关于英语说明文的写作方法(汇总20篇)

【提要】高考英语作文 : 2017年高考英语作文写作模板：图画类写作模板

图画类写作模板

1.开头

Look at this picture./The picture shows that.../From this picture, we can see.../As is shown in the picture.../As is seen in the picture...

2.衔接句

As we all know, .../As is known to all,.../It is well known that.../In my opinion,.../As far as I am concerned,.../This sight reminds me of something in my daily life.

3.结尾句

In conclusion.../In brief.../On the whole.../In short.../In a word.../Generally speaking.../As has been stated...

日记一般分成生活日记、观察日记和随感日记三种。

1、生活日记。

生活日记，就是把自己每天的生活、学习、工作情况有选择地记录下来。要写好生活日记必须注意以下几个问题：

（1）内容要真实。生活日记是自己经历的实在记录，而且要给自己看的，内容真实才有查考的价值。

生活是七彩的，它多姿多采地呈现在我们每个人的面前。学校、家庭、社会，都会有时代的浪花飞溅，只要我们能自觉地去观察生活，观察周围的人和事，你就会发现一个“宝藏”，就会有源源而来、取之不尽的真实材料。

（2）事情要有意义。有的同学说，日记就是把自己一天中亲身经历的，或所见所闻所感的东西记下来，记得越多越详越好。如有个同学写 正月初一的日记，把这一天当中所有的事都记下来：早晨起床吃饺子，而后给陈老师拜年，到学校游园活动，中午到外婆家吃饭，下午和表弟一起上街，晚上回家看电视，临睡前写日记……简直是眉毛胡子一把抓，成了典型的流水帐。日记的篇幅毕竟是有限的，同学们不可能把一天中的大事小事芝麻事件件都写进去。一般要选择印象深刻的，有意义的一两件事记下来，其他的不写或略写。

（3）语言要简明、通顺。写生活日记，内容可长可短，但语言必须通顺明白。

2、观察日记，即观察记录。就是把日常生活中的某一侧面，通过有目的的，细致的观察，把它记下来。可以写零碎的片断，不必讲究文章结构；也可以写得比较完整，类似一篇记叙文。经常写观察日记，可以提高观察能力，养成观察习惯，还可以积累写作素材，提高语言表达能力，这种日记最适宜我们小学生记。

要写好观察日记，必须注意以下几点：

（1）观察目的要明确。观察，有多种多样的目的，或为了积累写作素材；或为了进行科学实验；或为了弄清楚某种“奥秘”……只有目的明确，观察才有方向，才有重点。就是观察同一对象，由于目的的不同，方法和角度就不同，结果也就不一样。

（2）观察要全面细致。全面，就是要对事情发展的全过程，事物构成的各部分，以及事物之间的相互联系，观察清楚；细致，就是要求观察深入、彻底，抓俗语事物的特点，规律和本质。

（3）观察要持之以恒。观察事物难于一次完成，需要反复进行。这就要同学们有恒心。

（4）观察日记的语言要准确。观察日记有很强的科学性。因此要求使用语言要准确，不能用“大概、差不多”这类似是而非的词语。

3、随感日记。

这种日记主要是就一篇文章、一本书、一部电影或生活中的某一件事情，抒发自己的感想。日记中以议论为主，叙述是为了议论，有时整篇日记都是写自己的感受。

一、含义

写作技巧就是表现的技巧、方法，是作者为表情达意而采取有效艺术手段。写作技巧受限于作者的世界观、艺术观，同时又作用于他的写作实践，为写作活动服务。

二、特点

有四个特点：

1、稳定性。是指技巧的成熟和稳固。

2、互渗性。文章写作中的技巧和方法，虽因文章门类和品种的不同有所差异，但在文章写作发展的过程中，各种技法又往往是相互参照、相互影响的，于是就形成了写作技巧的互渗性特点。

3、创新性。写作技巧如果仅有代代相承、墨守成规，而无创作发展，那么文章就会僵化、萎缩，乃至消亡。

4、审美性。丰富多彩、灵活多变的写作技巧，将不同时空、不同角度的材料组合成绚丽多姿的文章大厦，因而具有永恒的艺术价值。

三，方法

写作技巧在写作活动中的具有极其重要的作用。

第一，写作技巧是实现作者写作意图的重要条件。一般来说，作者的写作活动都具有一定的写作意图。所谓的写作意图，就是指作者打算在文章或作品中表达什么样的生活和思想内容，以及通过这种表达达到什么目的。而要使这一写作意图圆满实现，就必须依靠写作技巧。

第二，写作技巧是构成文学作品艺术性的内在因素。文学作品的艺术性，即文学作品反映社会生活或表达思想感情所达到的完美程度。这种艺术性的取得，决定于作者的世界观、创作方法和写作技巧。在具体的作品中，艺术性表现在作家在一定世界观的指导下，运用各种写作手法，创造出具有审美价值的艺术意境我典型形象，从而给读者带来审美愉悦。文学作品的艺术性虽不同于形式美，但它更多地体现在与内容和谐统一的艺术形式之中，而艺术形式的完美创造，则依靠写作技巧。

那么什么是写作技巧的操作训练呢?

(一)师法生活

生活是写作的源泉，丰富多采的大自然和人类社会，不仅为我们提供了取之不尽的写作材料，而且为我们提供了生动鲜活的关于写作形式与写作技巧的深刻启示。例如，巧合与悬念，往往是某些生活事件展示在人们面前时固有形式或手法对比与映衬，常常是构成大自然优美景观及艺术美感的重要因素和手段人有悲欢离合，月有阴睛圆缺，人生和自然的规律中寓含着曲折美、变化美、节奏美;蝉鸣林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽，常见的景象中包含着动与静相反相成的艺术辨证法则......因此，我们学习写作技巧，必须首先向生活学习。只有勤于观察生活，深入体验生活，才能使自己的写作技巧真正得到提高。

(二)阅读、借鉴

即从古今中外的优秀文章(以及音乐、绘画等艺术形式)中汲取营养。凡优秀的文章，内容和形式的完美程度都较高，其写作技巧往往是娴熟而又富于创造性。多读优秀的文章，在注意思想内容的同时，注意其写作技巧，看作者是运用哪些来表现思想内容，实现写作意图的，并且分析这些写作手法的具体运用情况及其所取得的写作效果。在此基础上，还应结合实际(写作者自身的思想和艺术修养的实际与题材和表现对象的实际)进一步思考，看哪些手法可以拿来，经过改造为我所用。这样，久而久之，潜移默化，自己的写作技巧，自然会有所提高。

(三)经常练笔

这是具有本质意义的技巧操作训练。清人唐彪写道：谚云，读十篇不如做一篇。盖常作则机关熟，题虽甚难，为之亦易;不常做，则理路生，题虽甚易，为之则难。沈虹野云：文章硬涩由于不熟，不熟由于不多做。信哉言乎!多写才能熟，熟才能生巧，这是不可更易的规律，任何企图改变或超越这一规律的人，永远也掌握不了写作技巧，永远也写不出好文章。只有经常写，反复写，才可能在写作者身上固定下一个写作技巧的概括化系统，一个自动化的写作行动方式。懂得了这一点，我们就会懂得那些语言艺术大师们为什么谆谆劝诫我们大家都应该写、写、写，写得尽量多了。

写作技巧的掌握是有一个过程的。这个过程可以分为两个阶段。一是技能阶段，一是熟练阶段。技能阶段，是无法之中求有法，能过观察、体验、多读、多写，学习并掌握了一些写作的基本手法，且能将它们运用于写作实践。这是掌握写作技巧的第一阶段。熟练阶段，是有法之中求变化。在第一阶段的基础上，进而掌握了包括写作的辨证艺术在内的多种写作手法，并能将它们纯熟自如、富于创造性地运用于写作实践。这是掌握写作技巧的第二阶段。古人说：学诗当识活法。所谓活法者，规矩具备，而能出于规矩之外;变化不测，而亦不背规矩也。识得活法，并能运用活法是掌握写作技巧第二阶段的重要标志。

掌握写作技巧，对写作具有重要的意义，任何否定写作技巧在写作中的客观作用的观点无疑是错误的。但是，我们也不能把技巧绝对化，走到唯技巧论的极端。因为，决定文章价值的主要因素，还是内容，脱离了丰富而深刻的内容，文章的审美价值乃至艺术性，也就不复存在了。这一点，尤其应该引起初学写作者的重视。

一、北理工翻译硕士考研复习指导

1．基础英语：

基础英语选择题考的特别细致，没有专门的教材，还是重在平时积累，凯程老师在讲课过程中特别重视对于考生基础知识的积累。凯程老师会对考生的阅读理解进行系统的训练。阅读理解也是偏政治，凯程老师会重点训练同学的答题速度，培养同学们阅读答题技巧，针对作文这方面，凯程老师也会对考生进行一系列的训练，让同学们勤加练习，多做模拟作文。

2．翻译英语：

翻译硕士基础这门课是需要下功夫的，英汉词条互译的部分完全需要你的积累，主要是词汇量和分析抓取能力。凯程老师会对学生的这两个方面进行很完善的训练。

凯程老师总结了以下提升翻译技巧的方法，供考研学子参考。

词组互译：大多考的都很常见，所以多看看中英文的报纸还是有好处的。

英汉：对文章的背景有一定的了解是最好的，如果没有，就需要体现出自身的翻译素养。翻译也要注意文风，语气之类的，要符合原文的风格。

凯程老师也很重视答题技巧，在此凯程名师友情提示大家，最好在开头就能让老师看到你的亮点，不管怎样至少留下个好印象。不管风格怎么变，翻译功底扎实，成绩都不会太差。所以还是提高自己翻译水平，才能以不变应万变。

3．百科：

先说说名词解释。这道题考得知识面很全，可能涉及到天文、地理、历史、法律、政治、中外文学、中外文化、音乐、翻译专有名词等，准备起来比较棘手，但是凯程老师会给学生准备好知识库，方便学生复习。百科的准备，一要广泛，二要抓重点，尤其要重视学校的参考书目，同时凯程也会提供凯程自己的教材及讲义来帮助大家。

接下来是应用文写作。其实这个根本不用担心，常出的无非是那几个：倡议书、广告、感谢信、求职信、计划书、说明书等，到12月份再看也不晚。但要注意一点，防止眼高手低，貌似很简单，真到写的时候却写不出来，所以还是需要练习的，凯程老师会在学生复习过程中对应用文的写作进行系统的训练。另外，考试的时候也要注意格式、合理性，如果再加上点文采，无异于锦上添花。

最后说说大作文。这个让很多同学担心，害怕到考场上无素材可写，或者语言生硬，拼凑一篇，毕竟大学四年，写作文的机会很少，早没有手感了。所以，凯程老师会针对这种情况，让考生从复习开始时，就进行写作训练，同时也会为考生准备好素材。

最后，注意考场上字体工整，不要乱涂乱画，最好打上横线，因为答题纸一般是白纸。

二、北理工翻译硕士考研的复习方法解读

（一）、参考书的阅读方法

（1）目录法：先通读各本参考书的目录，对于知识体系有着初步了解，了解书的内在逻辑结构，然后再去深入研读书的内容。

（2）体系法：为自己所学的知识建立起框架，否则知识内容浩繁，容易遗忘，最好能够闭上眼睛的时候，眼前出现完整的知识体系。

（3）问题法：将自己所学的知识总结成问题写出来，每章的主标题和副标题都是很好的出题素材。尽可能把所有的知识要点都能够整理成问题。

（二）、学习笔记的整理方法

（1）第一遍学习教材的时候，做笔记主要是归纳主要内容，最好可以整理出知识框架记到笔记本上，同时记下重要知识点，如假设条件，公式，结论，缺陷等。记笔记的过程可以强迫自己对所学内容进行整理，并用自己的语言表达出来，有效地加深印象。第一遍学习记笔记的工作量较大可能影响复习进度，但是切记第一遍学习要夯实基础，不能一味地追求速度。第一遍要以稳、细为主，而记笔记能够帮助考生有效地达到以上两个要求。并且在后期逐步脱离教材以后，笔记是一个很方便携带的知识宝典，可以方便随时查阅相关的知识点。

（2）第一遍的学习笔记和书本知识比较相近，且以基本知识点为主。第二遍学习的时候可以结合第一遍的笔记查漏补缺，记下自己生疏的或者是任何觉得重要的知识点。再到后期做题的时候注意记下典型题目和错题。

（3）做笔记要注意分类和编排，便于查询。可以在不同的阶段使用大小合适的不同的笔记本。也可以使用统一的笔记本但是要注意各项内容不要混杂在以前，不利于以后的查阅。同时注意编好页码等序号。另外注意每隔一定时间对于在此期间自己所做的笔记进行相应的复印备份，以防原件丢失。统一的参考书书店可以买到，但是笔记是独一无二的，笔记是整个复习过程的心血所得，一定要好好保管。

三、北理工翻译硕士复试分数线是多少？

2015年北理工翻译硕士复试分数线是355分，政治和外语最低55分；业务课1和业务课2最低83分。

北理工翻译硕士复试的笔试科目有:中译英、英译中。

北理工方医生硕士复试面试内容有如下两项:

1、口试：包括就所给题目发表自己的观点和看法；

2、听译：英译汉、汉译英。

考研复试面试不用担心，凯程老师有系统的专业课内容培训，日常问题培训，还要进行三次以上的模拟面试，确保你能够在面试上游刃有余，很多老师问题都是我们在模拟面试准备过的。

四、北理工翻译硕士考研初试参考书是什么

北理工翻译硕士初试参考书很多人都不清楚，这里凯程北理工翻译硕士王牌老师给大家整理出来了，以供参考：

庄绎传，《英汉翻译简明教程》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2002。

叶子南，《高级英汉翻译理论与实践》，北京：清华大学出版社，2001。

张培基，《英译中国现代散文选》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，1999。

杨月蓉，《实用汉语语法与修辞》，重庆：西南师范大学出版社，1999。

叶 朗，《中国文化读本》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2008。

卢晓江，《自然科学史十二讲》，北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007。

夏晓鸣，《应用文写作》，上海复旦大学出版社，2010

提示：以上书比较多，有些书的具体内容是不需要看的，凯程授课老师届时会给大家详细讲解每个重点的内容，减少大家盲目复习。

五、北理工翻译硕士辅导班有哪些？

对于翻译硕士考研辅导班，业内最有名气的就是凯程。很多辅导班说自己辅导北理工翻译硕士，您直接问一句，北理工翻译硕士参考书有哪些，大多数机构瞬间就傻眼了，或者推脱说我们有专门的专业课老师给学生推荐参考书，为什么当场答不上来，因为他们根本就没

有辅导过北理工翻译硕士考研，更谈不上有翻译硕士的考研辅导资料，考上北理工翻译硕士的学生了。

在业内，凯程的翻译硕士非常权威，基本上考清华北理工翻译硕士的同学们都了解凯程，凯程有系统的考研辅导班，及对北理工翻译硕士深入的理解，在北理工深厚的人脉，及时的考研信息。凯程近几年有很多学员考取了北理工翻译硕士，毫无疑问，这个成绩是无人能比拟的。并且，在凯程网站有成功学员的经验视频，其他机构一个都没有。同学们不妨实地考察一下。

六、北理工翻译硕士英语笔译专业介绍

北理工翻译硕士学费总额是1.6万元，学制二年。

北理工翻译硕士的奖学金政策如下：

国家助学金硕士6000元/年；

学校助学金硕士4000元/年；

学业奖学金覆盖比例超过40%，硕士8000元/年。

另外，优秀研究生还可申请国家奖学金及社会捐助奖学金。学校还设有助教、助管、助研岗位，供研究生选择。

北理工翻译硕士英语笔译方向考试科目如下：

①101思想政治理论

②211翻译硕士英语

③357英语翻译基础

④448汉语写作与百科知识

七、北理工翻译硕士就业怎么样？

当今，MTI翻译硕士作为新生的专业越来越“热门”，由于社会对翻译硕士专业人才需求量原来越大，所以每年报考翻译硕士的考生数量成倍增长。据北理工发布的2014毕业生就业质量报告显示，北理工翻译硕士毕业生总体就业率达到了98.44%。

而且当前，国内专业翻译人员较少，而且小语种众多，一般来讲每人可精通仅一两种。加之各个行业专业术语繁多，造成能够胜任中译外的高质量工作人才明显不足。所以翻译硕士可以说是当前较为稳定的热门专业之一。

由此来看，北理工翻译硕士就业前景非常不错，北理工翻译硕士的含金量很大，现在经济贸易的国际化程度越来越高，对翻译的需求也是很大的，这种专业性人才是非常有市场的，只要能力够就业很轻松，工资也很高。

八、北理工翻译硕士难度大不大，跨专业的人考上的多不多?

近些年翻译硕士很火，尤其是像北理工这样的著名学校。2015年北理工翻译硕士的招生人数为16人。总体来说，北理工翻译硕士招生量相对较大，考试难度相对不高。根据凯程从北理工研究生院内部的统计数据得知，北理工翻译硕士的考生中90%是跨专业考生，在录取的学生中，基本都是跨专业考的。

在考研复试的时候，老师更看重跨专业学生的能力，而不是本科背景。其次，翻译硕士考试科目里，百科，翻译及基础本身知识点难度并不大，跨专业的学生完全能够学得懂。即使本科学翻译的同学，专业课也不见得比你强多少（大学学的内容本身就非常浅）。凯程考研每年都有大量二本三本学生考取的，所以记住重要的不是你之前学得如何，而是从决定考研起就要抓紧时间完成自己的计划，下定决心，就全身心投入，要相信付出总会有回报。在凯程辅导班里很多这样三凯程生，都考的不错，主要是看你努力与否。

九、如何调节考研的心态

稳定的心态：其实我觉得只要做到全力以赴，然后中间不徘徊、不彷徨，认定目标，心态基本上都是稳定的，成功的学生，除了刚开始纠结于考不考得上这个问题紧张心绪不稳定之外，后来都挺稳定的，至少从表面上看上去是这样的，或许内心深处还是不太稳定的，而且偶尔还是会出现抓狂的情况，不过很快就好了。

效率与时间：要记住效率第一,时间第二，就是说在保证效率的前提下再去延长复习的时间，不要每天十几个小时，基本都是瞌睡昏昏地过去的，那还不如几小时高效率的复习，大家看高效的学生，每天都是六点半醒，其实这到后面已经是一种习惯，都不给自己设置闹铃，自然醒，不过也不是每天都能这么早醒来，一周两周都会出现一次那种睡到八九点的情况，我想这是身体的需要的，所以从来也不刻意强制自己每天都准时起来，这是我的想法，还有就是当你坐在桌前感觉学不动的时候,出去听听歌或者看看新闻啥的放松放松。

坚定的意志：考研是个没有硝烟的持久战，在这场战争中，你要时刻警醒，不然随时都会有倒下的可能。而且，它不像高考那样，每天都有老师催着，每个月都会有模拟考试检验着。所以你不知道自己究竟是在前进还是在退步、自己的综合水平是在提高还是下降。而且，和你一起的研友基本都没有跟你考同一个学校同一个专业的，你也不知道你的对手是什么水平。很长一段时间，都感觉不到自己的进步。而且，应该在自己的手机音乐播放器里存一些特别励志的歌曲，休息期间可以听听，让自己疲惫下来的心理瞬间又满血复活。在凯程，不断有测试，有排名，你就知道自己处于什么位置，找到差距，就能充足能量继续复习。

最后，无论以何种方法复习，考生都要全身心投入，这样才能取得好成绩。相信广大考生对于北理工翻译硕士都有自己的理解，也希望以上内容能够给考生带来帮助。凯程考研祝大家考研顺利!

一分耕耘一分收获。加油！

导语：我们大家都知道，每个公民都有维护好自己权益的义务，所以日常生活中发生一些小摩擦我们当然要理智的去处理，那么投诉信是不是一个很好的办法呢?下面是yuwenmi小编为还在备考的同学整理的优秀英语素材，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

Dear_______,

I am . (自我介绍) I feel bad to trouble you but I am afraid that I have to make a complaint about_______.

The reason for my dissatisfaction is ______________(总体介绍). In the first place,_________________________(抱怨的第一个方面). In addition, ____________________________(抱怨的第二个方面). Under these circumstances, I find it ___(感觉) to ____________________________(抱怨的方面给你带来的后果).

I appreciate it very much if you could_______________________(提出建议和请求), preferably __________(进一步的要求), and I would like to have this matter settled by ______(设定解决事情最后期限).

Thank you for your consideration and I will be looking forward to your reply.

Yours sincerely

Li Ming

一、引导学生写日记入手，认真观察，积累丰富的写作素材。教师应鼓励学生全景式地体验生活，用自己的眼，以自己的心去理解、感受生活，挖掘生活中最熟悉的事例，写真人真事，抒真情实感。例如，写天气，可以四季变化，雪雨雷电，风霜雾露;写同学，可以写下课后的打打闹闹，写某次上课时的调皮捣乱，写做完作业后的无比轻松，写好朋友之间的窃窃私语，写某次课余时的恶作剧;也可以写日常饮食起居、邻里亲情、迎来送往、花鸟虫鱼等。长此以往，不但积累了许多写作素材，而且有效地提高了学生的写作水平。

二、以课文为依托，提倡模仿，培养学生良好的文风。模仿是人类学习，掌握技能的重要方法之一。模仿的特点在于针对性强，有法可循，它既能增加透明度，降低难度，操作性强，又能收到明显的效果。教师要让学生从简单仿句开始，从课内到课外，以骈句到诗句，并辅以中考的大量仿句欣赏阅读，然后讲解仿句的方法要领，再进行尝试模仿，反复训练、修改、提高，直至成功。通过仿句训练，能给学生一个成就感，能激发他们的写作兴趣。通过一段时间的简单仿句训练后，逐渐引到篇上的模仿。

三、以课外为突破口，积累语言，扩大学生的知识视野。杜甫说：“读书破万卷，下笔如有神。”书读得多，语言积累到一定程度，文章就会写得好。在平时的作文教学实践中，很多学生或没有材料可写，或表情达意不够流畅、准确、生动，归根到底是没有丰富的语言积累和语言经验。基于这些实际，教师应重视学生课外阅读，让学生通过大量阅读，开阔视野，丰富知识，增长智慧，从而提高写作能力。为了进一步提高学生课外阅读的效率，要求学生每人准备一个积累本，让学生摘录所阅读文章的好词、好句、好段，写读书笔记，或写阅读感受。通过训练，学生的词汇量增加了，写作素材丰富了，作文水平也普遍得以提高。

四、以作文批改为媒介，鼓励投稿，激发学生写作的热情。心理学研究表明：“赞赏一个人的杰作比赞赏一个人的本身更有效。”在批改学生作文时，教师应尽量肯定他们的优点，用委婉的话指出不足之处。通过教师热情真诚的赏识，使学生及时看到自己作文的成果，从而激励他们“更上一层楼”，不断提高作文能力。

五、以媒体为载体，搭建平台，激起学生展示文学才华的欲望。实践表明，要学好一种东西，兴趣是至关重要的。它是获得知识进行创造性创作的一种自觉动机，是鼓舞和推动学生创作的内在动力，也是提高写作水平的重要途径。因此，在作文教学中，教师要鼓励学生把自己的作品上传到自己已开通的博客上，让众多读者浏览、评价，体验写作的价值。此外，教师也可和学生一道创建班级周刊，让学生做主，编辑文章，设计版面，这样就会激励学生的写作热情，让他们进入一个积极的呈良性循环的写作状态。

观察是写好游记的基础。下面小编来给大家介绍关于游记的写作方法，希望对大家有帮助!

在节假日，小学生在父母和老的在节假日，小学生在父母和老师的带领下，到公园和游览区欣赏景物、陶冶性情。如果将游览时看到的景物，所听到的声音，所产生的联想，所获得的感受，按照一定的顺序，有重点、有感情地记录下来，就是一篇游记。写游记有如下一些要求。

(一)写游记必须写清游踪

要记住从什么地方到了什么地方，每个地方的名称，以及每个地方的方位。这样读者才能搞清楚你先到什么地方。后到什么地方，才能确定你所要描述的景物的具体位置以及它的特征，唤起读者对你所游览之处的神往之情。同时，也使文章福有条理，层次清晰。

(二)要留心观察

观察是写好游记的基础。游览时，不能走马观花，要仔细观察。所谓仔细观察，就是要看景物的形状、颜色、质地是怎样的，静态下什么样，动态下又是什么样，等等。只有这样，在写作时可选的材料才多，才便于把景物写具体、写出特点来。另外，在观察的时候，还要按一定的顺序，或由近及远，又远到近;或从上到下，从下到上;或从里到外，从外到里;或从中间到两边，从两边到中间;或从整体到局部，从局部到整体。按照这样顺序去观察，彩绘全面，描写时彩绘有条理。

(三)要做记录

学生游览的时候，看的东西多，去的地方也比较广，一时很难记住，就是当时记住了，过后也难免遗忘，不利于组织作文。为了避免这种情况，游览时要求学生带上笔和本，边观察、边记录，随看随记，就不会忘记了，写作文的时候还便于选择。另外，公园和修蓝区的有些景物带有介绍。例如，辞经管是何时建造的，经历了哪些发展阶段，占地面积是多少，包含着怎样动人的故事和美丽的传说等等。这些资料很有可能成为学生作文时的宝贵材料，应该要学生记录下来。在游览之后，要求学生及时地把自己观察到的和记录的材料整理归类，看看哪些是属于作文需要的材料，哪些需要详写，哪些需要略写，做到心中有书，为下一步作文做好准备工作。可以要求学生按照下面的表格整理材料。

纵观近年各地中考英语写作题，题材一般是写人、写事、写物、写景、日记、书信、通知、便条等文体。一般来说，不同的写作题材，它的人物，时间，写作的重点也是不尽相同的。下面结合一些常见的题型介绍一下写作的注意事项以及写作技巧。

1、以图表提供情景的作文要以读为主，首先要读懂图表中的数据、时间、编码、序号以及相互间的变化关系，对所给的信息加以分析、推断、筛选、概括、去粗取精;在写作时目的要明确，要注意内容的准确性和严肃性，尤其是图表中的数据、时间等不得有误。

2、以图画提供情景的作文应以看为主，通过细心观察图中的人物、景物、文字、环境、数字等，弄清写作的意图，通过分析思考把握逻辑联系，找出主题并借助所给的文字，把图中的信息转化成文章，但要注意，文章不能停留在图画的浅表，而要表达出提供情景的意图和内涵。

3、以提纲提供情景的作文。这种形式本身的要点已经很明确，重点也很突出，只要把各个提纲加以发挥，注意遣词造句的灵活性和语法规则的正确性，就不会造成审题不清而偏离主题，但要注意，文章必须覆盖所提供的各个提纲的要点。

4、以书信格式提供情景的作文。首先要了解书信的格式，英文书信格式与中文有所不同，

(1)一般在信纸的右上角写上写信人的地址和日期，地址应按从小到大的顺序排列;

(2)左边顶格写上收信人的姓名;

(3)正文部分;

(4)祝愿的话;

(5)写信人签名。信的内容一定要按所给的要求写，不要漏写。

古人说过：“好的结尾，有如咀嚼干果，品尝香茗，令人回味再三。”与开头一样，结尾也很重要。以下是小编给大家整理的中考作文结尾的写作方法的内容，欢迎大家查看。

如果一篇主题鲜明，角度新颖的文章，读到最后，却被一个不妙的结尾扫了兴，岂不可惜!结尾除了要服务于文章的内容和中心外，还得受“开头”的制约，这样说来，结尾就更难写了。人们称好的文章的结尾为“豹尾”，从中考作文来看，虽然不一定要求篇篇文章的结尾都是“豹尾”，但也要求结尾简练、生动、恰到好处。

一般说来，同学们的作文结尾易犯的毛病有：①画蛇添足。即全文已结束，本可耐人寻味，但作者仍不放心，偏要哆嗦几句，把无需交待的人物下落一一交待，把本可悟出的含义一语捅破。②空喊口号。在结尾处为表明自己的立场、态度，大喊着与文章内容无关的口喊，这种结尾大煞主题。③拖泥带水。结尾意思已经明了，却迟迟不肯收尾，冲突了文章的主题。下面介绍几种作文结尾方法：

1、祝愿法

文章的结尾，表达作者的祝愿、愿望，如朱德的《回忆我的母亲》的结尾：“愿母亲在地下安息!”就是这样。

2、评议法

记叙文结尾，篇末往往有个简短的评议或评述。例如臧克家的《闻一多先生的说和做》就有这样的结尾：

闻一多先生，是卓越的学者，热情潮湃的优秀诗人，大勇的革命烈士。

他，是口的巨人。他，是行的高标。

3、扣题法

文章的结句与标题呼应相扣，例如老舍的《济南的冬天》的结尾，就用了这样手法。请看：这块水晶里，包着红屋顶，黄草山，象地毯上的小团花的小灰色树影，这就是冬天的济南。

4、道具法

文章始终贯穿着某一件事物，并以这件事物作为故事的终结。例如江耀辉的《红军鞋》：

“幸好除了子弹打的那个洞以外，别处还没有破，我赶忙把它脱下来，磕掉泥巴，又挂在腰上。”这个结尾就以贯穿文章始终的红军鞋作为故事的终结。

5、终结法

文章的结尾，把故事的终结交代给读者，以此来作为故事的结尾。如罗广斌、刘德彬、杨益京三人写的《挺进报》的结尾就是这样：

“革命同志以无比的机智战胜了敌人，保全了党组织。”这个结尾就交代了故事的终结。

6、直抒胸臆法

文章结尾，作者毫不掩饰地把自己的希望和内心感情直接写出来。如碧野的《天山景物记》就是这样结尾的：

“朋友，天山的丰美景物何止这些，天山绵延几千里，不论高山、深谷，不论草原、森林，不论溪流、湖泊，处处有奇丽的美景，你要我说可真说不完。如果哪一天你有豪情去游天山，临行前别忘了通知我一声，也许我能给你当一个不很出色的向导。不过当向导在我只是一个漂亮的借口，其实我私心里很想找个机会去重游天山。”这个结尾就表达了作者的希望。

7、烘托法

结尾把环境气氛加以烘托，给人更强烈更深刻的印象。如杨沫的《坚强的战士》就是这样结尾的：

声音开始是林红一个人的，以后变成几个人的，再以后变成几十个、几百个人的了。这口号声越来越洪大，越壮烈，越激昂，好象整个宇宙充满了这高亢的呼声。

8、推测法

文章结尾时，对文中所写的人和物想作个交代，但又没有确凿根据，或者就是为了制造一种悬念，于是就用了推测法。例如《孔乙己》的结尾：

“我到现在终于没有见–大约孔乙己的确死了。”句子的“大约”二字即说明是推测了。

9、对比法

结尾时，把人物或事件的几个方面进行对比，使之更加鲜明突出。例如马克?吐温的《竞选州长》的结尾：

“你的忠实的朋友–从前是个正派人，可是现在成了伪证犯、小偷、盗尸犯、酒疯子、舞弊分子诡讹诈专家的马克?吐温。”

10、绘景法

以描写景物作为结尾。如杜鹏程的《夜走灵官峡》：风，更猛了。雪，更大了。

11、时空法

结尾处点明时间或地点。如《海市》：那真实的海市并非别处，就是庙岛群岛。

12、怀念法

文章结尾处表达出深厚的怀念之情，给人们留下不尽之思。如方纪的《挥手之间》就在结尾处表达了这种感情：

十几年来，延安机场上送行的情景常常出现在眼前：主席站在飞机舱口，用坚定的目光望着送行的人群，用宽大的手掌握住那顶深灰色的盔式帽，慢慢举起，举起，然后用力一挥，停在空中在他面前，无数的战士正朝着他所指的方向奋勇前进。

13、意外法

文章结尾，使人感到出乎意料。如莫泊桑的《项链》：

唉!我可怜的玛蒂尔德!可是我那一挂是假的，至多值五百法郎

14、总结法

文章结尾处把全文内容作个总结，有的还把全文的中心思想归纳出来。如马识途的《我们打了一个大胜仗–四川抗洪救灾记事》的结尾：

四川的党政军民，在这次抗洪救灾向自然作斗争的总体战中，为了抢救国家物资和人民的生命财产，他们公而忘私，国而忘家，置个人安危于不顾，充分发挥了人定胜天的无比威力，打了一个大胜仗!

15、呼吁法

文章结尾，向读者发出呼吁。如鲁迅先生的《狂人日记》：

没有吃过人的孩子或者还有?

救救孩子

16、照应法

文章结尾时，为了使前后呼应，中心明确，线索清楚，结构紧凑，常常要对前文加以照应。照应题目，照应开头，照应线索，照应主人公。如戈果理的《泼留希金》。结尾时就照应了主人公：

现在站在乞乞科夫面前的，就是这样的人!

《变色龙》的结尾就照应了开头：

“我早晚要收拾你!”奥楚蔑洛夫向他恐吓说，裹紧大衣，接着穿过市场的广场径自走了。

17、特写法

在结尾处，把文中所写的人物用“特写镜头”描写出来。如《草地晚餐》的结尾：

夕阳把草原映得更加光辉灿烂。总司令那稳健的身躯，犹如一株青松，在阳光照耀下，显得更加巍然高大。

一、注意审题

小作文的审题(即审读材料)很重要，决定着文章的成败。因为一个小作文的材料中，往往隐含了若干个写作要求，如不细心审读，抓不到这些隐含的要求，就很容易出现错误。例如：

一个孩子乘母亲不在，将家里的小闹钟拆了，母亲见后……

要求;根据上面的材料，展开想象，如果你是母亲，如何处置这个事情。请写出一个200字左右的处置过程。

这个小作文便隐含四个要求：(1)〝母亲见后〞，时间上必须要从母亲看见闹钟被拆之后写起;(2)〝如果你是母亲〞，行文中写作者必须是小孩的 母亲，必须以小孩子母亲的身份出现，不能这样写：〝如果我是这位母亲，我会这样处置……〞;(3)〝200字左右〞，字数限定在200字左右;(4)〝处 置过程〞，内容只能写处置的过程，而不能写结果和其他。

二、注意语言的简洁

这一点体现在两方面。其一，小作文字数一般是100┄300字，受篇幅限制，语言要求简洁明了。其二，如果是写应用文，则语言也一定要简洁，因为语言简洁是应用文写作的最基本要求。

三、力求结构完整

小作文是片断性作文，而非篇章。虽如此，但不能一味忽略结构的完整性。一篇小作文如果能够做到结构完整，则效果会更好。例如：

在你的身边有许多可亲可爱的事物，请你任选其中一种，以《我眼里的___________》为题写一篇200字左右的短文。

有位学生在叙写完一只小猫的伶俐乖巧后，篇末一句〝我非常喜爱我家的小猫〞独句成段，这样，既抒发了情感，又收束了全文，使短文结构完整，比那些一味描写小猫的文章要好得多了。

要做到结构完整，可运用以下的结构方式：前后照应式、篇末点题式、总分总式(包括总分式和分总式)等。

四、注意表达方式的运用

受文体的制约，一篇文章总以某种表达方式为主，同时兼用其他表达方式为主。小作文也应注意这一点。如江西省2002年中考语文小作文题为二选 一，(1)通过某一情景或场面，描写你最喜欢的色彩。(2)就你最喜欢的色彩，发表议论。无论选哪一题，或描写、或议论，总得以一种表达方式为主。但如果 能兼用其他表达方式，如兼用议论和抒情，表达自己对某种色彩的某中看法和喜爱之情，则能使短文大为增色。

Study is the necessary process that everyone need to experience. And then exam will follow. To obtain a good score, review is inevitable. Almost everyone wants to find the best review method. But there is no best review method, but there is the most suitable way. Different people will find different methods for them to do review. For example, some students should study in group, while some should study alone. When recite things, some need to write it down, some need to speak loudly, and some just need to read it. Different methods just depend on different people. Don’t compare with others; just find the most suitable one for yourself.

学习是每个人都必须要经历的过程。然后考试就随之而来了。为了获得好成绩，复习是必须的。几乎每个人都想找到最好的复习方法。但是，没有最好的只有最适合的复习方法。不同的人会找到不同的复习方法。例如，一些学生适合集体学习，而一些则应该独自学习。在背诵东西的时候，有些需要写下来，有些需要大声说出来，而有些则只需要看看。不同的人依赖于不同的方法。不要与他人相比较;找到最适合自己的。

一、常用论证方法

(一)事例论证

1、注意材料真实与确切

2、注意材料与观点的一致性、丰富性：古今中外、历史现实数字

3、注意叙事简介，概述重要主要情节

4、注意顺序：时间、空间、说理逻辑层次

5、切忌以叙代议，一定有议论!

(二)引用论证

1、要准确、贴切、自然

2、要精辟

3、切忌以引代议，一定有议论!结合引和议

(三)比喻论证

1、本体喻体之间要有相似性

2、用来比喻的事物使人们所熟知的

3、一定要有分析

4、用故事作比喻要概述故事内容

(四)对比论证：分纵横两类

1、对比要鲜明

2、正反对比应有主次

(五)引申类比：运用某个材料的引申义，通过类比，来论证文章的观点

1、类比论证是同一类事物或问题的相比，不同于比喻

2、引申的材料要完整简洁

3、要有分析!

二、常用的说理方法

1、因果分析

2、意义分析

3、揭示实质

4、点面分析：有代表性的论据——概括性一般性结论

5、假设分析

6、条件分析：多用于分析解决问题时

7、正反分析

第一种方法

1首先是要在纸张正上方中间写上醒目一点的标题，一般直接写保证书就可以了，但是如果涉及专门类别的保证书那还要加上一些前缀，多数出现在专业工作领域上，比如企业工厂一般都是写生产安全保证书，卫生食品部门则是会写卫生安全保证书等等，学生则有可能写学习保证书。

2正文开始前有个抬头，顶格写上对保证书送达方的称呼，一般送达方为保证人的上级、服务方、或者长辈，所以如果是写给个人，在称呼上最好带点尊敬，最好能带上他的专业称谓，比如某某老师某某先生/小姐等等，然后在称谓后面加上冒号。

3正文开始要空两格，一般正文写清楚两点就可以了，第一点就是写保证书的原因是什么，第二点就是你要做保证的具体事项、具体行为、具体时间等等，比方说一位学生写保证书，第一点，写的原因是他在班级里打伤了同学，第二点，他保证在该学校读书期间不会和班级里的同学打架，保证认真学习等等，这样保证书的正文主要内容就齐了。

4在保证书的结尾最好再一次强调一下实现保证目标的决心，可以写上以上保证绝对做到等话，然后再用此致敬礼等礼貌用语结束正文，如果是写给不固定的服务对象的保证书，可以在结尾处写上希望用户监督批评等话。

5最后是落款，落款一般都是写在保证书的右下方的，署上保证人单位的全称(一定要写全称，表示对送达方的尊重)或者个人的完整姓名，并署上发文的日期。

其他方法

1另外还有一种保证书，就是常见的使用、维护、处理某些东西的保证书，这个一般只需要写上使用、维护、处理者以及物品的基本信息，再写上保证正确使用、维护、处理该物品即可，不需要其他内容。

2另外还有一种保证书其实就相当于说明书，是将某产品或者某服务的具体内容进行详细说明，有些可能再在后面加上一句以上信息保证属实，一般常见某些物品鉴定。

单位领导：

您们好!

我在****店外场工作有将近一年的时间了。现担任****店外场副组长。自从从事这项工作后，我学到了不少东西，为了今后的工作做的更好，能够及时的得到领导和同志们的帮助。我在今后的工作中保证做到以下几项。

第一，要自觉学习业务，学习上面的有关精神，时刻不忘自己工作和思想上觉悟的提高。

第二，要时刻不忘自己的责任，要尽职尽责的做好工作，要做到在岗一分钟，做好六十秒。

第四，要尊重领导，团结同事，努力创造一个团结和睦的集体。

第四，自愿遵守**市**区**娱乐有限公司制订的各项规章制度。

第五，做到对于公司专业知识工作流程熟悉掌握，熟悉操作。

第六，做好自己本职工作，管理好自己区域，积极完成各项上级分配下来的工作。

第七，对待顾客要求自己与员工做到不说不尊重之语 不说不友好之语 不说不耐烦之语 不说不客气之语。

第八，树立强烈的服务意识，富有进取和创新精神。

各位领导同事，以上是我的保证书，请大家监督我。

此致

保证人：

我们能生活在这美好、精彩的世界上，是因为我们的父母养育了我们。那么关于感恩父母的作文怎么写呢？下面是小编整理的感恩父母作文的写作方法，希望对你有帮助！

1、审清题目

审清对象

看我们的作文要求，感恩父母，主题一定是要围绕父母。

审明范围

那么应该写点什么呢，其实无非就是一些父母对自己的好的事例，从而对父母表达感激之情

审准重点

这篇作文重在感恩，既要写父母亲对我们的好，同样要写出我们对父母亲的感激之情，以后怎样报答父母。如果只写父母，没写我们的感激之情，那么只是一片描写父母的文章，如果只写了对“我”的感激之情，只是表表决心，也是轻重倒置，重点不突出。

2、学会给文章起个好标题

要切合文章的思想内容，不要“题不对文”。

要具体，有内容，不要空泛，华而不实。

要醒目，有新意，能引人入胜，不要老一套，一般化，照抄照搬。

要精练，不要累赘。

3、学会刻画细节

我们平常接触的最多的人应该就是我们的父母了，对于他们我们应该是了若指掌的，我们可以从小着手，把生活中微小的细节描写出来，事小而情真，升华我们的主题

4、运用丰富词汇

做衣服要用布料，盖房子要用木料，说话、写文章也要有材料，这就是词汇。有的同学掌握的词汇很少，一提起笔来就觉得没词儿，腹中空空，肚子里什么货都没有，有的即使勉强写出来了，也是空洞洞、干巴巴的几条筋，颠来倒去总是那么几个词。

说明文在高考中虽然考查次数不多，但在科技飞速发展的今天，它的应用越来越广泛，科普读物、知识小品、解说词、说明书等都有说明文的影子。它和我们日常学习、生活、工作有着非常密切的联系，而且作为考纲中提到的文体之一（《考试大纲》明确规定的能写论述类、实用类和文学类文章中的实用类文章），它还是占有一席之地的，考生切不可忽视。写说明文和写其他文体一样，必须明确写作意图，确立文章中心；充分占有材料，力求做到言之有物、言之有序。在实际写作中，考生常常会陷入以下一些写作误区。

误区一：知识性差错

说明文的特点是说，它是客观地说明事物的一种文体，目的在于给人以知识，或说明事物的状态、性质、功能，或阐明事理。这种知识或者来自有关科学研究资料，或者是亲身实践、调查、考察所得，都具有严密的科学性，不能有丝毫差错。如，有篇写牛的习作这样写道：牛有水牛、黄牛两种，牛是反刍动物，只吃青草，不必喂料。牛都有两只角，体强力大，是世界各国普遍使用的耕作工具。显然作者对牛了解不够，相关知识储备不足，因而在一知半解中造成了知识上的疏漏和错误。世界上牛的品种不只水牛、黄牛两种，杂交品种的牛并不长角；除了青草外，还必须给牛喂其他饲料；世界上也不是普遍使用牛作为耕作工具，牛还有专供食用、奶用或运输用，甚至作为神物崇拜的。

规避策略：抓住特征，把握中心。

说明文只有抓住事物的特征，才能把被说明的事物准确清晰地介绍给读者，使人们对事物有确切的了解。事物往往有多方面的特征，介绍时不可能面面俱到，因此写作时，必须把握说明文的中心，根据需要，重点介绍若干方面。如，《漫话圆周率》是一篇介绍数学基础知识的说明文，文章虽题为漫话，却是围绕求出圆周率的更精确的数值这个中心，向人们介绍了古今中外数学家对圆周率的数值所做的贡献。《青蛙》这篇说明文如果定位为为了更好地保护这一人类的朋友，落脚点便应是介绍青蛙这一两栖类动物为人类的粮食生产所作出的贡献，那么就不该出现介绍其营养价值高的说法了。

误区二：文体性错误

说明文可以采用各种方式进行说明，甚至可以采用一些文艺性笔调，如中学课本中有《南州六月荔枝丹》一文。但是考生应该牢记，说明的目的在于说清事理，教人以知识。弘扬精神、歌颂美德等社会性、审美性不是这种文体的功用。如，有篇题为《蚯蚓》的说明文，其中有这样的描述：别看这小动物不惹眼，它可天天在松土、干活，它不讲究吃穿，不讲究休息，不谈报酬，整天埋头苦干，为人们劳作耕地，让作物生长茂盛。我不禁想起我们的老师，他们也有蚯蚓一样的精神。我愿做一条辛勤劳动的蚯蚓。显而易见，该作者混淆了文体特征，写成了一篇借物咏志的抒情美文。

规避策略：针对情况，选好角度。

说明文也要求有的放矢，写什么，怎样写，要着眼于读者的实际情况，使文章具有针对性，切合读者的知识水平、职业特点和年龄大小。如，《香烟的危害》，可阐述的内容很多，有针对老年人而说的，也有对妇女而言的，还有对青少年而说的，角度不同，说明内容便各有侧重。如果是学校教育，那应该主要介绍吸烟的危害，突出分析青少年的生理特征，说明青少年接触毒性物质比成年人吸收快、排除慢、毒害大的情况，指出吸烟对青少年是绝对有害而无一利的。这样说明目的清楚，针对性强，收效也大。

如写热带风暴，本文应该是一篇事理性科学说明文，考生可根据中学地理书上所学到的知识，按照事理之间的逻辑关系，对什么是热带风暴、热带风暴形成的原因、产生的地域、热带风暴的危害和好处、热带风暴的跟踪预报、未来人类利用热带风暴造福的前景等作出说明。当然，为了突出重心，可以选择几个重要的，尤其是对人民群众的生活有重大影响的方面。写作时，应尽量避免使用冷僻的行话和术语，因为如此写来显得深奥晦涩，应力求语言通俗、简明、平实，以使读者易于接受。

误区三：不恰当论述

说明文针对不同的读者群和它所担负的社会责任，有不同的说明重点与中心。如，有篇题为《青蛙》的知识小品文，介绍青蛙时写道：青蛙是两栖、变温的动物，营养价值很高这样的定性是片面的甚至是错误的。青蛙能捕捉害虫，有益于庄稼的生长，介绍宣传的目的在于保护它，而写它营养价值高，会引起一些人的兴趣，使它成为满足一些人的口食之欲的食物。这样的介绍必然会产生不良的社会影响，使读者产生误解，反而不利于普及科学知识。

规避策略：解说清楚，条理分明。

说明文的目的是让人获得其种知识或某项技能，只有解说清楚，才能达到目的。说明说明，一说即明，如何解说清楚，要讲究说明的方法，要注意结构的安排。解说事物、阐释事理要按其本身的条理来安排说明的次序，使之层次清楚，主次分明，如此读者才会有所得，有所获。至于如何具体安排结构，不同类型的说明文有不同的要求，如《北京的立交桥》是一篇有关建筑的说明文，它以时间为经，介绍了北京立交桥的变迁，从一个侧面反映了改革开放的巨大成就；介绍中它又以空间为纬，具体介绍了几座立交桥的形状、结构、功能甚至审美等特征。这种时空结合的介绍方式全面具体、有效地传播了知识。

如写圆规：可以自上而下地写出它的部件结构及其作用，然后介绍圆规的使用方法及注意事项。

如写钢笔：则可以自外而内地介绍钢笔的构造及其功用，然后讲讲钢笔的使用与保养的注意点。当然，为了使介绍生动有趣，可以考虑采用自述的形式，可使用拟人手法，增强文章的趣味性与形象性，但要注意写作的中心、重心，因为即便运用艺术手法，它也是为说明其特征服务的。

误区四：准确性不够

说明文的语言要求准确无误，给读者以科学的认识，任何语言表达上的失之毫厘，其结果都会谬以千里。如，有篇题为《北京的立交桥》的科普小品文，文中说：1984年通车的三元立交桥，是二环快速路和一条主干道交叉的两座立交桥的组合，是国内最大规模的立交桥。这个说法存在较大的疑问。随着我国社会经济的快速发展，各大中城市的立交桥建设进入了快车道，而且规模越来越大，造价越来越高。比如南京的赛虹桥、双桥门，整个投资超过30个亿，相当于新建一座长江大桥，规模之大，气势之恢弘，不到现场无法领略。因此，这段文字应该在国内前加上当时二字，这样定位准确，说明到位，也从一个侧面反映了我国现代化建设的步伐。

规避策略：准确简明，通俗浅显。

选用准确的语言，精当地解说事物的事理，是说明文语言的基本要求。说明文是以介绍知识性内容为主的，只有如实地反映被说明内容的客观情况，才能保证知识的准确性、科学性。如果失去知识的科学性，也就失去了说明文的价值。此外，说明文往往有些内容是专门领域的，必然会涉及一些专门名词和专业术语，在说明时，考生要把它们运用得准确无误，以避免误导读者。如，航空与航天是两个不同的概念，有篇文章作了这样的解说：飞机在大气层内飞行，称为航空；卫星、飞船在大气层外飞行，称为航天。它们是采用不同的飞行器在不同的空间来完成飞行任务的。这种解说是十分准确的，使人对什么叫航空、什么叫航天有了科学的了解。

说明文往往是对科学知识的介绍，也往往是一般人所不熟悉的内容。要把专门化的科学知识解说清楚，让人易于了解，必须做到深入浅出，通俗易懂，生动活泼，富有趣味。如，《洲际导弹自述》是一篇介绍洲际导弹知识的科技小品文。文章用拟人手法把洲际导弹问世、分类、构造、特点及其威力和弱点都解说得十分清楚。文章中赋予其假定的人类行为，生动形象，使人易于理解。为了把说明文写得生动活泼，通俗易懂，也可运用各种修辞手法，增强文章的形象性和趣味性。

如果写人行天桥这类说明建筑物的文章，可以从人行天桥是怎样的建筑、它是如何发挥缓解交通拥堵的作用的等角度入手、采用虚实结合的手法。实写：以一个参观者的目光，全方位地介绍某一座人行天桥的位置、结构、造型、支撑、装饰、功用等，由远及近，由上到下，由内到外，移步换景，细致地描绘人行天桥的容貌风姿。虚写：用概括性的语言说明人行天桥对城市交通管理的重要性，及站在桥上的所见所闻所感所想。语言力求准确、简明，当然也可运用多种说明方法。

拨开云雾终见日，考生只要掌握说明文的写作要领，就一定能写出合格的甚至是优秀的说明文，还有利于考生做好现代文阅读中涉及到的说明文，可谓一举多得。

近段时间，针对同学们在写作方面存在的问题，我调整了自己的教学方法和评价方法，极大的激励了孩子们的写作积极性。

第一，引导学生从生活中的琐碎小事选材。生活本身就是由琐碎小事构成的，像一家人坐在一起吃饭，上学时受到老师批评，路上看见一件奇怪的事情，和同学发生一点儿矛盾……这些都是琐事，其实 ，像盖房，结婚，考上大学等等发生在我们身上的大事、正事本来就是有限的。我们在引导学生写作时，应该着重引导他们注意从生活琐碎里边选材，把这样的小事写活，写细，达到以小见大突出主题的目的，文章自然就生动有趣了。我们在写作“自己身边的亲情故事”时，我注重引导孩子们从身边发现和挖掘素材，写出了不少令人满意的作文。 陈志豪同学写的《藏在鸡蛋里的爱》，叙述了和爸爸一起吃饭时把碗里的荷包蛋“撬”到爸爸碗里，又被爸爸“撬”回来的小事，体现了父子之间的深深的爱，语言简洁生动，读起来却真实感人。

第二，引导学生抓住镜头描写，动静结合， 让人物活起来。

平时写作时，很多学生的文章总是平平淡淡，缺少感染力，究其原因，大多是因为在写人叙事中构思不成熟，行文中人物的内心活动或事件的关键之处没有来得及展示就匆匆结束了。为了让文章有味道，我们有必要培养学生掌握好写作的节奏，设法捕捉住闪亮的瞬间，让作文在应该慢的节点上慢下来，精心打造细节，使其产生感染人的效果。

作为一种描写方式——动静结合，就是把人物静态时的外貌特点和行动时的动作特点，有机地结合起来写，从而逼真地反映人物的性格特点 ，让人物真切、立体地“活”在读者面前。描写人物静态，应从人物的身材、体型、衣着、容貌、姿势或某个局部的特写等方面，选择最能反映人物个性特点的地方来描写。中小学生作文描写人物静态的最多见的弊病是“千人一面”，不管男女老幼，写眼睛就是“大大的炯炯有神”，写眉毛就是“弯弯的像个月牙”，写面部就是“一笑两个小酒窝”。因此“抓个性”是静态描写的最重要的一环。 描写人物动态，要在平时观察的基础上，找出最能反映人物性格特点的动作来描写。写出人物动作时的个性化，写出人物动态时的神情、姿态和气质。我们作文时，容易偏重于人物的对话而忽略人物的动态描写。其实，动态也是最能反映人物性格特点的。所以动态描写一般要关注人物的举手投足、神情变化等。采用动静结合法描写人物，要做到静态特点和动态特点的自然统一、水乳交融，从而把人物写生动、写真实，从而使文章产生感人的力量。作文中写人物的机会很多，掌握了动静结合法，你笔下的人物很容易“活”起来。

第三，培养学生酝酿感情，让自己处于感动中，写出来的文章才能感动人。最动情的东西，都是自己所亲身经历的，有真实体验，有真切感受，能够写得见人见物见精神的东西。要做到灌注真情，以情驭文，就要于提笔前酝酿感情，一遍遍再现人物与生活情节，让自己处于激情洋溢之中，处于对人物的感动之中（有时，这种感动会使自己不觉间热泪盈眶）。此时，心中自会生发出写的冲动。自己在感动中动笔，那份感情就会随着文字而流淌在字里行间。同时，正是因为自己处于感动之中，写起来也就会格外得心应手，容易一气呵成。这种感情的酝酿，即使应试作文也不能例外。我们班同学写作《老师，我想对您说》时，我流着眼泪告诉他们：和你们朝夕相处整整两年的我，因为不能胜任现在的工作，下个星期不再教你们语文课了，今天是与你们相处的最后一天……全班同学都很难过，结果是每个人都写出了两年来最真挚感人的文章。

文章不是无情物。一篇让人喜爱的好文章，往往渗透着作者真挚浓厚的感情。很多人写作，主要是心灵受某种情感的冲击，这种情感自然就会流动于笔端。 我们常说：拥有真情，才能拥有感动，只有渗透着泪与笑的文章才会获得真正的生命，才具有震撼读者心灵的力量。

第四，提高批改时的档次 ，用表扬激励参与的积极性。无论是大人还是孩子，都喜欢正面的评价和表扬。尽管我们都知道：“忠言逆耳利于行”的古训 ，可总还是抑制不住喜欢赞美之词。虽然在批改作文时需要我们找出学生存在的问题 ，但是，老师应该尽量戴上放大镜去寻找文章中的优点，大到文章的构思，小到遣词造句，只要有长处，老师就要毫不吝啬的指出来。孩子们最愿意看到的不是你的挑三拣四，而是你对他的赞赏。所以我在批改作文时总是有意提高打分的档次，极大地鼓励了孩子们的写作热情。

现在，我们班的学生不再谈作文变色了，他们最喜欢的事是拿到自己的作文本，看我的圈点批注，总是欢喜之情，溢于言表。“兴趣是最好的老师”，大家都乐意做的事情，怎么会没有进步呢？

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

一、文献综述不应是对已有文献的重复、罗列和一般性介绍，而应是对以往研究的优点、不足和贡献的批判性分析与评论。因此，文献综述应包括综合提炼和分析评论双重含义。

文献综述范文1：“问题——探索——交流”小学数学教学模式的研究

... ...我们在网上浏览了数百种教学模式，下载了二百余篇有关教学模式的文章，研读了五十余篇。概括起来，我国的课堂教学模式可分三类：

(1) 传统教学模式——“教师中心论”。这类教学模式的主要理论根据是行为主义学习理论，是我国长期以来学校教学的主流模式。它的优点是... ...，它的缺陷是... ...

(2) 现代教学模式——“学生中心论”。这类教学模式的主要理论依据是建构主义学习理论，主张从教学思想、教学设计、教学方法以及教学管理等方面均以学生为中心，20世纪 90年代以来，随着信息技术在教学中的应用，得到迅速发展。它的优点是... ...，它的缺陷是... ...

(3) 优势互补教学模式——“主导——主体论”。这类教学模式是以教师为主导，以学生为主体，兼取行为主义和建构主义学习理论之长并弃其之短，是对“教师中心论”和“学生中心论”的扬弃。“主导——主体论”教学模式体现了辩证唯物主义认识论，但在教学实践中还没有行之有效的可以操作的教学方法和模式。

以教师为中心的传统小学数学教学模式可表述为“复习导入——传授新知——总结归纳——巩固练习——布置作业”。这种教学模式无疑束缚了学生学习主体作用的发挥。当今较为先进的小学数学教学模式可表述为“创设情境，提出问题——讨论问题，提出方案——交流方案，解决问题——模拟练习，运用问题——归纳总结，完善认识”。这种教学模式力求重视教师的主导作用和学生的主体作用，为广大教师所接受，并在教学实践中加以运用。但这种教学模式将学生的学习局限于课堂，学习方式是为数学而数学，没有把数学和生活结合起来，没有把学生学习数学置于广阔的生活时空中去，学生多角度多途径运用数学知识解决问题的能力受到限制，尤其是学生运用数学知识创造性地解决生活中的数学问题的能力发展受到限制，不利于培养学生的创新精神和实践能力。为此，我们提出“‘问题——探索——交流 ’小学数学教学模式研究”课题。

文献综述范文1中，研究者对有关研究领域的情况有一个全面、系统的认识和了解，对相关文献作了批判性的分析与评论。对于正在从事某一项课题的研究者来说，查阅文献资料有助于他们从整体上把握自己研究领域的发展历史与现状、已取得的主要研究成果、存在争议的地方、研究的最新方向和趋势、被研究者忽视的领域、对进一步研究工作的建议等。

文献综述范文2： 农村中学学生自学方法研究

1.国外的研究现状

国外的自学方法很多。美国心理学家斯金纳提出程序学习法... ...，程序学习使学习变得相对容易，有利于学生自学。美国心理学家桑代克所创设的试误学习法... ...，它主要解决学习中的问题。还有超级学习法，查、问、读、记、复习法、暗示法等。

2.国内的研究状况

我国古代就非常重视自学方法的研究，有“温故而知新”，“学而时习之”... ...，我国现代教育家叶圣陶先生主张培养学生的自学能力... ...，中国科学院心理研究所卢仲衡同志首先提出“自学辅导教学法”... ...,这种方法的主要优点在于... ...,魏书生的语文教学主张通过提高学生学习的自觉性来提高学习效率... ...

以上国内外的研究经验为我们的课题研究提供了宝贵的经验。

从文献综述范文2看，该课题综述列举了国内外有代表性的专家、学者关于自学方法方面的论述和做法，并对部分内容的优点进行了概述。在选好了大的研究方向后，在确定具体的研究课题之前，通过查阅大量文献资料，了解有关研究情况，有助于研究者通过比较、分析，根据研究的可行性、研究者的兴趣和能力等方面限定研究内容，确定课题的研究范围，更好地驾驭和把握课题。但是，文献综述对每位专家、学者所持理论和做法的优点与不足所进行的批判性分析与评论不够，特别是缺少对国内外研究现状的综合提炼与分析。

二、文献综述要文字简洁，尽量避免大量引用原文，要用自己的语言把作者的观点说清楚，从原始文献中得出一般性结论。

文献综述的目的是通过深入分析过去和现在的研究成果，指出目前的研究状态、应该进一步解决的问题和未来的发展方向，并依据有关科学理论、结合具体的研究条件和实际需要，对各种研究成果进行评论，提出自己的观点、意见和建议。应当指出的是，文献综述不是对以往研究成果的简单介绍与罗列，而是经过作者精心阅读后，系统总结某一研究领域在某一阶段的进展情况，并结合本国本地区的具体情况和实际需要提出自己见解的一种科研工作。

三、文献综述不是资料库，要紧紧围绕课题研究的“问题”，确保所述的已有研究成果与本课题研究直接相关，其内容是围绕课题紧密组织在一起，既能系统全面地反映研究对象的历史、现状和趋势，又能反映研究内容的各个方面。

文献综述范文3：农村中小学心理健康教育途径与方法的实验研究

本课题国内外研究现状述评：... ...1998年国际心理卫生协会强调“健康的定义... ...”

心理健康运动的发起人是美国的C.比尔斯。... ...马斯洛的人本主义强调“自我实现”;费勒姆提出了“新人型理论”;奥尔特提出了“成熟者的理论”... ...

美国是最早开设心理辅导的国家，... ...将“心理辅导”定为学校教育的一部分... ...，前苏联教育部1984年颁布“苏联普通学校心理辅导条例”;日本也积极从美国引进心理辅导... ...

我国心理健康教育起步较晚，20世纪80年代在个别地区、个别学校起步了... ...，中小学真正起步是在90年代初到90年代中期。中国青少年研究中心、中国青少年发展基金会在全国进行大规模的调查，并于1997年 6 月 7 日公布了结果，引起了国人特别是教育界的震动... ...

1988年中共中央发布了“关于改革和加强中小学德育工作的通知”。1989年12月20日联合国大会通过了《儿童权益公约》，... ... 1993年全国教育工作会议明确提出“通过多种方式对不同年龄层次的学生进行心理健康教育指导... ...”1997年10月国家教委关于《积极推进中小学实施素质教育的若干意见》的通知中再一次强调了对中小学生进行“心理健康教育”。应该说自20世纪90年代初期到中期，上海中小学的心理健康教育走在了全国前列，1994年上海教委出台了关于在中小学开展心理健康教育的有关文件，并出版了有关教材。但他们把绝大部分精力放在了城市学生身上。与此同时北京市西城区成了“心育中心”丁榕老师一马当先做了许多工作，但仍是把精力放在了城市学生身上。农村学生与城市学生在生活、学习等条件上都存在着较大差异，在心理健康水平上也存在着较大不同，但至今没有人提出农村中小学心理教育的途径与方法的成型经验。因此农村中小学心理教育的途径与方法是值得研究的问题。

从文献综述范文3中可以看出，课题组成员翻阅了大量资料。但是，就“心理健康教育途径和方法”的综述不多;农村学生与城市学生心理健康差异的分析也不多。“农村”的特点不清，“方法途径”不知道新不新。这样会给后面的研究方向和设计带来麻烦。

四、文献综述的综述要全面、准确、客观，用于评论的观点、论据最好来自一次文献，尽量避免使用别人对原始文献的解释或综述。

(摘自 ：《教育科学研究》2004.6，原文：“撰写文献综述的基本要求”，作者：王俊芳 )

函对于不相隶属机关之间相互商洽工作、询问和答复问题，起着沟通作用，小编收集了公务员考试写作指导函的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、函的分类方法

从函所起的作用来看，可分为以下几种：

1.告知函。即把某一事项、活动函告对方，或请对方参加(如会议、集体活动)。这种函的作用和内容类似通知，只是由于双方不是上下级和业务指导关系，使用“通知”行文不妥，故应该用“函”。

2.商洽函。主要用于请求协助、支持、商洽解决办理某一问题。比如干部商调函，联系参观学习函、要求赔偿函等。

3.询问函。主要用于询问某一事项、征求意见、催交货物等。

4.答复函。主要答复不相隶属机关询问相关方针、政策等问题而不能用批复时使用。

5.请求批准函。主要是指向有关机关、部门请求批准时使用。如果是下级机关向上级机关请求批准，只能用请示，而不能用函。

二、函的结构

函由标题、主送机关、正文、具名和日期组成。

1.标题。有三种写法：一是完整式标题，由发函机关、事由和文种组成，如《××部关于选择出国人员的函》;二是

由发函机关、事由、受理机关和文种组成，如《国务院办公厅关于悬挂国旗等问题给湖北省人民政府办公厅的复函》;三是由事由和文种组成，如《关于订

购的函》。

2.发文字号省略

3.主送机关：即收函单位名称，要写全称。

4.正文。其结构一般由开头、主体、结尾、结语等部分组成。根据去函、复函的不同，其写法也有区别：其结构一般由开头、主体、结尾、结语等部分组成。

(1)开头。主要说明发函的缘由。一般要求概括交代发函的目的、根据、原因等内容，然后用“现将有关问题说明如下：”或“现将有关事项函复如下：”等过渡语转入下文。复函的缘由部分，一般首先引叙来文的标题、发文字号，然后再交代根据，以说明发文的缘由。

(2)主体。这是函的核心内容部分，主要说明致函事项。函的事项部分内容单一，一函一事，行文要直陈其事。无论

是商洽工作，询问和答复问题，还是向有关主管部门请求批准事项等，都要用简洁得体的语言把需要告诉对方的问题、意见叙写清楚。如果属于复函，还要注意答复

事项的针对性和明确性。

(3)结尾--希望请求。一般用礼貌性语言向对方提出希望。或请对方协助解决某一问题，或请对方及时复函，或请对方提出意见或请主管部门批准等。

(4)结语。通常应根据函询、函告、函商或函复的事项，选择运用不同的结束语。如“特此函询(商)”、“请即复函”、“特此函告”、“特此函复”等。有的函也可以不用结束语，如属便函，可以像普通信件一样，使用“此致”、“敬礼”。

5.落款。一般包括署名和成文时间两项内容。

三、函的写作要求

1.针对性。函有鲜明的针对性，主要表现在：一是紧紧围绕函中所提出的问题和公务事项来写。二是往来机关应当与函中所提出的问题和公务事项相称。也就是，函中所提出的问题和公务事项应该是函往来机关有可能解决的。三是除特殊情况外，应坚持一函一事。

2.分寸感。函的用语，力求平和礼貌，特别忌讳命令语气，但是也不能为了谋求问题解决，极尽恭维逢迎之能事。

3.开门见山。无论是来函还是复函，在写作中都应该开门见山，尽快接触主题，力戒漫无边际，故意绕弯子，忌讳那些不必要的客套，尽量少讲空泛抽象的大道理。

【邀请函参考范文】

弘扬地方文化 期待您的参与

丰台区久经历史沧桑，见证了北京及其周边的历史脚印与时代变迁，当前城镇化建设步伐加快，为进一步做好我区改造前古镇文化的挖掘和保护工作，弘扬地

方精神，提升地方文化，我区将于今年6月中旬举行“传递文化，弘扬精神”的原创文学作品朗诵比赛，期待广大人民群众的积极参与。

参赛的具体要求如下：

一、参赛作品必须是原创，能够体现我区地方历史和文化特色，能够引起我区人民的共鸣与归属感感。

二、参赛作品最好能够结合时代主题，体现传统与现代的结合。

三、参赛作品主题健康阳光、积极向上，能够激发我区的文化自信、提升我区的城市形象。

比赛热烈欢迎来自社会各界的人士参赛，无论你是田垄上的农夫，马路上的警察，企业里的白领，讲台上的老师……凡是有原创的积极作品，我们都热烈欢迎。参赛者可提前将作品发送至本网站邮箱。

丰台区文化局

2016年1月14日

对于中国考生来说，英文写作一直是最为头疼的事情之一。那么考生为什么会畏惧英文表达呢？为什么有些考生背了一两万个单词却仍然写不出好的文章呢？找到了这一系列问题的答案，就真正抓住了提高写作能力的关键。

英文写作困境可以归纳为三类：

困境1：面对一个题目，根本无话可说，即便用中文，也写不出内容。

困境2：有话可说，有内容可写，但英文表达支离破碎，完全不能用英文阐释清楚自己的观点。

困境3：有话说，也能用英文表达出要表达的意思，但写出来的语言“满篇尽带Chinglish（中式英语）”。

那么该如何走出困境，真正并有针对性地提高语言表达能力呢？答案很简单，只有两个字——素材！

面对一个话题，考生之所以无法写出连贯的文字，是因为缺少写作素材。那么素材是什么呢？其实也就是我们所说的“言之有物”中的“物”。无论是四、六级写作，还是考研写作，或是雅思、托福、GRE、GMAT、SAT写作，考生之所以无法取得高分，根本原因在于其日常积累的英文论证素材以及论据素材过于贫乏，根本无法将零星散落于大脑各个角落不成体系的素材组合起来，形成一篇逻辑严密、语言优美地道的文章。因此，英文素材的积累和素材库的建立可以真正帮助中国英语学习者和广大英语考生提高写作能力，走出英文表达困境。

正如前面所提到的，英语写作素材包含两类：一类是论证素材，即对于论点进行理论分析的素材。例如：论证竞争机制的重要性、论证环境保护的必要性、论证艺术的价值等。一类是论据素材，即可支持论点的相关事例。例如：“钻石教父”雷维夫与DeBeers公司的竞争促进了整个钻石行业的发展这一事例，可用来支持“竞争机制的重要性”的论证；引用美国政府参与环境保护的例子可佐证“环境保护的必要性”；贝多芬、巴赫、凡高的例子可说明伟大的艺术家们的艺术作品是如何推动人类文明发展的，并用以例证“艺术的价值”。

其实，只要多掌握适用于写作测试的英文写作素材（论证素材+论据素材），就已经为写出有理有据的文章打下了良好的基础，这也是写作的前提。因为，任何语言学习，或者说任何学习过程，都遵循“输入—输出”模式。如果没有输入，则永远不可能有输出；若没有好的输入，则永远不可能有好的输出。因此，语言学习有一条永恒不变的真理：不听永远不会说，不读永远不会写。这里的“听”和“读”就是输入环节，“说”和“写”就是输出环节；只有输入了好的英文素材，才能在需要的地方进行输出。

游记是指我们参观游览一个地方所写下的景物描写以及感慨描述。那么游记怎么写呢？下面是小编为大家整理的游记的写作技巧，希望能帮到您！

一、按游览的顺序描写景物。写作时，要在认真观察和记忆游览的景物的基础上，按照见到景物的次序，来所写看到的景物。这样才能做到条理清楚、自然、明白，不致于杂乱。观察景物，通常有两种方法。一种就是定点观察。如站在公园某一角，对公园进行由远及近的观察。又如我们登上塔顶，从东南西北四个东南西北四个方向对塔下景物进行观察。二就是移动观察，它又叫移步换位法。就是随着脚步的移动变换位置，一处一处地进行观察。选好了观察点，就是确定好了写的顺序。如课文《参观人民大会堂》，按参观的顺序，依次写了五处的景物。先写大会堂正门的国徽和柱子，其次写中央大厅的天花板和地面，接着写大礼堂，然后写宴会厅和会议厅。这样，就有条理有重点地写下了在大会堂所看到的景物。

二、抓住游览重点，详写过程。一次参观游览活动，看到的景物很多，我们不能记“流水帐”。要把看到的景物中印象较深的写下来，其余地可以写得简略些。我们在一边参观游览，一边要抓住景物的特点，进行仔细观察。比方说，我们要写游览看到的景物为主的记叙文，写作的重点就是把看到的景物重点写下来。对于我们看到的特别好的景物，我们要进行具体地描写，突出重点。对于重点的景物，要注意详细描写出它们的位置、大小、动态、静态、颜色等。如我们写“菊花”，颜色就有“红的如枫叶、白的如冰霜、黄的如麦穗”等等，菊花的形状就有像 “小姑娘的卷发，毛茸茸的小鸡，绣球”等等。我们要把过程写详细、具体，做到主次分明，详略得当，写出来的文章才能突出重点，清楚明白，才能写出游览的意义，才有教育意义。

三、略写前后，情、理、景相结合。我们在写游览记时，应把开头和结尾写得简略些。开头要交待清楚时间、地点和人物。如《游善卷洞》的开头“我的故乡江苏宜兴有一处著名的游览胜地——善卷洞”。结尾应用议论或抒情的方式写下自己的感受。如《天然动物园漫游记》的结尾写道 “‘哈哈……’我们在欢笑声中结束了这次愉快的野游。朱库米天然动物园行的乐趣是无穷的，无怪乎世界各地前去游览的人络绎不绝”。这样，写的文章有头有尾，读起来给人一个完整的印象。我们要把感情融化于景物中，写出真意。写作时，我们要倾注自己的思想感情。

还有，我们在写景的同时，或探索人生真谛，或谈论思想问题，治学精神，使读者在领略自然风景的同时，受到启迪和教育。