英语写作段落扩展的方法（精彩20篇）

一、明确考前最后冲刺的基本要求：

1.求准。考前最后冲刺中，教师应指导学生采取求准的策略，克服虚浮和自以为是的心态，回过头来一点一点地记清、记准重要的知识和自己疏漏的知识。

2.求牢。尤其是基础知识的选择题和名句默写部分。主要办法就是反复，通过反复练习来求牢。

3.求精。考前最后冲刺中的专项练习、综合练习中的题目必须精心挑选，有选择性地精练精讲，查漏补缺，修复知识体系，并训练正确的解题思路和技巧。

二、突出重点难点，强化得分意识。

(一)加强阅读理解的训练。

1.重视文本的理解。各类文本阅读，重中之重是阅读文本，切忌只重题目而轻文本的做法，应养成正确的阅读习惯：在文本上勾划、圈点，分析、概括，较好地把握文章的结构思路和思想内容，然后再读题、做题。这样才能真正地抓住重心，把握关键，回答问题才能切中肯綮。

2.要有考点意识、题型意识和分点答题的得分意识。对于每一个考点，通常有哪些题型，每种题型通常有哪些设问方式，要做到心中有数。

(二)加强写作训练。

1.深入了解本省高考作文的评分细则，做到有的放矢。特别可以就发展等级的要求有针对性地进行文章的升格训练。

2.关注生活，关注社会。只有学会两个关注，考生才能积累大量新鲜而丰富的写作素材；只有学会两个关注，考生的记叙文才能更加真切细腻，情感才能更加感人，立意才能更加深刻，防止以看代写，以想代写，要把会做、做透作为考前最后冲刺的原则，力求在难度低的试题中少失分，在难度高的试题中多得分，以期全面提高得分率。

良好的开端等于成功的一半，下面是小编整理的高考英语写作基础知识，欢迎阅读。

一. 开头用语：

良好的开端等于成功的一半.在写作文时，通常以最简单也最常用的方式---开门见山法。也就是说, 直截了当地提出你对这个问题的看法或要求，点出文章的中心思想。

1.议论文：

A. Just as every coin has two sides, cars have both advantages and disadvantages.

B. Compared to/ In comparison with letters, e-mails are more convenient.

C. When it comes to computers, some people think they have brought us a lot of convenience. However,...

D. Opinions are divided on(关于) the advantages and disadvantages of living in the city and in the countryside.

E. As is known to all/ As we all know, computers have played an important role/part in our daily life.

F. Why do you go to university? Different people have different points of view.

2. 书信：

A. I am writing to you to apply for admission to your university as a visiting scholar.

B. I read an advertisement in today’s China Daily and I apply for the job...

C. Thank you for your letter of May 5.

D. How happy I am to receive your letter of January 9.

E. How nice to hear from you again!

3. 口头通知或介绍情况：

A. Ladies and gentlemen, May I have your attention, please? I have an announcement to make.

(词典例子：Can I have your attention please?请注意听我讲话好吗?)

B. Attention, please. I have something important to tell you.

C. Mr. Green, Welcome to our school. To begin with, let me introduce Mr. Wang to you.

4. 演讲稿：

A. Ladies and gentlemen, I feel very much honored to have a chance here to make a speech on the subject -- A Balanced Diet and Health.

(词典解释：be/feel honoured to do sth=feel proud and happy做某事感到荣幸

例子：I was honoured to have been mentioned in his speech. 他在讲话中提到了我，真是荣幸。)

B. Good morning everyone! Allow me, first of all, on behalf of all present here, to extend our warm welcome and cordial greeting to our distinguished guest.

(词典解释：extend=to offer or give sth to sb 提供;给予

例子：I’m sure you will join me in extending a very warm welcome to our visitors. 我肯定你们会同我一起向来访者表示热烈的欢迎。)

(词典解释：allow me=used to offer help politely (礼貌地表示主动帮忙)让我来

二.并列用语：

as well as, not only…but (also), including,

A. Not only do computers play an important part in science and technology, but also play an informative role in our daily life.

B. All of us, including the teachers / the teachers included, will attend the lecture.

C. He speaks French as well as English.=He speaks English, and French as well.=He speaks not only English but also French.

D. E-mail, as well as telephones, is playing an important part in daily communication.

三.对比用语：

on the one hand---, on the other hand---, on the contrary/contrary to ..., though, for one thing, for another; nevertheless

A. I know the Internet can only be used at home or in the office, but on the other hand, it is becoming more and more popular for much information as well as clear and vivid pictures.

B. It is hard work; I enjoy it, though.

C. Contrary to what I had originally thought, the trip turned out to be fun.

(词典：contray to sth 与之相异的，相对的，相反的

Contrary to popular belief, many cats dislike milk. 与普通的想法相反，许多猫并不喜欢牛奶。)

四. 递进用语：

even, besides, what’s more, as for, so…that…, worse still, moreover, furthermore; but for, in addition, to make matters worse

A. The house is too small for a family of four, and furthermore/besides/what’s more/moreover /in addition/worse still , it is in a bad location.

考试就要开始了，对还有什么不了解的呢？为考生们提供各种面试、学习、择校等技巧及经验，希望可以帮助大家考得好成绩。在这里先网预祝大家考出理想成绩。

1.表文章结构顺序：

Firstofall,Firstly/First,Secondly/Second…

Andthen,Finally,Intheend,Atlast

2.表并列补充关系的：

Whatismore,Besides,Moreover,

3.表转折对比关系的：

However,Onthecontrary,but

Ononehand…Ontheotherhand…Some…，whileothers…

4.表因果关系的：

Because,As、So,Therefore,Asaresult

5.表换一种方式表达：

Inotherwords

6.表进行举例说明：

Forexample,句子;Forinstance,句子;suchas+n/doing

7.表陈述事实：Infact

8.表达自己观点：

AsfarasIknow,Inmyopinion

9.表总结：

Inshort,Inaword.

文中正确使用两三个好的句型，如：感叹句、宾语从句、动名词做主语等。

宾语从句举例：

IbelieveTianjinwillbemorebeautifulandprosperous.

感叹句举例：

HowIwanttostudyinthebestmiddleschoolinGuangzhou!

动名词做主语举例：

Readingbooksandswimmingaremyhobbies.

常用状语从句句型：

1)时间：

when,not…until(直到…才…)，assoonas(一…就…)

2)目的：

sothat+clause;(为了)

3)结果：

so…that…(如此…以至于…)，too…todo(太……以至于……)

4)条件：

if,unless(除非)，aslongas(只要)

5)比较：

as…as…(与…一样)，notso…as…，than

以上即是网为大家整理的英语作文写作技巧，大家还满意吗?希望对大家有所帮助!

导语：要使得人物立起来，就必须注重细节描写，下面我们就来详细看看。

“人物”是文章的灵魂，但在学生的习作中常见的人物形象往往是千人一面，既无个性，又不生动，整篇文章显得干瘪乏味，缺少感染力。仔细阅读这些作品，就会发现这样一个共同的问题：往往只是一味地追求把某件事写完整，而忽略了进行生动具体、细致入微的细节描写。

细节描写的范围很宽广，它的作用也是多方面的，但主要还是刻画人物性格，塑造人物形象。一个个传神的细节，犹如人体身上的细胞，没有了它，人就失去了生命;文章少了细节，人物形象就失去了血肉和神采。作家李准说：“一个细节在揭示人物的性格特征的作用上，有时和一个情节、一场戏肩着同样的作用。”正如平常所谓的“于细微处见精神”。

文学大师的创作，就非常重视对细节的描绘。鲁迅的《阿Q正传》中有一段阿Q刑前画押的细节描写：“要画圆圈了，那手捏着笔只是抖，于是那人将纸铺在地上，阿Q伏下去，使尽平生的力画圆圈。他生怕被人笑话，立志要画得圆，但这可恶的笔不但很沉重，并且不听话，刚刚一抖一抖的几乎合缝，却又向外一耸，成了瓜子模样了。”这个行为细节，具体、形象、生动地反映了阿Q的性格特点──直到死还恪守着自欺欺人的“精神胜利法”。当人们读到这一细节描写时，谁又能不觉得阿Q的可笑、可悲、可怜?又怎么会不“哀其不幸，怒其不争”，进而深思国民劣根性?

不仅中国作家如此，外国作家亦然。如巴尔扎克的《欧也妮·葛朗台》中写葛朗台死前，当神甫把镀金的十字架送到他唇边让他亲吻基督的圣像时，“他却作一个骇人的姿势想把十字架抓在手里，这一下最后的努力送了他的命”，只这一细枝末节就活画出了这个守财奴贪婪成性、至死不变的丑恶形象。正是细节描写，使人物有血有肉，性格鲜明，形象栩栩如生;有了鲜活的人物，整篇文章因之而充满生机，产生强烈的感染力。

当然，并不是所有生活上的细节都具有价值，也不是只要写得“细”就可以了。好的细节描写必须是有用的、真实的、典型的。它必须为展示人物的精神风貌和深化文章的主题服务，它必须符合人物的性格特点，符合现实生活的实际，应最能突出人物的个性特征。

细节从哪里来?文学来源于生活，细节就在丰富多彩的生活之中。做个生活的有心人，时时处处留心观察身边的人和事，特别是自己的描写对象。绍兴街头，咸亨酒店，鲁迅潜心观察短衣帮与长衫客，才“画出沉默的国民的灵魂”。都柏林阴暗的咖啡室，乔伊斯冷峻地打量着游荡的女、骗子、精神病患者、乞丐和富人，酝酿着震惊世界的《尤利西斯》。古往今来，伟大的作家，总是终生用心捕捉那些使灵魂颤栗的人和事，熔铸成千古流传的篇章。捕捉细节、运用细节，让这一把金钥匙为你所用，使你的文章散发出熠熠光彩!

简历书写的“自我评价”部分遵循以下3条原则：

实事求是简历的真实性是人事经历一致的要求

在求职者书写“自我评价”时，千万不要有虚假成分，例如夸大自己的能力、优点或工作经验等。经验丰富的HR很容易通过求职者的措辞判断求职者是否中肯而踏实。一旦语句让人感觉到浮夸，HR往往会不露声色地把求职者的简历淘汰出局。

找到真正的闪光点

很多人的自我描述没有重点，或者过于大众化，难以让自己出挑。人事经理往往希望看到你是否有闪光之处，并且这些闪光之处到底和这份工作有无联系。因此，建议在写自我描述之前，仔细罗列自己的工作经历，回忆自己在以前的工作中到底积累了什么样的优势，挑选出自己与其他人的不同之处，以突出自我的优势。

以此次刊登的简历为例，该求职者应聘公关关系的职位，从人事经理的角度来看，他希望看到你是否有极强的沟通能力、项目协调能力，以及是否有创意等。但是，这位应聘者只侧重于一个方面，这就比较可惜。

同时，如果求职者积累了一定的行业资源，也可以在自我描述中提到这一点，起到画龙点睛的作用。

语言需要简练

职业自我描述的语言风格也是一个值得求职者考虑的问题。

有些人喜欢用极感性的话来吸引人事经理的注意，这种做法很可能出奇制胜，但多数情况下是一种冒险。

通常来说，语言尽量不要过于口语化，在描述自己的学习能力、团队合作精神等方面用语应严谨、平实，让人事经理在阅读简历时候能够充分感觉你对这份工作的诚恳态度。

个人简历自我评价范文

姓名：王某某专业：广告学专业本科申请专业：公关关系专员工作经历：20xx年9月至今浙江省某著名传媒公司，担任采编部记者，主要采写该公司节目制作的报道，所写的文章被新浪等各大网站转载，通过实践，掌握了一定的新闻采写技巧。

20xx年9-20xx年8月浙江省某广告有限公司创意部成员，主要参与各品牌的广告策划和创意，并负责品牌文案策划，熟悉了广告的运作流程，培养了扎实的文案写作功底。英语与计算机水平：大一即通过国家英语四级考试大二上学期即通过国家英语六级考试浙江省计算机等级考试一级

优秀自我评价：我是一个对理想有着执着追求的人，坚信是金子总会发光。大学毕业后的工作，让我在文案策划方面有了很大的提高，文笔流畅，熟悉传媒工作。为人热情，活泼，大方，英语流利，希望能凭借我的实力加盟贵公司，成为一个企业公关关系人员。希望企业给我一点阳光，我就能给您一片灿烂。

作文在语文考试中占据着大部分的分数，写好作文是语文考试的关键，以下是小编整理的提高写作能力的方法，欢迎参考阅读!

阅读优秀的作品

这是显而易见的，但立竿见影的方法。如果你不读更多的好作品，你就不知道如何写出更好的作品。优秀的作家都是从阅读别人的佳作开始，接着开始模仿，最后超越他们，形成自己的风格。尽可能的多读名著，在看内容的时候，更要留意文章的问题和写作的技巧。

尽可能多的写

每天都写，如果可能话，每天写几次。你写得多了，也就写得好了。学习如何写作和其他的学问道理是一样的，熟能生巧。写写你自己，写写博客，向出版社投稿。只是写，全情投入的写，练得越多，你的写作水平就提升得越快。

随时随地记下你的灵感：随身带一本小笔记本（纳博科夫身上装满了小卡片），当你对你构思的小说，文章，或是小说里的人物有什么灵感的时候，马上记下来。当你听别人谈话时的只言片语而所有顿悟时，或看到一段散文诗或是一句歌词让你很感动时，都可以马上当他们记下来。灵感总是转瞬即逝，你及时的记录下来，便可以成为你写作的素材。我的习惯是，为我的博客要写的文章列一个清单，不断的补充它。

专门的写作时间

每天找一个没有任何打扰的时间段作为专门的写作时间，让这成为习惯。对我而言，清晨的时间是最佳的，午饭，傍晚，或者深夜的那段时间也可以。无论你是做什么工作的，把写作当作每天必须完成的任务去做。每天至少写半个小时，当然有一个小时更好。若你同我一样，是一个全职的作家，那么你需要写更多的小时，请你不要担心，这只会让你写得更好。

随便涂鸦

面对整张的白纸，整版的白屏，无从开始，肯定恐怖。你会想：我还是看看邮件或是小憩一会了吧！先生，千万别这样。马上开始写，马上打字，你写什么没有关系，只是让我听到你敲键盘的声音吧。只要你开始写了，什么都好办了。像我的话，我喜欢先敲上我的名字和文章的标题，这应该不难吧，然后再慢慢的展开情节，全身心地融入进去…关键是：开始可以随便写写，随便涂鸦，但是尽快开始写正文。

集中精神

写作是一件一心一意的事情，在嘈杂的环境或是同时干着别的事情，是不可能写好的。写作需要一个安静的环境，需要一点点柔和的背景音乐。即使是最低要求，你也需要在全屏（没有其他软件得干扰）的条件下，使用WriteRoom， DarkRoom，Writer这些写作软件，不受打扰的写作。关掉邮箱，关点MSN和Gtalk，关掉电话和手机，关掉电视，清理掉书桌上无用的东西。清除与写作无关的一切杂念，现在就是写作的时间，好像把自己放进一个盒子里，在没有任何打扰下进入写作状态。

先计划，再写：

这好像和“随便涂鸦”有些矛盾，实际上不是这样。在坐下来正式写之前，先做个计划或是脑子里先预演一下，这是非常管用的办法。每天跑步的时候想想要写的东西，或是散步的时间来个头脑风暴；然后把想到的记下来，做一个扼要的提纲；等真正准备好开始写了，可以很快的展开，因为思路和想法都有了。这里，有一个构思小说的三部曲，可以参考这个：Snowflake Method.

创新

你需要模仿名家，这并不意味你要跟他们写得一模一样。你可以试试新的写法，从这里学一点，从那里学一点。渐渐地，你就会有了自己的风格，自己的文体，自己的思路。试试一些不一样的表达，或创造一些与众不同的表达方式，每一方法你都可以尝试，看看它到底怎么样，不好就不用呗。

修改

你开始构思你的文字，然后试着写，让故事情节展开，最后你需要回过头再看看你都写了什么。这点很重要，很多写手一旦写好就不想修改，已经费时费力地写好了，还要再花时间修改，实在是一件吃力不讨好的活。但如果你想写得更好，你就要学会如何修改。好的作品是经过反复的推敲和修改而成的，这会让你的作品从平庸中脱颖而出。看看你写的东东，不仅仅是那些拼写和语法错误，还有那些无意义的词，混乱的结构，和让人搞不懂的句子。修改的目标是：更清晰，更直接，更鲜活。

简明扼要

这是你在修改的过程中，最重要的一件事情。一句句，一段段的修改，把无关主题的统统都删掉。一个短句比一段冗长的废话更具说服力，大白话比晦涩的专业术语更受欢迎。记得：简单就是力量。

富于感染力的句子

在短句中使用富有感染力的动词，当然，并没有要求每一句都是这样，你需要变化。但是，多试试能够吸引人的句子。而且，你没有必要等到你要修改的时候再用，你刚开始写的时候就要考虑这个问题。

获取别人的反馈

闭门造车不会有任何进步，让别人读读你的文章给你回馈，最好有经验的作家和编辑。他们见多识广，会给你很中肯和有见地的建议。认真的听，即使是一些批评，也接受它，忠言逆耳，这样只会让你写得更好。

是骡子还是马，拉出来溜溜

就你而言，你需要让别人读到你的作品。你的作品不是你想谁看谁就看的，让所有的人都读到你的文章。你就要出版自己的书，发表自己的短篇小说和诗歌，给出版社供稿。如果你已经开始写博客了，恭喜你，这是一个好的开始。若现在还没有人浏览过，你就需要把它放到流量更大的博客服务网站上去，让读者给你留言，给你提出建议。所有的人都会看你写东西，也许刚开始时会是件伤脑筋的事情，但这是每一位作家成长的必由之路，马上发表你的文字吧。

采用对话式的文体

很多人的写作都很正式，但是我发现像我们说话一样写作会使文章更流畅（没有叹生词）。这样一来，读者看起来会更舒服。刚开始这么写并不容易，你需要坚持这么做。也许，会带来另一个问题，为了读起来更口语化，你需要打破一些语法规则（就像我的前一句那样）。因为如果生搬硬套语法，会让你的文章看起来很不自然。若没有其他原因，就不要破坏语法规则。你需要知道你在做什么和为什么这样做。

好开头和结尾

开头和结尾是文章的重点。特别是开头。如果你不能在故事的开始就吸引读者，那他们就很难有耐心把整篇文章读完。所以投入更多的时间去考虑怎么写好开头，读者一旦对你开头感兴趣，他们会想知道得更多...写好开头后，再弄一个精彩的结尾，这会让读者更加期待你的下一篇佳作。

写好记叙文，应掌握记叙的四个要素，即时间、地点、人物和事件。下面是小编分享的关于小学生写景记叙文的写作方法，欢迎大家阅读！

（一）要写出有特色的景物

一般来说，景物是各有特色的。同样都是公园，但每个公园都有各自的独特之处。例如，北海公园的白塔、九龙壁、颐和园的香阁、十七孔桥；天坛公园的祈年殿、回音壁；紫竹院公园的竹子；香山公园的红叶等。同样是山，我国的四大名山各领风骚，独具特色。同样是水，长江、黄河源远流长，孕育了中华文明数千载。或烟波浩渺、横无涯际；或奔腾咆哮、气势磅礴。这些景色都以其特有的鲜明的特点闻名于世，只有把它们的独特之处描绘出来，才能给人一种身临其境之感，使人得到美的陶冶和享受。

（二）要学会观察

写景作文和看图作文有相似之处，都是以观察作为写作的前提。观察景物与观察图画不同，观察景物要确定观察点，也就是观察景物的立足点。观察点不同，所看到的景物也就不同。宋代文学家苏轼有《题西林壁》：“横看成岭侧成峰，远近高低各不同。不识庐山真面目，只缘身在此山中。”由于观赏庐山的角度不同，所看到的景象，所获得的感受也就迥然不同了.

（三）要借助想象和联想

（四）写景要抒情

写景，不仅是客观事物的再现，更是作者主观感情的外观。景是外在的，情是内在的，正所谓“情随物迁，辞以情发”。景是情产生的基础，情是景的产物。因此，要求小学生不要单纯写景，而是要借助景物，抒发一定的思想感情。当然，这种感情必须发自内心，而不是无病呻吟。

（五）怎样状物

状物作文，是小学生作文训练中的一个重要项目。所谓状物，就是具体、形象地描写物体的特征、形态、色彩、质地等。这个物还应该包括动物、植物等类。由于不同的物有不同的特点，所以状物的方法也不一样。

what should we thank?

the thankful great universe provides the environment of existence for us and give us sunlight, air, water and everything in keeping with we existence of space, bring storm to let us accept to toughen for us, bring to us mysterious let us look for.

the thankful parents give us the life, make us feel the merriment of the human life, feel the genuine feeling of the human life, feel the comity of the human life, feel happiness of the human life, also feel hardships and pain and sufferings of the human life!

the thankful teacher works with diligence and without fatigue everyday of teach, give us knowledge ability, put on the wing which flies toward the ideal for us.

the thankful classmate and friend grows up road of, let i no longer standing alone in the itinerary of life; the with gratitude is frustrated and let us become in a time the failure stronger.

[感恩节英语作文写作

我们身边生活着各色各样的人:熟悉的、陌生的、漂亮的、丑陋的、善良的、可恶的、顽皮可爱的、成熟稳重的、活力充沛的、慈祥和蔼的……怎样才能让这些人物在我们的笔下活起来呢?小编给大家介绍怎样写好写人作文的写作方法。

一、精选事例,以事写人

写人离不开写事,因为人物的特点总是在具体事例中表现出来的。比如,《西游记》中写猪八戒贪财的品质特点,就是通过他把银子藏在耳朵里这件事来表现的。故而,写人的文章应以写事为主,事例可以使人物个性更鲜明,形象更丰满,能突出人物的性格特点。选择事例时应做到以下两点:

1. 选择的事例要小。“一粒沙里看世界”,从自己有切身感受的小事入手常常是达到写作目的重要途径之一。许多深刻的立意都体现在一件小事中,取材越小,所阐述的道理越能撼动人心,就越能写出情深深、意切切的佳作。

2. 选择的事例要精。能突出人物性格特点的事例一般比较多,我们可不能一写就是十件八件,一定要注意筛选,求精不求多,应该选择其中最能鲜明表现个性特点的一两个典型事例具体写,让人物的性格特点在事例中显现出来。

二、抓住细节,写出特点

每个人物因其年龄、职业、性格的不同而各具特色,写人的文章一定要写出人物的特点来。人物的特点可以通过外貌、语言、动作、心理活动等细节来展现。

1. 人物的外貌描写。每个人的外貌都有着与别人不同的特点,善于抓住外貌特点进行描写,是写人作文最常用的方法。描写人物外貌不要面面俱到,要抓住最能表现人物的性格和内心世界的特点写,努力达到“以貌传神”的效果。

2. 人物的语言描写。“言为心声”,一个人的语言表达是其性格特征的镜子,正如鲁迅先生所说,能“使读者由说话看出人来”。所以,写人一定要重视语言描写,要选择最有代表性的语句,来表现人物的个性和思想。人物的语言描写要符合人物的年龄和身份,老人有老人的语言,小孩有小孩的语言,不同的人说话的语气也不同。另外,人物的语言描写还要符合人物的特点,有的人说话直率、干脆,有的人说话则幽默风趣。

3. 人物的动作描写。动作描写对刻画人物性格,表现人物品质有着非常重要的作用。要描写人的行为,就必须细心观察人物的动作,精心选择最准确、最恰当的词语进行描述,这样才能使人物立起来,才能写出生动、具体、血肉丰满的人物形象来。

4. 人物的心理活动描写。心理描写可以深刻揭示人物的精神世界,表达人物的思想感情,使人物形象特色鲜明。人物的心理活动描写可以通过人物直接倾吐内心世界的方式,也可以通过与语言、动作相结合的方法,共同透视人物内心深处的秘密。

怎样写好规范的议论文?在讨论论文写作时也不准备谈有关稿件撰写的各种规定及细则。今天小编主要谈的是论文写作中容易发生的问题和经验，是论文写作道德和书写内容的规范问题。

(一)议论文要素

1、议论文三要素：论点、论据、论证.它的主要特点,一是论说三要素完备,突出;二是论证结构严密,合乎规范模式;三是语言合乎议论语体,准确、概括、逻辑性强.其中论证结构规范是写好这一类型议论文的关键.

议论文的论点应该鲜明、准确、概括.论点最好在文章的开头,用具体的一句话,用判断句式,将中心论点摆出来.论据,用来证明论点的材料,选用论据要注意典型性、新颖性、表述要精练、简要.议论文要以理服人,就必须分析说理,把问题展开、论透,也就是要充分论证.论证要合乎逻辑,严密有力.为此就要运用恰当的论证方法.

例如,“理智和情感是人类生活中的两只脚印,人类在认知事物的道路上的每一次成长都和他们的理智和情感有关.”(江苏考生《天平和七弦琴》)

将理智和情感比作是人类生活中的两只脚印,首句即入题,形象地点出了情感与理智的内在关系——情感与理智对认知具有重要的影响.这样的开头,入题迅速,闪烁着思辨的色彩,令人耳目一新.

2.论证的基本结构层次：三段论式的结构.还有常见的论证结构：a、总分总式结构 b、对照式结构 c、层进式结构 d、并列式结构

3.常用的论证方法：a、例证法,用典型事例作论据来证明论点.运用例证法要注意对事例叙述的方法.注意并列的几个事例的顺序,还要注意安排的详略,大家熟知的材料要略写,不熟知的要详写.b、喻证法,增强了作品论证的形象性.运用喻证法要注意本体、喻体的相似性.c、对比论证：这种方法可以增强论证的鲜明性,使读者清楚作者赞成什么,反对什么.d、引证法,除引用名人名言以外,同学应该多积累一些古典诗词中的名句,它一方面能加强论证的力量,另一方面,它还可以丰富文章的内容,增强议论文的文学性.论证方法还有引申论证、因果论证.就不一一详说.

4.学会选用事实论据.要注意几点：

①论据必须具有典型性.典型就是指论据要具有代表性.

②论据必须具有新颖性.不少学生的议论文写作离不开一些陈旧的事例,像写失败与成功的关系,似乎就离不开爱迪生发明灯泡,写逆境成才就非写张海迪不可,类似的内容不是说不可以用,而是说你用、他用、大家都用,谁的作文与众不同呢?

③论据的表述要精练、简要,与记叙文的表述不同,它只要求表述出与论点相关的内容.

5.论述文主要结构思路：是什么,为什么,怎么办.

“是什么”：就是确立观点.作为议论文,写起来是这样的,首先破题——明确是什么观点,有什么意义.必须挑一个明确的论点.

“为什么”：就是论证的过程.根据论点找例子,组合例子,开始排结构.然后就是分析例子,以及这个例子的社会价值,中间可以用多种论证方法,比如反正、引申、演绎与归纳等.

“怎么办”：就是结合现实、社会、人生以及自己怎么做.

(二)议论文如何论证

议论文的写法主要是论证.论证,从形式逻辑角度说,是运用论据证实论点的全部逻辑推理过程,这个过程表示论据和论点之间是用何种逻辑的方法联系起来或统一起来的.

下面介绍几种常用的论证方法.

1、事例论证

事例论证就是用典型的具体事实作论据来证明论点.通常所说的“摆事实”就是这种方法.这是运用归纳推理形式进行论证的一种方法,易于掌握,用得也普遍.

事例论证,最重要的是注意论据和论点方向的一致性和紧密的统一,不可有距离.

例如有一篇文章谈到写作要勤于观察,勤于思考问题时,举例道：

著名大作家、诗人莎士比亚就善于观察生活,提炼素材,写了大量的悲喜剧以及诗歌,终于成了不朽的艺术大师.伟大的物理学家牛顿,在傍晚乘凉时发现苹果往地上掉,为什么不往天上掉?经过反复实践,终于得出了地球表面上的物体都受到地球的引力这一科学论断.

这里,举莎士比亚一例还可以,虽然说得不够透彻,但与论点总还有一定的直接关系;举牛顿的事例则不恰当,因为他虽然也观察、思考,但非写作中的事.

下面这段文字举例,证明观点“举手投足之间”就十分充分：

举手投足是一把尺,它是衡量人的内在含金量的标准.含金量高的人,必然,我敢说必然,是一个伟大的人.屠格涅夫为了施舍路边的乞丐,翻遍了自己的钱包,却找不到一分钱,只得握住乞丐的双手说“我很抱歉,朋友”;雷锋在战友们不在时,把大家的衣服都洗干净晒了;周恩来总理衣容整洁,谈吐大方,岂是朝夕而成的?或如《士兵突击》里的许三多,在班里的战友整天只知喝茶打牌的时候,一个人默默地搬运石头,愣是日积月累地修成了一条路……

2、事理引申

这种方法是用人们已知的事理论据来证明论点.这是运用演绎推理形式进行论证的一种方法,所以又有叫“演绎法”的.例如下面一段文字,证明“不轻易放弃”的观点,这个事理引申就很好：

我总是想学着去坚强,可是坚强并不是那么容易的一件事.坚强总不是我想象的那样子坚强,它并不是两个字,它并不是一种心情,它不是一时的冲动就能完成的事情.我觉得它好难.我曾经尝试着去做,可是最终我还是失败了.我还是放弃了.虽然事情总是以失败而告终,虽然事情总是以放弃而结束,但是我并没有很轻易的说出不.虽然不是个勇敢的孩子,可是我也不是轻易放弃的孩子.我的放弃总是在挣扎了之后才做出的决定.

使用事理论证,特别是引用名言警句立论,应注意：

A 引用的事理与论点真正构成一种紧密的内存联系.

B 对于引语一般要作一些阐明、说明,不要引完就单下结论,以免给人浅薄的感觉.

C 除了由于论辩的需要,必须引用大量的论述外,引语要力求简洁.作者要善于抓住引语的精华.

例如：

年青的军官把失去亲人的痛苦,化作与死神赛跑抢救幸存者的动力;泥泞的山路上,他背着白发苍苍的老人,向安全的港湾停靠.年轻的女警官把嗷嗷待哺的孩子托付给在家人,在瓦砾中抱起战胜了震魔的小生命,甘甜的乳汁绽放了天真的花蕾.“最美丽的警察”,这是人们给她的最好的评语.

“老吾老,以及人之老;幼吾幼,以及人之幼”.敬老爱幼在特定的背景下闪烁着绚丽的光,人性的光芒昭示着最伟大而又最普通的“人之常情”.

后面“老吾老,以及人之老;幼吾幼,以及人之幼”的分析就简洁而恰当.下面这段文字,也用了名言,并进行了分析：

真正的好奇心需要思考.如果“我们头上的灿烂星空”是供我们观察的无限舞台,那么,“我们心中的道德法则”则是激发与约束我们将观察成果深化的不二法门.如帕斯卡尔所言,“思维成就人的伟大,我们的一切尊严都在于思考——即使你只不过是强大自然下的苇草.”如果没有这种“灵魂在场”之下的思考,那么无论多少个苹果掉下来,恐怕也砸不出“万有引力”的发现;无论人类是多么费尽心思地观察与学习,也难有一丝一毫的创造与进步.

3、反证法

顾名思义,反证不是从正面直接来证明论点,而是从反面间接地证明论点.这是运用演绎推理形式进行论证的一种方法.先看下面一例：

假如当初诸葛亮不留人情,而是派其他可靠的将领去拦守华容道,那么,可能曹操会被擒拿;又假如从那次吸取教训,这一次秉公办事,不管马谡怎样拍胸脯,下保证,不合适就不用,那么就有可能避免失街亭的悲剧.而事实恰恰相反,诸葛亮并未从第一次失策中吸取经验教训,而是在重蹈覆辙后,才“深恨自己之不明”,流涕斩了马谡.

这段文字中“如果”之后用的便是反证法：不是从正面讲,而是从反而讲.“如果”是分析文章的好形式.

袁隆平的事迹也许经常会写入你的作文中.一般的同学都只是正面来写,往往写他是个科学家,他的名字叫袁隆平,获得了什么奖.这样写不形象,不深入,不细致.学一学“如果”吧：

如果袁隆平仅仅是为了个人的生活美好,他不会穿着水鞋,戴着草帽,农民着,科学着;如果他仅仅是为了钱而生存,他就不会拿着500万的科技大奖还生活得那么朴素而又纯净;如果他也像普通人一样不善于思考,杂交水稻也不会靠近他.

反证法,论证更有力量.例如：

如果梭罗没有挣脱嘈杂城市的束缚,瓦尔登湖的涟漪也不会在他的心中荡漾;如果梭罗没有漫步湖畔清爽的阳光里,那么恬静的清明也不会属于他;如果梭罗倾向于那些为金钱而束缚的人们,他也不会拥有属于他的那些冷雨.

如果梭罗没有走进大自然他就不会有清新自然的文字;如果梭罗沉醉于纸醉金迷的城市生活,就不会感受到置身田园的欣慰;如果梭罗没有在烈日当空晒下辛勤地劳作,猛烈的暴风雨将不会是最好的伴侣,使他充实,他的耳朵就听不到美好的音乐.

如果贝利没有在生活中时时刻刻保持着清醒,他不会成为备受世人注目的球王;如果没有在球场上时刻保持着清醒,他也不会多次捧起“大力神”杯;如果在人们的赞美声中贝利不是每分钟都时刻保持着清醒,那么他的后代就会真的忘记了如何在困难中奋起,在贫困中胜利.

4、类比法

这种方法是将一类事物的某些相同方面进行比较,运用类比推理形式进行论证.例如,下面这段文字,就是类比论证,用了“农夫与蛇的故事”类比,证明“不要说你是好心”的观点：

不要说你是好心,当你暴虎冯河、黔驴技穷之时.农夫与蛇的故事众人皆知：好心的农夫看到被冰冻住、奄奄一息的蛇,便用温暖的胸怀融化冰雪,蛇苏醒了,却反咬农夫一口,农夫赔上了自己的生命.故事告诉我们,不要去拯救那些难以拯救的小人.可在我看来,这也是农夫自不量力的表现,总以为自己可以拯救别人并不让自己受伤.现实生活中此类事情屡屡皆是,不知有多少人以为自己可以赤手空拳地救出那些溺水、跳楼之人,却因为缺乏工具及技巧而害死别人,甚至自己也赔上一条命.这种“好心”,难道会被接受吗?

再如：

最后谈谈练基本功的问题.基本功对拿笔杆子的人很重要,不练是不行的.俗话说：“拳不离手,曲不离口”,绘画的人常画,唱歌的人常唱,而搞文字的人怎么可以几个月不写东西呢?……

这里,写作、绘画、歌唱可以类比,因为这些都属于文艺创作的范围,有相同的本质属性.

5、对比法

对比,是将论据中截然相反的两种情况进行比较.因为比较的双方形成鲜明的对照,互为衬托,所以,这种方法特别能突出一方面的性质,具有很强的论证力量,因而,用得也很普遍.

对比有两种情况：一种是“横比”,一种是“纵比”.“横比”是把同一时期的两种性质截然不同的事物进行比较.例如《变味的善良》的正反论证：

2008年奥运会是我们中国人的奥运,举国欢庆,气氛火热,圣火传递,同一世界,同一梦想.但是,不和谐的色彩也玷污了奥运火红的火炬、绿色的橄榄枝.据报道,8岁孩童用55天时间完成抵京“马拉松式”赛跑;10岁孩子捆绑双臂在激流中前行;8岁女孩在父亲陪同下步行3000多千米到达首都北京……这些行为引起中国甚至世界媒体的关注,其中不乏外国媒体以此对中国奥运的诋毁.不实评论需全力抵制,但也不可否认,这是“畸形奥运热”.我们举办一个理性的奥运,就需要理性的行为作支撑.热情由火热的激情变为疯狂.

再如《赞牺牲精神》的正反对比：

太原工学院副教授栾弗,归国定居的年轻女科学家赵芬,上海生物制品研究所九旬老人徐良董,浙江省象山县无机轻体板材厂女青年郭秀莲与王竹平等人,为社会建设甘愿牺牲一时一已的利益直至个人生命.

可惜,现在有些人还缺少这种牺牲精神.他们脑子里装的不是党和人民的利益,而是个人眼前的“实惠”.不是吗?……这种极端利已者的人生观,和前面那种人相比,显得何等渺小,和我们今天的历史重任何等不相称?

“纵比”是把同一事物在不同时间的不同情况作比较.往往讲到一个地区,一个单位的发展形势,群众生活过去与现在的变化,使用的就是这种对比方法.

6、因果互证法

这是通过分析事理,揭示论点和论据之间的因果关系,来证明论点的一种论证方法.它可以用原因来证明作为论点的“结果”;以原因的必然性证实结果的必然性.例如《我于咖啡中看见》中的一段,是先果后因的关系：

我想,因了这生命的慷慨,我们必须尊严地活下去,就如同生命本身,尊重我们的存在.我凝视这白瓷杯中的咖啡,又想起这位终生在爱与死之间作茧自缚的天才——— 维吉妮亚•伍尔芙.她的灵魂有着深刻的思想与错乱.我恍若看见在春光明媚的苏格兰乡下,矢车菊香气的阳光铺满整个房屋,鹅毛笔与厚质纸张的摩擦,桌旁的咖啡轻袅地散发热气,她正写着《奥兰多》.我的嘴角轻轻扬起,这个天才一生传奇,终在疾病中死去,她说,生命的内核一片空荡荡,像一间房屋.抑或,在她品完咖啡的苦与甜之后,剩下的也不过是一只空杯子,这一生,死后也带不走任何东西.

再如《缤纷成就和谐》的因果论证,是先因后果：

千年之前,春秋战国的战乱年代里却上演了空前而惊世的文化盛宴,诸子百家的争鸣之声穿透史册、书卷,穿越时空仍然在耳畔掷地有声;千年之后,蔡元培先生的 “不以自己思想来束缚他人,亦不以他人之思想来束缚自己”这一名言震醒了求索中的多少中国人,而 “学术自由,兼容并包”的思想又延续至今,令人感佩.

所以,请尊重不同的看法,不同的选择,请用心去领会并呵护真正的和谐,各个民族的不同风俗习惯,请给予保护;各个地区的不同生活习性,请给予宽容;尊重商店里买不同饮料的人;尊重音像店里买古典音乐或是流行摇滚音乐的顾客……正是每个人的不同特性构成这变幻的多彩的大千世界,没有不同就没有真正的和谐.

由原因引出结果：“所以,请尊重不同的看法,不同的选择”.这就是因果论证.

7、比喻法

用比喻来说明道理的方法,可以叫做“喻证法”.这是运用类比推理形式进行论证的一种方法.

例如：

云朵则是天空的粉妆.清晨的云被染成鲜嫩的粉红,如初生的婴儿的脸颊,血色柔和.黄昏的云被镀上金橙色,如斑斑锈迹,闪耀着孤独岁月逝去的光辉.有一个成语叫做“白云苍狗”,天空每日便上演着一部《白云苍狗》的电影,观众有稚嫩的孩童,有迟暮的老人,他们从变幻莫测的云朵中,或找到了童年时品尝的甜蜜的棉花糖,或找到了童话故事里云的国度.

孟浩然诗曰：“微云淡河汉,疏雨滴梧桐.”天空的粉妆融化了,晶莹的雨水便落了下来.我们无法亲吻辽远的天空,却能亲吻到天空的眼泪——雨.点点滴滴的雨,愁煞过词人李清照,愁煞过贺铸：梅子黄时雨.我们坚硬却裂缝百出的心,被雨润泽,然后从心灵的旱地上长出一株新绿,从心灵的尘埃上开出一朵洁白.这柔弱的植物吸饱了天空的泪,在风中摇曳生长,离天空近了一点,又近了一点……(江苏卷满分作文《怀想天空》)

这两段文字文彩飞扬,联想丰富,给人以哲理的启迪和审美的雅趣.“亲吻天空的眼泪——雨”,显得何等多情,何等美妙!“离天空近了一点,又近了一点”,引发了多少遐思!

水.站在山顶,远远的小城环抱在水的怀里.“一条古时水,在我手心流”.我们都摊开手掌,让雨水在上面汇集.那些细小的沟渠刹那间就填满了,汇成小流,汇成溪,汇成江河,汇成大海,终成一片汪洋.我们都感动了,泪水也就势汇进手中的海里.你知道吗,站在这山上,我们看到了一片海,那是我们心中的海,比真正的海更加波涛汹涌,肆意汪洋.

风吹起来了.“风啊,你吹起来吧,摇动我呆滞的目光,成两条波光涟潋的溪流,我将以你的慈爱,重以手指,蘸着时间.”我已经忘却了这诗人的名字,却永远记得这诗.风吹起来了,带来远方的寒意,远方的歌,远方的希望. (湖南卷满分作文《诗意地生活》)

这两段文字从游历中对 “水”“风”的感受入手,巧妙地点出人应“永远诗意地歌唱,诗意地生活”的题意.写景非常细腻、形象,语言流畅、优美,读来给人美的享受.

(三)常见议论文格式提纲

1、标题(题目)

2、开头提出论点：简述材料,引出论点(启示、启迪、告诉我们、说明了、让我明白了等)

3、论证过程：设问句(或其他过渡句或过渡段)过渡,引出理由.(如“我们为什么认为… …,有如下三个方面的理由”)

4、论证过程：提出理由(分论点)(分论点间角度应不同,层次不能重复,证据或性质或时代或范围要有区别;证据要典型、精当,可举例、可比喻、可引用、可对比等;分论点间的结构可并列、可层进、可对照、可分总或总分、可综合运用多种结构形式)

其一… …(分论点、证据、分析、评议)

其二… …(分论点、证据、分析、评议)

其三… …(分论点、证据、分析、评议)

5、论证过程：可进行辩证分析(常用词：诚然… …但是… … /虽然… … 但是… … /固然… ….)

6、结尾：结论(解决问题,提出方法,照应开头等)

(四)议论文的“四字诀”

古往今来,文章无定法.古人曾说“文章千古事,得失寸心知”.那么文章有定法吗?实话说,文章确也无定法,古人说的“凤头、猪肚、豹尾”.凤头,就是用漂亮的文字开头;中间的内容可以尽可能的丰富,这就是猪肚;而豹尾则是用干净利索的文字结尾.但总结议论文的一般性规律,结合古人的成功经验,可以总结为四个字：起、承、转、合.

起：就是引题、入题.就是结合给的材料和题目,用极短的文字,迅速抓住主旨、中心,迅速入题.

承：就是结合观点、主题,进行分析、论证.承,就是承接,就是对论点进行延伸,进行思辩分析.

转：就是借助事例,进一步“转入”说理、说事,来进一步论证自己树立的观点、认识.用事实说话,最好用两个方面的材料,一是古今中外的事例,可以选取一个事例详写,也可以用概括的几个事例写.二是结合现实生活的事例来说理.总之,“转”就是结合“转入”“引入”的事例来论证自己的观点.

合：就是进行总结、拓展.可以用名人的话,或用整齐的句子结尾.

“起、承、转、合”的文字与段落到底怎样分配?

一般“起、合”文字可在100余字,各占一段.而“承、转”可用300—500字的文字,分别占3—5段即可.这是基本的要求,文字与段落可不拘于此.

议论文写作的基本要求：

1.一篇文章一定要有一个中心、主题,有自己的观点.

2.论述文重在“述”,记述、简述、评述、论述,重在说明道理.

3.一篇文章一定要扣准给的材料和题目,去选材、组材.

4.一篇文章要尽量地用例,当然也不是用例越多越好,可以在举例时分析、论证.

下文运用了“起、承、转、合”的形式.

[例文]

谈意气

“意气”一词在《现代汉语词典》中有这样一个义项：意志和气概,如意气风发.[是为起]

这义项曾被毛主席在《沁园春·长沙》中用过,原句为“书生意气,挥斥方遒”.也正是这书生意气让他成就了革命的胜利,建立了中华人民共和国,让他成为了永垂史册,青史留名的伟大领袖,这足见这“意气”二字如太极,生四象生万物. [是为承]

在棋盘拼杀,楚河汉界分明,我会一如既往想起楚王项羽与汉王刘邦.虞姬的自刎,乌骓的投江让更多的人倒向项羽,鸿门宴上的刘邦似乎只是小人,听听汉家小儿高唱“大风起兮云飞扬”便热血沸腾,可历史的车轮证明了刘邦比项羽更能成就一番大业.是他主张张骞扶着驼铃走向了大漠,是他让卫青挥动旌旗舞向了大漠的飞沙.[ 转一]

他们都是英雄,皆有意气,是意气二字所有义项不同,楚王的意气用事,与汉王的意气风发.

在汉朝的朝堂之上,说过汉王刘邦,我们便不能不谈韩信与司马迁.

“韩信点兵,多多益善”是我们再熟悉不过的成语.沙场点兵是何等的意气风发,可是我们依然记得他当年所受的胯下之辱.是何等的意志和气概让他压下心中的愤怒,成就今日的辉煌.

“大丈夫能屈能伸”是意气,是坚强的意志和气概.

“史家之绝唱,无韵之《离骚》”是鲁迅先生对《史记》的评价.如果当初司马迁没有坚强的意志,豁达的气概以受腐刑保存生命,我们就不可能到如今依旧轻哼着这无韵的《离骚》了.

这意气我们真的不可以小瞧. [转二]

作为女性,武则天绝对是我们的骄傲.作为历史上唯一的女皇帝,开创贞观启开元的辉煌盛世,何等的意气风发.她的意气让人折服,历史掌权的女性不在少数,可没有谁像她那般掀开那一道珠帘,穿上金灿灿的龙袍,君临天下.她的意气不止在此,更在于她留下的无字碑,让后人去评述她的功过.这个女人,真可谓将意气二字发挥到了极至. [转三]

古往今来,这意气一直在我们身边,从2003年杨利伟实现中国人的飞天梦,到2005年,费俊龙,聂海胜二人升空,中国的意气让世界为之折服.生命中,有太多人太多事的意气让我们感动.从生命的谷底登上艺术高峰的邰丽华,一个人,一匹马送信的邮递员王顺友,用瘦弱的肩膀担起家庭与抚养毫无血缘关系妹妹的洪战辉.这些平凡而伟大的人,处处都体现伟大的意气.

“太生两仪,两仪生四象,四象生万物”一如意气,造就了这个世界上许多的美好事物.[是为合]

(五)论据使用技巧

技巧一：设问与举例相结合

在议论文的写作中,使用论据要讲究方法.既讲究理论论据,又讲究事实论据,事实可以直观地再现情景.要注意设问与举例相结合.例如：

是爱迪生吧?他一手持蛋,一手持表,准备把蛋下锅煮五分钟,但是他心里想的是一桩发明,竟把表投在锅里,两眼钉着那个蛋.

是牛顿吧?专心做一项实验,忘了吃摆在桌上的一餐饭.有人故意戏弄他,把那一盘菜肴换为一盘吃剩的骨头.他饿极了,走过去吃,看到盘里的骨头叹口气说：“我真胡涂,我已经吃过了.”

这两件事其实都不能算是健忘,都是因为心有所旁鹜,心不在焉而已……

忘不一定是坏事.能主动地彻底地忘,需要上乘的功夫才办得到.孔子家语：“哀公问于孔子曰：‘寡人闻忘之甚者,徙而忘其妻,有诸?’孔子曰：‘此犹未甚者也,甚者乃忘其身’.”徙而忘其妻,不足为训,但是忘其身则颇有道行.人之大患在于有身,能忘其身即是到了忘我的境界.(梁实秋《健忘》)

技巧使用指导：文段围绕“健忘”这个主题,选取 “爱迪生”“牛顿”“白居易”三个事例说明“忘”的涵义、范围,围绕“忘其身即是到了忘我的境界”的观点,典型准确,很有说服力.用例先开头用设问,然后再用例分析,这是一种论证方式.

技巧二：同一事例,共同分析

用两个相同的事例,结合起来分析,就是一种论证方式.如果手头有两个以上的人物素材该怎样用呢?决不能只是简单的材料堆积,可以将几个论据用排比方式组合起来,相互补充,形成集团效应.例如：

冰心说：“成功的花儿,人们只惊羡它现时的美丽.当初它的芽儿浸透了奋斗的泪水,洒遍了牺牲的细雨.”如果遭遇挫折,仍能以奋斗的英姿与之对抗,那么这样的人生是辉煌的.当苏武被流放到北海时,北海的羊群咩咩地叫着,似在欢迎这位坚贞不屈的大汉臣子.这十几年的痛苦如果可以当作是一次挫折,那么这次挫折无疑是痛苦的,可是这位牧羊老人从未曾放大痛苦,于是十几年后,大汉的丹青上书写下了民族不屈的坚贞气节.昭君出走大漠,丝绸之路上又多了一串驼铃的丁冬声,“千载琵琶作胡语,分明怨恨曲中论”不应该是她真实心态的写照吧!如果不赂画师,终至出塞算是一次挫折,那么是挫折换来了汉匈两地人民的短暂安宁.

苏武和昭君的举动应该是对直面挫折、缩小痛苦的心理的诠释.人生只有走出来的美丽,没有等出来的辉煌,因此直面挫折,化解痛苦才是我们的最佳选择.(高考满分文《生命是一朵常开不败的花》)

技巧使用指导：“苏武被流放到北海”“昭君出走大漠”这两个事例,作者是如何联系在一起的?两个事例并列使用,相互支撑.本段的结构是：名言+两个事例+分析.以“直面挫折,化解痛苦”为中心,对两个人物所蕴含的精神进行深刻剖析,从而有力地突出了主题.

技巧三：运用对比,形成反差

在论证中,运用正面事例与反面事例相结合,就是正反对比.这样优与劣、好与坏、美与丑自然会鲜明突出.这种方法可以广泛运用于各种文章的写作中.例如：

贝多芬甩开了尘世的喧嚣,在音乐的国度里尽情跳跃;居里夫妇抛弃了名利的纷扰,在科学的世界中迈出了更深远的步伐;陶渊明忘却了世俗的黑暗,在自由的南山中悠然采菊……他们的人生轻松徜徉,嗅着人间的芬芳.而别里科夫被世俗束缚在套子里,葛朗台被金钱拖至了死神的身边,他们没有全力轻松地奔跑,最终被卷入世俗的浊流中…… (高考满分文《轻松起跑》)

技巧使用指导：把“贝多芬”“居里夫妇”“陶渊明”这些正面材料与“别里科夫”“葛朗台”这些反面材料,进行对比分析,一者是轻松的跑,一者是不轻松的跑,进行对比,其精神境界的高低、优劣显而易见,这就是文章的对比手法的妙处.

技巧四：增强理性,反复设问

议论文写作的首要任务是理性色彩浓郁,怎样才能达到呢?用设问.设问,可以针对事件,从事件的原因、本质与发展入手,运用假设思维、因果思维连续提出问题,进行讨论.设问的过程,也是分析的过程,也是理性展示的过程.例如：

苹果落地在我们看来是最寻常不过的事,苹果熟了掉下来砸着苹果树下的人也是司空见惯的,可苹果掉在牛顿头上却“砸”出了震惊世界的万有引力定律,“砸”出了奠定物理力学基础的三大力学定理,为科学事业的发展做出了卓越的贡献.你能说牛顿是因为比我们多了份机遇才有如此伟大的创造吗?假如曾经有苹果砸在你头上,会是怎样的结局呢?你是在抱怨今天真倒霉……

一份优秀的个人简历，影响着你是否能够得到一个面试机会，从而影响你能否得到工作的机会，而一份好的简历，绝对不会缺少一个经典的简历自我评价，如何能在一个绝妙的简历中写好一份简历自我评价呢？

现在给大家指点几招，希望能在大家找工作中有所帮助。

一、首先一定要区分出自我评价和自我介绍这两个不同的含义；

如果你跟一个陌生人介绍自己的时候，我想你不会介绍给别人你对自己的一个评价吧？自我评价绝对不等于介绍，必须明确，

二、评价和简历中的其他要点是不同的

例如特长，技能等等，技能/特长属于具体性描述，它需要全面、详细、有重点地将自身的技能、特长等核心竞争优势向人事经理展示，，而评价是一个概括性的，总结性的，客观的评价。

三、简历自我评价切忌不要长篇大论

切没有重点，漫天撒网，把自己跨的惨不忍睹，说白了，谁都不是白痴，特别是人事总监和人事经理，阅人无数，所以只要简单，突出重点即可，例如你应聘的是技术性的职位，那你就总结自己的技术研发实力/特点，如果你应聘的是人事方面的，突出自己的资历，专业特长，个人办事性格即可。

四、不要从一而终

你的评价不要只说自己那一方面多么多么好，说的很好很强大似的，其实录用你的企业，更看重的是你的综合能力，所以要尽量简洁的突出自己的几个点。

看图写作考验的是学生的理解分析能力，以及联想能力，以下是小编整理的看图写作的方法，欢迎参考阅读！

一、细观图画，弄清图意

看图写话，顾名思义就是通过观察，看清图的内容，弄懂图的含义，并把所看到的内容按照一定的规律写下来。写看图作文，关键要掌握两点：一是观察，二是想象。观察和想象是两把开启看图写话之门的金钥匙。只有通过细致的观察，通过合理的想象，才能把看图写话写得生动、有趣。

观察是写的基础。没有观察，没有看清楚图的内容，自然就写不出句子来。在学生看图之前，老师应要求学生注意两点：首先，观察时要抓住重点，弄清图意。通常的 做法是对画面进行重点的观察。看一看处在中心位置、前排位置的人物和景物，这些通常就是重点。有了重点，再对它进行认真仔细地观察。其次，观察时要有顺序 的观察。一般先从整体观察，看主要画的是什么内容，再按照从上到下，从远到近，从左到右等顺序进行观察。从而明确画面所交代的时间、地点及有关的人和物， 并找出它们之间的关系。有了观察时的合理顺序，写话时才会有条理。

二、合理想象，理清关系

有些同学很认真的看图，并且把图的内容也说清楚了，可是写出的话干巴巴的，这是因为这些同学在写话时忽略了另一个问题，那就是联想和想象。看图写话，仅仅把 在图上观察到的内容写下来是不够的，因为只看不想，只是客观地把画面内容写下来，没有自己的情感，怎么会有感染人的力量呢？因此，在观察时应展开丰富的联 想和想象。当然，说想象，不是说可以天马行空，任意发挥，想象要有依据。对于看图写话来说，首先要依据画面来想象。要透过画中人物的表情、动作，去分析、 想象人物的内心活动或语言对话，要用眼前的活动画面，想象事情发展的前因后果，从而把图上的人、物写活，把事情的来龙去脉交代清楚。例如，我在教学第二册 语文园地四中的口语交际《续讲故事》时，就引导学生思考：小松鼠为什么事才急急忙忙找小白兔？小白兔会怎么说？让学生充分发挥自己的想象，并鼓励学生“看 谁最聪明，能说的与别人说的不一样。”通过引导，调动和启发学生的联想和想象，写出的内容就会丰富多彩。可以说，没有想象，就写不出好的看图作文来。有了 细致的观察，有了合理丰富的想象，就能把握住看图写话的要领。

三、启发口述，联句成篇

写话就是用笔说话，像说话一样，一句一句说，别人才能听得清楚。看图作文大多是要求写一个较为完整的小故事。因此，在完成对图画的观察和想象后，我要求学生 口述图画内容，这样，既训练了学生的口语表达能力，又提高了学生的书面表达能力。在一年级时，我就要求学生用一两句话写清时间、地点、人物、干什么。由于 学生的表达能力很差，因此在这一环节，我就制定了三个练话的句式，让学生逐句练说、练写：

（1）谁在哪儿干什么

（2）什么时间谁在哪儿干什么

（3）什么时 间谁在哪儿干什么结果怎样或心情如何。通过一段时间的练写，接受能力强的学生可以练习连句成段，对于接受能力较弱的学生仍坚持强化练习。同时，我还经常收 集一些主题鲜明的图画，让学生进行说话、写话训练，或利用课文中出现的词说一句话，让学生体会如何运用这些词语，便于学生在今后的写话中运用上这些词。

四、激发写话兴趣

要想让学生们喜欢表达，喜欢写作，老师得用欣赏的眼光看待学生们的写作成果，让学生们享受写作成功的喜悦。为此，每次写话结束后，我都会把写得好的同学请到 讲台上朗读自己的作品，课后将其作品贴在墙上，让全班同学观看，让学生觉得自己是多么了不起，学生们的写作热情越来越高了。

总之，看图写话是有规律可循的，只要教师做好“看、想、写”三步的指导，相信学生们都会喜欢上写作的。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

我们应该从历史上，找出散文创作成败得失的一些规律，那对我们衡量当前的散文，可能是比较有用的。

从我们熟读的一些古代或近代的散文看，凡是长时期被人称诵的名篇，都是感情真实，文字朴实之作。比如说欧阳修的《陇冈阡表》，诸葛亮的《出师表》，李密的《陈情表》。

我们常说，文章要感人肺腑，出自肺腑之言，才能感动别人的肺腑。言不由衷，读者自然会认为你是欺骗。读者和作者一样，都具备人的良知良能，不会是阿斗。你有几分真诚，读者就感受到几分真诚，丝毫作不得假。

如果有时间，读一些旧报纸，旧期刊是有好处的。在三中全会以前，报刊上的文章，包括散文在内，虚假的东西太多了，现在找来一看，常常使人啼笑皆非。这种散文，即使没有政治上的拨乱反正，也是当日无读者，何况流传?

但是，这种文风，曾经猖獗了若干年，要说是完全根绝了它的影响，也不是事实。

欧阳修在写他这篇文章时，叙述的只是家庭琐事，夫妇、母子之常景常情。诸葛亮当时虽然是丞相，他这一篇文章，并没有多少空洞的官腔。李密当时的处境，尤其困难，如果他不说真情实话，能够瞒得过司马氏的耳目?

文章能取信于当世，方能取信于后代。这三篇文章，所以能流传百代，就是因为感情的真挚和文字的朴素无华。

所谓感情真实，就是如实地写出作者当时的身份、处境、思想、心情，以及与外界事物的关系。写出这些，这本来是很自然的事情，但一触及文字，很多人就做不到。这就无怪自古以来，名篇范作如凤毛麟角了。

文字是很敏感的东西，其涉及个人利害，他人利害，远远超过语言。作者执笔，不只考虑当前，而且考虑今后，不只考虑自己，而且考虑周围，困惑重重，叫他写出真实情感是很难的。

只有忘掉这些顾虑的人，才能写出真诚的散文。

司马迁的《报任安书》，因为是私人信件，并非公开流布的文字，所以他才说了那么多真心话，才成为千古绝唱。嵇康的《与山巨源绝交书》，也说了些真心话，透露了出去，就招来了大祸害。有鉴于此，致使文人执笔，左顾右盼，自然也有其不得已的地方。现在，有论者居然责怪：在“四人帮”肆虐期间，作家们为什么没有站起来，大声疾呼?这种要求，未免不近人情。在当时，一个作家，能够沉默，不去帮凶，就算可以了。论者当时如何表现，不得而知，至少他是没有去反抗的。不然，他早就成为张志新了。

但就散文的规律而言，真诚与朴实，正如水土之于花木，是个根本，不能改变。如果不只从数量上看，主要从质量上看，当前散文创作的不足之处，恐怕还是在作者的创作用心上，有或多或少的华而不实之处吧!

这不能完全归咎于作者。在一个不算短的时期中，在各个现实领域，虚假浮夸，不大遇到批评和制裁，而真实地反映情况，即说真话，却常常遭到难以想象的打击。这不能不反映到文学创作上。现在虽力加纠正，在意识形态领域中，清除这种遗留的影响，有时比在现实生活中清除，还要慢一些，复杂一些。而散文创作，以其更直接的现实性，在这方面的表现，就更比其他艺术领域显著。

有些散文，其不足之处，可以归纳为：

一、对所记事物，缺乏真实深刻感受，有时反故弄玄虚。

二、情感迎合风尚，夸张虚伪。

三、所用词藻，外表华丽，实多相互抄袭，已成陈词滥调。

四、因以上种种，造成当前散文篇幅都很长，欲求古代之一千字上下的散文，几不可得。

古代散文，意境深远，但皆言之有物。柳宗元的散文，写驴，写鼠，写麋，写蝜虾，取材很细小，而意义很深刻。韩愈《进学解》，则对自己作深刻的剖析，发挥自己的见解，这也是很有勇气的。

散文短小，当然也有所谓布局谋篇，但我以为，作者如确有深刻感触，不言不快，直抒胸臆即可，是不用过多的构思设想的。现在一些文章评论家，谈论构思太多，也太机械。

实际创作的过程，往往并非如此。散文之作，一触即发。真情实感，是构思不来的。

散文中的议论，也是自然事物演变的结果，在很多情况下，并非散文作者主观的前提。而苏子瞻常先有警句，冠于篇首，但与所叙事物，仍为血肉，并非徒具大言，以惊流俗。

抒情亦如此。无情而强抒，与无病呻吟等。感情低下，不如不抒。面对大好河山，内心营营苟苟，故作堂皇之言是对河山的不敬。

状景抒情，成为散文的意境。意境有高下，正如作者修养有高下，胸襟有广狭，志趣有崇卑，不可勉强。当然，人可以通过修养，提高其志趣。总之人心之不同，有如其面。散文意境之有区分，也在于此。范仲淹先忧后乐之名言，并非一时乘兴，创作出来，乃是久萦于心的素志，触景生情而出。

散文的语言很重要，一篇短文，语言文字不讲求，是成不了家传户诵之作的。当然语言文字也与作者的真情实感紧紧相关。

中国散文的品类繁多。所以，散文作者，首先应该涉猎中国散文的丰富遗产，知道有多少体制，明白各种体制的作用，各类文章的写作要点。

写好作文就需要有好的写作方法，下面是小编整理的2017年小升初作文写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、提高认识事物和表达事物的能力。我国著名教育家叶圣陶先生指出：写任何东西决 定于认识和经验，有什么样的认识和经验，才能写出什么样的东西来。反之，没有表达认识的 能力，同样也写不出好作文。

二、把认识结构作为作文的核心，包括学习知识，观察积累，记忆储存，训练思维，丰富 想象，培养情感，锻炼意志;从说到写，推敲修改，多读勤写。

三、树立大作文观，听、说、读、写有机结合

一要注重审题;二要明确写作目的，立意要新;三是选材要有根据;四要讲究谋篇技巧，安排 好篇章结构;五要注意文章分段，事先列小标题，作文提纲;六要注重文章写法，因文用法; 七要妙用语言，用思想调遣语言。 学会五种立意法：以事赞人，直抒胸臆，借物喻理，触景生情，托物言志。

四、作文大目标的逐年级分解：一年级字词，二年级句子，三年级片断，四年级篇章，五 年级综合，六年级提高。

五、实施五项训练

根据认识是作文的核心这一原则，围绕这个发展学生心理机制的核心，扎扎实实地进行了五项

通常由标题、称谓及正文三部分组成。

1、标题通常有三种写法：一是用会议名称作标题;二是前边再加上领导人姓名;三是用提示内容中心或主旨的标题，在后面通常加上副标题。

2、称谓一般写在标题下行顶格，称呼通常用“同志们”、“朋友们”、“各位代表”等。

3、正文一般包括开头、主体和结尾。开头写宣布开幕之类的话。主体部分一般包括以下内容：会议的筹备和出席会议人员情况;会议召开的背景和意义;会议的性质、目的及主要任务;会议的主要议程及要求;会议的奋斗目标及深远影响等等。但写作中一定要把握会议的性质，郑重阐述会议的特点、意义、要求和希望，对于会议本身的情况如议程等，要概括说明，点到为止;行文则要明快、流畅，评议要坚定有力，充满热情，富于鼓舞力量。最后是结尾，一般都是“祝大会圆满成功”之类。

一、物象比喻法

【方法】以物象作比喻。分析人物与物象的相似点，一物象的特点比喻人生的的特点，提出论点

【作用】物象的生动形象，增强了说理的形象性;物象的常见性，也增强了说理的亲和力;而物象的比喻性，增强了文章的韵味。

【例文】

生命里的树痂

石燕萍

时间流逝，荡涤旧迹，留下的是淡淡伤痕，更多的却是伤痕背后的振翅飞翔的故事。

人的一生不可能一帆风顺，总是在高潮和低潮中浮沉，正如自然生长的树木因风雨吹打而倾折，在所难免，但无论如何，曾经折断的地方会愈合，形成树痂，虽然比其他地方难看，却是最有硬度最能承受住打击的地方。

德国谚语说，“树木结疤的地方，是树体最坚硬的地方。”而我们人生又何尝不是如此呢?在痛苦之后，在挫败之后，生命中结起的那个疤，不是让我们更加地坚强，更加的从容看待这一切吗?

十二年前的一个意外，甚至在瞬间就改变了李端，这个18岁的少年，这个在中国青年篮球队打球的火力少年的命运。十二年前，当他在锅炉房打水时，不经意地挪动了那个破旧的灭火器，刹时，一声巨响，突然地爆炸，夺走了他的眼睛，让他从此只能生活在黑暗之中。有过失望，有过痛心，但受伤后的疤痕，让他更清楚地知道生命坚硬的价值，他在日记上写道：“尽管是双目失明，尽管是与飞身扣篮的梦想失之交臂，我也不会放弃”。最终他在田径场上找到自己的一片天地。他腾空飞跃的瞬间，向世界证明他是黑暗中的强者和舞者。13米71，他以这优异的成绩夺得了北京残奥会三级步远F11级的冠军，并打破了世界纪录。

诗人汪国真说：“如果说人生是湛蓝的天空，那么失意则是一朵飘浮的淡淡的白云。如果说人生是一望无际的大海，那么挫折则是一个骤然翻起的浪花。”我想，也正是这骤然翻起的人生浪花，才显得人生大海的美丽，才迸发震撼人心的力量。

经历失败之后结起的伤疤，那是对生命生生不息的见证。树痂，是树枝断路，是经过重创而形成的伤口，伤口因树体激发芳香，树脂外溢而愈合，历经风霜雨雪的洗练，而形成的巧夺天工、浑然天成的形态，它是树体精华凝结所在，坚如盔甲。

席慕蓉说，生命是要不断地受伤，不断地复原的。

生而为人，人生创痛的遭遇在所难免，受伤何惧?失败何患?倘是希望在心，倘是执著满怀，再痛的伤口也会复原，就像树木的巧夺天工的树痂，愈久愈坚。

[赞赏理由]文章写树痂，“虽然比其他地方难看，却是最有硬度最能承受住打击的地方。”以此比喻遭受打击的人生更加坚韧，以此作比，文章让人感受说理的通俗，生动而有韵味。

【提醒】比喻要有相似性与新颖性，尽量不用常用比喻，而让文章彰显新鲜的特点。

二、聚焦一点法

【方法】就某一人物或某一句话或某件事做自己的思考，聚焦一点，分析思考，提出自己对话题对命题的看法。

【作用】聚焦一点，角度小巧，文章也就因此充实而深入，文章也就因此予人新鲜独特的美感。

【例文】

说“安”

苏红玲

傅雷曾对“高级艺术”给出如下概念：乐而不淫，哀而不怨，雍容有度，典雅自然，不装腔作势，过火恶俗，炫耀技巧。这种高级艺术中所体现出的安和、安稳、安详，在京剧这里得到印证。

剧情方面，京剧是安和的。其不以紧张激烈刺激观众情绪的剧情来吸引人。京剧不要观众大哭大笑，感情激烈起伏。京剧只是在叙述清楚情节的条件展现优美。像《宁武关》《马思远》等老戏，虽曾名动一进，并有小翠花等名角以此为拿手戏，但终因剧情过于惨烈复杂而被逐渐抛弃。《乌盆记》在现在也只是唱一唱“十八张半”里的段子而已。今天，常上演的如《玉堂春》、《拾玉镯》、《龙凤祥》、《卖水》等剧目，剧情简单平和。

伴奏方面，京剧是安稳的。文革中“创新”的以钢琴伴奏样板戏、《杨门女将》中老太君的“一席话恼得我火染双鬓”插入小提琴，均让人听着大感逆耳。只有京胡，与唱腔相安无事。像《武家坡》、《坐官》里的流水，由京胡伴奏，才会有天衣无缝的安稳感觉。

表演和风格方面，京剧是安详的。京剧从不强调暴力或者血腥。像《霸王别姬》中的自刎，《贵妃醉酒》中的酗酒，《谢瑶环》是的上刑，《碰碑》中的自杀和各出戏里的打仗场面，均以“出之贵实，用之贵虚”为原则，将其艺术化、抽象化，以强调其中的体态美、动作美或人物思想感情。最受观众喜爱的生旦两行中的梅、余两派，以安详典雅为最大风格：既不是程派的一唱三叹，也不是马派泼辣激昂。京剧，既不是凌叔华等京派作家的阳春白雪，也不是评剧的下里巴人，它安于中庸，以安详为风格。

然而，处于今天的社会中，京剧要发展，京剧要创新，京剧要与时俱进，不能安于现状，安常处顺。京剧，正如章治和所言，要推陈出新。这个“推”，既是“推广优秀传统戏”，又是“推开落后的原则”。京剧，要在不断的推陈出新中，立于“国粹”这一地位安然不动!

[赞赏理由]

这是以“安”为话题的文章。作者不是写社会的安全事故，写人们的安稳心理，而是聚焦一点，从京剧“安和、安稳、安详”的特点说“安”，指出京剧要与时俱进，就不能安于现状。文章也就新鲜独特，深刻充实。这就给具有某种特长的考生运用自己的特长来作文，提供了一个极好的范例。

【提醒】(1)写这样的文章平时的关注很重要。平时要有意识收集了解关于某历史名人或某现象的材料.(2)要有自己的观点与思想，切忌堆砌材料，没有自己的思想。

三、假设推想法

【方法】从正面的论点作反面的假设，推想“假设如此”的后果。如论点为“诚信今天不可缺”，我们就“假设今天诚信缺失，社会会怎样”。

【作用】独辟蹊径，文章予人独特的审美感受，也展现出写作者的睿智。

【例文】

假如没有废墟

钟月婷

不可否认，少有人喜欢废墟。废墟，给人的第一印象便是脏、乱、破败。当你走进废墟，那种沉重、颓废的氛围压得你喘不过气来，人们往往都有逃离的欲望。可是我却深深爱着废墟——那承载历史记载伤痛的废墟。

在我的记忆中，废墟蕴蓄着一种力量，让我们感受历史的沧桑，校正生命的坐标，激发奋起的张力。

假如没有那一把火，没有曾经奢华的圆明园庞大的废墟，或许我们的心就不会有那样一抹惊心动魄的伤痛。每当我看见圆明园夕阳下的残壁，就仿佛听见那夜侵略者的肆意的蔑笑与圆明园伤心的哭泣。我想，如果不是这片奢华的废墟，就不会有许多中华儿女热血的澎湃，更不会有今日民族的激流共进。

假如没有那些战火，就不存在世界上最神圣的废墟——奥林匹斯山上的雅典神庙!而如果没有这片废墟，我们也不会对体育竞技精神对世界的和平，如此珍视与憧憬!就是在这么一片雅典神庙的废墟上，当奥运圣火熊熊燃起，当和平鸽衔来绿色橄榄枝，世界为之牵动，世界为之欢呼!也就是这废墟，穿越历史，穿越风霜，依旧让世界为其神圣而驻足流连。假如没有了这片废墟，又怎能如此让人心灵牵系与震撼?

“假如没有奥斯维辛残断的城墙，就不会有犹太民族的崛起，世人对战争的背弃对和平的渴求，也就不会有如此的炽热。”一位史学家感慨道。列宁说：“忘记历史就意味着背叛。”如今的奥斯维辛，天空湛蓝，高楼耸立。但在犹太人与世人心中，铭记的是那班驳的哥特式的钟楼，那残断的城墙，他们深知这沉重的废墟，里面有血有泪，有耻辱，还有魂灵的飘荡，有于今天于世人的警策与昭示。假如没有警钟长鸣的奥斯维辛，或许我们对战争的感触就会少一些，对那痛苦的记忆就少一些，心灵的感动也会跟着少一些。

废墟，就是这样，破败得让人心碎。但伴着月辉，伴着秋风，伴着轻轻的脚步，它却有着一股让人震撼让人警醒的力量。余秋雨先生说:“废墟昭示着沧桑，让人偷窥到民族步履的蹒跚。废墟是垂死老人发出的指令，使你不能不动容。”

每一个国家每一个民族都应当有废墟的保留。走近废墟，记住废墟，就是记住沧桑的历史，记住了时代的责任，记住了社会的期待。

假如真的存在没有废墟的那一天，我不敢想像我们的社会会是怎样。

[赞赏理由]不正面写废墟于今天于今人的重要，而是写“假如没有曾经奢华的圆明园庞大的废墟，或许我们的心就不会有那样一抹惊心动魄的伤痛”，写“假如不存在世界上最神圣的废墟——奥林匹斯山上的雅典神庙!我们也不会对体育竞技精神对世界的和平，如此珍视与憧憬”，写“假如没有奥斯维辛这庞大的废墟，就不会有犹太民族的崛起”，从这三个方面来论证：“每一个国家每一个民族都应当有废墟。”展现角度的新颖独特，思路的开阔睿智，文章也就有了视觉与情感的冲击力。

【提醒】推想要合理可信，不可强词夺理。如“假如没有警钟长鸣的奥斯维辛，或许我们对战争的感触就会少一些。”，其中“或许”一词，让人感受话语的实在与亲和力。

作文等级指津

作文是所有高考学科中分值最大的一道题，而“发展等级”又是拉开作文评分差距最大的一块阵地，为此，高考专家疾呼：“得作文者得语文，得发展分者得作文。”下面笔者谨就高考中考生写得最多的记叙文和议论文谈几种“发展等级”突破技法：

一、记叙文“发展等级”突破三法

记叙文在符合题意、结构完整、合乎情理的“基础等级”的高原上，还应矗立起立意深刻、叙事厚实、构思精巧的“发展等级”高峰：

1.立意要有深度

记叙文的立意如果仅仅停留在以故事来演绎文题的浅表层次上，那你的文章就只能在“基础等级”上徘徊了。要想搏击“发展等级”，你就必须向思想更“深”处“漫溯”。昭示出生活真谛、人性底色、世相内质的深刻立意，可以使记叙不仅有“看头”，而且有“嚼头”;描写不仅能得其“形”，而且能得其“神”。在具体写作过程中，如下四个视角尤其值得深思：①人情、人性：待人之心、处世之道、悲悯情怀、人间道义等;②人品、修养：价值取向、心胸气度、节操尊严、视野境界等;③民族心理：文化习俗、文明素养、社会基石、脊梁魂魄等;④草根群体：生存状态、生命质量、精神空间、幸福指数等。考场佳作《排队》就向我们展现出了深邃主旨的震撼力：

排日本馆时，已是下午5点多钟，此时的太阳依然在天空中露着可怕的小脸。汗水像开了闸的自来水冲洗着我干了又湿的面庞。……又过了1个多小时，我看到有几个年轻人乘机翻过栏杆，插入队伍前列。跟着是一片骂声，有闽南语，有粤语，还有普通话，叽里呱啦。我无奈地插上耳机，用音乐疗伤。

突然我看到旁边通道上的一个老外不停地张大嘴巴，难道是在辱骂国人的行为?我惊讶地拨下耳机，却听到了一首让人心情舒展开来的英文歌曲，歌词我没听懂，但快乐的曲调足以让浮躁的心安静下来。唱完了，他还用生硬的中国话说：“大家一定要耐心地等待!有秩序才会有和谐。”我想笑，但没笑得出来，我为老外的循序镇静而喝彩，也为同胞的丑陋行径而羞耻。记得后来队伍一直行进得很顺利，我们比广播预报的时间提前1小时进了馆。至于日本馆中的机器人表演我已记不得了，但老外的那首歌、那句话、那个眼神却让我感受到夏季不曾有过的清凉，这是一次真正的排队。

本文最大的亮点就在于借助观世博“排队”这件生活小事，将一般考生所确立的主旨——个人意志品德的“排队”，牵引上了一个峭拔的高峰——民族整体素质的“排队”，让人隐隐感觉到了鲁迅、柏扬般的犀利。

2.过程要有厚度

百米冲刺固然激动人心，但生活是场马拉松。记叙文就是要把这42.193公里的漫漫征程展现出来，“缓缓地”却又是“执著地”叩击阅卷者的心弦，他的泪水被感化下来了，你“发展等级”的分数自然也就上去了。而从内涵来讲，记叙文也只有具有了过程的厚度，才能丰满起来，厚重起来。如下四法可“增殖”你文章的厚度：①从“开端→发展→高潮→结局”，对“三级跳”的每一跳，不仅要写“全”，而且要写“足”。②在“开端→结局”中，写出客观上和主观上“非走不可的弯路”。③详写事物“量”的渐变，略写事物“质”的突变。④构思时画好三个线路图——事件发展、情感发展和思想发展的线路图。考场佳作《一步一台阶》就为我们演绎出了成龙“大哥”成长、成功、成名的漫漫征程：

[“大哥”成龙]由于不上台面的外表，尽管有着一身好功夫，也只能扮演一些小角色，或做一做武打演员的替身。但他没有气馁，从跑龙套做起，一步一台阶，终于得到影视界高层的赏识，终于获得观众的认可，为观众带来了《新警察故事》、《尖峰时刻》等诸多大片。

[保护神成龙]早期的香港娱乐圈动荡不太平，艺人常被黑帮胁迫进行免费演出，他们不仅得不到报酬，还经常被侮辱。当时已有一定知名度的成龙实在看不下去，于是他挺身而出，对黑帮下了战贴：“有什么事找我!”一句话，带来的是黑帮的逐渐收敛，香港艺人协会的成立发展。

[中国“范儿”成龙]“光做‘大哥’、‘保护神’还远远不够。”成龙想，“我要做的，是尽自己的力量向世界树起中国人的‘范儿’。”在香港回归十年中，成龙将祖国的荣辱和自己紧紧系在一起，他的身影频频出现在各种慈善活动中。北京举办2008年奥运会，他毅然推掉巨额片约，只为能时刻在最前线待命，聆听祖国的召唤。

本文最夺人眼球之处在于不仅详实地写出了成龙从“大明星——保护神——爱国者”的成长历程，而且这三级“台阶”又是从“演技”、“品德”、“思想”三个不同侧面去演绎的。这就使文章不仅有了厚实的过程，而且有了丰满的形象。

3.构思要有亮度

高考作文的批阅，有严格的时间限制，它不可能像平时那样细细“品咂”。为此，记叙文的构思必须有很强的“视觉冲击力”，你要让阅卷老师眼前一“亮”，他“一见钟情”了，你的“发展等级”分自然也就“来”了。“小品”之所以在春晚上那么“抢眼”，一个很大的原因也在于构思的精巧和别致。在考场之上，如下四种构思方法更易“抓”住阅卷者的“眼球”：

(1)设计悬念法。电影大师希区柯克对“悬念”有一句经典诠释：“我在影片中放置的定时炸弹，它一刻不爆炸，观众的心就一刻放不下来。”如果考生能巧妙地设计出扣人心弦的悬念，就可以使阅卷者产生追根究底的阅读冲动，从而收到“踏破铁鞋无觅处，得来全不费功夫”的神奇效果。

(2)情节突转法。平铺直叙的叙事模式，常常会使阅卷者产生“看到开头，就知道结尾”的消极的阅读心理。如果考生能设计出一个出乎阅卷者意料之外的突转式情节，就可以使文章显示出腾挪跌宕、一波三折的情节魅力，从而激发起阅卷者“不看不知道，世界真奇妙”的阅读快感。

(3)欲扬先抑法。虽说日常生活信奉“平平淡淡才是真”，但记叙文写作的法则绝不是平淡，而是“文似看山不喜平”。欲扬先抑的构思方法能使平淡的写作素材尺水兴波，它通过情节的起伏、情感的波折，激荡起阅卷者心理的巨大落差，从而产生化平淡为神奇的构思效果。

(4)细节凸现法。情节是人物性格发展的历史，而细节则是人物的血肉。记叙文缺失了细节，人物就成了一个活动的影子，事件就成了一个线路图，主题也就成了没有血色的符号。为此，我们要抓住“一言一动之微”，把它们巧妙地镶嵌到文章的构思之中，凸现出人物的神韵和文章的旨趣。

二、议论文“发展等级”突破三法

议论文在占领观点正确、材料充分、层次清晰的“基础等级”阵地之后，还应抢攻见解独到、例子新锐、论层谨严的“发展等级”阵地：

1.见解要给人以启迪

“人是一棵会思想的苇草。”(帕斯卡尔)高考议论文要想从尽人皆知的“公理”、“常理”、“大道理”中突围出来，就必须有一个给人启迪的“独到”见解。“独到”见解从何而来?它从思维方式的转变而来。那么，思维方式又该怎么转变呢?纵观近年来《读者》《青年文摘》《半月谈》等期刊上的“雷人”言论，如下六个“想一想”非常有助于你的见解“独步”考场：

(1)向深处想一想，揭示本质。如：①中国民众一年的购书费，跟手机短信费基本持平(现象)，这是一个巨大的文化讽刺，嘲笑了中国人精神缺失(本质)的现状。②美国一位参议员说，所有从中国来的船都是满的，所有回中国的船都是空的(现象)。→(深想一步)中国出口的是资源(衍生品)，进口的是技术。→(再深想一步)要可持续发展，必须走“又好又快”之路。

(2)向前面想一想，探明原因。如：①所谓大师，只是失败最多的劳动者(前因)，打工最多的劳动者(前因)。②自己丰富(前提)才能感知世界的丰富，自己善良(前提)才能感知世界的美好，自己坦荡(前提)才能逍遥地生活在天地之间。

(3)向后面想一想，预见发展。如：①一个学校的质量不仅要看它一年的升学率(现状)，而且要看它10年、20年后的成才率(发展结果)。②一个民族有一些关注天空的人(现状)，他们才有希望(发展结果);一个民族只是关心脚下的事情(现状)，那是没有未来的(发展结果)。

(4)换角度想一想，提出新论。如：①林子大了，什么鸟都有。(旧论)→鸟儿大了，什么林子都有。(新论)②铁饭碗：在一个地方吃一辈子饭。(旧论)→铁饭碗：一辈子到哪儿都有饭吃。(新论)

(5)拆开来想一想，分清析透。如：①“和谐社会”的基本精神：“和”的右边是个“口”，就是说人人都有饭吃(物质丰富);“谐”的左边是个“言”，就是人人都可以说话(精神自由)。②知识分子不但要“知”，还得有“识”，得对这个世界有新的发现。大部分的知识分子，不过是“知道分子”罢了。

(6)合起来想一想，辩证分析。如：①所谓勇敢，应该包括两个含义：一是迎战不应该害怕的任何东西，二是害怕应该害怕的东西。②做人学道家，要大气一点;做事学儒家，要实在一点。

2.例子要生猛而有力

一般的写作指导书上对选用例子的要求是“有说服力”，但我认为光光“说服”还不行，阅卷老师每天要批阅几百篇作文，心情都有点烦，心肠都有点硬，不是那么太容易“说服”的。我们要想在“发展等级”上有所作为，就必须有“猛料”，只有这样，才能彻底“征服”他，让他打心眼里信服、折服。为此，我们必须用以下两把筛子去筛选例子：

(1)新鲜。为什么要“新”呢?因为时代在飞速发展，我们所举的例子也应该与时俱进。时代的“涛声”已不再“依旧”，我们为什么还要用那张“旧船票”来登今天的“客船”呢?我们应该像一首歌中唱到的那样——“月亮走，我也走”。为什么要“鲜”呢?因为在议论文的写作中，“摆事实”是为了“讲道理”。如果我们嚼众人嚼过的甘蔗，总让人大倒胃口。我们应该有一截属于自己“专利”的新鲜甘蔗，这样才能避开“一窝蜂”，避免“撞车”，吊起阅卷者的胃口。如果谈价值取向的话，我们举“好人”郭明义的例子就比举雷锋的例子“新鲜”，因为他赋予了雷锋精神以新的时代内涵——追求纯粹(为人)、善小而为(处事)、甘当矿石(从业)。例子让阅卷者的感觉越“新鲜”，他打出的分数才能越“爽”。

(2)大气。我们所筛选的例子应该有一点大家气派，不要总是小家子气。拍摄大片，导演往往是要请大牌明星的。同样，要征服阅卷者，也要拿出重量级的例子。要知道，你金榜题名凭的是脚踏实地，钱学森“两弹一星”升空凭的也是脚踏实地，但这两个例子的征服力根本就不在一个重量级上。你的老师在讲创新精神，著名的“钱学森之问”讲的也是创新精神，但这两个例子的权威性根本就无法相提并论。这不是由明星的“人气指数”决定的，而是由权威的“公信指数”决定的。

3.论层要整合出逻辑

从易中天的《品三国》到阎崇年的《明亡清兴六十年》，百家讲坛掀起了前所未有的史学狂飙。呆板的历史何以能吸引如此多的眼球?细究之，皆源于这些学者不仅从静态的史料中提取出了史观，而且把这一个个史观整合成了历史发展进程中的某种逻辑上的必然。

推史及文，广大考生通过设置论层(分论点)来对中心论点加以分解，从而将议论引向深入的做法，已经在“基础等级”的征途上迈出了坚实的一步。我们如果能再向前走一步，将“切割”能力提升至“整合”能力，在理清、理顺论层间的逻辑联系的基础上，揭示出事理发展的某种“必然”，就可以在“发展等级”的征途上一路高歌了。

考场佳作《担当》设置了三个论层：①担当需要一个人有良好的品德;②担当需要一个人有果敢的勇气;③担当需要一个人有雄厚的实力。阅卷者为该文打出了15分(总分20分)的“发展等级”分，其最重要的依据就是这三个论层间的逻辑联系。解读之，一个人只有具备了良好的品德，他才会有责任感;有了责任感，他才会自觉地承担起自己应尽的那份责任。第一个论层解决的是“想不想”担当的问题。担当是需要物质乃至精神上的付出的，而付出是需要勇气的。第二个论层解决的是“敢不敢”担当的问题。要担当得起一份责任，是需要实力的。第三个论层解决的是“能不能”担当的问题。试想：一个人如果不“想”去做某件事，自然也就谈不上“敢不敢”做的问题;一个人如果不“敢”去做某件事，自然也就谈不上“能不能”做的问题。所以，从“想→敢→能”，该文设置的三个论层构成了做成一件事的内在事理逻辑，推进环环相扣，顺序不能倒置。

高考作文评分标准明确指出：“发展等级评分依据12个评分点，不求全面，以突出点按等评分，直至满分。”为此，广大考生在“发展等级”的追求上，大可不必为自己的作文不是“通篇大妙”而妄自菲薄，而应该理直气壮地在“一点独到”上大有作为。广大考生要始终坚信这样一点：在“发展等级”上，我虽然不能做到“最好”，但一定能做得“更好”。

时间就像海绵里的水，只要愿挤，总还是有的。下面是语文迷为大家提供的关于时间的英语谚语，希望对你有帮助。

Time is money.

(时间就是金钱或一寸光阴一寸金)

Time flies.

(光阴似箭，日月如梭)

Time has wings.

(光阴去如飞)

Time consecrates: what is gray with age becomes religion.

(时间考验一切，经得起时间考验的就为人所信仰)

Time reveals(discloses) all things.

(万事日久自明)

Time tries all.

(时间检验一切)

There is no time like the present.

(现在正是时候)

Take time by the forelock.

(把握目前的时机)

Time is a file that wears and makes no noise.

(光阴如锉，细磨无声)

Time stays not the fools leisure.

(时间不等闲逛的傻瓜)

Time and I against any two.

(和时间携起手来，一人抵两人)

Time is life and when the idle man kills time, he kills himself.

(时间就是生命，懒人消耗时间就是消耗自己的生命。或时间就是生命，节省时间，就是延长生命)

Time spent in vice or folly is doubly lost.

(消磨于恶习或愚行的时间是加倍的损失)

Time undermines us.

(光阴暗中催人才。或莫说年纪小人生容易老)

Time and tide wait for no man.

(岁月不待人)

Time cannot be won again.

(时间一去不再来)

Time brings the truth to light.

(时间使真相大白。或时间一到，真理自明。)

Time and chance reveal all secrets.

(时间与机会能提示一切秘密)

To choose time is to save time.

(选择时间就是节省时间)

Never put off till tomorrow what may be done today.

(今日事，今日毕)

Procrastination is the thief of time.

(拖延为时间之窃贼)

One of these days is none of these days.

(拖延时日，终难实现。或：改天改天，不知哪天)

Tomorrow never comes.

(明天无尽头，明日何其多)

What may be done at any time will be done at no time.

(常将今日推明日，推到后来无踪迹)

Time works wonders.

(时间可以创造奇迹或时间的效力不可思议)

Time works great changes.

(时间可以产生巨大的变化)

Times change.

(时代正在改变)

Time is , time was , and time is past.

(现在有时间，过去有时间，时间一去不复返)

Time lost can not be recalled.

(光阴一去不复返)

Time flies like an arrow , and time lost never returns.

(光阴似箭，一去不返)

Time tries friends as fire tries gold.

(时间考验朋友，烈火考验黄金)

Time tries truth.

(时间检验真理)

Time is the father of truth.

(时间是真理之父)

Time will tell.

(时间能说明问题)

对于考研英语的应用文写作来说，考生平时复习时不仅要注意应用文写作特点、格式要求，还要有意识的掌握各类应用文的写作方法。考研辅导专家建议广大考生不要简单认为应用文的复习就是复习相应的格式，格式只是应用文写作的最起码要求，除了应用文特定的格式外，还要背诵一些经典的套话，在平时的写作训练中培养迅速构思成篇的能力，注意词句的多样性和准确性训练。下面，我们就针对应用文写作中的私人和公务信函、备忘录、摘要、报告几种形式介绍一下写作技巧。

一、私人和公务信函

信函是很重要的一种应用文。私人和公务信函是用以交涉事宜、传达信息、交流思想、联络感情、增进了解的重要工具，与同学们的生活、学习比较密切，也是以后工作中用的最多的一种沟通方式。所谓私人信函就是给家人、朋友或者同学等写信，谈事情的同时又交流感情，是四级考试(专业课历年考研试卷)中常见的一种信函，研究生英语考试(专业课历年考研试卷)中常考的是公共信函。所谓公务信函就是给亲朋好友之外的人写信，主要是为了办事，比方说给老板或是客户写信都属于公共信函。

信函一般都是由写信时间、信内地址、称呼、信的主要内容和信尾几个主要部分组成。收信人地址要写在左上角，寄信人地址要写在右上角，寄信人地址也可以不写，姓名写在地址上面，地址排列顺序依次为门牌号、街区名、城市和国名。在信的开头人名前一定要加Mr.,Mrs.,Dear等比较尊敬的称呼，信的结尾注意使用常用的客套话如：sincerelyyours,faithfullyyours或者yourssincerely,yoursfaithfully。英文书信写作要遵循五个原则，即正确、清晰、简洁、礼貌和体贴。

正确是指信中所谈的事情要准确、具体，不用含糊抽象的词如：本月、明天等。清晰要求的是主题要明确，层次要清楚，让读者看后了然于心。简洁是现代英语发展的一大趋势。书信写作要做到行文简洁流畅，避免迂回冗长的长句，使书信尽可能写得明白清晰。书信交往，同样需要以礼待人，因而在写信过程中，要避免伤害对方感情，措辞上多多使用would,could,may,please等词，要自然得体，彬彬有礼。体谅对方也是写书信时要注意的一个原则，不能以自己为中心，要尊重对方的习俗爱好，即便是拒绝，也要委婉而不失去友谊。书信的写作也要注意格式，避免语法、拼写、标点错误，信中所引用的史料、数据等也应准确无误。

二、备忘录

备忘录是一种录以备忘的公文，主要用来提醒、督促对方，或就某个问题提出自己的意见或看法。包括书端、收文人的姓名、头衔、地址，称呼，事因，正文，结束语，和署名，备忘录上一定要说明什么时间，谁写的？写给谁？什么事？并且正文、结束语和署名等项与一般信件的格式相同。

三、摘要

接着谈谈摘要。摘要分成两种，一种是文章摘要，一种是论文摘要。

文章摘要就是给一篇文章让写一个摘要，文章摘要是对文章主要内容的简练概括，内容上要涵盖全文，语言上要尽量简练。写摘要前一定要仔细阅读全文，弄懂文章大意；摘要涵盖原文的主要观点并与原文的观点保持一致；摘要应该简明扼要，字数在规定的字数范围内；摘要最好不要照搬原文，应该用自己的话概括原文的主要观点；并且注意千万不要照抄，也千万不要评论，只需要写出中心思想或者段落大意即可。

第二种摘要是论文摘要。比方说是大家写一篇学术论文，硕士博士论文需要写一个英文的摘要。相对来讲我们认为考论文摘要的可能性稍微大一点。写这种摘要时要注意时态和语态。叙述研究过程，多采用一般过去时；说明某课题现已取得的成果，宜采用现在完成时。摘要中多数情况下可采用被动语态。但在某些情况下，特别是表达作者或有关专家的观点时，又常用主动语态。英文摘要有一些常用句型，比如表示研究目的，可以用Inorderto……Thispaperdescribes……Thepurposeofthisstudyis……，表示表示结论、观点或建议可以用Theauthors[suggest/conclude/consider]that……。

四、报告

最后一种是报告。报告其实也分为两种，第一种是读书报告。比如读一本书或者看一本小说写一个读书报告。读书报告中首先要交代背景知识，比如作者生平，时代简介等，接下来对书的内容做一个简单的概括，与摘要不同的是读书报告最后一段可以发表评论。与摘要相同，读书报告也要注意时态，比如像科普类的知识应该用现在式。另一种报告就是书面报告，书面报告考试(专业课历年考研试卷)的可行性和可能性更大一些。书面报告与备忘录的写法很类似，所不同的就是书面报告一般是下级写给上级，它也需要交代清楚四件事：什么时间？谁写的？写给谁？什么事？

当然，应用文写作能力的提高必须经过长期的实践锻炼。在复习阶段，首先要熟悉不同类型的应用文写作格式，注意事项，写作特点等。其次要背诵大量的优秀范文，要整段整段的背，不仅是背会而且要脱口而出，并且转换成自己的语言，写作时可以随心所欲支配。再次，是要多动手写作，要写出属于自己的文章，多动手写作才能快速写出好文章来。写好的文章要注意检查，看有无语法错误，有无用词不当，能否用其他的句式表达相同的意思，可以让同学帮忙检查，让同学提一些宝贵的意见和建议。总的来说，虽然大家对应用文的写作还比较陌生，但是只要认真对待，只要花时间背范文了，花时间写文章了，就一定能取得理想成绩。

《语文课程标准》对学生写作方面明确要求：“写作要感情真挚，力求表达自己对自然、社会、人生的独特感受和真切体验。多角度地观察生活，发现生活的丰富多彩，捕捉事物的特征，力求有创意地表达。”写作水平的高低，作文成绩的好坏，直接反映学生的语文素质。在中学语文写作教学过程中发现，有相当一部分的学生根本没有写作欲望，出现作文内容空洞，缺乏对生活的感受与体验，没有新意，语言表达平淡无味，更谈不上写作的个性与创意，甚至就是应付了事。

因此，中学语文教师，应该把写作教学当成语文教学的一个重要的环节。探索作文教学方法或教学形式，尤为重要。其目的是让学生把写作当成是一件快乐的事情，在快乐的情感体验中，完成表情达意能力提升的目标。

一、参与生活，发现生活

著名艺术家罗丹说：“美到处都有，生活中不是缺少美，而是缺少发现的眼睛。”因此，教师在写作教学中，一定要引导学生去发现生活中的美，使学生对生活中的美产生感动，从而让生活真正成为学生写作的源头活水。学生不是没有生活，只是缺乏有意识地感悟、体味和提炼，不能引起他们观察、表达的兴趣，更不用说挖掘生活的内涵了。因此，让学生参与和发现生活，教师必须学会创新生活，使寻常的生活产生新的变化，使之具有陌生化的效应。

教师要因地制宜，创设条件让学生融入社会，投入生活，拥抱自然，积淀情思。例如，学生可以深入社区，或走进工厂农村，进行调查研究、收集材料、采访人物等等，这样学生面对沸腾的社会生活，对瞬息万变的世界，对人们价值观念的嬗变都有了直接的印象、深刻的体验。

一旦对生活有了独到的发现，有了深刻的领悟，就有了切入点，便能信手拈来，写出原汁原味的好文章来。

二、创设情境，激发灵感

写作灵感是人的显意识和潜意识交互作用的结果，是创作的灵感火花。作文教学中创设情境是提高学生写作兴趣，激发学生写作灵感的催化剂。教师在指导学生写作时，可创设使学生心理亢奋的情境，使其在不知不觉中进入积极思维的状态。

设计导语，激发兴趣。教师在作文教学中要精心设计导语，引导学生将注意力转移到教学活动中，产生写作的愿望。例如：指导作文《最难忘的老师》，教师可设计这样的导语：同学们在刚刚迈进高中校门时，偶尔会想起小学或初中时的快乐时光，想起同学和老师，下面这个作文题目《最难忘的老师》，请问同学们是哪位呢？你最难忘的是他们的哪些地方呢？学生听后，马上就会在头脑中寻找令自己难忘的老师的形象，回忆发生在他们身上的某些难忘的往事。

以读促写，以写导读。作文教学中，学生的分析能力，多角度思维能力，以及语言表达能力，都要在平日的学习过程中获得。因此应该重视在阅读中提高学生的写作能力。例如：学习诗歌和散文单元，可以让学生写短评，从不同角度欣赏作品的艺术魅力；学习小说，让学生分析人物形象，或谈对主题的理解等；学习《陈情表》让学生谈自己对新时代“孝”的认识；读《伊索寓言》学习作者的思维方法，自己重新解读一则大家熟悉的寓言故事，锻炼多角度思维能力。

捕捉直觉，诱发灵感。所谓直觉，就是脑海里一闪而过的念头。写作无从下手的同学很大程度上是弃这种直觉于不顾，一心只想如何写完作文。教师应该要求学生每人一本摘记本，不光摘录认为有价值的句或文，更重要是记录那一闪即逝的某种“念头”，也许它还不足以使你“心有所动”，但却不能轻易放过。记下它，积累一段时间后，也许你会发现，从两个或三个“无头线索”中就能“有所触动”，这不就是“柳暗花明又一村”，灵感之泉喷涌而出之时吗？

三、广泛阅读，厚积薄发

阅读与写作的关系，就是吸收与表达的关系，无法设想只写不读会导致学生怎样贫乏与苍白的作文。美国著名心理学家克拉森的实验研究已经表明学生充满趣味的课外阅读对发展其写作能力，远胜于机械的写作训练。建立在持续的、大量的课外阅读基础上的练笔，形式随意，短小轻松，对于丰富学生词汇量、提高其驾驭语言的能力、养成个性化的写作习惯，具有显著功效。读写相结合的积累，可以提高学生写作的基本素养，对于写好文章也将是一把万能的钥匙，足可以不变应万变。

梁启超说过：“阅读是写作的前提和基础，要指导学生作文，首先应教会他们如何读书。”叶圣陶也曾把阅读和写作比喻为“吸收”和“倾吐”的关系，不吸收丰富的养料，就写不出好的文章。因此，广泛阅读是写作的前提。

四、自改互改，优化评改

作文评改的目的是让每个学生认识到自己认真写出的作文有什么优缺点，明确今后作文的方向，树立写好作文的信心。单一的由教师全批全改作文的形式一般是达不到这种效果的，这也是对学生劳动的一种不尊重，最终导致作文评改目的的落空。学生的自改、互改和老师的评改相结合，让每个学生都参与到作文评改的活动中来，体现他们在作文活动中的主体地位，真正认识到自己和他人作文的得失，才能相互促进，起到作文评改应有的作用。

学生作文自改、互改并不意味着教师任务的减轻，如果抱着甩包袱的想法，学生作文的自改、互改注定要失败。学生在自改、互改时往往会有许多矛盾产生，这需要教师及时了解，作化解工作。如果不到位，至少这个小组的活动就不会流畅顺利。由于学生评改作文的能力有待提高，这需要教师对他们循序渐进的指导批改作文的方法。

注重教师评语。教师评语是联系写作与教学的重要通道，优秀的评语能够双重关注学生的写作能力和人格成长。它不但能引发学生写作的强劲内驱力，而且能够唤醒其热爱未来的美好情愫，坚定其克服困难与挫折的意志力量；它不但能对学生的语言发挥榜样的作用，提升其言语的文化品格，而且能对学生产生思想上的影响力、情感上的向心力和人格上的感召力。

总之，写作教学并不是一蹴而就的。语文教师要在写作教学工作中不断总结，勇于创新，遵循一定的规律和方法，运用恰当的教法，坚持一些有价值的训练，学生的写作水平定会有质的飞跃，并得到持续的发展。

英语作文一般都是15-20分，你想指导你的分数被扣在哪些地方了吗?

中考英语作文对考生的要求有四点：1、内容要完整。 2、语句流畅。3、没有语法错误。4、书写规范。能达到上述要求的作文，都会得到相应的高分。

一：先看一下扣分点：

1.内容方面：要点缺失，可酌情扣分。比如中考作文“I want to do something for my school”，若没有写一件具体的事情，是要扣3分以上的;若写的事情太过于虚幻，没有实际内容，也会扣1-2分。

2.字数：少于60字的作文要酌情扣分。

中考英语作文要求60字以上，标点符号不算，少了就要扣分。但是60字的作文能不能得高分?从我们拿到的实例作文来看，16分以上的作文，没有少于75字的，甚至少于80字的也少之又少。当然，也极少有超过100字的，因为中考试卷的短线格一共80个，在格子下面大约还有2行的空间，可以加20字左右，再多阅卷人就很难看清了，也会影响卷面的美观。所以，同学们如果想让作文得到高分，最好是让字数在75-100字之间。

3. 语法和拼写错误：每个扣0.5，重复错误不计;

4. 标点错误：每4个扣0.5.

二：加分点

除了这些扣分点，还有一些得分点：比如说作文的组织结构分，就是根据学生使用复杂句型、单词和谚语、俗语的情况来加分。

只要文章中有1个亮点，基本就可以争取到1分(3分的文采分是很难全部拿到的)。而这1分的亮点，是可以提前准备的。例如，有一些“万金油”式的复杂句型，例如强调句型、only相关的倒装句等，只要同学们多操练几次，几乎是一定能用到作文当中，从而为自己争取到这1分。

其次就是卷面分

很多家长[微博]和同学，尤其是部分书法并不是十分整洁的同学，都会关心是否真的有“卷面分”的存在。虽然在阅卷标准里面并没有卷面分这一项，但是这个分数却真切地反映在了同学们的分数里面。

据阅卷老师的经验，在阅卷的时候并不是按这3个部分逐项打分的，而是在第一遍读完全文之后，心里已经形成了一个“印象分”，然后再细读第二、三遍，把印象分分配到各个打分部分。因此，这个“印象分”就非常重要，而同学们的书法，也正是在这个环节，影响到了自己的分数。所以初三的考生，如果书法不好，一定要注意。所谓的书法并不需要写的很漂亮，符合3个简单的标准即可：没有斜体、没有连笔、涂改较少。