运用此说明方法的作用。

二、教学目标及分析

1、教学目标：

（1）知道初中阶段常用的几种说明方法；

（2）会正确判断说明方法，准确理解说明方法的作用。

2、分析：通过教师的讲解及学生做实际的题型训练，达成目标。

三、教学问题

在准确判断说明方法的基础上，分析其在文中的作用应该是本节课的一个难点。教师要引导学生通过练习归纳出答作用的方法，特别是一些关键词语的运用。

四、教学过程

方法就是世界_随笔写作

究竟是因为方法而诞生了世界，究竟是有了世界才延伸出方法——这是一个问题。

缺少足够方法之前的世界，物质单一，不过是乾/坤/风/雷/电，金/木/水/火/土。只有喜欢孤独的上帝自己，往去往来。最后可能连上帝也觉出了孤独的无味，恍然萌生了创世的冲动。上帝的方法是，凝神一忖，再信口说出来，于是就开始有这有那。

大手笔难免是粗枝大叶。我始终怀疑上帝并非完美主义者，那几个不太一般的日子里，他制造的奇迹很多，遗憾同样很多。

后来有了我们。

关于我们的来历，一直小有争议。说法之一是上帝根据自己的样子弄的，所以我们每个人看上去差不多是一个迷你型的袖珍上帝。因此一句话很是流行：上帝就是你自己！说法之二较为传奇，说我们曾经是单核的细菌，长大成了无肺的鱼，然后经常上岸练习爬行生出了脚，接着开始学会用奶汁精心乳育孩子，我们的孩子于是乎聪明起来了，几来几去地终于成了现在的我们。

我们自身，其实恰恰是方法的结晶，是无数好方法集萃的大拼盘。

也许我们生来是为改变世界的，因为我们居然能够思考。虽然思考时的傻样子引得上帝讪笑，我们还是为思考时的充实感而着迷。我们思考一切，乃至自己，试图影响并且已经影响了它们。我们因方法而来，又因握住方法而最终与众不同。

方法与我们之间，有如茅枪和投手。

好方法之外，与之截然相反的是——坏方法。

坏方法几乎同好方法一样多，原因在于，它一开始看上去，无论如何都像是好方法，进行中仍然酷似好方法。必等到恶劣的结果出来，丑陋的面目才肯昭然。坏方法与好方法并非了无瓜葛，有时可以比照失败乃成功之母的模式。而有些坏方法导致的局面却是极难逆转的，比如我们一不小心发明了战争，比如我们不留神复制了太多的同类，比如我们污浊了时刻吸吐的空气如鱼弄脏了它的水，将赖以为家的星球搞得一塌糊涂。在茫茫宇宙间，我们真的太像是一群容易闯祸的孩子。那颗载着我们日夜航行的、乌烟瘴气的地球，几乎成了一块连上帝自己也搬不动的石头。

世界上本没有什么大事，只是因为许多小事碰在了一起，才有了大事。同样世界上也从来没有过大方法，只是因为数不清的小方法不断地累积，最终才有了大方法。一如那个苹果落在头上、旋即从脑汁里绞出条定律的家伙说的：我们是站在巨人的肩膀上！

世界是一堆方法，方法就是整个世界。我有时想，当我们傻傻思考的时候，头脑里一定像眼前的星空一样，熠熠生煇，放射夺目的光彩。也许美丽的宇宙，恰恰正是一个巨人的头脑，我们就生活在他的思维里，一切的一切，都是他或者我们的灵动的、跳跃着的智慧的火花。

说明文中，先说什么，后说什么，是必须要解决的问题。任何事物本身都有一定的条理性，而人们对于客观事物的认知过程，同样也有规律可循。因此，说明文的顺序不是可以任意安排的，今天，小编给大家带来说明文的说明顺序，希望通过分享说明文的说明顺序，能对提高同学们的说明文阅读能力有所帮助。

说明文是客观地说明事物的一种文体，它以解说或介绍事物的形状、性质、成因、构造、功用、类别等或物理的含义、特点、演变等为主要内容。说明文以说明为主要表达方式，兼用记叙、描写、议论。说明文主要是通过对客观事物或事理的介绍说明，达到以知识教人的目的。与记叙文、议论文相比，说明文更强调科学性、客观性。说明文以客观、准确为基本要求，强调知识性和科学性。

合理安排说明文的顺序是写好一篇说明文的重要一环。说明顺序主要有三种：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序。

一、逻辑顺序

逻辑顺序，即按照事物、事理的内在逻辑关系来说明的一种顺序。它具体体现在以下几个方面：1.由概括到具体；2.由主要到次要；3.从原因到结果；4.从整体到部分；5.从特点到用途；6.由个别到一般；7.由具体到抽象等。

凡是阐述事物、事理间的各种因果关系或其他逻辑关系，按逻辑顺序写作最为适宜。不管是实体的事物，如山川、江河、花草、树木、器物等，还是抽象的事理，如思想、观点、概念、原理、技术等，都适用于以逻辑顺序来说明。如2009年高考语文湖北卷中有关“数字海洋”的说明中，作者先是说明数字海洋的地位与作用，接着说明数字海洋的构成与属性，最后再写数字海洋的建设途径，由概括到具体，由特征到用途，层次清晰，脉络分明，使得读者对相对抽象的科普内容感到易于接受。

值得注意的是，以上说明顺序很多时候不是孤立地进行，而是相互综合运用，是不能截然分开的。如李峰的《人类最完美的战利品》中有关对“狗”的说明就综合采用了多种说明顺序。首先，从文章的整体布局来看，作者采用了逻辑顺序，先写狗的历史丰富，再写狗的种类繁多，接着写狗的特征鲜明，最后写狗与人类的亲密相处，使得说明对象的特点清楚、明了，便于读者接受。再者，从文章的局部来看，作者在追溯狗的丰富的历史时，又选用了时间顺序，从四千万年前的史新世写到一千多万年前的托马克，从一万五千年前的中世纪时代写到七千年前的我国的家狗化石，最后写到现代狗，给读者一条清晰的阅读脉络，让读者徜徉其中，如临幽境。

二、空间顺序

空间顺序也是说明文写作中常见的一种顺序。它是指按照事物空间存在的方式，或从外到内，或从上到下，或从整体到局部来加以介绍。这种说明顺序有利于全面说明事物各方面的特征。一般说明某一静态实体（如建筑物等），常用这种顺序。如《故宫博物馆》一文就按照先总后分的顺序，先概括说明故宫建筑物的总体特征，然后再具体介绍太和门——太和殿——中和殿——保和殿——乾清宫——御花园，而在介绍每一座建筑物的时候，则又按照先外后内、先上后下的顺序。这样安排合乎人们观察事物的习惯，是最合理的顺序。

三、 时间顺序

所谓时间顺序，即按照事理发展过程的先后来介绍某一事物的说明顺序。凡是事物的发展变化都离不开时间，如说明生产技术、产品制作、工作方法、历史发展、文字演变、人物成长、动植物生长等，都需要时间的检测与验证。所以，在说明这些事物的时候，适宜采用时间顺序。如2010年高考语文四川卷中《书画的装裱》一文就多角度使用了这一顺序。首先，作者在行文的整体思路上采用了时间顺序，在说明书画装裱的历史时，作者主要从三个时间段来写：两晋到五代时期是书画装裱的初创到初发展的时期，宋代是“书画名家层出不穷，书画装裱飞跃发展”的时期，明代是“我国绘画发展的重要时期”，也是“书画装裱进入发展的黄金时期”。再者，仅从书画装裱的初创到初发展的时期看，作者依然选用了时间顺序，作者从两晋写到南北朝，再写到唐代，然后写到五代。这样写，避免了内容上的相互交*，使得全文思路清晰，结构严谨。同样，2010年高考语文陕西卷中对有关“书法”历史演进的说明也是从晋代王羲之入手，然后写到唐代的颜真卿、柳公权，最后一直写到现代的各族书法家。作者以时间为脉，娓娓道来，使得行文流畅自然，事物介绍言简意赅。

总之，说明文写作对文章的顺序有很强的要求，它要求考生不能只停留在一种僵化的模式上，要多角度多层面认真思考。既要考虑人们认识事物的一般顺序，考虑所说明的事物的结构特点和事理的内在逻辑关系，又也要考虑说明的中心与材料的关系，然后再根据自己的说明对象与说明内容选取合适的说明顺序，使得文章条理清晰，因材制宜，言之有序。

以上简单介绍了说明文的说明顺序。说明文的阅读在中考和高考中都占有比较大的比重，掌握其阅读方法尤为重要。

看图作文就是把画面的意思用文字表达出来，它是作文训练的一种好形式，它能培养你的观察能力，想象能力和有条理的思维能力。那么怎么写呢?下文是小编整理的相关内容，欢迎阅读参考!

看图作文有单幅图和多幅图，看是写的前提。看图要有顺序地边看边想，或从上到下，从下到上;或从远到近，从近到远;或从中间到四周;或从人到景，从景到人。想一想，图上画的是一件什么事物，对画面所表达的主要内容先有一个大概的了解。再细看画面，了解事情发生的环境、地点，从景物和人物的衣着，还可以分析出事情发生的时间;细看人物的穿戴和身材，想一想人物的身份，年龄和职业;细看人物的动作，想一想他们在干什么，是怎样干的;细看人物的表情，想一想人物的思想感情。然后想一想整幅图画说明一个什么问题，作者画这幅画的目的是什么。最后，按图意列出提纲进行写作。

叙事的单幅图只展示了一件事的部分内容，除了前面所说的那些方法外，我们还要学会从一幅图的内容，想象出以前会怎么样，以后会发生什么变化，重视写好开头和结尾。

如果是多幅图，要注意图与图之间的联系。要着重观察前一幅中没有出现的事物，如出现了哪些新的人物，地点有什么变化等。即使是相同的画面，也要特别注意画面的细微变化，如人物的动作和表情，天气的变化等。从而了解事情的发展变化。逐幅看完后，再连贯起来重看一遍，使画面上事物的发生，发展的经过和结果，在自己头脑中留下一个完整的印象，然后按每幅图的主要意思列出提纲，突出重点，注意详略，不要每幅图都平均使用力气。每幅图的叙述描写要注意连贯，互相衔接。不要变成图意的说明。

看图写话的画面是静止的，而且比较单调，我们要通过仔细观察，合理想象，使静止的画面动起来。使单调的画面充实起来，如使人物开口说话，开展心理活动，使景物具有色彩等。看图写话的方法。简要地可以用十二个字概括：顺序观察，尝试表达，合理想象。

[看图作文写作方法

英语写作说难也不难，下面是语文迷为大家整理的一些英语写作方法指导，供大家参考选择。

2014年6月的3套题的考查形式是这样的：write an essay explaining “why it is unwise to jump to conclusion upon seeing or hearing something”, “why it is unwise to put all your eggs in one basket”, “why it is unwise to judge a person by their appearance”;

2014年12月的3套题的出题形式是这样的：write an essay based on the picture below, you should start your essay with a brief description of the picture and then discuss “whether technology is indispensable in education”, “whether there is a shortcut to learning”, “what qualities an employer should look for in job applicants”;

2015年6月的3套题的出题形式是这样的：write an essay commenting on the saying “knowledge is a treasure, but practice is the key to it”, “if you can’t do great things, do small things in great way”, commenting on Albert Einstein’s remark “I have no special talents, but I am only passionately curious”。

但是，透过这些变化的考查形式，我们也可以发现不变的考查方向，不论是2014年6月的谚语或名言原因阐述型，还是2014年12月的漫画或图片描述型，亦或是2015年6月的俗语或名言评论型，在写作体裁上都是一样的，都是在要求考生写出一篇夹叙夹议，以议论为主的议论文。

六级写作方法指导

议论文写作是六级考试的重点，考生既要注意旗帜鲜明地说出自己的观点，围绕观点展开深层次的论述，更要注意综合运用一些高端词汇和句型来表达自己的观点，尽量避免套用一些常见模板，从而给阅卷老师留下耳目一新的感觉，取得高分。

具体而言，六级议论文通常都可以采用“三段式”的结构。

第一段开门见山，直接提出观点;

第二段对观点展开论述，先陈述理论，在列举事例;

最后一段再次回应论点，也可提出措施，再次强调论点。

对于谚语或名言类文章，首先，要注意充分理解和深刻挖掘其中的道理，不能仅从字面去理解，更多的是要结合实际理解其深刻的寓意，其次，要选择有典型性更有说服性的事例展开论述，把道理讲透并让人信服。谚语类题型近年来出现频率越来越高，所以，考生要注意加强日常的积累，多积累多思考，只有这样，才能在考试时不慌不忙、有理有据地写好谚语类作文。图画类作文是议论文的一种，区别在于该类作文要求考生首先要理解图画内容并在首段将其清晰的描述出来。第二、三段的写作与其他议论文是一样的。

说明文是对事物形状、性能、特点、成因等进行的理解式表达表述的文章。其形式多为文字提示或图表。这种文体使用比较广泛。科普文、产品介绍、国情或民俗介绍都属于这类文体。说明文是陈述客观事实，谓语动词通常用一般现在时态。说明文具有以下特点：

1. 科学性。介绍事物或解说事理必须揭示其本质特征。做到概念准确，判断恰当，分类清楚。

2. 客观性。写说明文时，要按照事物的本来面目如实地加以介绍、说明和解释。不能带有个人愿望或主观倾向。

3. 知识性。说明文以说明为主要表达方式，用简洁的语言介绍事物或阐明事理，使人们获得关于某一事物的知识和道理。

4. 解说性。说明文的目的就是在于把事物、现象或道理解释、介绍清楚，让读者明白。

几点写作注意

写说明文要注意以下几点：

1. 抓住中心，分清主次。首先根据要仔细阅读文字提示或观察图表，确定文章的中心内容。再根据内容把文章文分成几个段落，每段都要拟定一个主题句。然后确定中心人称和主体时态。

2. 列全要点，扩编句子。以拟定的主题句为中心，选择恰当的词和句型组织材料，编写句子，形成段落。

3. 布局谋篇，连段成文。按照一定的逻辑顺序，用适当的过渡词把已经写好的段落串连成一篇完整的文章。

具体写作实例

例如：根据下列提示，写一篇介绍你们学校的短文。

1. 位于市中心。

2. 有50多年的历史。

3. 现有60个教学班，近3000名学生。

4. 校园美丽，教学设备先进。

5. 教师经验丰富，工作努力。

6. 已为国家培养了许多高素质人才。

7. 本校为全市最好的学校之一。

要求：词数100左右。

写作示范：

Our school is located in the center of the city. I t has a history for more than 50years. Now, there are nearly 3000 students studying hard here, who were divided into 60 classes. I t has a beautiful campus and modern teaching facilities. The teachers are well experienced and they all put their hearts into teaching. Many students with high quality have been educated since the founding of the school. It is now one of the best schools in the city.

1) 例证法。利用典型事例进行论证就是例证。运用例证时要注意就事论理，揭示所举例子包含的道理;要揭示论据与论点之间的内在联系。切忌例子加论点，没有具体分析。

2) 引证法。引用名言(还可以用公认的道理、原则等)来阐明观点就是例证。运用例证时要注意所引道理与论点吻合，切不可生搬硬套，还要对引用的道理进行评析，挖掘它的涵义。另外在平时学习中多积累一些古典诗词中名句，它一方面能加强论证的力量，另一方面，它还可以丰富文章的内容，增强议论文的文学性。

3) 喻证法。用打比方的方式来论证观点就是喻证。运用喻证要注意比喻的确切、精巧、含意深刻。其目的就是为了增强文章论证的形象性。

4) 对比法。通过两种或两种以上的不同事物，或者同一种事物的两种不同情况的对比，来论证观点的方法就是对比法。这种方法可以增强论证的鲜明性，使读者清楚作者赞成什么，反对什么。

三、议论文写作的思维准备

(一)发散思维——定立意

举例：西方人吃铁蚕豆，吃了壳，吐了豆，摇头说：“肉薄、核大，什么好吃?”西方人煮茶吃，倒去茶水吃茶叶，皱眉说：“涩而无味，有什么好?’

这个事例告诉我们什么道理呢?

至少包含如下道理：1、看问题切忌片面化 2、不能死板硬套，搞经验主义 3、不要自以为是，凡事想当然 4、切莫盲目排外 5、孤陋寡闻会误事 6、不可轻率下结论 7、客观事物的价值不以人的主观意志为转移

(二)逆向思维——定立意

举例：

1) 近墨者黑：身正，近墨未必黑。

2) 知足常乐：不自满是永远向上的车轮。

3) 言者无罪：因言获罪者比比皆是。

4) 后生可畏：激情四射，才华横溢的同时别忘了沉淀，否则江郎也会有才尽的一天。

5) 艺高人胆大：但是也要看到“大意失荆州”“河里淹死的多是会水的人”，因此艺高也要谨慎。

6) 开卷有益：好书有益多多，坏书则未必。

7) 班门弄斧：弄斧到班门方可有长进。

8) 勤能补拙：勤奋也要讲究方式方法，否则徒劳。

9) 守株待兔：老师和家长在教育学生时这种“等待”最为需要。

10) 识时务者为俊杰：一味迎合世俗岂不让人平庸。

(三)辩证思维——定立意

调研文章，顾名思义就是对某个问题经过调查、研究后写出的理论文章。小编收集了调研文章的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、什么是调研文章

调研文章，顾名思义就是对某个问题经过调查、研究后写出的理论文章。调研文章以调查为前提，以研究为重点，以探讨为目的，并不只是对事实的对与错、优与劣、或者先进与落后的简单评论。有人把调查报告当成调研文章，这是不对的，因为调查报告只注重调查、不注重研究，只是陈列问题的事实和数据，没有对事实和数据作进一步的分析、推理，没有得出具有建设性的探索、实践成果，所以调查报告不是调研文章。有人把工作总结当成调研文章，这更是不对的，因为工作总结是对过去的工作成绩和经验进行的归纳总结，并不是对某方面问题进行专门的调查研究和论证，不带有研讨性和探索性，所以工作总结不是调研文章。同理，新闻宣传报道、先进事迹材料等也不是调研文章。调研文章以反映问题为主，往往报忧多于报喜，目的是为了探讨、为了创新、为了解决问题，为了以先人之忧换取后人之乐。

调研文章的“调”，就是调查、了解，就是深入基层、深入实际、深入问题去作调查，去收集资料和数据。“研”，就是对所调查、了解的问题进行分析研究，提出控制问题发展变化的建议或措施。既然是调研，就要对那些比较前沿的、边缘的、新出现的问题或者工作中的重点、难点、热点或焦点问题进行深入的调查了解和分析思考，而不只是对一般问题的随便谈论。调研文章是在调查研究的基础上写成的，而不靠是道听途说、闭门造车、苦思眠想编出来的。

二、调研课题的选择

调研课题，就是指调研人员开展调查研究分析探讨的问题，也是调研文章反映的问题。调研课题有三种形式：第一种是命题调研，即调研课题由上级事先确定，调研人员只能按照上级确定的课题开展调研，并以调研课题名为标题写作调研文章;第二种是半命题调研，即上级只规定调研课题内容的范围，具体调研文章的标题由调研人员根据调研工作开展的情况选择确定;第三种是自由调研，即上级不指定调研范围或具体问题，由调研人员根据自己的工作实际结合自己的兴趣自行选择调研课题和调研文章的标题。实际工作中可以调研的问题非常广泛，以税收工作为例，税收管理、税款征收、税法宣传、税务稽查、税收信息化建设、干部队伍建设、征管质量建设、党风廉政建设等各个方面都有不尽完善的地方，都还存在着需要进一步解决的问题，这些问题都可以作为我们的调研课题。那么，面对众多的课题我们应当怎样选择呢?有几个方法可供参考：一是选择自己熟悉的、接触过的问题;二是选择自己感兴趣的或者曾经思考过的问题;三是选择目前工作中的重点、难点、热点或焦点问题。之所以这样选择，是因为按这些方法去选择的课题可以减轻调查难度，减少调查工作量，收集资料比较容易、写出的文章比较适合现实工作需要，参考价值较高，投稿获得采用的可能性也比较大。

三、调研文章的文体格式

一篇调研文章，尽管有许多段落，有大小标题，有层次序号，但从格式上看不外乎开头(即绪论)、主体(即本论)和结尾(即结论)三个部分。

开头部门主要是交待写作背景、动机或目的，也就是说这篇文章是在什么情况下写的，为什么要写这篇文章，写这篇文章希望发挥什么作用、达到什么目的等。这部分一般用几十到几百个字概括地写、说清楚就行，要让读者或者编辑尽快看到主要内容，不必空话连篇大谈形势任务和工作开展情况，也无需叙述调研过程，但必须从一定高度着笔，要体现出写这篇文章的必要性和价值意义。

主体部分主要是提出问题、分析问题和解决问题，这部分所占篇幅最大，一般为数千字。在提出问题时根据具体情况而定，如所提问题是常见问题，可以直接列举，不必赘述过程;如所提问题不常见，就必须说明问题出现的条件或者发现问题的过程，这样才具有真实感或可信度。分析问题时一般要说明三点，一是问题产生的原因和条件;二是问题存在的现状和影响，现状要用调查的事实和数据来说明，影响包括有利影响和不利影响，两方面都要有事实依据，要让人觉得好的方面值得学习，差的方面必须解决。解决问题是指对存在的问题提出解决的建议或措施，所提建议或措施应当简便、合理、可行。简便就是易于操作实施，不需创造特殊条件;合理就是符合工作需要、有利工作开展并且大多数人乐于接受;可行就是指投入少、效益高、见效快、符合国家政策规定。

结尾部分有的是对文章主体内容作综合概括，有的是对主体部分提出的建议和措施作出实施要求;有的是对问题发展变化作出展望和预测;有的是对写作本篇文章的目的意义再作强调，呼应开头。至于哪种结尾方式较好，要根据具体文章的论述情况和结构而定。

四、调研文章写作前的准备工作

当我们决定要写作一篇调研文章时，首先是确定调研课题，即准备写什么、写哪方面的问题，要事先确定下来，要有一个明确的写作目的和方向。其次是收集调研资料，包括调查问题发生的原因、发展的现状及影响，查阅相关资料和记录，了解相关人员对问题的看法或意见，同时还要熟悉法律法规或上级部门对此类问题作出的政策规定等。只有深入调查，才能对问题有比较客观、真实、准确、全面的了解，才能获得第一手资料、才能有感性认识。第三是分析问题实质，即是将自己调查获得的全部资料和数据进行分类、筛选、归纳、总结，去粗取精、去伪存真，搞清问题的来龙去脉、前因后果及其对工作的利弊影响，找出问题发展变化的必然趋势和规律。第四是提出对策措施，即根据分析研究的结果，提出控制问题朝有利方向发展的建议和措施。建议和措施必须立足现实、展望长远，既要具有解决目前问题的实用性和可行性，又要具有适应改革发展的宏观性和战略性。

五、调研文章的写作步骤

写作调研文章也与写作其他各类长文章一样，有一定的步骤。首先是拟定提纲，即这篇文章准备写几个部分，哪个部分需要写哪些内容，需要引用哪些事实和数据等，都要事先设计和规划好，并以提纲的形式写出来或打好腹稿，这样才能增强文章结构的合理性和艺术性。其次是选择材料，根据提纲要求将调查所获得的材料进行分类、筛选、归纳和加工精减，剔除无用部分，保留有用部分。第三是动笔写作，即根据提纲要求将选择好的材料通过一定的形式和方法“组合”起来，构成一篇内容充实、形式完整、上下联贯、结构合理的调研文章。第四是修改提炼，即对已经大体写完的文章进行文字、语法等错误的纠正，对数据材料进一步核实，对段落层次进一步调整，对主题思想进一步提炼。修改的目的是使文章达到文从字顺、用语贴切、详略得当、张驰有度。修改必须反复多次，不到完全满意不定稿。一篇有价值的调研文章应当是立意新颖、文词严谨、内容精妙、说理透彻，使人读后有启发、有提高，而不是看了上页不想看下页，或者勉强看完觉得浪费时间的次品。

六、调研文章常见问题及避免方法

笔者经常看同志们写的调研文章，大多数文章或多或少都存在一些问题，归纳起来主要有以下几方面：

1、标题拟写不恰当：主要问题一是概括性不强，从标题不能看出文章的主要内容和主要观点;二是命题过大或过小，与文章主要内容不相称;三是不够新颖醒目，难以吸引读者注意力;四是缺乏调研特色，不象调研标题。对标题方面存在的问题，除命题调研是因为没有把握好调研课题的范围、方向或者主要精神外，其余都是因为命题时缺乏思考或者不会命题造成。对命题调研不能更改标题，只能从调查研究的广度、深度或者文章主题立意方面去想办法，一是再作补充调查，获取更详实、更有针对性的资料，二是进一步修改调整文章内容，提炼文章主题，使其符合调研课题的要求;对自由调研或者半命题调研，既可以根据文章内容重新拟写标题，也可以根据提纲要求对文章内容进行修改、调整。

2、分析论证不得力：主要问题一是对存在的问题缺少实例说明;二是空话套话多，分析不够，论证无力。三是思路不清，所提建议措施不合理或者缺乏可操作性;四是人云亦云，缺乏独特见解。对分析论证方面存在的问题，一是要深入调查，掌握大量的第一手资料和数据;二是要实事求是，站稳立场、敢于揭露问题、分析问题;三是要提高认识、理清思路，明确调研写作目的;四是要多读报刊上类似课题的文章，了解他人的观点和思路，选取与他人不同的角度来分析问题，提出有特色的措施和建议。

3、文体格式不规范：主要问题一是绪论过长或者无绪论，过长的绪论写了五、六百字还未谈及主要内容，降低了读者或编辑读下文的兴趣，无绪论的文章直接谈论问题，让人觉得突然无头绪，弄不清作者的目的和用意，因此难以认同作者的分析和论证。二是虎头蛇尾，开头起点高，但主体部分或并未提出有分量的问题，或者虽提出了问题但分析不深刻。三是臃肿冗长，随意倾泄，拖泥带水，与主题联系不紧。四是前后不对应，有的是缺少对问题的分析，有的是未针对问题提出建议和措施。解决文体问题的方法已在上节谈过，此处不作重复。

七、提高调研文章写作水平的方法

提高写作水平的方法有多种，就目前我们的干部而言，通常有以下几种方法：一是多读，就是多读那些正式发表的文章，多看别人的文章既有助于我们学写法、学思路、学结构、学论证方法，也有助于我们了解同类课题的调研状况。二是多练，即多调查、多研究、多动笔，熟能生巧，只有在增加数量的基础上才能提高质量。三是多思，包括写作前的分析研究，写作中的谋篇布局和写作后的修改提炼等，要求思考要深刻，分析要透彻，判断要准确，立意要新颖。四是要多问，多问即向有写作经验的人求教，把自己写好的文章请他们帮助查问题、提意见，或者帮助加工修改等。

总之，要写出一篇有价值、有水平的文章，必须经过深入的调查了解，仔细的分析研究，周密的谋篇布局，反复的修改提炼等才能成功。不经一番寒彻骨，哪得梅花扑鼻香。尽管各个作者的思维方式不同，写作习惯各异，但调查、研究、拟稿、修改都是必须步骤，只要肯下苦功多读、多练、多思、多问，勤学苦练，时间长了就会积累写作经验，就会掌握写作技巧，就会不断提高调研文章的写作水平。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

有效的写作步骤，我认为离不开想、说、写、读、改。小编收集了指导学生写作的有效方法，欢迎阅读。

一、引导学生从生活中捕捉写作的素材

学生写作的源泉来源于生活。要想让学生喜欢写作文，首先要引导学生学会寻找写作文的源头。生活是实实在在的，又是丰富多彩的，学生留心观察生活，能把平凡生活反映出来，这对学生写作来说具有重要意义。叶圣陶老先生说过：“作文这件事离不开生活，生活充实到什么程度，才会写成什么文字。”因此，只有让学生平时多留心观察生活，多参加实践活动，才能积累学生对事物的认识和感受。为了让学生能够从日常生活中获得丰富的写作素材，我注意培养学生留心观察周围事物的习惯。经常安排一些联系学生生活实际的活动。如利用周末或妈妈的生日、母亲节、妇女节等时间，帮助妈妈做一些力所能及的家务活，亲身体验一下父母平时的辛苦，并把劳动的过程、父母的反应、自己劳动后的心情和感受写下来;观察自己喜欢的小动物，把它的样子特点、生活习性和自己之间发生的有趣事情，以及对它的喜爱之情表达出来。如果学生平时能够养成多看、多听、多思、多问的好习惯，日积月累，就丰富了自己的作文材料。

二、鼓励学生大量阅读，丰富语言的积累

常言道：“读书破万卷，下笔如有神，”多读多练是写好作文的“诀窍”。阅读是作文的基础，要提高学生的写作能力，就要指导学生做好读书笔记，要做好课内课文的读书笔记，但这远远不够，还要指导学生大量阅读课外读物，并做好读书笔记。我除了通过教学课文进行语言积累外，还鼓励学生大量阅读有益的，对身体发育成长有利的课外读物，并向学生推荐一些好的报刊读物，如《小龙人报》《小学生拼音报》《十万个为什么》《童话故事》《爱的教育》等。书读多了，就能把书中的营养吸收到自己的写作之中。平时阅读教学中指导学生体会、认识课文中语言表达的规律性知识，要求学生不能只是泛泛而读，要深入进去用心读，还训练学生逐步养成不动笔墨不读书的好习惯，引导学生把课文中的好词佳句、优美片段分类摘抄在采集本上，进行读、背、记在心中，加强体会，以便在习作中运用。

三、有效仿写练习，促进学生写作能力

对于初学写作的小学生来说，虽然是写自己身边发生的事，也知道是将自己看到的、听到的、做过的、所想的写下来，可是一动起笔就不知道该怎么写，写出来的作文总是不具体。这需要为他们提供一些范文，学习范文的写作思路、特点、方法，根据范文的语句以及表达方式进行具体的模仿，习作起来就有了兴趣，写出的作文也就比较具体。

首先，仿写文中的一段话或句群的表达方式。如教《有趣的作业》一课，有这样一段话“展示作业的时间到了。嗬!同学们的课桌上可热闹啦!有小小的野花，有嫩嫩的桑叶，还有青青的小草。”在说话写话时就指导他们用上“……有……有……还有……”这样的句式，学生写到“我家冰箱里存放的东西可丰富啦!有又嫩又绿的黄瓜;有鲜红的西红柿;还有白嫩的豆腐”。学生学会了仿写段，也就为写篇打下了基础。

其次，指导仿写课文的写作方法，进行篇的训练。语文教材中安排的课文都是佳作，无论是语言文字，还是篇章结构都是学生学习的典范。从语文教学实践看，学生从读学写，由仿照写到创写效果明显。学生读一篇好文章既可以学到作者的观察方法、思维方法、还可以学到表达方法，经过由仿照写到创写，走一条写好作文的捷径。如学习了《假如》这篇课文，让学生模仿这一课的写法写了想象作文《假如我有一支马良的神笔》，学生写出的作文用词恰当，表达清晰，写出了自己内心的愿望，充满了一片纯洁的爱心。这样就可以把课内学到的知识巧妙地运用到了作文教学当中，达到了学以致用的目的。

四、学生良好的写作习惯，离不开有效的写作步骤指导

有效的写作步骤，我认为离不开想、说、写、读、改。

想：写作之前先想清楚要写什么内容，作文要求是什么。这时，教师对学生写作选材做及时地指导，引导他们打开记忆，选取记忆中印象最深刻的部分。这样既可以紧扣作文要求，又可以表达出自己的真情实感。

说：想好后，同桌先练习说一说，在互相说的过程中，指出对方用词不当之处，交代不清楚、不具体的地方等等，都可以进行再思考调整。这样做，既避免了写作时前言不搭后语的现象，又锻炼了学生的口头表达能力。

写：觉得自己思路清楚，说得通顺连贯，比较满意了，就可以进行写作了。

读：写完后，还要读一读，找出错别字及用得不当的词句等，养成边读边想的好习惯。

改：在认真读的基础上，修改自己找出有毛病的地方，学会修改自己作文的能力。然而许多小学生有这样的问题：若要他把自己写的东西进行修改，那他就找不出毛病来，但如果让他去修改同学的作文，去挑别人作文中的毛病，他倒真能找出许多不当的地方，有的甚至连老师也想不到。根据小学生的这种心理特点，我因势利导地让他们通过作文的“互改”去发现问题，提高自己的作文能力。

只要培养学生留心观察生活和阅读积累的习惯，再加上教师的善于启发、巧于点拨、及时激励，我相信学生的写作能力一定会提高。

一、结合课堂教学实际，引导学生观察生活，做生活的有心人。

车尔尼雪夫斯基说过：“美是生活”。他的意思是，生活是美好的，生活中处处有美的闪光点，要善于观察、发现、捕捉，才能充实头脑，美化心灵，从而写出好的文章来．如夏衍经过两个多月的时间，每天半夜三点多钟起身，走十几里路，去观察包身工上班的情景，终于搜集到关于包身工日常生活的第一手材料，写出脍炙人口的《包身工》。又如刘白羽的《长江三峡》，朱自清的《荷塘月色》，《绿》，叶圣陶的《景泰蓝的制作》等等都是观察生活后写出的名篇。

因此，在课堂教学中，我结合课文内容，引导学生注意观察生活，做生活的有心人，从高一开始写日记，写周记，内容包括校园、家庭、社会，要求学生注意观察各种景物，观察各种人和事并细心体会个人的感受．结果不少同学写出了好文章。如97级黎青云的《春夏秋冬话九中》因观察生活，写出个人的真情实感，所以以高一级学生的身份参加学校校庆征文比赛，仍获校庆征文一等奖，并发表在《南海报》上。

二·、提倡学生关心时事，多听新闻．多阅报刊，以便有感而发。

学生要写好议论文，没有素材是不行的，故而我要求学生多听新闻．在家里，早、午、晚饭时间都要求学生注意收听新闻，关心时事。同时，我还提倡学生多阅报刊，增长见识，开阔视野．班里订的《羊城晚报》、《中国青年报》，学生个人订的《参考消息》、《文摘报》、《文萃》、《作文报》、《语文世界》等，同学们都争相阅读，作读书笔记，积累不少的典型素材，在此基础上，我又要求学生把报纸上他们感兴趣的、有感受的文章剪下来，写读后感，写评论文章等。结果学生的剪报作文比教师的命题作文还要写得好，因为他们是有兴趣而写，有感而发。

三、精选作文体裁和题目，作文训练力求系列化、系统化。

四、加强审题训练，多审题精写作。

五、借鉴名家名篇，提倡学以致用。

画家齐白石说过：“学我者生，似我者死。”搞艺术离不开一个借鉴模仿的过程，但不能生吞活剥、生搬硬套，作文也是如此。学习了课文中的名家名篇，让学生也去尝试一下，用刚学到的方法去仿写文章，也是我进行写作训练的一种方法。如学习了李健吾的《雨中登泰山》后，要求同学们用“移步换景法”去写《登奇山》、《游西樵山》等；学了李乐薇的《我的空中楼阁》，让学生用“定景换点法”写《校园之春》，提倡学生学以致用。当然这种仿写不是呆板的照搬照套，而是让学生借鉴，学习名家的写作方法。

六、尝试写作辩论式作文，突破常规思维。

1991的高考作文题是“近墨者黑／近墨者未必黑”，要求考生任选其一写作，这其实便是一种辩论式作文题型。我借鉴这种作法，以“名师出高徒／名师未必出高徒”，“有志者事竟成／有志者未必事竟成”等为题，让学生进行作文辩论，让他们持其中一个观点去驳另一与之对立的观点，要求既要观点鲜明，又要注意论证的辩证法，不失之于片面偏激、写作时要求学生按观点分成两组，写出文章后各派四个代表出阵参与辩论。结果不少学生能突破常规思维，拓阔写作思路，写出了言之成理，不落俗套的好文章，辩论场面也十分热烈，学生兴趣盎然。

七、教师评改作文与学生互改、自改相结合，教师重在讲评、鼓励。

为了发挥同学们的积极性，激发他们作文的兴趣，培养他们批改作文的能力，从而提高作文水平，我在作文评改方面，除了教师本人评改外，还采用学生互评或自评的形式。具体做法是：课前教师浏览了学生作文，找出作文中的优缺点，课堂上进行审题分析，指出此次作文的优缺点，示范评讲两三篇文章，列出批改的标准，然后让学生批改，可互评，可自评，先找优点，再指出缺点，重在鼓励，然后教师收上来再阅，贴出优秀习作。这样，学生亲自参与了文章批改，所以对本类作文的写法要求理解得更为深刻。

以上这些做法都是我在教学中的一些尝试，其中对写日记、周记、剪报作文、作文系列化训练和文章互改等方面有所侧重，收到较好的效果，98学年在学校征文比赛中，我所教班的几位同学的征文，均获校二等奖，2000学年，我任教班的几位同学，在学校征文比赛成绩不俗，其中邓佩琪是高一、高二两个年级中唯一的一个一等奖。另外，每个学期都有同学的作文刊登在校刊《红棉报》上。

写作是英语的第二大重头戏，仅次于阅读。但是这部分又经常被考生忽略，考前不动手，依赖临考模板，很难写出高分作文。下面是小编为大家整理的大学基础英语写作诀窍，欢迎阅读。

1、灵活改变句子开头

在通常情况下，英语句子的排列方式为“主语+谓语+宾语”，即主语位于句子开头。但若根据情况适当改变句子的开头方式，比如使用倒状语或以状语开头等，会使文章增强表现力。

- You can do it well only in this way.→ Only in this way can you do it well.

只有这样你才能把它做好。

- A young woman sat by the window.→ By the window sat a young woman.

窗户边坐着一个年轻妇女

2、避免重复使用词语

为了使表达更生动，更富表现力，同学们在写作时应尽量避免重复使用同一词语来表示同一意思，尤其是一些老生常谈的词语。如有的同学一看到“喜欢”二字，就会立刻想起like，事实上，英语中表示类似意思的词和短语很多，如 love, enjoy, prefer, appreciate, be fond of, care for等。

- I like reading while my brother likes watching television.→ I like reading while my   brother enjoys watching television.

我喜欢看书，而我的兄弟却喜欢看电视。

3、合理使用省略句

合理恰当地使用省略句，不仅可以使文章精练、简洁，而且会使文章更具文采和可读性。

- He may be busy. If he’s busy, I’ll call later. If he is not busy, can I see him now?→ He may be busy. If so, I’ll call later. If not, can I see him now?

他可能很忙，要是这样，我以后再来拜访。要    是不忙，我现在可以见他吗?

- If the weather is fine, we’ll go. If it is not fine, we’ll not go.→ If the weather is fine, we’ll go. If not, not.

如果天气好，我们就去；如果天气不好，我们就不去了。

- She could have applied for that job, but she didn’t do so.→ She could have applied for that job, but she didn’t.

她本可申请这份工作的，但她没有。

4、运用非谓语结构

非谓语结构通常被认为是一种高级结构，适当运用非谓语结构，会给人一种熟练驾驭语言的印象。

- When he heard the news, they all jumped for joy.→ Hearing the news, they all jumped for joy.

听了这消息他们都高兴得跳了起来。

- As I didn’t know her address, I wasn’t able to get in touch with her.→ Not knowing her address, I wasn’t able to get in touch with her.

由于不知道她的地址，我没法和她联系。

5、结合使用长、短句

在英语写作中，过多地使用长句或过多地使用短句都不好。正确的做法是，根据实际情况在文章中交替使用长句与短语，使文章显得错落有致，这样不仅使文章在形式上增加美感，而且使文章读起来铿锵有力。

-At noon we had a picnic lunch in the sunshine. Then we had a short rest. Then we began to play happily. We sang and danced. Some told stories. Some played chess.→ At noon we had a picnic lunch in the sunshine. After a short rest, we had great fun singing and dancing, telling jokes and playing chess.

中午我们晒着太阳吃野餐。休息一会儿后，我们唱的唱歌，跳的跳舞，还有的讲笑话、下棋，大家玩得很开心。

6、使用短语代替单词

使用短语代替单词。

- He has decided to be a teacher when he grows up.→ He has made up his mind to be a teacher when he grows up.

他已决定长大了当老师。

- He doesnt like music.→ He doesnt care much for music.

他不大喜欢音乐。

- He told me that the question was now under discussion.→ He told me that the question was now being discussed.

他告诉我问题现正正在讨论中。

7、套用某些固定表达

套用某些固定表达

- He was very tired. He couldn’t walk any farther.→ He was too tired to walk any farther.

他太累了，不能再往前走了。

- The film was very interesting. Both the teachers and the students liked it.→ The film was so interesting that both the teachers and the students liked it.

这电影很有趣，学生和老师都很喜欢。

- Your son is old. He can look after himself now.→ Your son is old enough to look after himself now.你的儿子已经长大，可以自己照顾自己了。

8、使用地道英语

使用地道英语

- Dont worry. Be bold and try it, and youll learn it soon.→Dont worry. Just go for it, and youll get it soon.

别担心，大胆试一试，你很快就会学会的。

-Thank you for playing with us.→Thank you for sharing the time with us.

谢谢你陪我玩。

9、综合使用“高级”结构

综合使用“高级”结构

- We had to stand there to catch the offender.→ What we had to do was (to) stand there, trying to catch the offender.

我们所能做的只是站在那儿，设法抓住违章者。

- If her pronunciation is not better than her teacher’s, it is at least as good as her teacher’s.→ Her pronunciation is as good as, if not better than, her teacher’s.

如果她的语音不比她的老师好的话，至少也不会比她老师的差。

10、引用名言警句点缀

在写作时根据实际情况恰当地用上一两句名言警句来点缀文章，不仅使文章显得有深度、有智慧，而且会让文章在评分中上一个“得分档次”。

- As the proverb says, “Where there is a will, there is a way.” Though you fail this time, you needn’t lose heart. As long as you work hard and stick to your dream, you will succeed one day.- There is a proverb goes like this “Life isn’t a bed of roses.” It is ture that it is likely for everyone to meet problems and difficulties in life.- In the modern world, more and more people live alone, which is not so good for our life. It is better for us to make more friends and enjoy friendship. Just as a proverb says, “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman.”

写人的记叙文，是以写人为主。当然，写人的记叙文中，也离不开叙事。因为人的思想品质是通过事来反映的，但对事的完整性没有过高的要求，不一定把前因后果，来龙去脉一五一十地写清楚。定人作文的基本能力方法就是用一个或几个典型事例来表现人物的性格及思想品质。

写人作文在小学记叙文中是比较难写的，文章内容多，结构也比较复杂。动笔之前，要对全篇文章的基本脉络，即先写什么，后写什么，分为几个段落以及采用什么方法开头，结尾等问题都要做到心中有数。因此，在作文前必须进行通盘考虑，搞好布局谋篇的总体设计，即需要编好写作提纲。

编好提纲之前要选择好材料，从题目入手根据中心思想，选取与中心思想密切相关的材料，有代表性的材料，新鲜的材料。新鲜是指平日观察到的，与别人写过的材料不同的材料。

选好了材料，写作时要运用多种方法来表现人物的特点。比如运用人物的肖像描写、语言描写、动作描写和心理描写来刻画人物，结合平时作文教学，下面分别说说几种描写人物的方法。

一、人物的外貌描写，几人物的外形特征描写。一般包括对一个人的服装、相貌、身材、神态、表情、年龄、性格等方面的描写。以人的外貌来说，即使是双胞胎，也总会有不同之处。可是一到作文中，一些学生写的那些人就差不多了，好像是一个模子倒出来的“泥娃娃”。给人一种似曾相见的感觉。写人不应单纯为写外貌而写外貌，写外貌的目的是为了揭示人物性格，从而表现主题。因此，肖像描写必须抓住人物的特征，与人物的身份、个性、思想相联系。这样肖像描写才有价值。

二、人物的行为描写，即通过人物的行为与动作的描写来刻画人物。在日常生活中，我们了解一个人，主要是看他的实际行动。写文章也是这样，要向读者介绍一个人，也要着重介绍他的行为。描写人物的行为包括两个方面，一是要写出“做什么”，二是要写出“怎样做”。

三、人物的语言描写，是指在文章中对人物的说话(包括个人讲话，两个人对话或几个人交谈)描写。言为心声，语言是人物内心世界的直露。所以，语言描写要防止众口一声，千人一腔的公式化。写人物语言，最重要的是注意符合人物身份，经历和处境，要体现人物的个性，如果写人物语言和人物行动合起来。这样写出的人物就更活了。

四、心理描写,心理活动是无声的语言。心理描写的作用，主要是揭示人物内心世界，表现人物的思想感情。心理描写也要符合人物的年龄、身份和个性特征，应是特定的人物在特定的环境里必然会产生的心理活动：要善于表现人物细微的感情变化和比较复杂的心理变化。

以上说的外貌、行为、语言、心理活动的描写，是刻画人物常用的方法。但在一篇文章中，不一定把几种方法都用到，要根据需要，灵活运用。不管哪能种方法，都要抓住人物特点，都要为表现中心服务，这样才能写好、写活人物，使读者爱看。

写作是运用语言文字符号反映客观事物、表达思想感情、传递知识信息的创造性脑力劳动过程。下面就是小编为您收集整理的初中作文

一忌、陈词老套

有些文章开头总是从形势写起，言心称“在××的领导下，在××的支持和关怀下，在××的帮助下”有的文章开头总是“太阳”、“月亮”，“光阴似箭、日月如梭”，这些调子老唱，这些套路老用就成了令人生厌的陈词老套了，初中毕业作文开头。

二忌、故弄玄虚

有些文章开头，故意耍花枪，兜圈子，有意让人琢磨不透，进入“迷魂阵”，不愿将意思直截了当地写出来。仿佛这就是文章新颖巧妙的所在，见水平、见功力的地方。其实这种故弄玄虚的作法，恰恰是写作的弊病。

三忌、开头突然

有些文章开头，缺乏应有的交代，显得突如其来，没头没脑，不知所云。如写读后感，有的文章在不作任何交代的情况下就开始“感”起来了。写供料作文一开头就说“读了这个材料我有深刻的体会……”材料内容只字不提就这样写，太突然了。

四忌、不必要的解释

文章开头，突如其来、不作交代不行，作不必要的解释也不行。如写《女排五连冠给我的启示》，要是一开头就用较长篇幅去说明女排的组成、女排五次获冠军的时间、地点，同谁争夺冠军等情况，就不必要了。当然，根据需要，适当对所写的问题作些解释也是必要的。

五忌、凭空抒情

有的文章的开头，特别是议论文的开头，不管与中心、主题有无关系，议论还没有展开，问题还没有说清，就“啊”“呀”不断，感慨万端。这种凭空抒情，只能叫无病呻吟。

六忌、绕大圈子

有的文章开头，不管中心需不需要，与主题有关无关，就先秦两汉、前村后店地谈开了。不着边际，空发议论，下笔千言，离题万里，绕了好大个圈子，才说到正题上来。

七忌、堆砌名言锦语

有的文章，开头想先声夺人，想不出好的办法，于是就把格言、警句等一股脑儿地搬出来，以为这样就算是个好的开头，中学生作文《初中毕业作文开头》。其实这种做法带有很大盲目性，效果往往很差。

八忌、开头重复

文章只能有一个开头，可是有的文章有两个开头。比如有的文章本想从引用写起，写好后又觉得扣题目谈更好，于是又开个头。有的文章一开头就介绍背景，写好后又觉得首先应该揭示文章的中心，于是又开个头。这样都会出现两个开头。出现这种情况，可根据题目或中心的要求，取其一个开头即可。

九忌、盲目写景

写景的主要目的，或是为了突出主题，或是为了刻划人物，或是为了烘托气氛，如果与此无关，一般来说这样的写景是没有意义的。有些文章一开头就“花儿”、“鸟儿”、“草儿”地写一通，实在是不必要。

十忌、盲目引用

引用应根据主题、中心的需要，盲目引用应尽量避免。特别是供料作文，供给的材料如果很长，要是一开头就不加选择地大量引用，或全盘搬用，必然重点不明，主旨不清，文字不精，陷于盲目性，而且下文再谈到它，必然还会重复，所以引用应有所取舍和选择。

英语作文虽然不像语文作文在考试

高三英语作文写作技巧：练习

“没有规矩，不成方圆，英语作文写作技巧。”对于一般英语学习者而言，写出优秀的文章有赖于后天习得，但并不意味着机械背诵、生吞活剥，或者照搬照抄、人云亦云。所谓研习，需要有独立思考和个人的判断，本着“他山之石，可以攻玉”的精神，汲取文章的精华部分加以研究。研习主要侧重两个方面，包括文章章法和语言表达。文章章法指文章的行文思路、布局谋篇、结构安排、逻辑顺序。许多学习者面对一个话题，可能存在两种不同的困惑，一是下笔千言，但离题万里;二是思绪万千，却无从落笔。导致两种困惑的根源皆在于欠缺思考问题、组织思路的恰当方式，以至于文章不得要领、章法紊乱。这就要求我们从全篇脉络角度多研习范文，之后领悟如何以演绎法行文、怎样用归纳法谋篇以及如何围绕特定话题拓展思路等等。此外，研习还要侧重于语言表达，包括遣词造句和句子、段落之间的各种衔接手段，以期在自己日后的写作中派上用场，因为英文写作皆通一理。只有善于借鉴，勤加研究，才会借他人的优势和长处，提高自己的写作水平。

高三英语作文写作技巧：背诵

背诵是提高写作的又一有效途径。要学好写作文，首先要处理好语言输入与输出之间的关系。前者是后者的前提条件。如果头脑空空如也，就根本谈不上写出像模像样的文章。只有读过大量东西，并且有意识地将其中精彩部分储存于记忆之中（commit the highlights to memory），才能保证下笔流畅、文通字顺。因此，背诵对于写作极为重要。但背诵不是机械记忆，而是有选择性的背诵，是有意义的记忆。因为机械背诵的结果要么是记忆很快就荡然无存、了无痕迹，要么是无法活学活用、付诸实践。背诵包括五个方面：重点词汇、常用套语、精彩句子、优秀段落、经典篇章。

高三英语作文写作技巧：重点词汇

美妙的用词及搭配皆在此列，像fall victim（受害），stand a fair chance（大有希望）这种地道的动宾搭配要勤加记忆。为了积累写作词汇，应将文中同属一个话题的用词汇总归纳，组成主题词族（topic family）。归类记忆可以使自己日后即写即用，得心应手。下文是一篇阐释爱心的优秀文章，多处用词精巧，现将文中关于爱心这一主题的词汇总结如下：

emotional strength 情感的力量

the noblest of human emotions人类最高尚的情感

no thought of gain不计得失

the lamp of love爱心之灯

help the victims of natural disasters支援自然灾害受害者

donate whatever they can倾囊相助

help their needy fellow citizens 帮助有需要的同胞

be ready to give a helping hand 随时准备伸出援手

—When we use the word "love"， we do not simply mean an attraction to a person of the opposite sex， which is a very narrow definition of the word。 Love is emotional strength， which can support us no matter how dark the world around us becomes。 In fact， throughout history people of many different cultures have regarded love as the noblest of human emotions。

As an example of the power of love， we should remember how the Chinese people of all nationalities respond to the call to help the victims of natural disasters every year。 Although their incomes are still low by international standards， people all over the country do not hesitate to donate whatever they can — be it money or goods — to help their needy fellow citizens。 Moreover， they do this with no thought of gain for themselves。

In my opinion， the best way to show love is to help people who are more unfortunate than we are。 We should always be ready to give a helping hand to those who are in trouble， no matter whether they are family members or complete strangers。 In this way， we can help to make the world a better place， for the darker the shadows of sorrow become， the more brightly the lamp of love shines。

当我们用“爱”这个词时，我们不仅仅指异性对一个人的吸引，这只是对这个词非常狭隘的解释，小学生作文《英语作文写作技巧》。爱心是一种情感的力量，不论我们周围的世界多么黑暗，爱心都能支撑我们。事实上，纵观历史，不同文化背景的人都把爱看成是人类最高尚的情感。

说到爱心的力量，我们马上就会想起每年中国各族人民是如何响应号召支援自然灾害受害者的。尽管按照国际标准他们的收入还处于低水平，全国人民毫不犹豫地倾囊相助——不管是钱还是物——帮助那些有需要的同胞。而且，他们这么做并不考虑自己的得失。

我认为，表达爱心的最好方式是帮助比我们更加不幸的人。我们应该随时准备向有困难的人伸出援助之手，无论他们是家庭成员还是素昧平生。这样，我们就能够助一臂之力把世界变成一个更美好的地方，因为，悲伤的阴影越黑暗，爱心之灯的光芒就越闪亮。

[高三英语作文写作技巧

一、简述所犯错误，并定性之。

这是对自己开的第一炮，一定要猛烈、响亮，不能不痛不痒。但切记，炮一定要往空中放，不可往实处打。聊天室里泡美眉是吧？那要这样检讨——“我单身时代养成的积习未改，不是一个好男人”，千万不能说——“我只不过想换换口味”。

二、描述犯错过程。

这部分内容一定要扎实、扎实、再扎实，新闻的五个W一个都不能少。但是一定不要漏掉一点，那就是在犯错过程中的心理活动。要凸现善与恶的搏斗，灵与肉的挣扎。搏斗得越惨烈，挣扎得越残酷，越能博得谅解和宽容。

三、剖析错误原因。

这是最见功力的部分，是决定一份检讨成败的关键。要彻底把自己打翻、砸烂、磨碎、煮熟，要揭开伤疤，触及灵魂，让杜鹃泣血，令岩石掉泪。这错误早期形成，长期发展，千里之堤毁于蚁穴，万里长城倒于自摸，百转千回不该这样走，千错万错不能这样错！当然千万不要批判、控诉周围的环境——多么强大，多么沉重，多么凶险，多么肮脏！我本出淤泥而不染，奈何淤泥高过头；我本纯洁又无辜，奈何大家都有辜。除非你想暗示自己没错。

四、分析错误的影响，假设继续犯的后果。

错误严重，辜负期望，影响很坏，教训深刻，若不是领导及时指出、老师及时发现、父母及时提醒、女友及时察觉、有关部门及时介入，后果简直不堪设想！“不堪设想”这个词用得好啊！不但省下了许多笔墨，而且推脱了不少责任。所谓不堪设想，说白了就是谁都没工夫去想。

对于毕业生来说，掌握论文写作方法是论文写作成功与否的一个关键步骤。毕业论文的写作是大家比较头疼的一件事情，不仅花费的时间长，而且每个步骤要求也很严格。一般来说，主要有观察法、调查法、实验法、经验总结法、个案法、比较法、文献资料法这几种方法。后三种方法在硕士论文写作和本科论文写作中运用的比较普遍。我相信根据大家的常识，看这些标题就知道对应的研究方法的具体意思了。

关键的时候在论文写作时候要选择与研究课题匹配最好的研究方法。选择研究方法很重要，因此这决定了你论文结果的合理性和科学性。

如果你论文写作过程中选择的研究方法不是最好的，就会导致你的研究结果质量不高。同时在答辩的时候也会遇到答辩老师的提问刁难情况。

一些同学在毕业的时候会找专业的论文机构代写硕士论文，但是往往由于时间匆忙，没来及看论文的初稿，至于论文的大致意思都没能弄明白更别提论文的时候，那么你就惨了。

因此我们应该提前掌握以上基本的论文写作方法，这样在论文写作过程或者答辩的时候都能够用得着。

调查法

调查法是科学研究中最常用的方法之一。它是有目的、有计划、有系统地搜集有关研究对象现实状况或历史状况的材料的方法。调查方法是科学研究中常用的基本研究方法，它综合运用历史法、观察法等方法以及谈话、问卷、个案研究、测验等科学方式，对教育现象进行有计划的、周密的和系统的了解，并对调查搜集到的大量资料进行分析、综合、比较、归纳，从而为人们提供规律性的知识。

调查法中最常用的是问卷调查法，它是以书面提出问题的方式搜集资料的一种研究方法，即调查者就调查项目编制成表式，分发或邮寄给有关人员，请示填写答案，然后回收整理、统计和研究。

观察法

观察法是指研究者根据一定的研究目的、研究提纲或观察表，用自己的感官和辅助工具去直接观察被研究对象，从而获得资料的一种方法。科学的观察具有目的性和计划性、系统性和可重复性。在科学实验和调查研究中，观察法具有如下几个方面的作用：①扩大人们的感性认识。②启发人们的思维。③导致新的发现。

实验法

实验法是通过主支变革、控制研究对象来发现与确认事物间的因果联系的一种科研方法。其主要特点是：第一、主动变革性。观察与调查都是在不干预研究对象的前提下去认识研究对象，发现其中的问题。而实验却要求主动操纵实验条件，人为地改变对象的存在方式、变化过程，使它服从于科学认识的需要。第二、控制性。科学实验要求根据研究的需要，借助各种方法技术，减少或消除各种可能影响科学的无关因素的干扰，在简化、纯化的状态下认识研究对象。第三，因果性。实验以发现、确认事物之间的因果联系的有效工具和必要途径。

文献研究法

文献研究法是根据一定的研究目的或课题，通过调查文献来获得资料，从而全面地、正确地了解掌握所要研究问题的一种方法。文献研究法被子广泛用于各种学科研究中。其作用有：①能了解有关问题的历史和现状，帮助确定研究课题。②能形成关于研究对象的一般印象，有助于观察和访问。③能得到现实资料的比较资料。④有助于了解事物的全貌。

实证研究法

实证研究法是科学实践研究的一种特殊形式。其依据现有的科学理论和实践的需要，提出设计，利用科学仪器和设备，在自然条件下，通过有目的有步骤地操纵，根据观察、记录、测定与此相伴随的现象的变化来确定条件与现象之间的因果关系的活动。主要目的在于说明各种自变量与某一个因变量的关系。

定量分析法

在科学研究中，通过定量分析法可以使人们对研究对象的认识进一步精确化，以便更加科学地揭示规律，把握本质，理清关系，预测事物的发展趋势。

定性分析法

定性分析法就是对研究对象进行“质”的方面的分析。具体地说是运用归纳和演绎、分析与综合以及抽象与概括等方法，对获得的各种材料进行思维加工，从而能去粗取精、去伪存真、由此及彼、由表及里，达到认识事物本质、揭示内在规律。

跨学科研究法

运用多学科的理论、方法和成果从整体上对某一课题进行综合研究的方法，也称“交叉研究法”。科学发展运动的规律表明，科学在高度分化中又高度综合，形成一个统一的整体。据有关专家统计，现在世界上有2000多种学科，而学科分化的趋势还在加剧，但同时各学科间的联系愈来愈紧密，在语言、方法和某些概念方面，有日益统一化的趋势。

个案研究法

个案研究法是认定研究对象中的某一特定对象，加以调查分析，弄清其特点及其形成过程的一种研究方法。个案研究有三种基本类型：(1)个人调查，即对组织中的某一个人进行调查研究;(2)团体调查，即对某个组织或团体进行调查研究;(3)问题调查，即对某个现象或问题进行调查研究。

功能分析法

功能分析法是社会科学用来分析社会现象的一种方法，是社会调查常用的分析方法之一。它通过说明社会现象怎样满足一个社会系统的需要(即具有怎样的功能)来解释社会现象。

数量研究法

数量研究法也称“统计分析法”和“定量分析法”，指通过对研究对象的规模、速度、范围、程度等数量关系的分析研究，认识和揭示事物间的相互关系、变化规律和发展趋势，借以达到对事物的正确解释和预测的一种研究方法。

信息研究方法

信息研究方法是利用信息来研究系统功能的一种科学研究方法。美国数学、通讯工程师、生理学家维纳认为，客观世界有一种普遍的联系，即信息联系。当前，正处在“信息革命”的新时代，有大量的信息资源，可以开发利用。信息方法就是根据信息论、系统论、控制论的原理，通过对信息的收集、传递、加工和整理获得知识，并应用于实践，以实现新的目标。信息方法是一种新的科研方法，它以信息来研究系统功能，揭示事物的更深一层次的规律，帮助人们提高和掌握运用规律的能力。

经验总结法

经验总结法是通过对实践活动中的具体情况，进行归纳与分析，使之系统化、理论化，上升为经验的一种方法。总结推广先进经验是人类历史上长期运用的较为行之有效的领导方法之一。

描述性研究法

描述性研究法是一种简单的研究方法，它将已有的现象、规律和理论通过自己的理解和验证，给予叙述并解释出来。它是对各种理论的一般叙述，更多的是解释别人的论证，但在科学研究中是必不可少的。它能定向地提出问题，揭示弊端，描述现象，介绍经验，它有利于普及工作，它的实例很多，有带揭示性的多种情况的调查;有对实际问题的说明;也有对某些现状的看法等。

数学方法

数学方法就是在撇开研究对象的其他一切特性的情况下，用数学工具对研究对象进行一系列量的处理，从而作出正确的说明和判断，得到以数字形式表述的成果。科学研究的对象是质和量的统一体，它们的质和量是紧密联系,质变和量变是互相制约的。要达到真正的科学认识，不仅要研究质的规定性，还必须重视对它们的量进行考察和分析，以便更准确地认识研究对象的本质特性。数学方法主要有统计处理和模糊数学分析方法。

思维方法

思维方法是人们正确进行思维和准确表达思想的重要工具，在科学研究中最常用的科学思维方法包括归纳演绎、类比推理、抽象概括、思辩想象、分析综合等，它对于一切科学研究都具有普遍的指导意义。

系统科学方法

21世纪，系统论、控制论、信息论等横向科学的迅猛发展，为发展综合思维方式提供了有力的手段，使科学研究方法不断地完善。而以系统论方法、控制论方法和信息论方法为代表的系统科学方法，又为人类的科学认识提供了强有力的主观手段。它不仅突破了传统方法的局限性，而且深刻地改变了科学方法论的体系。这些新的方法，既可以作为经验方法，作为获得感性材料的方法来使用，也可以作为理论方法，作为分析感性材料上升到理性认识的方法来使用，而且作为后者的作用比前者更加明显。它们适用于科学认识的各个阶段，因此，我们称其为系统科学方法。

写人作文有很多是写长辈的，如何写好长辈？本文从类型、题目、开头，为大家介绍。

一、写长辈亲人的作文类型

1.写长辈亲人对自己的关心和爱护；

2.回忆长辈亲人对自己的关怀；

3.表达自己对长辈亲人的尊敬和怀念。

二、写长辈亲人的参考题目、参考开头

1.《我的_____》的两种开头

第一种开头：在我的亲人当中，有一个人是我忘不了的，他就是已经离开我们整整三年的爷爷！

第二种开头：爷爷离开我已经三年了，可是我只要一看见他的照片，就会觉得他好像还活在人世，还在给我讲着《三国演义》的故事。

2.《她教我怎样做人》的两种开头

第一种开头：还在我上幼儿园的时候，外婆就对我说过一句话，那就是：“人穷志不穷。”

第二种开头：外婆是一个退休工人，没有多少文化，但她却懂得很多做人的知识，我从她那里学到了许多许多。

3.《长辈》的两种开头

第一种开头：在我的长辈之中，最让我难忘的就是我的爷爷。

第二种开头：爷爷在三年前离开我们的时候，特地把我叫到医院，要见

我最后一面。

4.《_____，您将留在我的记忆里》的两种开头

第一种开头：外公，您现在在哪里呢？您还记得您的外孙吗？虽然您已经离开我们五年了，但您将永远留在我的记忆里！

第二种开头：五年前，我的外公不幸被罪恶的癌症夺去了宝贵的生命。五年过去了，外公的音容笑貌却依然存在，他，永远活在我的心里，留在我的记忆里！